oundSchoolManual PDF
oundSchoolManual PDF
oundSchoolManual PDF
GROUND SCHOOL
MANUAL
Doc Ref: CD-2
Abstract
When the weight of the paper equals the weight of the airplane, only then you can go flying.
— attributed to Donald Douglas
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1.2 Record of Amendments
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1.3 Index
1.3 Index 3
1.4 Foreword 13
1.9.1 General 20
2 Human Factors 23
2.1 Vision 23
The Cornea 23
The Cornea is a transparent window of about 10- 12mm which seals the front of the eye and allows light to
pass through it. The surface of the Cornea is curved and some refraction of the light rays takes place. 23
Cones: Cones provide the best visual acuity or accuracy. They achieve maximum efficiency in conditions
of good illumination and become less effective in poor light and darkness. 24
The Fovea 24
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Stress 28
2.1.5 Background 28
Acute stress 28
Acute Stress: is considered to be relatively short-term and occurs as a result of immediate demands placed
on the body 28
Chronic stress 28
2.1.9.1 Anxiety: 31
2.2 Fatigue 34
2.2.1 Introduction 34
2.2.2 Sleep 35
4.1.2 Directives 38
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4.1.6 Altimeter 39
4.2.1 General 41
4.3.5 Security 45
4.3.6 Insurance 45
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4.6.6 Security 63
5.1.4 GPS 74
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5.2.1.5 Obstructions 78
5.2.1.6 Restrictions 78
5.6 Observer 86
6 Meteorology 86
6.4 Clouds 93
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6.5 Thunderstorms 98
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10 TECHNICAL 133
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11 Risk Management - Identification of the Hazards, Risk Assessment, Mitigating Procedures. 149
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1.4 Foreword
The Aircraft Training Organisation at UAV Industries (Pty) Ltd focuses on the training of
new and current holders of an approved Remote Pilot Licence. This handbook has been
created to assist you the student to get the most accurate information on the relevant subjects
as required by the SACAA and the Part 101 CARs and CATS. With dedicated facilities in a
secure environment with state of the art Simulators, Remote Piloted Aircraft and experienced
Instructors to assist you in becoming an expert in the Piloting of Remote Piloted Aircraft.
The Management team of UAVI are committed to setting the highest standard of training for
RPA Pilots in line with the SACAA CARs and CATS.
Safety is our Number One priority. Providing the Aviation Industry with the best pilots with
the necessary experience and knowledge to handle RPAs in any possible scenario, is not our
aim, but our Task, and one we take very seriously at UAVI.
This Handbook was created for Students and Instructors of RPAs and the RPL Course. We
have created in such a way that it focuses on various factors that can be controlled:
• Human Factors
o Vision
o Fatigue
o Stress
o Etc.
Factors that cannot be controlled, but with the right guidance and experience will know how
to react in these situations:
• Meteorology
o Rain
o Wind
o Air Density
And most importantly the principles of flight for the various types of RPAs, how to operate
them legally with in the Laws of South Africa.
We will do more than what is required by law, as we believe that you can never have enough
knowledge and experience when it comes to running a safe aviation operation.
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1.5 List of Effective Pages
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1.6 Definitions and Acronyms
For the purposes of this Manual, unless the context otherwise indicates, the following definitions shall apply:
a) Where reference in this TPM is made to the “Operator”, the “Company”, the “Air Service” and/or the “air
service provider”, it shall mean UAV INDUSTRIES.
b) For conciseness, the pronoun "he" is used throughout the text. When appropriate, "she" should be
added to or substituted for "he" or “her” for “him” or “his”.
c) When used in this TPM, the following terms shall have the following meaning:
i. “Shall”, "will", "must" or an action verb in the imperative sense means that the application of a rule
or procedure or provision is mandatory.
ii. “Should” means that the application of a procedure or provision is recommended.
iii. “May” means that the application of a procedure or provision is optional.
iv. “No person may...” or “a person may not...” mean that no person is required, authorised, or
permitted to do the act concerned.
v. "Approved" means the applicable a uthority has reviewed the method, procedure or policy in
question and has issued a formal written approval.
vi. "Acceptable" means the applicable authority or UAVI has reviewed the method, procedure or
policy and has neither objected to nor approved its proposed use or implementation.
vii. "Prescribed" means the applicable authority or UAVI has issued a written policy or methodology
which imposes either a mandatory requirement if it states "shall", "will", "must" or an action verb in
the imperative sense, a recommended requirement if it states "should", or a discretionary
requirement if it states "may".
viii. "Note" is used when an operating procedure, technique, etc., is considered essential to be
emphasised.
