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NATIONAL OFFICER’S ACADEMY (NOA)

SOCIOLOGY, Lecture No. 1
Course outline as per FPSC
1. Individual: Sociability or the sociality of man.
2. Culture:
Meaning and Characteristics (Culture is variable, learnt, social, shared, Transmissive, dynamic and
adaptive), types (Material, Non –material), functions (transfer of knowledge, define situation, provide
Behavior pattern, molds personality) and elements of culture (norms, values, beliefs, sanctions,
customs).Culture and Socialization; formal and non-formal socialization, transmission of culture, cultural
relativism. Sub-cultures. Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism, Cultural lag, High culture and popular culture.
Multiculturalism, assimilation, and acculturation.
3. Society:
Meaning and characteristics. Community; meaning and characteristics. Individual and society.
Relationship between individual and society. Two main theories regarding the relationship of man and
society (i) the social contact theory and (ii) the organismic theory. Social and cultural evolution of society
(Hunting and Gathering Society, Herding and Advance Herding Society, Horticultural Society, Agrarian
Society, Industrial Society, Postmodern Society).
4. Social Interaction:
Caste and classes, Forms of social classes, Feudal system in Pakistan, Social Mobility-nature of social
mobility and its determinants in Pakistani society, Culture of poverty.
5. Social Control: Mechanisms of social control-formal and informal means of social control,
Anomie, Alienation and social Integration-Means of social integration in Pakistani Society.
6. Social and Cultural Change and Social Policy:
Processes of Social and Cultural Change-discovery, inhibitions to social and cultural change in Pakistan
Social planning and directed social and cultural change, effect of Industrialization, Urbanization,
Modernization and Modern Means of Communication on Social Change.
7. Public Opinion: Formation of Public, Opinion, Concept of opinion leader, characteristics of
opinion leadership
8. Community:
The rural community, Traditional Characteristics of rural life, The urban community, Rural – Urban
convergence, Urbanism, Future of cities in Pakistan.
9. Social Institutions:
The nature and genesis of institutions, the process of institutionalization, Functions of Social Institutions:
Family, Religion, Education, Economy and Politics.
10. Social Problems in Pakistan:
High population growth rate, Rural –urban migration. Issues of technical/vocational training, Deviance
and street crime, Unemployment, illiteracy and School drop-out, Smuggling, Prostitution, Poverty, Drug
Addiction, Child Labour and Abuse Bonded Labour, Social Customs and Traditions effecting Women in
Pakistan, Violence Against Women’s and Domestics Violence, Issues concerning the Elderly’s in Pakistan.
11. Sociological Theory:
Three sociological perspectives: Structural Functionalism, Symbolic interactions and Conflict. Theorists:
Ibn-i-Khaldun Spencer, August Comte, Emile Dukheim, Max Weber, Kari Marx, Parson.

12. Methods of Sociological Research:

Scientific Method, Steps in research, Types of Questionnaire Research Design, Surveys,

Observation and Case Studies.
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HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY:

Since ancient times, people have been fascinated by the relationship between individuals and
the societies to which they belong. Many topics studied in modern sociology were also studied
by ancient philosophers in their desire to describe an ideal society, including theories of social
conflict, economics, social cohesion, and power (Hannoum 2003).

In the thirteenth century, Ma Tuan-Lin, a Chinese historian, first recognized social dynamics as
an underlying component of historical development in his seminal encyclopedia, General Study
of Literary Remains. The next century saw the emergence of the historian some consider to be
the world’s first sociologist: Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) of Tunisia. He wrote about many topics of
interest today, setting a foundation for both modern sociology and economics, including a
theory of social conflict, a comparison of nomadic and sedentary life, a description of political
economy, and a study connecting a tribe’s social cohesion to its capacity for power (Hannoum
2003).

In the eighteenth century, Age of Enlightenment philosophers developed general principles that
could be used to explain social life. Thinkers such as John Locke, Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, and
Thomas Hobbes responded to what they saw as social ills by writing on topics that they hoped
would lead to social reform. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) wrote about women’s conditions
in society. Her works were long ignored by the male academic structure, but since the 1970s,
Wollstonecraft has been widely considered the first feminist thinker of consequence.

