Mine Dewatering and

groundwater control

1.What is Dewatering
2. Mine dewatering process
3. Methods of Dewatering
4. Effects of Mine Dewatering
5. Groundwater control
GENERAL

• Any open pit and almost any underground mine is a vast

sump for collecting water.

• The water naturally tends to accumulate at the bottom of the

workings and the flow scours fine material and holds it
in suspension.
• Dewatering a mine encompasses not only the water but also
the fines contained in the water.

• The task is aggravated in some mines because fines can

significantly alter the pH of the mine water.

•Many base metal mines have to contend with acid water (pH
as low as 2) while other mines have problems with high
alkalinity.
1. What is Dewatering ?
• Dewatering means the removal of ground water from an area
through lowering of water table.

Importance of mine dewatering

i) The design and implementation of effective mine dewatering
and slope depressurization systems is an important component
of many surface and underground mining operations.

ii) In low and higher permeable hydrogeologic systems pit

slope depressurization is essential to maintain stable
slopes

iii) An important aspect of dewatering in an excavation is

the relative risk of damage that may occur to the excavation
iv)Intercepting seepage that would otherwise emerge from
the slopes or bottom of an excavation.

(v) Increasing the stability of excavated slopes and preventing

the loss of material from the slopes or bottom of the
excavation.

(vi) Reducing lateral loads.

(vii) Eliminating, or reducing pressure in tunneling.

(viii) Improving the excavation and backfill characteristics

of sandy soils
The mine dewatering process includes
the following activities-

1. Prevention
2. Collection and containment
3. Removal
4. Disposal
1. Prevention
• Rainfall and snow cannot be prevented from falling directly into
an open pit

• Diverting the flow away from the workings can prevent the
overland flow of water into the excavation.
•Water flow from the overburden soil at a pit edge can be
collected and pumped to the diversion ditches.

•Water that seeps through the rock walls of the pit may
be redirected by collection from drill holes or lowering the
ground water table in the bedrock by drilling and pumping
from deep wells.

•Ground water flowing into an underground entry (shaft, raise,

ramp or adit) is most often controlled by injection grouting.

•Many open pit mines and some underground mines reduce the
flow of ground water with deep well in-the-hole pumps.
2. Collection and Containment/control
• Mine water that reaches the workings is typically collected
and confined to a central location using-
-ditches,
-boreholes, and
-piping arranged

•This process is used only to prevent accumulation and limit

fines pollution.

• The control is required to provide flow capacity in the event

of a pump failure and offers the opportunity for settling fines
(slimes) before pumping the pour out water.
3. Removal
• The collected water may be removed through a drainage tunnel, but
usually pumping is required.

• For most applications, centrifugal motor pumps are used as the

prime movers.

• Water is normally directed to a settling sump(s) and the overflow of

clear water to a “clean water” sump for main line pumping.

• Handling the sediment (slimes) that deposit in the sumps is

a significant problem, especially for underground mines.

• Centrifugal pumps are available for high volumes that can pump
“dirty” mine water (not allowed to settle).

• If the quantity of dirty water is relatively small, piston diaphragm

pumps can deliver in a single stage from great depths.
4. Disposal /Clearance/dumping
•Treatment underground is confined to dosing with a
flocculent.
•Adding lime underground is believed to help calcium
compound deposits (principally CaCO3) inside pipelines and
should be avoided.
 The Water Balance in a Mine
• The most important activity in analyzing a mine dewatering
system is to compile a water balance that identifies sources
and defines the pumping rate.
• In temperate climates, less water is pumped in winter
months than spring and summer. In this event, two separate
balances must be compiled.

