DRYING OF SOLIDS

References: Coulson & Richardson Vol 2 (4th Edn) ch. 16

Def: Reduction of liquid content from an initial value to an acceptable final value

Solids may be indifferent forms: flakes, powders, granules (crystals), sheets, slabs

Drying often preceded by mechanical removal of liquid – filtration, centrifugation, pressing

Unassisted or natural drying (slow) vs. Accelerated drying

Here we only deal with accelerated drying – in equipment built for the purpose

Fundamental mechanism: Thermal vapourization (heat of vapourization)

Liquid may be on surface or entirely within, or partly on surface and partly within solid

What is ‘dry’?

Bone dry 0% water

Dry salt 0.5%

Coal 4%

Food products 5 – 8%

Equilibrium moisture content

Moisture content X’ is expressed in terms of kg H2O/ kg Bone dry solid

A solid that is in equilibrium with its surrounding air (i.t.o. moisture content) – neither absorbs or
loses moisture. The equilibrium moisture content is designated X*. The equilibrium depends on the
solid characteristics and the relative humidity of air (which is a function of temperature).

1
 Question 1. Using the above diagram, what is the lowest moisture content that can be achieved in
egg albumin at 25°C if the relative humidity of air is 40%?

Typical curve for experimental drying data

Mass solid W0
Critical moisture content

We

Time

Bound moisture is the lowest concentration of moisture in the solid that is in equilibrium with the
moisture of saturated air in the dryer.

Free moisture (X) is the difference between the total water content (XT) of the solid and the
equilibrium water content (X*)

X = XT - X * (1)

All calculations regarding drying use the value X (free moisture content)

2
Psychrometric chart – gives the humidity and enthalpy relationships of air at different temperatures
at atmospheric pressure.

Adiabatic saturation line

Humidity = kg H2O per kg dry air
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Relative Humidity = 𝑥 100 (2)
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟

Question Air at 20% relative humidity and 40°C enters an adiabatic drier and exits the drier at 80%
relative humidity. What is its temperature?
Why does its temperature change?

Methods of drying
1. Moving heated air at atmospheric pressure over wet solid.
2. Vacuum drying (allows lower temperatures)
3. Freeze drying – water sublimed from frozen material
4. Drying in energy fields – infrared, dielectiric (microwave), acoustic

2 basic methods of drying: Batch or Continuous

3
Purpose of drying

1. Reduce mass
2. Improve handling
3. Improve shelf life (storage for extended periods)
4. Reduce biological/other degradation

Drying equipment – classified according to design and operating feature

 Batch or continuous. Batch usually small, drying cycle long. Continuous usually large, less
labour & floor space, product quality more uniform
 Physical state of feed – liquid, slurry or wet solid
 Method of conveying solids – belt, rotary, fluidized
 Heating mechanism – convection, conduction & convection, radiation (microwave)

Selection of dryer – depends on:

1. Feed condition – solid , liquid, powder, paste

2. Feed concentration – amount of H2O
3. Product spec – dryness required, physical form (grains, sheets, flakes,etc)
4. Heat sensitivity – food products
5. Nature of vapourization – toxicity, flammability
6. Nature of solid – dust explosion hazard, toxicity

Different types of dryers

Type Characteristics
Tray dryers Low rates of production < 100 – 250 kg/h
Vacuum shelf indirect dryers Pharmaceuticals, heat sensitive materials
toxic & volatile solvents Long cycles (4 – 48 h/batch)
Continuous tunnel dryers Food materials
Rotary dryers Revolving cylindrical shell – granular feed (sugar)
Drum dryer Heated metal shell - slurries
Spray dryer Short contact time, control of particle size (e.g.
milk powder)
Fluidized bed dryers Granular, crystalline material. Contact ime 30 –
60 sec.
Pneumatic dryers Feed conveyed by high velocity gas stream
Revolving cylindrical shell

4
Tray Dryer
Tunnel Dryer

Drum Dryer

Spray Dryer

5
 Mechanism of drying

Drying is a very complicated process involving both heat transfer and mass transfer. Essentially,
energy has to be supplied (heat transfer) to evaporate water. The water vapour then has to be
carried off (otherwise we have saturation conditions) for more evaporation to take place (mass
transfer). The driving force for mass transfer is what?