ix. “Aerodrome” means an aerodrome as defined in the Act and in Part 1;
x. “AMO” means the Maintenance Department or designated individual that is responsible for the
maintenance of the particular or all aircraft
xi. “Autonomous unmanned aircraft” means an unmanned aircraft that does not allow intervention
in the management of the flight;
xii. “Autonomous operation” means an operation during which an unmanned aircraft is operating
without intervention in the management of the flight;
xiii. “Background check” means the checking of a person’s identity and previous experience, including
any criminal history as part of the assessment of an individual’s suitability to implement a security
control and/or for unescorted access to a security restricted area;
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xiv. “Beyond visual line-of-sight” means an operation in which the remote pilot cannot maintain direct
unaided visual contact with the remotely piloted aircraft to manage its flight and to meet separation
and collision avoidance responsibilities visually;
xv. “Command and control link” means the data link between the remotely-piloted aircraft and the
remote pilot station for the purposes of managing the flight;
xvi. “Communication link” means a digital or analogue data link to transfer voice or data between
the remote crew, air traffic control, airspace users and other data users;
xvii. “Corporate operation”, means a non-commercial operation or use of RPAS by an entity for
professional or aerial work as an aid to the conduct of business of that entity;
xviii. “Dangerous goods” means the dangerous goods as defined in Part 1;
xix. “Down-link” means the direct or indirect communication link from the RPA;
xx. “Extended visual line-of-sight” means an operation below 400 ft above ground level in which an
observer, maintains direct and unaided visual contact with the remotely piloted aircraft at a
distance not exceeding 1000 m from the pilot;
xxi. “Extended visual line-of-sight operation” means an operation below 400 ft above ground level, in
which an observer assists in the direct unaided visual contact with the RPA, in order to
facilitate separation and collision avoidance requirements;
xxii. “Model RPA’s” means a non-human-carrying RPA’s capable of sustained flight in the atmosphere
and used exclusively for air display, recreational, sport or competition activity;
xxiii. “Observer” means a trained and competent person designated by the operator who, by visual
observation of the remotely piloted aircraft, assists the remote pilot in the safe conduct of the
flight;
xxiv. “Payload” means all the elements of an RPAS that are not necessary for flight but that are
carried for the purpose of fulfilling specific mission objectives;
xxv. “Private operation” means the use of an RPA for an individual’s personal and private purposes
where there is no commercial outcome, interest or gain;
xxvi. “Radio line-of-sight” means a direct electronic point-to-point contact between a transmitter and
receiver;
xxvii. “Remote pilot” means the person who manipulates the flight controls or manages the flight
command instructions of a RPA during flight time;
xxviii. “Remote pilot station” means the station at which the remote pilot manages the flight of the
RPA;
xxix. “Remotely piloted aircraft” means an unmanned aircraft which is piloted from a remote pilot
station, excluding model aircraft and toy aircraft as defined in this Part;
xxx. “Remotely piloted aircraft system” means a set of configurable elements consisting of a
remotely piloted aircraft, its associated remote pilot station(s), the required command and
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control links and any other system elements as may be required at any point during flight
operation;
xxxi. “Restricted visual line-of-sight” means an operation within 500 m of the remote pilot and below
the height of the highest obstacle within 300 m of the RPA, in which the remote pilot maintains
direct unaided visual contact with the RPA to manage its flight and meet separation and
collision avoidance responsibilities;
xxxii. “Toy aircraft” means a product falling under the definition of aircraft which is designed or
intended for use in play by children;
xxxiii. “Visual line-of-sight” means an operation below 400 ft above ground level in which the remote
pilot, maintains direct and unaided visual contact with the RPA at a distance not exceeding 500
m.
d) In this Manual any word or expression to which a meaning has been assigned in (a) the Civil
Aviation Act, 2009 (Act No. 13 of 2009) and/or (b) Part 1 of the CARs shall have that meaning, unless
the context indicates otherwise.
For the purpose of this Manual, the following abbreviations shall apply –
AD Aerodrome
AGL Above Ground Level
AIC Aeronautical Information Circular
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication
AIRAC Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control
AMO Aircraft Maintenance Organisation
ASAP As Soon As Possible
ATO Approved/Aviation Training Organisation
ATS Air Traffic Services
ATSU Air Traffic Services Unit
ATZ Air Traffic Zone
B-VLOS Beyond Visual Line-of-Sight
C2 Command and Control Link
CAMU Central Airspace Management Unit
CAR/CARs Civil Aviation Regulation(s), 2011
CATS Civil Aviation Technical Standards, 2011
CD Controlled Document
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CTR Control Zone
DCA Director of Civil Aviation
DOP Dilution of Precision
ENR Enroute
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETD Estimated Time of Departure
E-VLOS Extended Visual Line of Sight
FUA Flexible Use of Airspace
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a) The Operator’s Manual System of UAVI consists of the following documents of which each document
forms an integral part of the other –
b) The Part 141 Training and Procedures Manual (TPM - Document Reference CD-1)
c) The Ground School Manual (Document Reference CD-2)
d) The Maintenance Control Manual (MCM - Document Reference CD-3)
e) RPAS Operator Handbook/Instructions (Document Reference CD-4).
f) The Safety Management System Manual (Document Reference CD-5).
g) The Quality Management System Manual (Document Reference CD-6).
h) Each of the abovementioned documents contains its own Amendment Record Sheet and List of
Effective Pages. Appendices to documents have separate Lists of Effective Pages to facilitate
document control.
i) All company documents and manuals are administered and controlled in terms of the QMS
j) Distribution of company manuals is controlled by means of a distribution list and receipt of manuals
acknowledged by signature by each controlled copy holder.
1.9.1 General
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a) Amendments shall be made as and when required. External or variable factors may dictate that an
amendment be made and submitted in the correct manner and in adherence to the procedures
indicated below.
b) Amendments shall be required when –
i. Legislative changes require an amendment to the contents of this manual.
ii. An applicable amendment is effected to the air service license or scope of operations.
iii. Changes are effected to key personnel.
iv. By trial, misfortune, examination or practical experience the contents, a section or paragraph is
found to be a risk to aviation safety.
v. Company policies, practices and/or procedures contained herein change, or the annual SOP
review (refer to paragraph 1.10.4 below) necessitates an amendment.
vi. Changes result from the introduction of new equipment.
vii. Deemed necessary by the DCA.
c) Amendments shall be numbered sequentially. The status of a particular page shall be reflected. Each
amendment shall also have an effective date.
d) The amendment shall be forwarded to the SACAA for consideration. Two master versions of the
amendment (i.e. only those pages affected by the proposed amendment) shall be submitted. The
amendment will be accompanied by –
(i) An explanatory covering letter.
(ii) The revised List of Effective Pages.
e) The revised Amendment Record Sheet.
f) The amendment shall only become effective once approved by the SACAA. However, the effective
date (or the date of insertion) shall be null and void if the amendment is not approved by the
SACAA. An amendment shall remain a proposal until the SACAA has granted its approval.
g) On receipt of the SACAA’s approval, the RP:FO shall ensure that all the copy holders of this TPM
receive the revised pages affected by the amendment. It remains the sole responsibility of the RP:FO
to ensure that the master copy is kept current and valid. In the event of a dispute or discrepancy the
master copy shall be the only true and valid version of this manual.
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a) Amendments to this manual shall, as a rule, be in the prescribed page format and in adherence to
the procedures set out above.
b) Handwritten amendments to this manual shall neither be accepted nor issued. The RP:FO shall, in the
most immediate and pressing cases, resort to circulating an internal company memo to all
personnel and students concerned. Such a memo shall have a checklist to ensure that every person
required to adhere to, to attend to or to take note of the matter at hand, has perused the said memo.
Such internal company memos shall be made permanent by effecting an amendment to the manual.