• The sources are typically surface water, ground water,

service water (drilling, dust suppression and washing),
decant from hydraulic fill, flush water from fill and slurry
lines, and condensation from ventilation air or chillers.
• Some of this water is removed to surface in the ore and waste
rock stream or evaporates into a ventilation circuit. The
remainder must be pumped.
Underground Mine Water Balance
 Underground Mine Water Balance

• The average consumption of service water for an underground mine

is estimated at 30 US gallons per ton of ore mined per day.
•The peak consumption (for which the water supply piping is
designed) can be estimated at 100 USGPM per ton of ore mined per
day.
• Ore hoisted from an underground hard rock mine has moisture
content of approximately 3%.
• A water fountain left running underground wastes 1,100 USGPD.
• A diesel engine produces 1.2 litres (or gallons) of moisture for each
litre (or gallon) of fuel consumed.
• In the hard rock mines of the Canadian Shield, ground water is
seldom encountered by mine development below 450m (1,500 feet).
•This may be because the increased ground stress at depth tends to
close the joints and fractures that normally conduct water.
 Estimating and Measuring Water Flows

• Predicting ground water flows in porous rock may be accomplished

by determining the fall of head in a drilled well
•Predicting ground water flow into a hard rock mine is difficult
because its source is typically from irregular fissures and joints in the
rock;
•An accurate estimate of the ground water flow into a proposed hard
rock mine can only be obtained from driving a development entry
(e.g. shaft, adit, or ramp).
• The measurement of relatively small quantities of water is most
easily accomplished by the time required to fill a bucket of known
volume.
• The flow measurement from a horizontal open-ended pipe may be
determined by measuring the distance to a predetermined drop of the
water stream.
1 m3/min = 16.67 l/s = 35.3 cfm = 264 USGPM
1 l/s = 15.85 USGPM

The quantity (Q) of water flowing upwards from a hole drilled vertically
can be estimated by measuring the height of flow (H) over the collar of
the hole.
Q = 5.1 D2H½
In which,
D is the hole diameter (inches)
H is the height of flow (inches)
Q is the flow in USGPM

The flow rate from a sinker drill (plugger) hole can be quickly
determined by measuring the height of flow and comparing it with the
data in the following Table
 Q  5.1 D  H 2 1/2

Flow Rate from a 1.38-inch Diameter Hole

H (inches) 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2 3 6 12

Q (USGPM) 4.9 6.9 8.4 9.7 12 14 17 24 34
Source of mine water Slimes

Water collected in a mine contains particles of solid material referred

to as fines or slimes. Limiting the generation of slime material is one of
the disciplines directly related to mine dewatering. Sources of slime must
be identified (listed below).
• Drilling.
• Raise-boring.
• Hydraulic fill decant.
• Fault gouge.
• Overloading of explosives.
• Crushing and breaking.
• abrasion in the ore/waste handling system.
• Attrition in the road dressing/rock fill handling system.
• on haulage ways.
• Flushing fill lines.
• Breaking plugged fill lines.
• Oxidation – Pyrite in the ore produces colloidal ferric hydroxide,
Fe(OH)3.
 Clear Water Pumping from Mine
• Clear water in mine is containing less than 250 ppm of
suspended solids that do not exceed 35μ in size.

• A definition is water containing less than 100 ppm of

particles not exceeding 25μ.

• Clear water pumped from mines often exceeds these criteria

causing short life of pump components leading to high
maintenance and repair costs.

Three important factors for clean water pumping are-

(1) Sumps
(2) Slimes, and
(3) Centrifugal Pumps
 (1) Sumps

• Typical practice in underground mine is to excavate two

horizontal settling sumps, one of which continues to operate
while the other is being cleaned of slimes (Particles as
small as 5μ ).

• If not wisely designed and carefully maintained, neither a

horizontal nor a vertical settler will work with any lasting
efficiency.
(2) Slimes

• Slimes in a horizontal settling sump are about 15% solids by

weight.

• When the sump is drained, slimes will increase to

approximately 30%.

• This material is difficult and disordered to handle, even

when left for a week or more to consolidate further.
(3) Centrifugal Pumps
-Mines always select centrifugal pumps as the prime mover for
dewatering.

-Centrifugal pumps are reliable, relatively compact, and the

multi-stages required for high heads can direct drive with
a single motor.

-Centrifugal pumps have the following characteristics.