Initially drying occurs by evaporation from the surface. The evaporated moisture will be replaced by
water moving from within the solid to the surface. Drying occurs at constant rate (BC) as long as
there is moisture at the surface. The temperature of the solid during this period is the wet bulb
temperature at which the rate of evaporation is balanced by the rate of transfer of heat that makes
the evaporation possible.

When there is no more moisture at the surface, the falling rate (CD) of drying commences. The
mechanisms of the movement of moisture affect the drying during the falling rate periods.

Typical drying rate curve for constant drying conditions

Drying rate R C B

[kg H2O/kg dry solid.h]

A
D

E Xc

X*
X’ moisture content [kg H2O/kg dry solid]

A = initial wet condition

BC = constant rate period

CD = First falling rate period (capillary-controlled)

DE = second falling rate period (diffusion-controlled)

E = equilibrium moisture content X*

Liquid diffusion theory

Diffusion of liquid moisture occurs when there is a concentration difference between the depths of
the solid and the surface. This mechanism is found in:

6
 - Non-porous solids where single phase solutions are formed with the moisture (paste,
soap, gelatine, glue)
- Flour, wood, leather, paper, starches and textiles when last portions of moisture are
removed.

The rate of moisture diffusion is rate – controlling (the rate of evaporation from the surface is quite
fast). Since the moisture diffusivity usually decreases with decreased moisture content, the drying
rate appears to be a non-linear function of X. Therefore, very often a diffusion-controlled curve
exhibits no first falling-rate period.

Capillary movement in porous solids

Porous solids (clays, sand, soil, paint pigments, minerals) contain inter-connecting pores and
channels of varying pore sizes. As water is evaporated a meniscus of liquid water is formed across
each pore in the depth of the solid. This sets up capillary forces by the interfacial tension between
solid and water. These capillary forces provide the driving force for moving water through the pores
to the surface. Small pores develop larger forces than large pores.

Drying rate R Drying rate R

X, Free moisture content X, Free moisture content

(a) (b)

(a) – diffusion rate-controlled (b) – capillary-controlled

At the beginning of the falling-rate period (point C) the water is being brought to the surface by
capillary action, but the surface layer starts to recede below the surface. Air rushes in to fill the
voids. As the water is continuously being removed, a point is reached where there is insufficient
water left to maintain continuous films across the pores, and the rate of drying suddenly decreases
at the start of the second falling-rate period (point D). Then the rate of diffusion of water vapour in
the pores and the rate of heat conduction in the solid may be the main factor in drying.

Effect of shrinkage

The shrinkage of the solid, as moisture is removed, may affect the rate of drying significantly.
Materials undergoing shrinkage: colloidal and fibrous materials (e.g. vegetables), other foodstuffs,
clay, soap, wood.

During drying of these materials, a hard layer may develop on the surface which significantly retards
the flow of liquid or vapour moisture. In many foodstuffs a layer of closely packed cells is formed at
the surface which presents a barrier to moisture migration. Rigid solids do not shrink appreciably.

Shrinkage can be reduced by drying with moist air (i.e. at lower rates of drying).