The early nineteenth century saw great changes with the Industrial Revolution, increased
mobility, and new kinds of employment. It was also a time of great social and political upheaval
with the rise of empires that exposed many people—for the first time—to societies and cultures
other than their own. Millions of people moved into cities and many people turned away from
their traditional religious beliefs.

Factors contributing to the Emergence of sociology

1. Industrial revolution and Industrialization: Factory system of production and the
consequent mechanization and industrialization brought turmoil in society. New industries and
technologies change the face of the social and physical environment. The simple rural life and
small scale home industries were replaced by the complex urban and mass production of goods.
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Industrialization changed the direction of civilization. It destroyed radically altered, the medieval
customs, beliefs and ideas. Industrialization led to urbanization. Peasants left rural areas and
flocked to the towns, where they worked as industrial laborers. Cities grew at unprecedented
rate providing an anonymous environment for people. Social problems became rampant.
Aristocracies and monarchies crumbled and fell. Religion became to lose its forces as source of
moral authority. For the first time in the human history, social change became state of affairs

2. Inspiration from the Growth of Natural Sciences: Nineteenth century was a period in
which natural sciences had made much progress. The success ascertained by the natural
scientists inspired and even tempted good number of social thinkers to follow their examples.
Inspiration provided by radically diverse societies and cultures of the colonial powers. The
colonial powers of Europe were exposed to different types of societies and cultures in the
colonial empires. Their exposure to such diversities in societies and cultures provided an
intellectual challenge for scientists of the day.

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
A dictionary defines sociology as the systematic study of society and social interaction. The word
sociology” is derived from the Latin word socius (companion) and the Greek word logos (study
of), meaning “the study of companionship.”
A general definition of sociology is the systematic study of human society, culture, and
relationships on a group level. Sociology is the study of human social relationships and
institutions. Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family
to the state, from the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture,
and from social stability to radical change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse
subjects of study is sociology’s purpose of understanding how human action and consciousness.
1. Auguste Comte, the founding father of sociology, defines sociology as the science of
social phenomena "subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the
object of investigation".
2. Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general science of society".
3. Harry M. Johnson opines that "sociology is the science that deals with social groups".
4. Emile Durkheim: "Science of social institutions". Park regards sociology as "the science
of collective behavior". Small defines sociology as "the science of social relationships".
5. Marshal Jones defines sociology as "the study of man-in-relationship-to-men".
6. Ogburn and Nimkoff: "Sociology is the scientific study of social life".
7. Franklin Henry Giddings defines sociology as "the science of social phenomena".
8. Henry Fairchild: "Sociology is the study of man and his human environment in their
relations to each other".
9. Max Weber defines sociology as "the science which attempts the interpretative
understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of its
course and effects".
10. Alex Inkeles says, "Sociology is the study of systems of social action and of their inter-
relations".
11. Kimball Young and Raymond W. Mack say, "Sociology is the scientific study of social
aspects of human life".
12. Morris Ginsberg: sociology in the following way: "In the broadest sense, sociology is the
study of human interactions and inter-relations, their conditions and consequences".
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How does ‘sociological thinking’ differ from commonsense?

Many people mistakenly believe that sociology is the study of the obvious. They claim that
sociology is nothing but the application of common sense. But equating any science with simple
common sense could not be further from the truth! Common sense is not always “common,”
nor “sensible.” Statements like “Birds of a feather flock together” and “Opposites attract,” while
supposedly based on common knowledge, contradict each other. Because common sense does
not always accurately predict reality, people need something else.

Not every sociological finding is revolutionary; many findings do appear consistent with common
sense. By systematically testing common sense beliefs against facts, sociologists can sort out
which popular beliefs hold true and which do not. To accomplish this, sociologists use a variety
of social science research designs and methods.

Sociology as a discipline is more than common sense. Sociology is a method of inquiry that
requires the systematic testing of beliefs against evidence. Sociologists, therefore, make
determining whether specific ideas are fact or fiction their job.

