60  European Journal of Environmental Sciences

COMMERCIAL CULTIVATION BY FARMERS OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

IN NORTHERN BANGLADESH
A . Z . M . M A N Z O O R R A SH I D 1 , * , HA KA N T U N O N 2 ,
N IA Z A H M E D K HA N 3 , and SHA R I F A H M E D M U K U L 4
1 Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet-3114, Bangladesh
2 NAPTEK, Swedish University for Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
3 Department of Development Studies, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
4 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, University of Queensland, Australia

* Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Medicinal plants (MPs) are an important component of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), which are traditionally used in healthcare and
source of livelihood all over the world. In an over-populated country like Bangladesh, the pressure on natural forests is immense; thus the
cultivation of MPs can significantly contribute towards improving the livelihood of poor people, reducing the pressure on natural forests and
enhancing biological diversity. Notwithstanding the growing recognition of its importance and economic and ecological potential, there has
been little research on MPs, especially the cultivation, management and marketing aspects, in Bangladesh. Based on extensive fieldwork in
a northern district of Bangladesh, this study explores various aspects of the cultivation, management and marketing of MPs. How collective
efforts have brought economic and social benefits to communities was also examined in this study. It assesses the major processes and
elements of management, identifies key problems and challenges and indicates ways of maximizing the potential of this important sector.
The issues covered in this research include: farmers ’ perceptions and experiences; existing research and policy-making processes related
to the MP sector; constraining factors (such as lack of processing technology, inadequate transportation, logistics, financial and storage
infrastructure, lack of institutional capacity); markets, finance and networking; land use; pattern of livelihood and value chain issue.

Keywords: medicinal plants, Bangladesh, cultivation, farmer, marketing, policy and conservation

Introduction Among the major NTFPs, medicinal plants (MPs)

are the most important in terms of cultivation and pol-
Traditionally forests and forest products have been icy decisions. MPs are important globally in terms of
important in maintaining the livelihoods of people and healthcare as well as a  source of money for the people
are still of paramount importance for local communities dependent on local forests. There is a  rich history and
(Iftekhar 2006). According to the World Bank (2002), tradition of primary healthcare in local communities
more than 1.6 billion people throughout the world rely to based on their knowledge of medicinal plants (Caniago
some extent on forests for their livelihoods and 350 mil- and Siebert 1998). According to FAO (2007), an estimat-
lion depend entirely on forests, both for their subsistence ed 121,505 t of MPs and aromatic products are produced
and income. Forestry employs about 12.9 million people, globally out of which 90,181 t is from Asia and according
which is currently valued at US$ 354 billion (FAO 2007) to Subrat (2002) this figure is increasing by 15 to 20%
and is increasing. In this context, conservation of forest annually. Among the 422,000 species of plants in the
resources and their associated role in alleviating poverty world 12.5% are reported to have a medicinal value (Rao
have received renewed attention in recent years (Rao et et al. 2004). Despite the escalation in the production of
al. 2004). synthetic drugs over the last couple of decades, MPs still
Bangladesh is a land-hungry deltaic country in South play a  vital role in the life and living of rural and for-
Asia with an area of 147,570 km2 and is one of the most est dependent communities in many parts of the world,
densely populated countries in the world with a density particularly in developing countries (WHO 1990; Badola
of 979 people per km2 (BBS 2008). This huge population and Aitken 2003; Rao et al. 2004).
is putting an enormous pressure on the limited natural Commercial cultivation of MPs is gaining momentum
resources resulting in the depletion of forest and forest in Bangladesh due to the potential market for these plants
resources at an alarming pace, which has compelled the both at home and abroad. Considering the market poten-
government to declare logging bans (the first of such bans tial and the shortfall from natural sources it is argued that
was imposed on the central Sal forests in the early 1970s commercial cultivation could provide a good alternative
and more recently on the Hill Forests in the late 1990s) and enduring livelihood for local communities as well
in different forest areas of the country (GoB 1994). This as protecting the natural resource base of MPs. Howev-
moratorium has created opportunities for the non-tim- er, there is very limited information on MPs, especially
ber forest products (NTFPs) sector to grow and provide their socio-economic attributes, policy imperatives and
an alternative means of livelihood for the rural poor of research issues in the context of Bangladesh (Khan and
Bangladesh who are very reliant on forest products. Rashid 2006).