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Prediction of the constant rate of drying

Assumption: no radiation and conduction. Steady-state mass and heat transfer (vapour at surface is
saturated). Temperature at surface = wet bulb temp Tw
Q NA Tw; Yw; yw
Gas; T1, Y1 ;y
Q

Moisture to surface

The rate of convective heat transfer from the gas at temp T to the surface of the solid at temp Tw is:

Q = h (T-Tw) A (3)
H = heat transfer coefficient [W/m2.K]; A = exposed drying area

The mass transfer flux from the surface:

k' y
N A = k y (y w - y) = ( yw  y) (4)
y Bm

A = water; B = air; NA = no mole A (water) transferred per m2 per s; yBm log mean inert (air)
mole fraction; yw = mole fraction of water vapour in the gas at the surface; y = mole fraction of
water in the flowing air; ky ; k’y mass transfer coefficients (k’y for one-way transfer)

The mole fractions y and yw can be expressed in terms of humidities (H )

M A pA M y
Humidity Y   A (5)
M B Pt  p A M B 1  y

pA = partial pressure (of water); Pt = total pressure (atm); Y = humidity [kg H2O/kg dry air]

Since usually y << 1 so :

MB MB
y Y; and yw  Yw
MA MA
k y M B
Hence N A  (Yw  Y ) (6)
y Bm M A

The amount of heat needed to vapourise NA water moles will be:

Q = NA MA γwA (7)

8
Where γw = latent heat of vapourization for water at Tw (obtainable from steam tables or
psychrometric chart

Thus, the rate of drying R is:

Q h(T  Tw ) k y
R   M B (Yw  Y ) (8)
A w w y Bm

This equation is identical to the so-called wet bulb temperature equation ( will be discussed in the
Mass transfer course) . Hence, in the absence of radiation and conduction, the temperature of the
solid surface Tw is at the wet bulb temperature of the air.

Thus, the rate of drying can be calculated from the heat transfer equation, or the mass transfer
equation.

The heat transfer equation turns out to be more reliable, so:

hT  Tw 
R (9)
w

The heat transfer coefficient h [W/m2K]can be correlated by the relationship

h = 0.0204 G0.8 (10) where G is the superficial mass velocity of the gas [kg/m2h]
when air flows parallel to the surface.

Fir air flow perpendicular to the surface, the corresponding correlation is:

h = 1.17 G0.37 (11)

Prediction of the falling rate of drying

It can be shown that for both the case where drying from within the solid occurs via liquid diffusion
as well as capillary-controlled drying, the rate of drying during the falling rate period is adequately
approximated by the relation

dX
R X (12)
dt

In other words, during the falling rate period the drying rate is proportional to the free moisture
content.

R = aX (13) where a is the slope of the drying rate curve

Basic calculations

9
Most calculations assume that drying takes place within a closed container using heated air as the
drying medium. If the hot air is the only medium used for drying, we refer to the process as adiabatic
drying. For adiabatic drying the psychrometric chart gives useful information.

Where drying occurs as a result of heat transfer through a heated surface, or the use of radiation,
this is referred to non-adiabatic drying. Calculations for the latter are more complicated.

Since drying involves heat and mass transfer, the exposed surface area A is important.

Drying rate R is expressed by the following equation:

𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑋
𝑅=− . (14)
𝐴 𝑑𝑡

Where X = free moisture content [kg H2O/kg dry solid]

R = drying rate [kg H2O/hm2]

A = exposed surface area of drying [m2]

ms = mass of dry solid used [kg]

Since our knowledge of the fundamental mechanisms of drying is incomplete, in order to size drying
equipment, it is often necessary to conduct a drying test either on laboratory or pilot scale. From the
results obtained it is usually possible to scale up to full-scale. A sample of the given material is placed
on a tray to a known depth with a known surface area. The following conditions have to be met for
the results of the tests to be scaled up:

1. The sample should not be too small in mass and should be supported in a tray similar to the
large-scale one
2. The ratio of drying to no-drying surface, and the bed-depth should be similar
3. The velocity, humidity, temperature and direction of the air should be the same and
constant to simulate drying under constant drying conditions.

Example 1

A sample of slurry (mixture of granular material and water) was filtered in a Buchner funnel (100 mm
in diameter) and the filter cake was placed in a drying oven to determine the drying characteristics.
The cake was 10 mm thick and only the upper surface was exposed in the drying test. The mass was
recorded as a function of time as shown in the table below. The air in the test oven was at 65°C and
had a humidity of 0.11 kg per kg dry air. The mass of bone-dry material was 48 g.