Sociology is a scientific study of society. It aims to make our lives easy by providing OBJECTIVE
understanding of social phenomenon which can be used to deal with social problems. As
sociologist Andre Beteille says it is based upon certain laws, research methodology and data. It
emergence was influenced by the methods of natural sciences and in the belief that society can
be studied through laws. It is coherent and the findings can be generalized upto a certain extent
if not universally.

Common Sense on the other hand is based upon observation, casual knowledge and the
knowledge generated is fragmented, localized and particular. It is based upon tradition thus it is
resistant to change. It also tends to protect status quo as the held beliefs enforce stereotypes.
Common sense knowledge also lacks reliability and validity.

Whereas Sociology findings are based upon empirical evidence. Peter Berger says that the task
of Sociology is to look beyond common sense knowledge. The concept of Latent Function of R.
K. Merton is a case in point. For example: It may be common sense knowledge that cause of
poverty is that people are not willing to work or it is the sins of past life that has inflicted poverty
in this life. But Sociological research says that poverty is more due to structural inequality,
inequality of opportunity, lack of skills etc.

But Weberian Sociologists, Phenomenologists like Alfred Schutz, Ethnomedologists like Harold
Garfinkel and Symbolic Integrationist's make use of common sense knowledge to interpret the
meanings individual attach in their construction of social reality. Thus sociology has to maintain
a thin line, as a subject, between common sense and completely technical virtuosity.

MAJOR SCHOOL OF THOUGHT (SCHOLARS) IN SOCIOLOGY

1. Allama Ibn e Khuldoon (Al Muqadimmah & Al Asabiyyah Theories)
2. August Comete (Comtean Positivism, Law of Three stages & Religion of Humanity)
3. Herbert Spencer (Social Evolution, Organic Analogy & Militant / Military Society Vs
Industrial Society)
4. Emile Durkheim (Theory of Suicide)
5. Karl Marx (Conflict Theory & Labor Theory)
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6. Max Weber (Theory of Bureaucracy)

7. Robert Martin (Strain Theory)
8. Talcott Parsons: Structural Functionalism
9. CH Cooly (Self Looking Glass)

Applications of sociology in the society.

 Teaching , Social research, Social work, Professions—medicine, law, engineering,
Business and Industry, Entrepreneurship, Rural Urban Planning and City management,
Public administration—civil services, Policy making and Business consultancy, Politics,
Child welfare and health care, Architecture, International relations, Criminal justice etc.

Branches of Sociology
Sociology is broadly defined as the study of human society. Society is vast and complex
phenomenon and therefore it is generally debatable that which part of society should be studied
by sociology. There is a great degree of difference of opinion regarding the definitions, scope
and subject matter of sociology.
1. According to Durkheim sociology has broadly three principal divisions which he terms as:

a. Social morphology covers the geographical settings, the density of population and other
preliminary data which is likely to influence the social aspects.
b. Social physiology is concerned with such dynamics processes as religion, morals, law,
economic and political aspects, each of which may be the subject matter of a special
discipline
c. General sociology is an attempt to discover the general social laws which may be derived
from the specialized social processes. This is considered by Durkheim as the
philosophical part of sociology.