As soon as is practically possible, the RP:FO shall ensure that the memo is converted to the format of
an amendment and submitted to the SACAA for approval.
a) The manual shall be reviewed annually. The TPM shall be reviewed on a suitable date as decided
by the RP:FO. A revision may be delayed or even waived if the RP:FO decides that such a revision
is not necessary or critical to flight safety. The RP:FO shall keep record of all dates of revision
even if the revision did not necessitate an amendment to the manual.
b) The review may take the form of an internal audit or an external person or company may be tasked
to perform the audit.
c) The main aim of the audit of the manual will, inter alia, be to determine the following –
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2 Human Factors
2.1 Vision
Vision is a pilot’s most important sense to obtain reference information during flight.
The Cornea
The Cornea is a transparent window of about 10- 12mm which seals the front of the eye and allows light to pass
through it. The surface of the Cornea is curved and some refraction of the light rays takes place.
The Iris
The iris is a coloured muscular membrane, it is situated behind the Cornea and contains the Pupil.
The iris is the first means of enabling the eye to adapt to changing light Conditions.
The Lens
Located behind the Iris, it is supported by Ciliary muscles which is used to change the shape of the Lens. If the
muscles relax the lens will flatten and if the muscles contract the lens will become more curved. The flattening
and contracting of the Lens is known as accommodation. Accommodation reduces with an increase in age,
this is easily corrected by using glasses or contact lenses.
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The Retina
The Retina is a soft transparent layer of light sensitive nervous tissue located at the rear of the eye.
It contains two types of photo-receptor cells, known as Rods and Cones.
Rods: The primary function of the rods is to define movement, but not in detail. Rods have no perception of
colour, only in shades varying from black to white. They are able to function in dim light and are thus instrumental
in our peripheral vision, the function of which is essential for both orientation and night vision.
Cones: Cones provide the best visual acuity or accuracy. They achieve maximum efficiency in conditions of
good illumination and become less effective in poor light and darkness.
The Fovea
The fovea is the small depression located in the exact center of the macula that contains a
high concentration of cones but no rods, and this is where our vision is most sharp.
• There are no photoreceptors (i.e., rods or cones) in the optic disk, and, therefore, there
is no image
detection in this
area. The blind
spot of the right
eye is located to
the right of the
centre of vision
and vice versa in
the left eye. With
both eyes open, the
blind spots are not
perceived because
the visual fields of
the two eyes
overlap.
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The “Night Blind Spot” appears under conditions of low ambient illumination due to the
absence of rods in the fovea, and involves an area 5 to 10 degrees wide in the center of the
visual field. Therefore, if an object is viewed directly at night, it may go undetected or it may
fade away after initial detection due to the night blind spot.
Hypermetropia means long sight and is where the image of a nearby object is formed behind
the retina.
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Risk Scenarios
The list below consists of several identified conditions when the eyes often tend to turn back
to their natural resting state:
in hazy conditions;
flying over snow covered and desert surfaces with predominantly featureless ground;
Physiologically, night vision is achieved through the rods because of their greater sensitivity.
Greatest night visual acuity is achieved by looking slightly off centre at an object, due to the
fact that the rods are concentrated away from the centre of the retina.
Maximum night efficiency of the rods may take as much as 45 minutes to achieve and
therefore a period of dark adaption may be necessary to acquire good night vision.
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Although normal colour vision is not necessarily essential for a pilot, the ability to
distinguish between:
§ Red
§ White
§ Green
False Horizon:
Common during flight in partial IMC, the pilot observes sloping cloud formations, and
obscured horizon, or at night, a combination of stars and ground lights and geometric ground
light patterns
Ground Lighting:
Many pilots, especially in unfamiliar areas, have mistaken lights along a straight road or on a
moving train, as approach or runway lights.
Autokenesis:
Is an illusion that makes a static light appear to be moving when stared for at a period of 8-10
seconds in a dark environment.
To prevent autokenesis do not stare/focus on a source of light and expand your visual field.
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Stress
2.1.5 Background
Every person has experienced some form of stress in his or her life, but understanding exactly
what stress is and how it affects an individual’s performance can be difficult.
Stress is the logical results of an overload of mental and/or physical pressure and can be
divided into either physical or emotional stress.
Physical stress
Physical Stress can be caused by prolonged physical discomfort, such as flying an aeroplane
through turbulence for any length of time.
Emotional Stress
With regard to flying, emotional stress is considered to be the more important of the two and
can broadly categorized as either acute or chronic.
§ Bad weather
§ Diversion
§ Flight deck crisis
Acute stress is of short term, once the pilot has safely landed the aircraft this type off
stress dissipates.
Chronic stress
Chronic stress: is more serious, is longer lasting and may be brought about by both
positive and negative events, such as:
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§ Marriage
§ Death of a close friend or family member
§ Divorce
§ Concern over employment security
§ Health
§ Product of an entire lifestyle.
Both of these stress conditions will impact on flying performance.
STRESSORS:
These are generally placed in three categories:
Physical
Physiological
Emotional
Physical Stressors:
Physiological
This includes:
§ Sleep deprivation (fatigue)
§ Hunger which may result in low blood sugar
§ The discomfort of full bladder or bowel
§ a mild infection i.e. flu
§ Pain i.e. chronic back ache
Emotional
These are usually associated with social interaction; problems related to the home and
work environment.
It is a generally accepted principle that in order to act we need a stimulus and this
often takes the form of pressure: we tend to react to demand. The danger is not so
much the demand, but rather how we cope with it. Our ability to handle stress varies
from person to person, but there are a number of factors which determine our
response to stress.
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Health
Is the person well rested or not, in good physical condition with a happy and relaxed
external life.
Personality
Preparation:
Has the person adequately prepare for the flight. Does he know all the theory for the
exam?
Intelligence
Is the person right for the Job. Is he qualified for the job?
The human response to sudden demands is almost instinctive and is often referred to as the
“fight or flight” response.
The immediate reaction to a stressor is to either confront it or flee from it. During this stage
Adrenaline is released into the blood stream.
The adrenaline increases the heartbeat, Rate of breathing and blood sugar.
At the same time it is common to experience improved vision, hearing and muscular strength
– all of which may be necessary requirements for the solution to the alarm.
The body enters a recovery cycle and starts to repair the damage either physiologically or by
adapting to the new situation (learning to cope).
No doubt you will already have recognized these first two stages simply because you will
experience them many times during your life. The third stage is more complex.
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Exhaustion Stage
If the body is continually subjected to a stressor it will remain in the alarm stage for a
prolonged period of time. Aviation related examples include bad weather experiences without
an instrument rating.
A prolonged alarm condition means that the body may eventually be unable to keep up with
the demands placed on it and exhaustion results.