Time (min) 0 5 10 15 20 25 60 90
Mass (g) 100 90 80 71 65 60 50 50
Re-tabulate the above data as X (free moisture content) versus time, and plot the resulting graph.

Solution:

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 Mass bone-dry solid = 48 g. From table, mass equilibrium solid = 50 g
t Mass X dX/dt
min (g)
0 100 1.042 Area = 0.007854 Ms(kg) = 0.048
5 90 0.833 0.255
10 80 0.625 0.255
15 71 0.438 0.229 0.300
20 65 0.313 0.153
0.250
25 60 0.208 0.127

R kg/m^2.min
60 50 0.000 0.036 0.200
90 50 0.000 0.000
0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000
-0.200 0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000
X

A typical drying rate curve has two portions: a constant rate period, and a falling rate period.

Xc is the critical moisture content – the point where the constant drying rate ends and the falling rate
begins.

Sometimes the falling rate period has two sections (depending on the mechanism of movement of
moisture within the solid). The falling rate period is often approximated by a linear relationship.

In above example an approximation was used in Excel to determine drying rate. A plot of the drying
data, and drawing tangents to the curve would probably have given a more linear falling rate.

From a plot of drying rate versus free moisture content the required drying time can be determined.

Calculation of drying time under constant drying conditions

dmv m dX
R  s (15)
Adt A dt

Where R = drying rate [kg/m2h]; mv = mass vapour [kg]; A = area for drying [m2]; ms = mass of bone-
dry solid; t = time [h]; X = free moisture content [kg H2O/kg dry solid]

ms dX ms dX
From R    dt  
A dt A R

11
 R1
ms dX
Integrating tT 
A 
R2
R
(16) where tT = total drying time

ms  X 1  X 2 
For the constant rate period: tc  (17)
ARc

Where tc = time for the constant rate period; Rc = drying rate in constant rate period

dR
In falling rate period R = aX + B ; hence dR = a dX; or dX 
a

m s R1 dR m R
tf  
aA R 2 R
 s ln 1
aA R2
(18)

Rc  R m  X c  X  R1
a so t f  s ln (8) where X’ and R’ are free moisture
Xc  X  A Rc  R R2
content and drying rate at the second critical point

ms  X 1  X c X c  X  Rc 
And total drying time tT is given by: tT  t c  t f    ln  (19)
A  R c Rc  R  R2 

When a single straight line passing through the origin adequately represents the entire falling rate
period, the point (Xc;Rc) lies on that line. We note that b, R’ and X’ drop out and that a = Rc/Xc and
that Rc/R2 = Xc/X2 [Rc = a Xc and R2 = a X2]. Equation (8) therefore simplifies to:

ms  Xc 
tT   X 1  X c   X c ln  (20)
ARc  X2 

Example 2 Using the data of Example 1, calculate the total drying time required to reduce the
moisture of 500g of the same material from 50% to 5% by mass on a wet basis. The thickness of the
cake is as before and the air velocity and conditions are also the same as in the test. The cake is
circular, drying occurs only from the top surface and the area is in proportion to the increased mass.

Solution

From the given data, wet mass = 500g,

When bone dry mass is 48g, eqm moisture mass is 50g. Hence X* = 2/48 = 0.0417

At 50% moisture (wet basis)  ms = 250g = 0.25kg,

X1 = (250 g H2O/ 250 g dry solid) – X* = 1.0 – 0.0417 = 0.9583

Let m2 = mass of H2O in final dried solid:  m2/( m2 + 250) = 5/100

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  m2 =0.05 m2 + 0.05* 250 ; i.e 0.95m2 = 12.5;  m2 = 13.16 g
 X2 = 13.16 / 250 - 0.0417 = 0.01094

From graph of drying rate, with Xc = 0.55 Rc = 0.255 kg H2O/m2.min and with A = 5* 0.007854 m2 =
0.03927 m2