2. Max Weber combines two schools of thought – ie historical and systematic and he adds
something more. His analysis with regard to relations between economics and religion
enables him to use both historical as well as systematic method. The sociologies of law,
economics and religion are the special sociologies which are part of both systematic and
historical methods of study.
3. According to Sorokin, Sociology can be divided into two branches- General Sociology and
special sociology. General sociology studies the properties and uniformities common to all
social and cultural phenomena in their structural and dynamic aspects. The inter-
relationships between the socio-cultural and biological phenomena.
4. Ginsberg has listed the problems of sociology under four aspects- social morphology, social
control, social processes and social pathology. Social morphology includes investigation of
the quantity and quality of population, the study of social structure or the description and
classification of the principal types of social groups and institutions. Social control includes
the study of law, morals, religion, conventions, fashions and other sustaining and regulating
agencies. Social processes refer to the study of various modes of interactions between
individuals or groups including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and
integration, development and decay. Social pathology refers to the study of social
maladjustments and disturbances.
5. Raymond Aron has mentioned six schools in sociology. These are historical, formal, society
and community, phenomenological, universalistic and general.
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6. Sociology of Religion studies the church as a social institution inquiring into its origin,
development and forms as well as into changes in its structure and function.
7. Sociology of Education studies the objectives of the school as a social institution, its
curriculum and extracurricular activities and its relationship to the community and its other
institutions.
8. Political sociology studies the social implications of various types of political movements
and ideologies and the origin, development and functions of the government and the state.
9. Sociology of law concerns itself with formalized social control or with the processes whereby
members of a group achieve uniformity in their behavior through the rules and regulations
imposed upon them by society. It inquiries into the factors that bring about the formation
of regulatory systems as well as into the reasons for their adequacies and inadequacies as a
means of control.
10. Social psychology seeks to understand human motivation and behavior as they are
determined by society and its values. It studies the socialization process of the individual
how he becomes a member of society- it also studies the public, crowd, the mob and various
other social groupings and movements. Analysis of mass persuasion or propaganda and of
public opinion has been one of its major interests.
11. Social psychiatry deals with the relationships between social and personal disorganization,
its general hypothesis being that society through its excessive and conflicting demands upon
the individual is to a large extent responsible for personal maladjustments such as various
types of mental disorder and antisocial behavior. In its applied aspects it is concerned with
remedying this situation.
12. Social disorganization deals with the problems of maladjustment and malfunctioning,
including problems of crime and delinquency, poverty and dependency, population
movements, physical and mental disease and vice. Of these sub-divisions crime and
delinquency have received perhaps the greatest attention and have developed into the
distinct fields of criminology.

Understanding the Sociological Perspective

A. Unifying Properties of Sociology

While society is a system of beliefs and actions carried out by human beings, sociology is
something that transcends these boundaries by connecting common themes and highlighting
areas warranting change. When attempting to apply themes to commonalities found in society,
the term "sociological perspective" is frequently employed.

The term "sociological perspective" may also be interchanged with "model." In short, a
sociological perspective or model presents an assumption made about society. In other words,
a sociological perspective is a particular way of approaching a phenomenon common in
sociology. It involves maintaining objectivity; hence, accepting, based upon the evidence
presented, what may come as a surprise or even a disappointment based on that evidence.

After simplifying the number of perspectives that actually exist, the three primary ones
are: Evolutionary, functionalism, conflict, and symbolic interactionism.
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1. Evolutionary Perspective: It talks about how societies grow over a period of time. Evaluation
of society enables to understand the factors of social development.

2. Functionalism Perspective: The origins of functionalism can be traced back to the collective
works of Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim. It is best summed up as the study of how
social order is maintained within a society. The view in functionalism is that the parts of
society act in unison, even though they act in different ways.

In functionalist societies, such institutions or social structures as families, religious groups,

educational forums, and others are the bricks that bind individuals together to cultivate
unity and order within a society. They promote integration, stability, agreement, and
harmony. In general, functionalists focus on how the parts of the social system contribute to
the persistence of that system. Their interest is in the purpose of the aspect of society they
are studying. The purpose concept can be taken one step further by evaluations according
to function. This analysis is broken down into three parts, manifest functions, latent
functions, and dysfunctions. The purpose question can be evaluated based on whether
functions are apparent, or manifest, such as the military's function to defend and protect its
citizens; or latent, such as bartenders serving drinks but also providing the less recognized
function of listening to people's problems. An example of dysfunction is the widespread
population growth in Las Vegas that has created intense concern about the residual effect
of the breakdown of social order.

3. Conflict Perspective: In the conflict perspective, the view is less of a unified system and more
of an environment of conflict struggles and clashes of power. Hence, rather than working
together to achieve a common objective, individuals within this perceived society work
independently to attain their own personal goals.
While individuals strive to fulfill their personal destinies, they are not above using force or
other competitive means to ensure that others do not get in their way or take away their
precious resources. Benefiting at the expense of others is a hallmark feature of the conflict
perspective. It implies that while people are willing to hurt others in order to get what they
want, they do so by using rationalization as a means of justifying their actions or behaviors

Karl Marx may be the most well-known of all the conflict theorists. His argument was that
the struggle between social economic classes created the major segregation among
members of society.