In this condition control is lost because the mind is unable to keep a correct perspective of
matters and in really extreme cases the person may simply abandon themselves to fate.
2.1.9.1 Anxiety:
This is a condition which usually results from excessive worry.
Unease
Fear
During Anxiety a person may perform poor and the following signs may displayed:
Physical:
Breathing difficulties, nervous twitches, dry mouth, stomach pains, headache and an
increased heart rate.
Behavioural:
Mood changes from being light-hearted to depressed, sudden changes in emotion, laughing
when it is inappropriate, being over co-operation, impatience, unwarranted anger, being rude,
smoking, drinking and even eating excessively.
Fatigue:
Being extremely tired from lack of sleep and/or over-worked and/or chronically stressed.
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Ego can be our biggest enemy. We are all subject to stress,it is a necessary catalyst for action.
This person may try to avoid stress by ignoring it, or by resorting to alcohol, drugs or
medication- which may relieve the symptoms but not the cause. Clearly they are unacceptable
methods of dealing with stress. These are referred to as defence mechanisms and may be
joined by other subconscious actions.
Stress is a mechanism that can sometimes over-stimulate the nervous system, making it hard
to address serious threats to flight safety. It is difficult to control stress reactions, but it is not
entirely impossible. Coping efforts can be focused toward the stressor or the emotions that
arise as a result of stress, but the most effective strategy is to deal with both the stressor and
its emotional impact. Reducing the negative emotional impact of the stressor removes many
of the barriers that obstruct the problem-solving thought processes.
The first step in effective stress management is to train yourself to be able to recognize the
symptoms that signal the onset of stress before stress levels get too high. Some common
signals of stress include:
§ Physical signs: cold, sweaty hands, headache, tension
§ Behavioral changes: irritability, anger, hurriedness, fixation
§ Speech patterns: fast, irregular, non-standard phrases, voice tone or loudness
It is important to know how to deal with acute stress taking place during flight and chronic
stress that may have been around for an extended period of time. Reactive and preventative
measures are available to deal with both acute and chronic stress. Very often the preventative
measures help to improve the reactive coping techniques. For example, practicing a certain
emergency technique or making good backup plans are both preventive and make it much
easier to deal with an emergency. In general, preparation and practice create competence and
confidence and greatly reduce stress levels.
Some stressors that are faced in flight cannot be avoided. The best way of coping with such
stressors involves a combination of preparation (pre-flight) and during flight corrective
actions.
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a) Preparation. Knowledge of techniques for dealing with certain flight situations that are not frequently
encountered and the ability to apply these techniques proficiently is crucial for safety.
b) Anticipation. It is good to anticipate possible scenarios and threats that could arise during the flight
even if they are very unlikely to happen. This will reduce the surprise factor if something does happen.
c) Planning. Anticipating what might happen is not enough. It is important that once all reasonable
scenarios and threats are identified, a sound plan for dealing with them is made on the ground before
flight. This further increases preparedness.
d) Communication. Briefings both before the flight and during flight are critical. Letting other
crewmembers know what the plans are will ensure that everyone knows what to do and that no one will
be surprised or will do anything that is contrary to the planned action.
e) Use of Resources. Make the best use of all available resources. This includes careful distribution of
tasks at the operational area and other resources, such as equipment and ATC, which can always help
by providing information and advice that will help you deal with the situation and reduce stress levels.
f) Crew Resource Management (CRM). Share tasks to avoid work overload. If you are overloaded with
too many tasks, do not avoid asking for assistance. Learn to recognize the symptoms of stress, not only
in yourself, but also in other crewmembers. Provide advice or assistance when necessary. A good
workplace atmosphere with plenty of humour always helps, but remember there is a time to joke and a
time to be serious.
g) Time Management. Always do things in advance whenever possible. Do not leave tasks until the last
moment (e.g., asking ATC for clearances). Whenever possible, buy yourself more time to analyse and
solve a situation properly in order to avoid rushed actions.
Should you still be faced with a totally unexpected stressful situation despite all your careful
planning and anticipation, the keys are to recognize the symptoms, remain calm and buy
yourself as much time to think as possible. By understanding stress mechanisms, you can
control negative emotions resulting from stress such as irritation, nervousness and anxiety,
and attempt to solve the problem in the most logical and safe way possible.
No matter how much you try to avoid certain stressful situations in flight, there will always
be personal or other stressors, some outside your control that will affect you. Some of these
stressors may be chronic. The most basic elements of coping with these chronic stress issues
are:
§ Taking care of the physical causes of stress - These includes ensuring you get enough
sleep, eat properly and exercise. Hunger and fatigue are some of the most obvious
stressors, and their effects are well-known. Climbing stairs is a very good way of
eliminating excess toxins in the body, and swimming helps restore equilibrium to the
nervous system.
§ Continuous Professional Training - Training ensures currency and competence in all
standard and emergency operating procedures.
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§ Social Interaction - It is not good to allow personal problems and worries to build up.
Communicating them with others is very important as it offers partial relief and also
because people may be able to offer help and advice.
§ Workload - Do not allow yourself to take on too many tasks and responsibilities (both
work and non-work related) that can cause work overload. It is important to learn to
say “no” when asked to do too many tasks.
2.2 Fatigue
2.2.1 Introduction
Fatigue can best describe as a very deep tiredness. It can be caused by the same factors
which lead to stress and can also be divided into two types.
a) Acute Fatigue
b) Chronic Fatigue
Acute Fatigue:
This condition can occur as a result of intense and undivided mental concentration, or
physical activity, over a prolonged period.
The cure is relatively straight forward: a restful and uninterrupted natural sleep, uninfluenced
by alcohol or drugs.
Chronic Fatigue:
This condition occurs over a longer period as a result of lack of sleep, excessive workload
stress and even jet lag. It cannot be as easily cured as acute fatigue as it requires a prolonged
recovery period.
The laws regarding flight and duty time are regarded as a preventative measure against
Chronic Fatigue occurring.
Symptoms of fatigue:
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The most obvious prevention and treatment for fatigue is sleep, combined with a prober
balance between work and rest.
A proper balanced diet and workout also reduces fatigue. Excessive alcohol, caffeine and
drugs should be avoided.
2.2.2 Sleep
Sleep is the body’s method of re-charging and re-vitalising itself and the amount and quality
thereof ultimately determines how well we can perform both mentally and physically.