Substitute in equation (9), we have

ms  Xc 
tT   X 1  X c   X c ln 
ARc  X2 


tT 
0.25
0.9583  0.55  0.55 ln  0.55   108 min
0.03927 * 0.255   0.01094 

Calculation of mass flow-rate of air and energy requirements

Assume
m s is the steady state mass flow-rate of dry solid of which the initial and final free
m v
moisture contents are X1 and X2 and that is the rate of vapour evaporated from the solid during
a continuous drying operation. A moisture balance gives:

 s  X1  X 2   m
m v (21)
If we know the inlet moisture and temperature of the drying gas, and the outlet moisture of the gas,
we can calculate the air flow-rate and energy input required using the psychrometric chart.

Example 3 40kg/h of a wet solid containing 60% moisture (on wet basis) is dried to 15% moisture in
a continuous dryer using ambient air at 25°C and 40% relative humidity which is heated prior to
entering the dryer to 55°C. Under the drying conditions the equilibrium content of the solid is 5%.
The air leaves the dryer at 90% relative humidity. Assuming adiabatic drying, calculate the mass
flow-rate of air (kg dry air/s) and the heat input required.

Solution:

 s  40 / 3600 * 0.4  0.00444 kg dry solid / s

m
Let we be the equilibrium mass of water (under the drying conditions)

 we/ (0.00444 + we) = 0.05 hence 0.95 we = 0.05 * 0.00444

we = 0.000234 kg H2O/s  X* = 0.000234/0.00444 = 0.053

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X 1  X T  X *  0.6 * 40 / 3600 / 0.00444  0.053  1.5  0.053  1.447

For X2, let w = mass of water in final solid

 w/ (0.00444 + w) = 0.15 hence 0.85 w = 0.15 * 0.00444

 w = 0.000784 kg H2O/s Hence X2 =[ 0.000784/0.00444]-0.053 = 0.123

 Mass of water to be evaporated per s = 0.00444 * (1.447 – 0.123) = 0.00588 kg H2O/s

A
B

The path traced out by heating the air is given by the line AB.

Enthalpy increase is (78 – 43) KJ/kg dry air = 35 kJ/kg dry air

The path traced out by the hot air as it dries out the material is given by line BC

Humidity increase = 0.020 – 0.008 = 0.012 kg/kg dry air.

To evaporate 0.00588 kg H2O/s requires an air flow-rate of 0.00588 / 0.012 = 0.49 kg/s of dry air

Heating required = 0.49 * 35 = 17.15 kW

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Effect of process variables on constant rate period

Experimental measurements of the drying rate are usually preferred over the use of equations for
prediction. However, the equations are quite helpful to predict the effect of changing the drying
process variables when limited experimental data are available.

Effect of air velocity

For the constant-rate period it was proved that

hT  Tw 
R (9)
w

With h ~ Gm m= 0.8 parallel flow; m = 0.37 perpendicular flow

Hence:

m
R2  G 2 
  (22)
R1  G1 

Effect of gas humidity

R2 T  Tw2  w1 Yw2  Y2
 .  (23)
R1 T  Tw1  w2 Yw1  Y1

The Yw (wet bulb humidity) and Y (entering air humidity) can be read off from the psychrometric
chart. If the gas humidity, for example is decreased, (Y2 < Y1)the wet bulb temp Tw2 will decrease
(see humidity chart) (Tw2 < Tw1). Since ɣw1 ≈ ɣw2 , the constant rate of drying should increase.

Effect of gas temperature

R2 T2  Tw2  w1
 . (24)
R1 T1  Tw1  w2

If the gas temp T is increased (T2 > T1), Tw is also increased (Tw2 > Tw1), but not as much as T. Hence
R will increase (R2 > R1).

Effect of thickness of solid being dried

For heat transfer by convection only, the rate of drying is independent of the thickness of the solid.