However, today, not all conflict theorists ascribe to the Marxist way of thinking. Rather,
many see conflict pertaining to class not necessarily as the causal effect of change but
instead as a normal part of life. Furthermore, in failing to see class conflict as the only form
of conflict in existence, they recognize all forms of conflict, including that caused by gender
inequality, ageism, political ideology, and racial prejudices.

Some of the common themes of the conflict perspective include:

 Change, one of the basic, inherent features of society, occurs on account of either an
inequality or a scarcity of resources.
 Conflict is the result of human desire to obtain goods, power, or prestige, any of
which may be in short supply but in big demand.
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 Conflict is not intrinsically bad. Rather, conflict can serve as the motivation driving
people to align for the purpose of achieving a higher goal.

In short, conflict has proven to be the impetus for desirable change. In the conflict perspective,
people align within social structures, not for their continuation but as a means of serving the
rich and powerful. On the other side, social structures run by the rich and powerful have a way
of keeping out the less fortunate ones, thus, shunning them and ensuring that they remain
beneath them.

The primary question a conflict theorist asks is, "Who is the beneficiary?" For instance, while gas
prices increase, not everyone suffers. The oil barons tend to profit handsomely in such
situations.

4. Interactionist perspective: The third major perspective that of interactionism, holds the
view that people are the ones who exist, take action, and behave. Therefore, all societal
structures are no more than mere constructs created at the hands and discretion of
humans. George Herbert Mead is considered to be one of the original theorists of this
perspective.

General components of interaction studies:

 According to interactionist, society is in a constant state of development. This is the

by-product of consistent communication and negotiation.
 Symbolic interactionist are also known as microsociologists. The scope of their
studies is confined to small focal points, such as interaction among small, intimate
groups of individuals as opposed to large populations.
 Interaction, normally conducted through face-to-face meetings, tends to
address everyday regular activities, such as shared meals, work schedules, leisure
pursuits, and more. It is the belief of interactionist that society is the result of the
ongoing exchanges among individuals and small groups of persons over the course
of long stretches of time.
 Interactionist are most interested in how persons act toward and respond to one
another, as well as the influence that each holds over one another in society as a
whole.
 Interactionist perceive people as being able to create their own level of acceptability
in their lives. This means that each person, through shared communications and
boundary establishment, sets up his or her own sense of comfort, as well as
expectancies for future interactions.
 Rather than being interested in institutions such as the economy, government, or
social class, microsociologists are concerned with the personal relationships and
interchanges among individuals and among small groups of people.

Key themes of interaction studies:

 Society is dynamic, or constantly evolving.

 Change occurs because of the interaction of individuals, as opposed to larger bodies
or institutions found in society, e.g., the government.
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
Persistent evolution, as opposed to steadfast patterns, winds up being the true
hallmark of society.
 Compared with Marxist theorists who seek out change determined by traits found in
the social structure, interactionists seek out change that is free form and
independent of any one conduit.
Scope and importance of sociology

a) Scope of Sociology

1. In the field of knowledge

Society is the web of social institutions and all these institutions are interrelated and interlinked
with each other’s. Sociologist have the basic and primary objective is to build up knowledge
about the society and social interaction. Sociologist are required to gain the know- how about
the social problems and their solutions. The specialized fields of sociology which give knowledge
to the students of sociology about different aspects of human social life

Specialized filed of knowledge: -

• Rural Sociology, Urban Sociology, Medical Sociology, Criminology, Social Psychology,

Economic Sociology, Sociology of Religion, Industrial Sociology, Sociology of Social
Problems, Sociology of Education, Political Sociology and Sociology of the Family
2. In the field of profession

• Teaching
• Research
• Administration. Following public and private sector organizations are working in the
country: -

i. Ministry of Social Welfare (Pakistan) Social Welfare Departments

ii. Zakat Funds
iii. Pakistan Bait ul Mal
iv. Campaign for blood donation
v. Sponsor a child of Thalassemia Children
vi. Donation Boxes
vii. Children Welfare Society
viii. Charity Shows
• Centre for mentally retarded children (CHAMAN) Lahore
• District industrial homes (SANATZAR)
• Day care centers
• Model orphanages (children homes
• Homes for the destitute and needy women / girls
• Vocational training centers for women in rural areas
• Home for old persons (AAFIAT)
• (DAR-UL-SAKOON) providing an enabling for mentally sick patients. Supportive and
rehabilitative services. Mainstreaming with families.
• Medical social services projects (MSSP) (many hospitals)
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b) Importance of sociology