Rashid, A. Z. M. M. et al.: Commercial cultivation by farmers of medicinal plants in northern Bangladesh

European Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 60–68
 Commercial cultivation of medicinal plants in northern Bangladesh  61
Farmers ’ hopes and aspirations are often ignored in
formulating plans and programs and hence the issues of
livelihood remain unexplored (Brown 2003). There has
been a very limited effort to explore the reality and issues
related to the cultivation of MPs and its management in
the field. Most of the research and studies remain undoc-
umented and disorganized with little attempt to synthe-
size the key findings of these studies (Khan and Rashid
2006). There are very few studies on the socio-econom-
ic status, market potential and policy attributes of MPs
(Shahidullah and Haque 2010). The policies on sus-
tainable utilization of medicinal plants are also not well
defined and in some cases non-existent. Considering
the potential of learning from the experiences of other
countries and regions, sustainable management of MPs
requires urgent support and attention.
Collective cooperation in the governance of natural
resource management (NRM) is receiving increasing
attention worldwide. Collaborative management of pro-
tected forests is a  good example of this paradigm shift
in resource governance (Mukul et al. 2012; Rashid et al.
2013). The present study was conducted to determine the Fig. 1 Map showing the location of the study site (Laxmipur Kholabaria
various dimensions of the cultivation of MPs by farm- Union of Natore Sadar Thana).
ers. Planting to management, conservation to marketing,
farmers cooperatives to microcredit support, land use pioneered the commercial cultivation of MPs along with
systems etc. are the salient objectives of this study. traditional agricultural practices, especially the growing
This study aims to determine the current status and of Aloe vera L. This study was conducted between August
management of the MP sector in Bangladesh with a view and December 2008. Natore consists mostly of an alluvial
to suggesting a better way of sustainably cultivating MPs. plain crisscrossed by rivers and with many water-bodies
More specifically, it attempts to determine the field level under the jurisdiction of Rajshahi division.
practices and challenges in terms of overall management During the survey, a  semi-structured (open-ended)
of the production of MPs, which will ensure a successful questionnaire was used to collect information (Flick
future for this promising sector. 2006). Apart from the questionnaire, focused group dis-
cussions (FGDs) were arranged with farmers, Bepari3,
Kabiraj4 and other stakeholders.
Materials and Methods
Sample Size and Sampling
This study mainly focused on practices at field level The present study was conducted in an area of a north-
and challenges faced by farmers in terms of cultivation, ern district of Bangladesh. The detailed methodology is
management and related issues of research and policy described herewith:
based on a questionnaire and review of secondary infor- Twenty eight farmers were interviewed, which repre-
mation. sents 25% of those in the study area. The sample popu-
lation was selected after a  daylong meeting with about
Study Site 50 villagers representing different professions and inter-
This study addressed specific target groups i.e. farm- est groups (farmers, local traders, kabiraj, teachers and
ers, traders and traditional healers. The views of respond- local government officials). Twenty farmers were selected
ents to a questionnaire and field visits to farmers to de- during the meeting because they cultivated MPs and the
termine their experiences of cultivating MPs and related remaining eight were selected in the field while survey-
activities were collected. This was done in a  northern ing the initially selected 20 farmers. The farms selected
district of Bangladesh, named Natore, which is impor- were grouped into one of four categories, namely mar-
tant in terms of the cultivation of MPs (Fig. 1). Laxmipur ginal, poor, medium and large farmers. The classification
Kholabaria Union1 of Natore district2 is the village that of farms was done based on land ownership (marginal
farms consisted of less than 0.13 ha, poor farmers 0.13
1 The lowest administrative unit of local government in rural areas of
Bangladesh. 3 Person who buys medicinal plants and/or plant parts from the small
2 Local administrative units under the supervision of the division. There farmers or collectors and sells them on to the wholesalers or industrial
are 64 districts in Bangladesh. Each district has several sub-districts processing units.
called Thana. 4 Traditional healer or practitioner within the Ayurvedic system.

European Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1

62  A. Z. M. M. Rashid et al.
to 0.65 ha, medium farmers between 0.65 and 1.3 ha and Dunal., Ipomoea digitata L. and Scoparia dulcis L. are the
large farmers more than 1.3 ha farmland). Among the re- most important. Land with sandy loam soil, good drain-
spondents nine of the farms were in each of the marginal age and exposed to direct sunlight is the most suitable for
and small farm categories and five each in the medium cultivation of these species.
and large farmer categories. Among the respondents The cultivators of MPs are mostly traditional farmers
24 were male and four female. The female respondents who grew agricultural crops, e.g. rice, wheat, and sugar-
farmed marginal or small farms. cane before cultivating MPs. The cultivation of MPs is
The female farmers were reluctant to be interviewed often a  labour-intensive and involves the whole family
in the field, so these interviews took place in their respec- working as labourers in addition to hired labour when
tive households. The interview time varied depending on needed. Women mostly do the weeding and harvesting
the context of the interview, whether in the field or in although socioculturally women do not usually do this
a homestead. In general the field interviews took longer kind of work in the study area.
since the farmers and the research team was simultane-
ously engaged in discussing and recording. The average Management of Medicinal Plants – Related Issues
time spent on each survey was 2.45 hours. Cultivation of medicinal plants as a profession
Apart from the questionnaire, dual moderator FGDs In the study area, farmers have cultivated MPs for pe-
were organized (Marshall and Rossman 1999). Two FGDs riods varying from 2 to 20 years. For the majority of the
were arranged at the Natore study site (farmers, Beparis farmers cultivating MPs it was not their primary concern
and Kabirajs were included). The first FGD included six and only 29% cultivated only MPs. Most of the marginal
local traders (Beparis), who provided information on the farmers cultivate mainly only MPs. Of the nine margin-
markets and marketing channels for MPs and their prod- al farmers included in this survey, for six of them it was
ucts produced in the study area while the second FGD their chief means of livelihood.
included five Kabiraj who provided information on their The income from cultivation and related activities
profession and related issues. The outcomes of the FGDs associated with MPs was significantly correlated with
were summarized using inductive coding (Frankfort-Na- the size of farmers ’ households (0.531, p < 0.01) and the
chmias and Nachmias 1996; Flick 2006), which grouped amount of land they owned (0.443, p < 0.05). The yearly
the outcomes based on similarity or dissimilarity of the income from the cultivation of MPs ranged from 457 to
opinions and priorities of the respondents. 4810 US$ (1 US$= 76.5 Taka in July, 2013).

Data Analysis Medicinal plants commonly cultivated in the study area

The survey produced mostly qualitative data and The Natore area is famous for its cultivation of A. vera
therefore, the analysis was based on descriptive statis- and many people refer to Natore as the Aloe village, al-
tics. The information collected by interviewing farmers though more and more species are being cultivated in
and the questionnaire were grouped and posted into ex- this area. The commonest commercially cultivated MPs
cel data sheet to be analyzed using a statistical package based on land coverage are A. vera (38%), B. ceiba (27%),
used in social science studies (SPSS Version 15.0). Data A. racemosus (16%) and others including W. somnifera,
obtained from respondents were further analyzed using Adhatoda vasica Nees., Ocimum sanctum L., I. digitata
inductive coding (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias and Abroma augusta L. make up 19%. Detailed lists of the
1996; Flick 2006). The information obtained from the commonly cultivated MPs are presented in Appendix –I.
questionnaire was compiled and coded with numbers
ranging mostly from 1–4 or more where applicable. In Sources of the Material Planted
case of “yes” or “no” answers a  1 and 0 code was used Farmers normally plant seedlings of A. vera, while
throughout this study. This inductive coding enabled us B. ceiba and A. racemosus are raised from seed. A large
to obtain additional information on the issues addressed. percentage of the farmers (46%) depend on other farm-
The most frequently mentioned responses included the ers and markets for seed and seedlings, with the majority
coding to analyze the data to conclude. Descriptive sta- depending on local farmers.
tistics were also used to summarize and illustrate the ob-
jectives of this study. Disease Management
The MPs in the study area suffer from diseases but so
far there have been no serious outbreaks. During the sur-
Results vey, farmers mentioned three specific problems, root rot
in A. vera and W. somnifera, leaf spot in A. vera and scale
The commercial cultivation of MPs started in the early insects on A. vasica.
1990s in the Natore district and is now spreading to other
parts of Bangladesh. In the study area several different Factors affecting cultivation
species are cultivated and among them A. vera, Bombax The farmers cultivate MPs commercially as they give
ceiba L., Asparagus racemosus L., Withania somnifera a quick economic return. Of the 28 farmers 17 mentioned

European Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1

 Commercial cultivation of medicinal plants in northern Bangladesh  63
7
Marginal farmer
Small farmer
6
Medium farmer
Large farmer
5

0
Quick return Kabiraji Growing Market Personal Livelihood
Well Being

Fig. 2 Factors motivating farmers to cultivate medicinal plants.