15
Example 4

Using as basis the data of Example 1 and 2 in the notes, calculate the time required in an industrial
tray dryer to reduce the moisture content for the same material from 50% by mass to 5 % by mass
(both on a wet basis). The cake will be 25 mm thick. The air in the drier will be 80°C and will have a
relative humidity of 20%. Assume that the velocity at the surface of the cake in the industrial drier
will be similar to that in the test dryer. Assume that the exposed area of the cake is the same as in
Example 1.

SOLUTION

What remains the same?

Velocity, area exposed, humidity (from psychrometric chart)

What is different?

T = 80°C, Tw = 56°C, ms , density of air (hence mass flow-rate G of air)

ms is in proportion to thickness of cake = 48 x (25/10) = 120g

Influence of temperature on density of gas:

Density is inversely proportional to absolute temperature :

P1V1 P2V2

V T
 1  1 
 2 T1

G T
 2  1 
273  65  338
T1 T2 V2 T2 1 T2 G1 T2 273  80 353

Since air mass flow-rate is different [(using eqn (22)]:

m
R2  G 2 
0.8
R  338 
   2    R2  0.255 x 0. 966  0.246 kg H 2 O / kg dry solid
R1  G1  R1  353 

Influence of temperature on drying rate[(using eqn (24)]:

with T1 = 65, Tw1 = 55; T2 = 80, Tw2 = 56, ɣw1 = ɣw2

R2 T2  Tw2  w1 R2 80  56 24

 .   R2  0.246 x  0.5904 kgH 2 O / kg dry solid
R1 T1  Tw1  w2 R1 65  55 10
To calculate drying time use equation (20) with X1 = 1.0, X2 = 0.0526, Xc = 0.55 , A = 0.007854 :

ms  Xc   0.55 
 X 1  X c   X c ln  
0.120
tT   1.0  0.55  0.55 ln  45 min .
ARc  X 2  0.007854 x 0.5904  0.0526 

16
Material and Heat balances of Continuous dryers

Example: Tunnel dryer

Q (heat lost)

1 2
GAS
TG1, Y1

GS,, TG2, Y2

SOLID

TS2, X2
LS,, TS1, X1

X = total moisture content (not free) of solid [kg H2O/kg dry solid]

Y= humidity of air (kg H2O/kg dry air]

Enthalpy of gas: HG = cH (TG – T0) where T0 = reference temp (0°C) : HG [kJ/kg dr air]

and cH = humid heat cH = C air + CH2OY = 1.005 + 1.884 Y [kJ/kgK] (22)

CH2O = spec. Heat capacity of water vapour [kJ/kgK]

Thus HG = cH TG if TG in °C

Enthalpy of wet solid: HS = (cS + cL X) (TG – T0) = (cS + cL X) (TG ) (23)

if T0 = 0°C TG in °C : HS [kJ/kg dry solid]

cS = sp. heat capacity of dry solid; cL = sp. heat capacity of liquid moisture (water)

Gs = dry gas flow [kg dry gas /h], Ls = dry solid flow [kg dry solid /h]

Many of these values can be found form thep sychrometric chart.

Heat balance over dryer: Gs HG2 + LS HS1 = Gs HG1 + LS HS2 + Q (24)

Q = 0 adiabatic process Q > 0 heat losses

Material balance on the moisture: G s Y2 + L S X 1 = G s Y1 + L S X 2 (25)

17
Temperature profiles in continuous counter-current drying

Zone I I
Zone I Falling rate
Preheat Constant rate
Zone
Temperature ΔT
TG Gas

TS Solid

Distance through dryer

The time of drying in the constant rate period can be calculated from:

Gs 1 Y  Yc
t ln w (25)
Ls Ak y M air Yw  Y1 where

Ls
Yc  Y2  X c  X 2  (26
Gs

For the falling rate period the drying time can be calculated from:

Gs Xc 1  X Y  Y2 
t . ln  c w  (27)
Gs X 2 Yw  Yc 
Ls Ak y M air
Yw  Y2   X 2 
Ls

ky = the mass transfer coefficient for water vapour from wet surface to air

18