Stages of Sleep:
REM Sleep
Non-REM Sleep
REM Sleep:
This commences some 90 minutes after falling asleep and is characterized by the
sleeper’s eyes moving rapidly back and forth beneath the closed eyelids.
REM sleep is closely related to wakefulness. This is due to the high frequency
electrical waves which occur during this condition.
REM sleep is believed to be the sleep period which rejuvenates the brain.
Stage 2 sleep continues for approximately 10 minutes during which brain wave
activity declines still further.
Stages 3 and 4 are referred to as slow wave sleep which is characterized by very low
frequency brain waves and is thought to be associated with physical restoration.
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a) Nervous Insomnia
b) Situational/ Acute Insomnia
c) Clinical/ Chronic Insomnia
Nervous Insomnia:
The most common of all and probably one to which we are all subjected to at some time or
other, is based on the anticipation of some near-future event, perhaps an exciting one in the
case of children, or in the case of aircrew perhaps a major flight test.
Acute Insomnia:
This is the result of an disturbance in body rhythms also revered to as Jet Lag.
Again recovery is relatively easy which will occur within one week.
Clinical Insomnia:
This is difficulty in sleeping under normal circumstances when the body requires sleep.
The Person can be affected for weeks or months.
Clearly, sleep is a vital part of our well-being and should be managed carefully with the
emphasis on natural sleep rather than on drug-induced sleep. This will involve proper
roistering in both normal and long distance flight operations.
The following recommendations are noted:
1. Be relaxed. Avoid strenuous physical, mental exercise, alcohol, caffeine and large
meals before going to bed.
2. Environment. A comfortable bed in a dark, quiet room at a pleasant temperature with
fresh air is ideal.
3. Maintain a regular sleep schedule.
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I.M.S.A.F.E
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E – Energy at impact
4.1.2 Directives
101.01.6
The Director may, from time to time, issue directives which are necessary for safe and secure
operation of RPAS.
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101.01.7
No RPA shall be sold within the Republic unless the seller has, by way of a packaging label,
or in the case of the resale thereof, by way of written notification, notified the buyer of the
requirements as imposed by the Civil Aviation Authority as prescribed in Document SA-
CATS 101.01.7
101.02.1
(1) No RPAS shall be operated within the Republic, unless such RPAS has been issued with a
letter of approval by the Director.
101.02.2
(1) An applicant for the issue of an RLA, shall provide the Director with –
(a) documentation regarding the standard to which the RPAS was designed; or
(b) equivalent documentation that demonstrates a level of safety acceptable to the
Director; or
(c) documentation demonstrating system safety as prescribed in Document SA-
CATS 101.02.2
4.1.6 Altimeter
101.02.3
(1) Except as provided in sub-regulation (2), an RPA shall be equipped with an altimetry
system or equivalent that is capable of displaying to the operator on the RPS, the height of the
RPA above the surface.
(2) An RPA that is not equipped with an altimetry system or equivalent, required by sub-
regulation (1) shall be operated under R-VLOS only.
101.02.4
(1) No RPA shall be operated within the Republic, unless such RPA has been issued with a
certificate of registration by the Director.
(2) An RPA registered on the South African Civil Aircraft Register shall be deemed to have
South African nationality.
(3) An application for a certificate of registration shall be –
(a) made on the prescribed form; and
(b) accompanied by the fee prescribed in Part 187.
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(4) The Director shall register an RPA, issue a certificate of registration and a registration
mark if the applicant complies with the requirements of this regulation. The Director shall
maintain a register of all RPAs registered in terms of this regulation.
(5) The format and specification of the nationality mark designated for use on RPA shall be
as prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101.02.4
(6) If the holder of a certificate of registration transfers to another person ownership of the
RPA, such holder shall, within 30 days, notify the Director of such transfer on the appropriate
form.
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4.2.1 General
101.03.1
(1) No person shall act as pilot of an RPA, except when undergoing a skill test or
receiving flight instruction, unless he or she is in possession of a valid Remote Pilot License
(RPL) in the relevant category.
(2) A Remote Pilot License may be issued for the following categories:
(a) RPL (A): Remote Pilot License (Aeroplane);
(b) RPL (H): Remote Pilot License (Helicopter);
(c) RPL (MR): Remote Pilot License (Multi-rotor).
(3) The following ratings may be endorsed on the license:
(a) VLOS: visual line-of-sight operations;
(b) E-VLOS: extended visual line-of-sight operations;
(c) B-VLOS: beyond visual line-of-sight operations;
101.03.2
(1) An applicant for an RPL shall –
(a) not be less than 18 years of age;
(b) (i) hold at least a valid Class 4 medical certificate for B-VLOS operations or
operations involving RPAS classified as Class 3 or higher; or
(ii) for all other classes or types of operation, submit a self-declared medical assessment
report as prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101 for operations involving RPAS
classified as Class 2 or lower: Provided that an applicant who cannot meet the
requirements of the medical assessment shall submit a Class 4 medical certificate;
(c) hold at least a restricted Certificate of Proficiency in Radiotelephony (Aeronautical);
(d) provide proof of the ability to speak the English language at proficiency level 4 or higher, as
prescribed in Part 61;
(e) have completed the flight training
(f) have passed the theoretical knowledge examination
(g) have passed the skill test with a Designated Examiner
(2) An application for an RPL must be made to the Director on the appropriate form within 30 days of
completing the practical skill test.
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101.03.3
(1) The theoretical knowledge examination applicable to the category of licence sought
must be passed within 90 days preceding the skill test.
(2) The theoretical knowledge examination shall be conducted at a SACAA accredited
test center, except as provided for in sub-regulation (4).
(3) The syllabi as well as other requirements for the examination shall be as prescribed in
Document SA-CATS 101.
(4) Approval shall be obtained from the Director before any foreign theoretical training or
theoretical knowledge examination is undertaken if such training or knowledge is to be
accredited towards a South African RPL.
101.03.4
(1) The flight training syllabi for the different categories of licence shall be as prescribed
in Document SA-CATS 101.
(2) The organisation conducting the training shall issue a certificate stating that flight
training has been successfully completed.
(3) All flight training shall be conducted with an aircraft of the same category for which
the licence is sought.
(4) Approval shall be obtained from the Director before any foreign flight training is
undertaken if such training is to be accredited towards a South African RPL.