Prior to the emergence of sociology, the study of society was carried on in an unscientific
manner and society had never been the central concern of any science. It is through the study
of sociology that the truly scientific study of the society has been possible. Sociology because of
its bearing upon many of the problems of the present world has assumed such a great
importance that it is considered to be the best approach to all the social sciences.
Sociology studies role of the institutions in the development of the individuals
It is through sociology that scientific study of the great social institutions and the relation of the
individual to each is being made. The home and family, the school and education, the church
and religion, the state and government, industry and work, the community and association,
these are institutions through which society functions. Sociology studies these institutions and
their role in the development of the individual and suggests suitable measures for re-
strengthening them with a view to enable them to serve the individual better.

Study of sociology is indispensable for understanding and planning of society

Society is a complex phenomenon with a multitude of intricacies. It is impossible to understand
and solve its numerous problems without support of sociology. It is rightly said that we cannot
understand and mend society without any knowledge of its mechanism and construction.
Without the investigation carried out by sociology no real effective social planning would be
possible. It helps us to determine the most efficient means for reaching the goals agreed upon.
A certain amount of knowledge about society is necessary before any social policies can be
carried out.

Sociology is of great importance in the solution of social problems

The present world is suffering from many problems which can be solved through scientific study
of the society. It is the task of sociology to study the social problems through the methods of
scientific research and to find out solution to them. The scientific study of human affairs will
ultimately provide the body of knowledge and principles that will enable us to control the
conditions of social life and improve them.

Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic worth and dignity of man
Sociology has been instrumental in changing our attitude towards human beings. In a specialized
society we are all limited as to the amount of the whole organization and culture that we can
experience directly. We can hardly know the people of other areas intimately. In order to have
insight into and appreciation of the motives by which others live and the conditions under which
they exist a knowledge of sociology is essential.
Sociology has changed our outlook with regard to the problems of crime
It is through the study of sociology that our whole outlook on various aspects of crime has
change. The criminals are now treated as human beings suffering from mental deficiencies and
efforts are accordingly made to rehabilitate them as useful members of the society.
Sociology has made great contribution to enrich human culture
Human culture has been made richer by the contribution of sociology. The social phenomenon
is now understood in the light of scientific knowledge and enquiry. According to Lowie most of
us harbor the comfortable delusion that our way of doing things is the only sensible if not only
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possible one. Sociology has given us training to have rational approach to questions concerning
oneself, one's religion, customs, morals and institutions. It has further taught us to be objective,
critical and dispassionate. It enables man to have better understanding both of himself and of
others. By comparative study of societies and groups other than his existence, his life becomes
richer and fuller than it would otherwise be. Sociology also impresses upon us the necessity of
overcoming narrow personal prejudices, ambitions and class hatred.

Sociology is of great importance in the solution of international problems

The progress made by physical sciences has brought the nations of the world nearer to each
other. But in the social field the world has been left behind by the revolutionary progress of the
science. The world is divided politically giving rise to stress and conflict. Men have failed to bring
in peace. Sociology can help us in understanding the underlying causes and tensions.

The value of sociology lies in the fact that it keeps us update on modern situations
It contributes to making good citizens and finding solutions to the community problems. It adds
to the knowledge of the society. It helps the individual find his relation to society. The study of
social phenomena and of the ways and means of promoting what Giddens calls social adequacy
is one of the most urgent needs of the modern society. Sociology has a strong appeal to all types
of mind through its direct bearing upon many of the initial problems of the present world.

The Roles of the Sociologist

Like all scientist’s sociologists are concerned with both collecting and using knowledge. As a
scientist the sociologist's foremost task is to discover and organize knowledge about social life.
A number of full time research sociologists are employed by universities, government agencies,
foundations or corporations and many sociologists divide their time between teaching and
research.