“quick returns” as their main reason for cultivating these interviewed most of their land was used for traditional
plants followed by “market potential” (four farmers). The agriculture (26.9%) followed by land for the homestead
remaining two did so because of positive experience of (14.5%). The percentage of land use for cultivating differ-
“neighbours” and their role as “traditional medicines”. ent medicinal plants is shown in Fig. 3.
Detailed views of farmers grouped based on the size of
their farms are presented in Fig. 2. Criteria for Leasing Land
More and more farmers are becoming interested in
Farming of Medicinal Plants as a Means of Earning growing MPs on land they own, but the availability of
a Livelihood suitable land is very limited and thus the leasing of land
This study revealed that 71.5% of the farmers viewed is becoming increasingly popular. There are two ways in
MPs as a  viable way of earning a  livelihood provided which it is possible to lease land in the study area. The
a pro-farmer forest policy is practiced and 28.5% agreed first is based on a cash payment to the landowner (usual-
it was currently a potential source of a livelihood. How- ly US$ 2,417 for one ha of land). By doing this the lease-
ever, despite the differences in opinion, it is apparent holder can enjoy the land until the landowner is able to
from the field visits that the socio-economic status of the pay back the money to the leaseholder. The minimum
farmers growing MPs has improved significantly. period is one year or one growing season. The leasehold-
er only needs to pay the annual land tax, which is ap-
Use and fragmentation of the land proximately US$ 21 per year. A legal agreement is signed
The use of the land in the study area is similar to that on a  judicial stamp to validate the leasing agreement.
in other parts of Bangladesh. Farmers utilize their land The other type is an annual lease based on mutual trust,
for agricultural practices such as paddy cultivation, win- whereby the leaseholder has to pay US$ 218 per ha annu-
ter vegetables and horticultural crops. In addition, farm- ally to the landowner and consequently can continue to
ers use suitable land for the cultivation of MPs, especial- use the land until the owner gives notice well ahead of the
ly A. vera, B. ceiba and A. racemosus. For the farmers next growing season.

A. vera, 6.63 Division of Land Ownership

Homestead, 14,45 Land fragmentation due to the acute shortage of land
B. ceiba, 4.71
is a growing concern in Bangladesh. Each farm is divid-
A. racemosus, 2.86 ed among the siblings at their maturity. Therefore, in the
study area the availability of suitable land for cultivating
Mixed, 3,41
MPs is being reduced day by day in terms of per capi-
ta ratio. Such fragmentation farms limit the sustainable
growth in the cultivation of MPs in the study area. Twen-
ty of the farmers fully realized the challenges that will
Agriculture, 29,93
have to be faced in a near future, and four stressed that
Fig. 3 Pie chart showing the land use type (in%) in the study area. they were already victims of land fragmentation as they

European Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1

64  A. Z. M. M. Rashid et al.

Farmer

Kabiraj Pharmaceutical Local Bepari

Industries

End users Medium Bepari Large Bepari

Hawker Whole Sale Traders

Fig. 4 Flow chart showing medicinal plants marketing system in the study area.