101.03.5
(1) The skill test for an RPL shall be conducted within 60 days of completing the flight
training by an examiner accredited by the SACAA.
(2) The skill test shall be conducted with an aircraft of the same category for which the
licence is sought.
(3) The holder of the RPL shall submit the skill test form to the SACAA within 30 days
of the skill test.
(4) The skill test shall include the applicable sections for the E-VLOS and B-VLOS
ratings if one or more of these ratings is sought.
101.03.6
(1) An RPL is valid to the last day of the 24th month from the date of issue.
(2) A revalidation check shall be conducted in the 90 day period before the expiry date of
the validity period by an examiner accredited by the SACAA. The revalidation shall be valid
from the expiry date for a period of 24 months.
(3) The revalidation check shall be conducted with an aircraft of the same category for
which the license is held.
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(4) If a revalidation check is completed more than 90 days before expiry or within 36
months of the expiry of an RPL, the RPL shall be re-issued from the date of the check for the
normal 24 month period.
(5) The holder of an RPL shall submit the revalidation check form to the SACAA within
30 days of the revalidation check.
101.03.7
(1) The holder of an RPL must maintain in a pilot logbook a record of all his or her flight
time, instrument time, simulation time and instruction time.
(2) Where electronic logbooks are used, the electronic data must be printed on paper at least
every 90 days and the printed pages filed sequentially in a binder.
(3) The pilot must retain all pilot logbooks for at least 60 months from the date that person
no longer holds a valid pilot licence.
(4) The holder of an RPL must make the logbook available for inspection upon a reasonable
request by an authorised officer, inspector or authorised person.
Hand out – Copy of Pilot Logbook and do practical completion of form as per CARs &
CATS. .
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101.04.1
(1) No person shall operate an RPAS in terms of this Part unless such person is the holder of
–
(a) in the case of commercial, corporate and non-profit operations, a valid ROC
including the operations specifications attached thereto; and
(b) in the case of commercial operations, an air services licence issued in terms of
the Air Services Licensing Act, 1990 (Act No. 115 of 1990).
101.04.4
(1) The holder of an ROC shall –
(a) conduct the activities granted by such certificate and ensure compliance with
the provisions authorised therein;
(b) ensure compliance with any other requirements which the Director may
impose;
(c) report to the Director any changes directly or indirectly related to the ROC
that may affect continued validity of the certificate or approval or safety of
persons and property; and
(d) ensure that the RPAS operation are conducted in a safe manner.
(2) For operations approved for E-VLOS, the operator shall –
(a) make use of at least one observer who shall not be younger than 17 years of
age; and
(b) ensure that each observer has completed the training prescribed by the
operator and as approved by the Director in their operations manual.
101.04.6
(1) An RPAS operator shall establish a system of record-keeping that allows adequate storage
and reliable traceability of all activities developed, covering in particular –
(a) lines of responsibility and accountability;
(b) safety policy;
(c) identification of aviation safety hazards encountered by the activities of the
operator, assessment and mitigation of the associated risks, including taking
actions and verifying their effectiveness
(d) personnel training and competence
(e) quality, safety and security management records.
(2) The format of the records shall be specified in the ROC holder’s operations manual.
(3) Records shall be stored for at least 5 years in a manner that ensures protection from
damage, alteration and theft.
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101.04.7
(1) The holder of an ROC shall establish a safety management system commensurate
with the size of the organisation or entity and the complexity of its operations.
(2) The safety management system established in terms of sub-regulation (1) shall
include –
(a) a process to identify actual and potential safety hazards and assess the associated risks;
(b) a process to develop and implement remedial action necessary to maintain an acceptable level
of safety;
(c) provision for continuous and regular assessment of the appropriateness and effectiveness of
safety management activities.
4.3.5 Security
101.04.8
(1) The holder of an ROC issued under this Part shall –
(a) conduct background checks on all personnel recruited for deployment, handling and
storage of any RPAS;
(b) conduct criminal record checks every 24 months on all personnel employed in the deployment,
handling, and storage of RPAS;
(c) ensure that RPAS not in use are stored in a secure manner to prevent and detect unauthorised
interference or use;
(d) ensure that the RPAS is protected from acts of unlawful interference;
(e) ensure that the RPA is stored and prepared for flight in a manner that will prevent and detect
tampering and ensure the integrity of vital systems;
(f) designate a security coordinator responsible for the implementation, application and
supervision of the security controls; and
(g) ensure that all personnel employed in the deployment, handling, and storage of RPAS have
received security awareness training as prescribed in Part 109.
(2) The holder of an ROC shall include in the operations manual referred to in regulation
101.04.5 the security aspects of the RPA operations as prescribed in this regulation and
Document SA-CATS 101.
4.3.6 Insurance
101.04.12
An ROC holder shall at all times be adequately insured for third party liability.
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101.05.1
No person shall operate an RPAS in weather conditions that do not allow unobstructed visual
contact to be maintained with the RPA by other airspace users and by the operator unless in
B-VLOS or night operations approved by the Director in their operations manual.
101.05.2
No person shall use a public road as a place of landing or take-off of an RPA, except:
(a) by the holder of an ROC and as approved by the Director in the operator’s
operations manual; and
(b) when approved by the relevant local authority.
101.05.3
(1) No RPAS may be operated in controlled airspace, except by the holder of an ROC and as
approved by the Director in the operators’ operations manual.
(2) The Director may approve an RPA operation in controlled airspace as contemplated in
sub-regulation (1) only in –
(a) VMC in an ATZ and CTR below 400ft; and
(b) subject to compliance with the conditions prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101.
101.05.4
No object or substance shall be released, dispensed, dropped, delivered or deployed from an
RPA except by the holder of an ROC and as approved by the Director in the operators’
operations manual.
101.05.5
(1) Subject to sub-regulation (2), no RPA shall carry dangerous goods as cargo, except by the
holder of an ROC and as approved by the Director in the operations manual.
(2) The provisions of Part 92 apply, with the necessary changes, to the conveyance of
dangerous goods by an RPA.
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101.05.6
(1) All accidents and incidents involving an RPA shall be reported as prescribed in Part
12, where there is –
(a) any injury or death to a person;
(b) damage to property; or
(c) destruction of the RPA beyond economical repair.
(2) All incidents involving an RPA where loss of control occurred shall be reported to the
holder of the ROC.