• Capacity varies directly with the speed of the impeller
(RPM)
• Capacity varies directly with the diameter of the impeller, D
• The head varies with (RPM)2
• The head varies with D2
• The power drawn varies with (RPM)3
• The power drawn varies with D3
 Dirty Water Pumping
• Dirty water in mine is containing more than 250 ppm of suspended
solids that exceed over 35μ in size.
•Providing sufficient settling sump capacity in underground mines
that experience huge inflows of ground water is not practical.
• For this application, specially designed centrifugal pumps
are employed – dirty water pumps.
• Characteristics of dirty water pumps are significantly different
from the centrifugal slurry pumps employed in mine concentrators.
• Dirty water centrifugal pumps for mine service require wear
surfaces of hard, tough, abrasion resistant metal.
• In general, the hardness required is related to the hardness of the
particles of sediment (measured on Moh’s scale).
• Typical rocks in a metal mine have the hardness of feldspar.
• These particles are as hard as work hardened manganese
steel; however, high silica content often exists in hard rock.
• Silica has the hardness of quartz on the Moh’s Scale. Pyrite is
almost as hard as silica.
• Angular particles cause twice as much as rounded ones.
• This is one reason why centrifugal dirty water pumps have
better application when there is a high volume of water to be
pumped from the mine.
 Drainage Tunnels

• In mountainous or hilly terrain, drainage tunnels may be an

economical alternative to pumping.
• Drainage tunnels are driven at an elevation beneath the
mine workings.
• The gradient is normally higher than normal for a rail
heading – 1% is typical and 1.5% considered a maximum.
• The heading incorporates a large ditch on one side that is
advanced with the face.
• The ditch dimension is usually square, 3 feet by 3 feet or 1m
by 1m.
• The ditch capacity, Q, may be simply determined by
modifying Manning’s formula.

Where
A is area,
S is slope (gradient of the tunnel),
P is the wetted boundary, and
the formula assumes a roughness coefficient, n = 0.04
For a fixed cross section and depth of flow, the equation
is simplified to as follows:
Where
Q  kS 1/2
S is slope (gradient of the tunnel),
k is a constant)
The rate of flow is directly proportional to the square root of
the gradient.
Standard Drainage Tunnel Capacity

In the case of a square concrete-lined ditch, the following formula

may be employed to provide satisfactory answers.
Selection of Centrifugal Pump
A centrifugal pump is primarily described by its outlet size. The size of a
pump is determined by its outlet velocity, which can be determined by
the following equation.
Q = V.A
Where,
Q = Rate of flow in CFS (cubic feet per second) or (m3/s)
V = Average/outlet velocity in FPS (Foot per second) or (m/s)
A = True area of pump outlet ft2 (m2)

• If the outlet velocity is greater than 15 fps (4.6m/s), the

pump is too small.

• If the outlet velocity is less than 10 fps (3.0m/s), the pump

is over-designed and oversized.
 Pump efficiency
• Pump efficiency depends on the specific speed (Ns) of its
impeller.
Ns =N Q1/2H3/41/2
Ns  N  Q  H 3/4

In which,
Q = Rate of flow
H = Total friction head
N = RPM of the impeller
• The formula is valid for metric or imperial units.
• The flow rate, Q is expressed in USGPM in many pump
catalogues; however, using CFS (cubic feet per second) instead
produces values that are simpler to use

1 Ns (USGPM) = 17.66 Ns (CFS)

 Pump efficiency
• For typical underground mine service, calculations reveal
that higher speeds are more efficient (and higher speed motors
are less expensive).

• For most mine service, a pump will be most efficient if the Ns

(CFS units for Q) is between 100 and 200.

• If the calculated Ns (CFS) is less than 50 – select as many

smaller centrifugal pumps

• If the specific speed (CFS) is between 50 and 200, select a

single centrifugal pump.

• If the specific speed (CFS) is over 200 and less than 400, two
centrifugal pumps in parallel may be employed.
 Pump efficiency
The following figure plots the range of efficiencies for typical mine application

SPECIFIC SPEED, Ns, USGPM

SPECIFIC SPEED, Ns, CFS

 Calculation of the required motor horsepower

The following formulas may be used to calculate the required

motor horsepower with the efficiency
Friction Head Loss in Steel Pipe
The standard (Hazen-Williams) formula is expressed as follows.

