A BRIEF HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY

THE FIRST OBSERVATIONS

1665- Robert Hooke (an Englishman) his discovery marked the beginning of the “cell theory”

R. Hooke, Johanse Janssen and Galileo Galilee

- They discovered the simple light microscope.

 Between 1674 to 1723 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch merchant and amateur scientist wrote
a series of letters to the Royal Society of London describing the “ANIMALCULES”, he saw through
simple, single lens microscope.
 He was first to actually observed microorganisms through magnifying lenses.

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION

 Until the second half of the nineteenth century. Many scientists and philosophers believed that
some forms of like could arise spontaneously from non-living matter; this process is called
spontaneous generation or “ THEORY OF BIOGENESIS”.

THE DEBATE OVER SPONTANEOUS GENERATION

1668- Francesco Redi, an Italian physician demonstrated that maggots do not rise spontaneously from
decaying meat, as was commonly believed.

First person to perform an experiment with a control system

 Redi’s results were a serious blow to the long belief that large forms of life could arise from
nonlife. However, many scientists still believe that small organisms were simple enough to be
generated from nonliving materials.

1745- John Needham, an Englishman, found that even after heated nutrient fluids cooled solutions were
soon teeming with microorganisms.

 He claimed that the microbes developed spontaneously from the fluids.

THE DEBATE OVER SPONTANEOUS

1765- Lazzaro Spallanzi, an Italian scientist, suggest that microorganisms from the air probably had
entered Needham’s solution after they were boiled.

 He showed that nutrient fluids heated after being sealed in a flask did not develop microbial
growth.
 His observation was criticized on the grounds that there was not enough oxygen in the sealed
flask, Antoin Laurent Lavoisier showed the importance of oxygen for life.
 THEORY OF BIOGENESIS

1858- Rudolf Virchow challenged spontaneous generation with the concept of biogenesis.

1861- Finally the issue was resolved experimentally by Louise Pasteur, the French scientist.

He proved that any appearance of “spontaneous” life in nonliving solutions can be attributed
to microorganisms that were already present in air or in fluids themselves.

GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY

For about 60 years, beginning with the work of Pasteur, there was an explosion of discoveries in
microbiology.

1857-1914- The Golden Age of Microbiology, spearheaded mainly by Pasteur and Robert Koch, led to
the establishment of microbiology as science.

 Chemical activities of microorganisms

 Improved techniques for performing microscopy & culturing microorganisms.
 Developed vaccines & surgical techniques.

Lois Pasteur

 Made an experiment using the swan-neck flasks- his discovery led to the development of
“aseptic technique”
 A group of French merchants ask him to find out why milk, wine and beer soured? They asked
him to develop a method that will prevent spoilage during shipment. “ Pasteurization”

FERMENTATION AND PASTEURIZATION

 Pasteur found that yeast ferments sugar to alcohol and that bacteria can oxidize the alcohol to
acetic acid.
 He also developed a heating process ( called Pasteurization) that is used to kill bacteria
in some alcoholic beverages and milk without altering their flavor.

GERM THEORY – “Microorganisms cause diseases”

1865- Louis Pasteur was hired to figure out what to do about silkworm disease.

He was aware that in 1835 Agostino Bassi had shown a causal relationship between a fungus and the
disease so he looked for a connection with a microorganism. – He discovered a protozoan was the
causative agent added more data to support the idea that microorganisms cause disease.

Louis Pasteur

- He introduced the terms “aerobes” & “anaerobes .

- He studied different microorganism he was also able to develop immunity for different diseases
such as anthrax, chicken cholera and rabies- Father of Immunology.
GERM THEORY

1860- Joseph Lister introduced the use of Phenol of disinfectant to clean surgical dressing in order to
control infections in humans. His reasoning:

 He knew about the link between microorganisms and animal diseases that was suggested by
Pasteur’s work.

GERM THEORY

He knew about the work of IGNAZ SEMMELWEIS who, in 1848 showed that puerperal fever was
transmitted to patients by medical students, who didn’t was their hands between dissecting cadavers in
anatomy lad and delivering babies.

1876- Robert Koch proved that microorganisms caused diseases. He used a sequence of procedures
called Koch’s Postulates, which are used today to prove particular disease.

He discovered rod shaped bacteria known as "Bacillus Anthracis”

Koch’s Postulates

- Also known as “Henle- Koch’s” Postulates which were published in 1884.

These include the following:

1. The pathogen must be found routinely in hosts with the disease.

2. The pathogen must be isolated and grown in pure culture.
3. The pathogen when inoculated to a healthy animal individual must cause the same disease.
4. The same organism must be isolated from the diseased animal or individual.

Limitations of Koch’s Postulates

- It is only limited or applicable for infectious diseases and not on non-infectious diseases.

Example:

- TB is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis

- HTN is caused by familial/ genetic cause, diet, smoking or lifestyle but not by microorganisms.

Limitations of Koch’s Postulates

- Not all healthy animals will manifest the disease once infected with a certain pathogen.
Example:
-Leptospirosis will be manifested in man but do not in animals.

Limitations of Koch’s Postulates

 - Not all organisms can be isolated and grown in pure cultures.
Example:
-Treponema pallidum (syphilis) can only grow in pure culture using chimpanzee and
rabbit scrotum.
- Mycobacterium leprae (leprosy) is only grown in palms or foot of armadillos.

Robert Koch

- He introduced the principle of Pure Culture Technique

- He discovered mycobacterium tuberculosis an Vibrio cholera
- Koch’s work on tuberculin ultimately led to the development of a skin test valuable in diagnosing
tuberculosis.
- He also developed methods of fixing staining & photographing bacteria.

Julius Petri

- A worker of Robert Koch who invented the Petri Dish in 1887.

Frau Hesse or Fannie Hesse

- The wife of a worker of Robert Koch who discovered agar from the seaweed “ Gellidium”

John Tyndall

- He modified the Pasteurization process and called the new method as fractional sterilization or
intermittent sterilization.

Procedures includes

 Treatment 1
 Introduction of a gap
 Treatment 2

Vaccination

Vaccination- is the administration of antigenic material to stimulate an individual’s immune system. To

develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen.

 The most effective method of preventing infectious diseases.

1798- Edward Jenner demonstrated that inoculation cowpox material provides humans with immunity
from smallpox.

1880- Pasteur discovered that virulent bacteria could be used as a vaccine for fowl cholera; he coined the
word vaccine.

Emil Von Behring

  He discovered the immunization for diphtheria.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy- is the chemical treatment of a disease. The idea of magic bullet is to use a treatment
that kills the pathogens without harming the host.

Paul Ehrlich

- He speculated about a magic bullet that could hunt down and destroy a pathogen without
harming the infected host selective toxicity.
- In 1910, he found a chemotherapeutic agent called salvarsan.
- Compound 606 for treatment of syphilis
- He was recognized as Father of chemotherapy.

Alexander Fleming

- Discovered penicillin by serendipity while preparing a pure culture of Staphylcoccus aureus; he

identified the mold as Penicillium notatum and it produces an active ingredient which he called
as penicillin.
- The clinical application of penicillin was attributed to Sir Howar Florey and Ernest Boris Chain.

Gerhard Domagk

 He discovered the red dye PRONTOSIL that when metabolized in the body is converted to the
active form “Sulfonamide” that is useful for UTI.

Selman Waksman

 He discovered streptomycin ( anti-tubercular antibiotic) from Streptomyces species.

Rene Dubois

 He discovered two antibiotics, gramicidin and tyrocidine from soil bacterium bacillus brevis.

Rebecca Lancefield

 She proposed a classification system for streptococci based on certain components in cell walls
of bacteria.