101.05.7
No remote pilot, observer or RMT shall –
(a) consume alcohol less than 8 hours prior to reporting for duty;
(b) commence a duty period while the concentration of alcohol in any specimen of
blood taken from any part of his or her body is more than 0,02 grams per 100
milliliters;
(c) consume alcohol or any psychoactive substance during the duty period or
whilst on standby for duty; or
(d) commence duty period while under the influence of alcohol or any
psychoactive substance having a narcotic effect.
101.05.8
An RPAS shall comply with C2 operational requirements as prescribed in Document SA-
CATS 101.
101.05.9
(1) No person shall operate an RPAS unless –
(a) the RPA is in a fit-to-fly condition;
(b) the pilot is the holder of a licence issued in terms of this Part;
(c) the remotely piloted aircraft station is compatible and interoperable with the
aircraft it is connected to in all phases of flight; and
(d) the RPA is being controlled by only one RPS at any given moment in time.
(2) No person shall operate an RPAS in a negligent or reckless manner so as to endanger the
safety of any person, property or other aircraft in the air or on the ground.
(3) The operator shall, in the best interest of safety, ensure that certain RPAS operations are
supplemented with additional personnel for non-flying duties, such that the remote pilot can
maintain control and situational awareness in respect to positioning and collision avoidance.
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101.05.10
(1) No person shall operate an RPA unless they have in their possession –
(a) a valid RPA Pilot Licence;
(b) a copy of the ROC and associated OpSpec;
(c) the certificate of registration for each RPA in operation;
(d) a copy of the RLA; and
(e) user manual for the RPA and the remote pilot station.
(2) No RPA shall –
(a) tow another aircraft;
(b) perform aerial or aerobatic displays;
(c) be flown in formation or swarm;
(3) Except by the holder of an ROC, and as approved by the Director, no RPA shall be
operated –
(a) above 400 ft above the surface;
(b) within a radius of 10 km from an aerodrome;
(c) within restricted or prohibited airspace; or
(d) adjacent to or above a nuclear power plant, prison, police station, crime scene,
court of law, national key point or strategic installation.
101.05.11
(1) An RPA shall not be operated beyond visual-line-of-sight unless by the holder of an ROC
and as approved by the Director in the operations manual.
(2) The Director may approve B-VLOS operation subject to the operator meeting the
requirements prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101.
(3) Approved B-VLOS operations may only be conducted in VMC, below 400 ft above
surface level, unless otherwise approved by the Director.
101.05.12
(1) An RPA may not be operated at night except –
(a) in R-VLOS operation; or
(b) by the holder of an ROC, and as approved by the Director in terms of sub-regulation (2).
(2) The holder of an ROC intending to operate an RPA at night, shall, as a minimum have
each RPA approved under their ROC for night operations subject to compliance with the
requirements prescribed in Documents SA-CATS 101.
(3) An RPA may not be operated at night in controlled airspace except as approved by the
Director as prescribed in regulation 101.05.3.
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101.05.13
No person shall operate an RPA directly overhead any person or group of people or within a
lateral distance of 50 m from any person, unless –
(a) the operator is the holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in their
operations manual; or
(b) such person is the operator of the RPA or such person is under the direction of the operator of the RPA;
or
(c) such person or group of people forms part of the operations of the RPA, and is under control of the
operator of the RPA, and adequate provisions have been made for their safety.
101.05.14
(1) No RPA shall be operated within a lateral distance of 50 m from any structure or building, unless –
(a) the operator is a holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in their
operations manual; or
(b) permission is obtained from the owner of such structure or building.
(2) An operator conducting an operation as contemplated in sub-regulation (1) shall take
such measures as are necessary to ensure the safety of all persons on the ground accessing
such building or in the vicinity of such structure.
101.05.15
No person shall operate an RPA over a public road, along the length of a public road or at a
distance of less than 50 m from a public road unless –
(a) such person is the holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in the
operator’s operations manual; or
(b) in the case of operations over a public road, such road has been closed for public use; and
(c) reasonable care has been taken to ensure the safety of road users and pedestrians in the event of loss
of control of the RPA.
101.05.16
(1) Except for R-VLOS operations, no RPAS shall be operated unless the pilot has a
functioning air-band radio in his possession, tuned to the frequency or frequencies applicable
to the ATSU providing services or controlling such area or airspace or to aircraft in such area
or airspace.
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(2) The air-band radio shall have the required output and be configured in such a way that the
range, strength of transmission and quality of communication extends beyond the furthest
likely position of the RPA from the pilot.
(3) For VLOS, E-VLOS and B-VLOS operations, the pilot shall, using the registration of the
RPA as a call-sign, make the required radio calls, indicating the altitude, location and
intended operation of the RPA in that area and at such intervals as are required in order to
ensure adequate separation from other aircraft is maintained.
(4) For approved RPA operations in controlled airspace, the pilot shall maintain radio
contact, using the registration of the RPA as a call-sign, with the relevant ATSU, and
acknowledge and execute such instructions as the ATSU may give at any time during the
operation of the RPA.
101.05.17
A pilot shall complete the pre-flight preparations prior to each flight, as prescribed in
Document SA-CATS 101.
101.05.18
(1) The pilot is accountable for safe operation of the RPAS.
(2) The pilot of an RPA shall, on each flight, operate such aircraft in accordance with the
manual.
(3) The pilot of an RPA is responsible for separation and avoidance of the RPA from other
aircraft and any other obstacles and hazards.
(4) The pilot of an RPA shall pilot such RPA in a manner so as to minimize hazards to
persons and property on the ground, and other aircraft in the air.
(5) The pilot shall ensure that at least one observer is used for E-VLOS operations.
101.05.19
(1) The RPAS shall be operated in such a way that safe separation from other aircraft is
maintained and that adequate obstacle clearance is ensured, during all phases of the flight.
(2) The pilot of an RPA shall ensure that the take-off and landing area is safe and of the
appropriate dimensions, free from obstacles and has adequate surface conditions, with regard
to the type of operation, the size of the aircraft, the aircraft’s performance and external
factors.
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101.05.20
(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub-regulations (2) to (5), an RPA shall give way to manned aircraft.
(2) The RPA shall avoid passing over, under or in front of manned aircraft, unless it passes well clear and takes
into account the effect of aircraft wake turbulence.
(3) When two aircraft are approaching head-on or approximately in a way that there is danger of collision, each
aircraft shall alter its heading to the right.