Where,
hf = Head loss due to friction (in feet) of liquid
d = Inside diameter of circular pipe (in inches)
C = Friction factor (Hazen-Williams)
L = Length of pipe including equivalent length for loss through fittings (in
feet)
Q = Flow of liquid (in USGPM)
The “C” Factor for steel pipe used in mine de-watering design is typically
120, therefore, the equation can be simplified to the following.

This equation is valid for either

clean or dirty water pumping
Minimum Wall Thickness of Piping
In calculating the wall thickness of piping for the transmission
of clear water, the following formula can be used.

Where,
t = Wall thickness (in.)
D = Outside diameter of pipe (in.) [D= d+2t] [here outside
diameter D= inside diameter (d) plus twice the wall thickness, t]
P = Maximum internal pressure (psi)
y = Temperature coefficient, typically equal to 0.4
s = Allowable stress in pipe (typically, s=17,500 psi)
c = allowance for corrosion, equal to 0.062 in
Settling Velocity
• For particles of diameter less than 1 mm (1,000μ), Stokes’
Law applies to calculate the settling velocity in still water.

• For particles of diameter greater than 1 cm, Newton’s Law

should be used.

•In the transition zone, the actual settling velocity is

somewhere between the two laws.

• For typical mine dewatering applications, Stokes’ law is used

and may be reduced to the following formula when dealing
with water.

Vs  1962  ( s 1)  d 2
Where,
Vs = particle settling velocity in meters per hour,
ρs = specific gravity of the particle,
d = diameter of the particle in millimeters.

The formula can be used to determine the minimum required plan

area for a vertical settler.
Construction dewatering

•Need for groundwater control

•Influence of excavation characteristics
•Groundwater control methods.
a. Need for groundwater control.
Proper control of groundwater can greatly facilitate
development of subsurface structures by:

(1) cut off seepage that would otherwise emerge from the
slopes or bottom of an excavation.

(2) Increasing the stability of excavated slopes and preventing

the loss of material from the slopes or bottom of the
excavation.

(3) Reducing lateral loads.

(4) Eliminating, or reducing, pressure in tunneling.

(5) Improving the excavation and backfill characteristics

of sandy soils.
b. Influence of excavation characteristics
► The location of an excavation, its size, depth, and type, such as
open cut, shaft, or tunnel, and the type of soil to be
excavated are important considerations in the selection
and design of a dewatering system.

► For most granular soils, the groundwater table during

construction should be maintained at least 2 to 3 feet below the
slopes and bottom of an excavation in order to ensure “dry”
working conditions.
c. Groundwater control methods.
Methods for controlling groundwater may be divided
into three categories:
(1) Interception (cut off) and removal of groundwater
from the site by pumping from sumps, wells, well points,
or drains. This type of control must include
consideration of a filter to prevent migration of fines and
possible development of piping in the soil being drained.

(2) Reduction of artesian pressure beneath the

bottom of an excavation.

(3) Isolation of the excavation from the inflow of

groundwater by a sheet-pile cutoff, grout curtain,
slurry cutoff wall, or by freezing.
 Permanent groundwater control

Fig-1

An example of a permanent groundwater control system

is shown in figure
• Since permanent groundwater control systems must operate
continuously without interruption, they should be
conventionally designed.

• Permanent drainage systems should include provisions for

inspection, maintenance, and monitoring the behavior of the
system in more detail.

• Permanent systems should be conventionally designed so

that satisfactory results are achieved even if there is a rise in
the groundwater level in the surrounding area.
Types and source of seepage
Types of seepage flow are:
Artesian:
Seepage through the previous aquifer is confined between
two or more impervious strata, and the piezometric head
within the previous aquifer is above the top of the pervious
aquifer (Fig-1).