inherited little land from their parents. The remaining – absence of an effective farmers ’ cooperative for pro-
four farmers viewed it as a manageable problem as they tecting the rights of the farmers;
have large farms. – poor networking between farmers and potential buy-
ers due to fragile value chain;
Market and system of marketing – absence of infrastructure and storage facilities for
In terms of the potential for marketing MPs it was keeping excess produce.
thought to be either potentially “good”, “very good” or
“promising”. Thirty-six per cent indicated it was poten- During the FGDs the Beparis suggested the follow-
tially “very good”, 35% good and 29% promising with ing measures for improving the existing methods of mar-
potential for further growth. keting:
Whole medicinal plants and products (root powder, • bring primary and secondary methods of processing
bark powder etc.) are mainly marketed either via local to the farmers;
Bepari or by direct sale. About 59% of the farmers use • provide buildings for farmers for the primary process-
both methods, 26% depend exclusively on local Bepari ing of MPs;
and 15% sell their products directly to purchasers. In the • get government and other organizations to provide
case of A. vera it is usually fresh leaves that are marketed credit and infrastructural support for farmers and
whereas in the case of other species both fresh and dried traders;
products are available for sale. Regarding the potential • formulate a policy and action plan for the NTFP sec-
for further processing of plants and plant products, all tor;
farmers were keen that the necessary technology, finance, • introduce potential buyers to the farmers and produc-
infrastructure and marketing be provided. Since 59% of ers, i.e. big wholesalers and pharmaceutical compa-
the farmers depend on Bepari for selling their products nies.
their role is crucial.
The market value of MPs and their products varies Farmers ’ cooperative
significantly depending on the availability and demand. A farmers ’ cooperative named the Kholabaria Herbal
The principal product, leaves of A. vera, are produced in Medicine Village Organization was established in 2004.
response to demand and then sold by the local Bepari. This cooperative has 170 members including farmers,
The income from the cultivation of MPs and related ac- local traders, small vendors and Kabiraj. Of the farmers
tivities is twice that from traditional farming i.e. rice cul- in this study 23 are members of the cooperative and five
tivation. While discussing the marketing of MPs in the are not. The members pay a monthly fee of TK 105 and
study area in general, the view of the Bepari was that it meet once a month. The idea behind establishing the co-
was disorganized and mainly controlled by city wholesal- operative is to protect farmer ’ s rights and interests. 54%
ers (Fig. 4). In discussions the existing marketing system of the farmers were satisfied with the performance of the
the farmers mentioned the following shortcomings: cooperative. However, 32% expressed concerns about
– absence of governmental supervision resulting in the
poor cultivation and management of MPs, which in- 5 Local currency of Bangladesh. One taka is equivalent to 76.5 US$ (as of
fluenced the price; July, 2013).

European Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1

 Commercial cultivation of medicinal plants in northern Bangladesh  65
conflicts of interest and abuse of power by the representa- on income from cultivating MPs, which traditional ag-
tives and 14% believe that the current representatives are riculture failed to provide. Five farmers (marginal and
inefficient and to some extent biased in protecting their poor) even leased land in order to increase their output
rights and meeting their demands. They mentioned the of MPs and income. This could be the basis for formu-
poor institutional capacity of the cooperative, which re- lating a  project for increasing the incomes of poor and
sults in poor prices for their produce and provides scope marginal farmers.
for exploitation by middlemen. Since A. vera is extensively cultivated in the study area
there are reports of diseased plants, which if not treat-
Micro-credit support ed in time may affect the quality and economic value of
Mixed opinions were expressed concerning the level the harvest. There is a  need for research and interven-
of micro-credit support for the cultivation of MPs. Mar- tion policies. Commercial cultivation of MPs of only
ginal and small farmers demanded credit support since a  few species in the Laxmipur Kholabaria Union may
they often lack capital for buying seedlings, fertilizer etc, affect the sustainability of this practice and indicates the
while the medium and large farmers were concerned need to diversify. However, we found that marginal and
about the restraining effect of the high interest rate levied small farmers are quite aware of this problem. In order
on micro credit. to combat infection with diseases they are practicing
mixed cropping, e.g. by planting B. ceiba along with ba-
Institutional Attributes of the Cultivation nana, mango and guava, and W. somnifera with winter
of MPs and Related Activities crops.
Cultivation of medicinal plants as a means of a liveli-
hood is a fairly new concept in Bangladesh even though Market and Marketing
it started informally a decade ago. Commercial projects In general, the market for MPs in Bangladesh is dis-
still in an initial stage of development demand thoughtful organized and heavily influenced by middlemen. How-
and constant monitoring and support from government. ever, the market potential varies based on the demand
However, the interviews revealed that government in- and characteristics of the market as noted by Arnold and
tervention is lacking in the study area. Regarding NGO Pérez (1998). The farmers in the study area marketed
support, the farmers indicate it is inadequate. Only one their products mainly either by selling them themselves
local organization, LUSTER, worked with the farmers or by getting the local Bepari to sell the produce for them.
cultivating MPs assisted by the Swiss Development Co- A majority of the farmers mentioned the influence of in-
operation and International Finance Corporation. termediaries and the absence of any state interventions
as drawbacks in the marketing system. Due to influence
of local traders and wholesalers the farmers were often
Discussion compelled to sign irrational agreements that forced them
to sell their products at a fixed price irrespective of mar-
The present study focused on selected problems ex- ket demand or changes in price. As a result during times
perienced in the field in cultivating and marketing MPs of high prices and demand, farmers lost their share of
in the study area. Due to a logging ban (imposed in late the profit. On the other hand, local Beparis mentioned
1990s) in the natural forests of Bangladesh, the pressure the manipulative role of city wholesalers as one of the
is now on NTFP to provide a  livelihood for the poor challenges of marketing. The situation is further exacer-
villagers. An alternative livelihood, the commercial
­ bated by conventional and often inefficient cultivation,
­cultivation of important MPs would not only provide management and processing of MPs along with poor
such a  livelihood but also contribute to species conser- networking with potential buyers.
vation. The development of a  credible marketing system is
often hampered by poor communications and absence
Sustainable Livelihood and Conservation of relevant infrastructure (notably lack of storage facil-
Cultivation of medicinal plants and its management ities) and lack of low interest and easy accessible credit
demand adequate attention from the key stakeholders for farmers. In order to ensure growth and sustainabil-
including farmers, researchers, policy planners and en- ity of the MP sector, a  credible system of marketing is
trepreneurs if the desired goal of sustainability is to be a  ­prerequisite, a  view also shared by Khan and Rashid
achieved. It is possible to improve the livelihood of ru- 2006.
ral marginal farmers by creating an environment that is The increase in value obtained by processing raw ma-
supportive of the commercial cultivation of MPs. This terial has to be balanced against the cost in time required.
study has revealed the potential of MPs as a  means of This can be done by using biotechnology to produce uni-
improving the livelihoods of farmers in the study area. form high quality planting materials and adding value
Seventeen farmers that changed from traditional agricul- by semi-processing raw material using modern drying,
ture to cultivating MPs increased their incomes. Today grading and storage techniques as mentioned by Calixto
many marginal and poor farmers are entirely dependent (2000).

European Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1

66  A. Z. M. M. Rashid et al.
Training and Capacity Building the leading pharmaceutical companies, they also raised
The farmers in the study area urged that they be shown concern regarding the quality in terms of purity of the
how to improve their skills in cultivating and primary raw materials, which force them to look for regional mar-
processing of MPs so that they can more effectively com- kets to procure material of high quality.
pete in the market place. Absence of institutional support Availability of plant material of high quality is crucial
is another factor limiting farmers from exploiting differ- and needs to be addressed. This study revealed that 46%
ent markets and contacting corporate buyers like phar- of the farmers depend both on other farmers and mar-
maceutical industries. Large pharmaceutical companies kets for procuring plant material for cultivation, while
are interested in bulk procuring of MPs of high quality. the majorities mainly depend on neighboring farmers.
To improve their skills in cultivation, management and Since farmers are not sure about the quality of the pro-
primary processing they need to be appropriately trained. cured seed and seedlings this increases the possibility of
Support at both farm and institutional levels in the disease or pests destroying their crops. Bangladesh For-
commercial development of nurseries and plantations est Department in collaboration with research institutes
for the ecologically viable production and primary pro- should take the lead in ensuring the quality of the plant
cessing of medicinal plants are needed. The farmers and material cultivated. Grass root organizations can be used
Kabiraj are becoming increasingly concerned about the to disseminate the technology at the farmer level. Ensur-
poor quality of the planting material. Research institu- ing a  regular supply of high quality material for plant-
tions like Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI) ing at affordable price would probably increase both the
and Bangladesh Forest Department (BFD) need to en- quality and yield. Considering that the availability of re-
sure the high quality of the material planted by farmers sources for farmers is limited a similar approach to that
otherwise the desired growth of the MP sector will con- used in Taungya6, in which MPs are cultivated in the for-
tinue to be threatened and confined only to local com- est, could be adopted.
munities. In this regard local organizations with substan-
tial support from institutions can play a significant role
in the technical and commercial training of the growers. Conclusion
Infrastructural Constraints This study revealed that one key challenge in man-
The farmers in the study area need facilities for stor- aging the production of MPs is to integrate the needs
ing and preserving their excess products, especially the of farmers with available knowledge and technological
leaves of A. vera during the rainy season when monsoon support. Currently there is a great need to integrate eco-
rain damages the leaves and during the winter when the nomic and ecological requirements. Furthermore, since
demand drops considerably and greatly affects the price. natural forests are fast disappearing there is an urgent
Provision of a regional storage facility would help farm- need to protect the remaining forests. In doing this it is
ers to preserve their produce until it can be sold at a bet- important to take into consideration the livelihood of
ter price. A significant number of farmers have expressed farmers and interests of other stakeholders in developing
an interest in switching to cultivating MPs because of its coordinated management plans.
socio-economic and conservation benefits. This should Community organizations should play a major role in
be recognized and given adequate support. formulating policies; since they often are the only ones
in direct contact with the farmers and aware of the re-
Credit and Cooperation alities at field level. However, in Bangladesh and other
Micro financing at affordable interest rates would help parts of south Asia they have only had a  marginal role
the farmers fund the cost of cultivation. However, there (Gopalakrishnan et al. 2005). In some cases the process
are mixed views on the micro credit support available in of formulating a policy is more likely to protect the in-
the study area. The government could play a decisive role terests of the local political elite rather than the needs of
in arranging for farmers the easy access to credit at low farmers (see for example, Bhattacharya and Hayat 2004;
rates of interest. A strictly monitored pro-farmer policy Kala et al. 2006). However, there have been some success-
would be important in this regard. es in protected area governance in Bangladesh achieved
by collaborative management.
Cultivation and Management Issues Our field study revealed that all the important stake-
Although the commercial cultivation of MPs is in- holders, including farmers, traditional healers, research-
creasing there is growing concern about the quality of the ers and community organizations, thought that in order
products required to be competitive in local and global to realize the full potential of this sector, especially in
markets. Diseases and pests are important in determin- terms of sustaining community livelihood and conserva-
ing the quality of farmers ’ produce. The farmers report
an increase in the incidence of several diseases, like root
6 Taungya derived from the Burmese term taung, which means hill and
rot, leaf spots and scale insects, affecting the quality and ya, which means cultivation. It is the form of hill cultivation widely
price of their products. While discussing this issue with practiced by farmers of the swidden tribe in the Chittagong Hills.

European Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1

 Commercial cultivation of medicinal plants in northern Bangladesh  67
tion of biodiversity, it was very important to create local Sweden. The field work was funded by the SIDA. Howev-
institutions to train and represent the farmers. Develop- er the views presented in this article are the sole respon-
ment of a local institution, which represents and headed sibility of the authors.
by farmers ’ , is important in this regard. Detailed guide-
lines for harvesting, storage, drying, grading and primary
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Appendix 1 List of commonly cultivated and available MPs in the Natore study area

Local Name Scientific Name Family

Ulatkambal Abroma augusta L. Sterculiaceae
Apang Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae
Grhitokumari Aloe vera L. Liliaceae
Kalomegh Andrographis paniculata Nees. Acanthaceae
Ishwarmul Aristolochia indica L. Aristolochiacaeae
Shotomuli Asparagus racemosus L. Liliaceae
Shimul Bombax ceiba L. Bombacaceae
Hastipolash Butea superba Roxb. Papillinaceae
Dadmardan Cassia alata L. Fabaceae
Talmul Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Amaryllidaceae
Anantamul Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Asclepiadaceae
Bhuikumra Ipomoea digitata L. Convolvulaceae
Alkusi Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. Fabaceae
Ghandabadali Paederia foetida L. Rubiaceae
Kayamul Pandanus odoratissimus L. f. Pandanaceae
Peepul Piper longum L. Piperaceae
Sarpagandha Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. Apocynaceae
Misridana Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariacae
Arshawgandha Withania somnifera Dunal. Solanaceae
Nishinda Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae

European Journal of Environmental Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1