Another task of the sociologist as a scientist is to clear away the misinformation and
superstition which clutters so much of our social thinking. Sociologists have helped to clear
doubts about hereditary, race, class, sex differences, deviation and nearly every other aspect of
behavior. By helping replace superstition and misinformation with accurate knowledge about
human behavior sociologists are performing their most important role.

Sociologists make sociological predictions. Every policy decision is based upon certain
assumptions about the present and future state of the society. Most social science prediction
consists not of predicting specific developments as the astronomer predicts an eclipse but of
forecasting the general pattern of trends and changes which seem most probable. All such
predictions or forecasts should be offered with certain humility for no certainty attends them.
Instead social scientists offer them as the best most informed guesses available upon which to
base our policy decisions and expectations for the future. Sociological prediction can also help
to estimate the probable effects of a social policy. Every social policy decision is a prediction. A
policy is begun in the hope that it will produce a desired effect. Policies have often failed because
they embodied unsound assumptions and predictions.

Sociologists can help to predict the effects of a policy and thus contribute to the selection of
policies which achieve the intended purposes. For example, what effect does dropping out of
high school have upon a youth's future earnings? One of the greatest services any scholarly
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group can offer is to show the society what policies are most likely to work in achieving its
objectives. Some sociologists are engaged in planning and conducting community action
programs advising on public relations, employee relations, working on human relations
problems etc. Often these sociologists have specialized in social psychology, industrial
sociology, urban or rural sociology or the sociology of complex organizations.

The term clinical sociologist has appeared to describe the work of the sociologist as technician.
To some extent this is a new name for what sociologists have been doing for a long time but it
also includes a considerable broadening of the range of sociologists' efforts to be useful in
society. In such positions the sociologist is working as an applied scientist. He or she has been
engaged to use scientific knowledge in pursuing certain values - a harmonious and efficient
working force an attractive public image of the industry or an effective community action
Programs.

Teaching is the major career of many sociologists. In addition to the concerns and problems of
teaching in any field, the problem of value neutrality versus value commitment is a particularly
acute question. The ethics of university teaching have demanded that the teacher refrain from
all conscious indoctrination but it is debatable. Scientists seek to discover knowledge but should
they tell the society how this knowledge should be used? The basic question is whether science
specifically sociology should be value-free. For example, sociologists know some things about
population growth, race relations, urban development and many other matters involving
questions of public policy. Early sociologists gave support to all sorts of public policies they
believed in. Between 1920 and 1940 many sociologists shifted to the view that sociology should
be a more nearly pure science discovering knowledge but not attempting to decree how it
should be used. They sought to build sociology on the model of physics as a value-free science.
As such it should be committed to no values except those of free scientific inquiry.

Many sociologists today believe that sociologists should claim a major role in making decisions
about public policy and should involve themselves in the major issues of our society. They feel
that not only do sociologists have a duty to say what society might do about problems of race
conflict, population growth, birth control, drug addiction, divorce etc but the sociologists should
say what society should do about such problems.

Sociologists have agreed upon some of the propositions: Sociologists should show the
relationships between values. If we wish to clean up polluted rivers we must be prepared to
spend a lot of tax money in doing so. Sociologists may clarify what value sacrifices must be made
if we wish to attain certain other values. A sociologist as an individual may properly make value
judgments, support causes and join reform movements like any other citizen. As a scientist the
sociologist may not know whether television violence is harmful to children and therefore might
not make public recommendations but as a parent will make a decision according to the
personal beliefs and values. Beyond this there is no complete agreement among sociologists
concerning what role they should assume. Most sociologists have some firm opinions on what
policies society should follow and are in considerable agreement with one another upon many
of these policies.

Previous questions asked by FPSC from Chapter One:

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Q.1. What is scope and importance of sociology?

Q.2. How an individual is engineer of the society and architect of life?
Q.3. What are major perspectives in Sociology?
Q.4. Briefly explain contributions of early school of thought in sociology.
Q.5. What is role of Sociology in the field of Agriculture, Economics, Education and
Religion?
Q.6. Support your views whether sociology is common sense or scientific subject.

Note: Solved MCQs will also be provided in combined form students ease.