Gravity
The surface of the water table is below the top of the pervious
aquifer (Fig-1)

Note: The type of seepage flow to a dewatering system can

be determined from a study of the groundwater table and soil
formations in the area and the drawdown required to
dewater the excavation.
Source of seepage flow
(1) The source of seepage depends on
• the geological features of the area,
• the existence of adjacent streams or bodies of water,
• the perviousness of the sand formation,
• recharge,
• amount of drawdown, and
• duration of pumping.
The source of seepage may be a nearby stream or lake, the aquifer being
drained, or both an adjacent body of water and storage in the aquifer.

(2) Where the site is not adjacent to a river or lake, the source of seepage
will be from storage in the formation being drained and recharged
from rainfall over the area.

(3) Where an excavation is located close to a river or shoreline in contact

with the aquifer to be dewatered, the distance to the effective source of
seepage may be considered as being approximately the near bank of
the river;
 Selection of dewatering system

The method most suitable for dewatering an excavation

depends upon-
• the location, type, size, and depth of the excavation;
• thickness, stratification, and permeability of the foundation
soils below the water table into which the excavation
extends or is underlain;
• potential damage resulting from failure of the dewatering
system; and
• the cost of installation and operation of the system.

The cost of a dewatering method or system will depend upon:

(1) Type, size, and pumping requirements of project
(2) Type and availability of power
(3) Labor requirements.
(4) Duration of required pumping.
Major factors affecting selection of dewatering
Major factors affecting selection of dewatering and
groundwater control systems are discussed in the following
points
1. Type of excavation
1. Small open excavations, or excavations where the depth of
water table lowering is small, can generally be dewatering most
economically and safely by means of a conventional
wellpoint system.
2. If the excavation requires that the water table be lowered
more than 20 or 30 feet, a system of deep wells may be more
suitable.
3. Excavations for deep mine shafts, caissons, or tunnels that
penetrate stratified pervious soil or rock can generally best be
dewatered with a deep-well system
(2) Geologic and soil conditions.
• The geologic and soil formations at a site may dictate the
type of dewatering or drainage system. If the soil below the
water table is a deep, more or less homogeneous, free-
draining sand, it can be effectively dewatered with either a
conventional well or wellpoint system.

• If, on the other hand, the formation is highly stratified, or

the saturated soil to be dewatered is underlain by an
impervious stratum of clay, shale, or rock, wellpoints may be
required

• For deep aquifers, a deep-well system will generally be

more applicable,
(3) Depth of groundwater lowering

• The magnitude of the drawdown required is an important

consideration in selecting a dewatering system.

• If the drawdown required is large, deep wells may be

the best because of their ability to achieve large drawdowns
from the top of an excavation.

• Deep wells can be used for a wide range of flows by

selecting pumps of appropriate size
(4) Required rate of pumping
The rate of pumping required to dewater an excavation may
vary from 5 to 50,000 gallons per minute or more.

Thus, flow to a drainage system will have an important effect

on the design and selection of the wells, pumps, and piping
system.

Turbine or submersible pumps for pumping in deep wells are

available in sizes from 3 to 14 inches with capacities ranging
from 5 to 5000 gallons per minute at heads up to 500 feet.

The rate of pumpage will depend largely on the distance to the

effective source of seepage, amount of drawdown, and
thickness and perviousness of the aquifer through which the
flow is occurring.
(5) Effect of groundwater lowering on adjacent
structures and wells.

Lowering the groundwater table increases the load on

foundation soils below the original groundwater table.

As most soils consolidate upon application of additional load,

structures located within the radius of influence of a
dewatering system may settle.

The possibility of such settlement should be investigated

before a dewatering system is designed.

Observations should be made of the water level in nearby

wells before and during dewatering to determine any effect of
dewatering.
Preliminary Investigations before selecting
a system for dewatering of an excavation
Groundwater characteristics related to
dewatering
1. An investigation of groundwater at a site should include a
study of the source of groundwater that would flow to the
dewatering or drainage system

2. Groundwater and artesian pressure levels at a

construction site are best determined from piezometers
installed in the stratum that may require dewatering.

3. The groundwater regime should be observed for an

extended period of time to establish variations in level likely
to occur during the construction or operation of a project.
4. The chemical composition of the groundwater is of
concern, because some groundwaters are highly corrosive to
metal screens, pipes, and pumps, or may contain dissolved
metals or carbonates that will form incrustations in the wells
or filters and, with time, cause clogging and reduced efficiency
of the dewatering system.

5. Changes in the temperature of the groundwater will result

in minor variations of the quantity of water flowing to a
dewatering system. The change in viscosity associated with
temperature changes will result in a change in flow of about
1.5% for each 1°F of temperature change in the water.
Permeability of pervious strata

Approximate Coefficient of Permeability for Various Sands

Capacity of Various Size Submersible and
Deep- Well Turbine Pumps
 Dewatering shafts and tunnels
• An excavation can be dewatered by one or a combination of
methods as it has discussed before
• The requirements and design of systems for dewatering shafts
and tunnels in cohesionless, porous soil or rock are similar to
those for open excavations.
• As an excavation for a shaft or tunnel is generally deep, and
access is limited, deepwells is considered the best method for
dewatering excavations for such structures.
• If the soil or rock formation is stratified, the wells must be
screened and filtered through each pervious stratum.
• Where the soil or rock formation is reasonably homogeneous
and isotropic, a well system can be designed to lower the water
table below the tunnel or bottom of the shaft using methods
 Dewatering methods
Pre-drainage methods include

1. Sumps and ditches

2. Wellpoint systems
3. Deep-well systems
4. Vertical sand drains
5. Eductors
6. Vacuum wells
7. Horizontal wells

Other specialist dewatering techniques are

1. Relief Wells
2. Artificial recharge
3. Siphon drains
Disadvantages of a sump dewatering system are-
• slowness in drainage of the slopes,
• potentially wet conditions during excavation and
backfilling,
• space required in the bottom of the excavation for
drains, ditches, sumps, and pumps; and
• the frequent lack of workmen who are skilled in the proper
construction or operation of sumps.
1. Sumps and ditches
Open excavations.
An elementary dewatering procedure involves installation of ditches,
French drains, and sumps within an excavation, from which
water entering the excavation can be pumped (in Fig).
This method of dewatering generally should not be considered where the
groundwater head must be lowered more than a few feet, as seepage
into the excavation may impair the stability of excavation slopes

Fig. Dewatering open excavation by ditch and sump.

2. Wellpoint systems
Wellpoint dewatering is widely used for excavations of shallow
depths, especially for pipeline trench excavations. In
appropriate ground conditions a wellpoint system can be
installed speedily and made operational rapidly. A typical
wellpoint system consists of a series of small diameters wells
(known as wellpoints) connected via a header pipe, to the
suction side of a suitable wellpoint pump. The pump creates a
vacuum in the header pipe, drawing water up out of the ground.
For long pipeline trenches, horizontal wellpoints may be
installed by special trenching machines.
Wellpoints are typically installed in lines or rings around the
excavation, and are pumped by diesel or electrically powered
pumps, with associated header mains, water discharge pipes,
power supply generators, electrical controls and monitoring
systems.
Wellpoint systems are a commonly used dewatering method as
they are applicable to a wide range of excavations and
groundwater conditions.

A wellpoint system is usually the most practical method for

dewatering where the site is accessible and where the excavation
and water-bearing strata to be drained are not too deep.

For large or deep excavations where the depth of excavation is

more than 30 or 40 feet, or where artesian pressure in a deep
aquifer must be reduced, it may be more practical to use
eductor-type wellpoints or deep wells with turbine or
submersible pumps, using wellpoints as a supplementary
method of dewatering if needed.
 Conventional wellpoint systems
A conventional wellpoint system
consists of one or more stages of
wellpoints having 1½ or 2-inch-
diameter pipes.

Wellpoints are small well screens

composed of stainless steel mesh
wrapped on rods to form a screen.

They generally range in size from 2

to 4 inches in diameter and 2 to 5
feet in length and are constructed
with either closed ends or self-
jetting tips as shown in Figure.

Self-jetting wellpoint
Use of wellpoints where submergence is small

Note
Wellpoints are more suitable than deep wells where the
submergence available for the well screens is small
3. Deep-well systems
• Deep wells can be used to dewater pervious sand or rock
formations or to relieve artesian pressure beneath an
excavation.
• They are particularly suited for dewatering large excavations
requiring high rates of pumping, and for dewatering deep
excavations for dams, tunnels, locks, powerhouses, and mine
shafts.
• Excavations and shafts as deep as 300 feet can be dewatered
by pumping from deep wells with turbine or submersible
pumps
• The principal advantages of deep wells are that they can be
installed around the periphery of an excavation.
A deep well system consists of an array of bored wells pumped by
submersible pumps.

Pumping from each well lowers the groundwater level and creates a cone of
depression or drawdown around itself.

Several wells acting in combination can lower groundwater level over a wide
area beneath an excavation.

Because the technique does not operate on a suction principle, large

drawdowns can be achieved, limited only by the depth of the wells, and the
hydrogeological conditions.

The wells are generally sited just outside the area of proposed excavation,
and are pumped by electric submersible pumps near the base of each well.

Water collection pipes, power supply generators, electrical controls and

monitoring systems are located at the surface.
DEEP WELLS
Deep-well system for dewatering an excavation in sand.
• Deep wells for dewatering are similar in type and
construction to commercial water wells.

• They commonly have a screen with a diameter of 6 to 24

inches with lengths up to 300 feet.

• They are generally installed with a filter around the screen

to prevent the infiltration of foundation materials into the
well.

• Deep wells may be used in conjunction with a vacuum

system to dewater deep excavations for tunnels, mine shafts,
or caissons sunk in relatively fine grained or stratified
pervious soils or rock below the groundwater table.
4. Vertical sand drains
Where a stratified semipervious stratum with a low
vertical permeability overlies a pervious stratum and the
groundwater table has to be lowered in both strata, the water
table in the upper stratum can be lowered by means of sand
drains.

If properly designed and installed, sand drains will intercept

seepage in the upper stratum and conduct it into the lower,
more permeable stratum being dewatered with wells or
wellpoints.
Sand drains consist of a column of pervious sand placed in a
cased hole, either driven or drilled through the soil, with the
casing subsequently removed.

The capacity of sand drains can be significantly increased by

installation of a slotted 1% or 2-inch pipe inside the sand drain
to conduct the water down to the more pervious stratum.

Fig. Sand drains for dewatering a slope.

EDUCTORS
The eductor system (also known as the ejector system) is specialist
technique used to control pore water pressure in low permeability soils
such as very silty sands, silts, or clays with permeable fabric.

Eductors are typically used to help stabilise the side slopes and base of
excavations in soils that would be difficult to dewater with wellpoints or
deep wells.

Eductors have the advantage that they can allow vacuum-assisted

drainage, to draw water out of poorly draining fine-grained soils.

The system works by circulating high pressure water (from a tank and
supply pumps at ground level) down the well to a small-diameter nozzle
and venturi located in the eductor in each well.

This generates a vacuum of up to 9.5 m of water at the level of the

eductor. The vacuum draws groundwater into the well from where it is
piped back to ground level via a return riser pipe and thence through the
reservoir tank back to the supply pump for recirculation.
ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE
Artificial recharge (also known as aquifer re-injection) is the
process of injecting (or recharging) water into the ground in a
controlled way, by means of special recharge wells. The water
is pumped from the dewatering system and then piped to the
recharge location, which may be a considerable distance away,
where the water is injected back into the ground. Water may
have to the treated prior to recharge, to reduce the risk of
clogging of recharge wells.

Artificial recharge may be carried out for various purposes:

• To ensure that ground settlements caused by drawdown are

small, this reducing the risk of damage to nearby structures.
• To avoid depletion of water resources when dewatering is
carried out in aquifers used for water supply.
• To reduce environmental impacts on sensitive water-
dependent features such as wetlands.
Open pit Dewatering
Open pit Dewatering
Open pit Dewatering

Open-pit-draining
Mine Dewatering Hose
Mine Dewatering Hose
Dewatering from
underground Mine
Mine Dewatering Impacts