(4) When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same level, the aircraft which has the other aircraft on
its right, shall give way.
(5) An aircraft which is being overtaken has the right of way, and the one overtaking shall
alter its heading to keep well clear.
101.05.21
(1) For the purposes of reporting and recording time, Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) shall be used and shall
be expressed in hours and minutes and, when required, seconds of the 24-hour day beginning at midnight.
(2) A pilot shall have a time piece synchronised with UTC prior to operating a RPAS in controlled airspace and at
such other times during the flight as may be necessary.
(3) Wherever time is utilised in the application of data link communications, it shall be
accurate to within 1 second of UTC.
101.05.22
(1) The owner or operator of an RPA shall ensure that the RPA has a flight folio or any other similar document
which meets the requirements of and contains the information as prescribed in Document SA-CATS 101, and the
flight folio shall be accessible at the remote pilot station all times during flight.
(2) The flight folio shall be kept up-to-date and maintained in a legible manner by the remote pilot.
(3) All entries shall be made immediately upon completion of the occurrence to which they refer.
(4) In the case of maintenance being undertaken on the RPA, the entry shall be certified by
the person responsible for the maintenance.
(5) Without detracting from the generality of sub-regulation (1), the remote pilot shall –
(a) maintain fuel or charging records to enable the Director to ascertain that, for each flight under his or her
control, the requirements of regulation 101.05.23 are complied with;
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(b) enter the fuel, charging and oil records referred to in sub-regulation (5)(a) in the flight folio; and
(c) maintain oil records to enable the Director to ascertain that trends for oil consumption are such that an
RPA has sufficient oil to complete each flight.
Hand out: Flight Folio copy and complete folio as example of process.
101.05.23
(1) During VLOS operations, the remote pilot shall ensure that the aircraft has enough fuel or electrical charge to
complete the flight, plus a reserve of at least 10%.
(2) During B-VLOS operations, the remote pilot shall ensure that the aircraft has enough fuel or electrical charge
to complete the intended flight plus a reserve of at least 10%.
101.05.24
(1) No owner or operator of an RPA shall operate the aircraft unless a first aid kit consisting of the medical
supplies as prescribed in Document SA-CATS 91 is available within the remote pilot station and within 300 m of
the take-off and landing points. A single kit may be used to comply with both these requirements.
(2) The owner or operator shall carry out periodical inspections of the first aid kit to ensure that, as far as
practicable, the contents thereof are in a condition necessary for their intended use.
(3) The contents of the first aid kit shall be replenished at regular intervals, in accordance with instructions
contained on their labels, or as circumstances require.
(4) The first aid kit shall be readily accessible to all crew members involved in the operation.
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101.05.25
No owner or operator of an RPA shall operate the RPA unless –
(a) a hand-held fire extinguisher is available at the remote pilot station and within 300 m of the
take-off and landing points;
(b) a hand-held fire extinguisher suitable for use with electronic equipment and any power
generating equipment in use is available in the remote pilot station; and
(c) a hand-held fire extinguisher suitable for use on the RPA is available within
300 m of the take-off and landing points.
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101.06.1
(1) An RPAS shall be compliant with the manufacturer’s instructions for continued
equipment maintenance through actions or inspections.
(2) The owner shall submit to the Director for approval, a maintenance programme for the
RPAS.
101.06.2
(1) The maintenance on an RPA or any component thereof shall be carried out by the
following persons:
(a) In respect of an RPA classified as a Class 3 and higher, the holder of a valid RMT
authorization; or
(b) In respect of an RPA classified as Class 2 and lower, the ROC holder: provided
that the holder can demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Director, its ability to
perform the required maintenance on the RPA.
101.06.3
(1) An applicant for the issuing or renewal of an RMT authorisation shall –
(a) be not less than 18 years of age; and
(b) be a South African citizen or in possession of a valid permanent residence
permit or valid temporary work permit with a letter of employment; and
(c) shall have successfully completed appropriate training, provided by –
(i) an organisation approved by the competent authority in the country
where the training organisation is located;
(ii) training provided by an approved original equipment
manufacturer; or
(iii) a training facility approved by the Director; or
(d) demonstrate to the Director, the ability to perform maintenance functions
where no training for the particular RPA is offered or available.
(2) An application for the issuing of an RMT authorisation shall be made to the Director
in the appropriate form and accompanied by the appropriate fee as prescribed in Part 187.
(3) The Director shall issue an RMT authorisation if the applicant complies with the
requirements prescribed in sub-regulation (1).
(4) The holder of an RMT authorization shall not exercise privileges other than the
specific privileges for which the authorization is issued.
(5) An RMT authorisation shall be valid for a period of 24 months.
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101.06.4
(1) Any person responsible for maintenance of RPAS shall maintain a personal logbook and
shall record therein all work carried out on an RPAS and its components.
(2) The form of and information to be contained in a logbook referred to in sub-regulation
(1), and the manner in which such logbook shall be maintained, are as prescribed in
Document SA-CATS 101.
(3) No alterations of a logbook shall be made once it is signed off by a designated person.
101.02.2
For Class 1 - 2, only sections 1 & 2 below. For Class 3 - 5, all sections to be completed
1. Section 1 – RPAS Information
1.1. RPAS type
1.2. RPA structure
1.3. RPA composition
1.4. Flight envelope capability
1.5. RPA dimensions/measurements and mass together with drawings
1.6. Mass and balance
1.7. Payloads (specific or generic)
1.8. Use of frequencies
1.9. Remote pilot station
1.10. Ground support equipment
1.11. Flight recovery system
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101.02.4
1. Identification Plate
1) Every South African Registered RPA must have affixed to it an identification plate (engraved, stamped
or edged) with its nationality and registration marks.
2) The Identification plate must –
a) Be made of fireproof material of suitable physical properties;
b) Be affixed to the RPA in a prominent position
c) Include the registration mark issued by the authority which appears on the RPA’s certificate of
Registration, and;
d) Be commensurate with the size of the RPA
3. Location of Marks
1) The marks on a fix wing RPA must appear –
a) On the bottom and the top surface of each wing; and
b) On both sides of the fuselage between the wings and tail surfaces. Or on the upper halves of the
vertical tail surfaces
101.05.21
(1) For the purposes of reporting and recording time, Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) shall be used and shall
be expressed in hours and minutes and, when required, seconds of the 24-hour day beginning at midnight.
(2) A pilot shall have a time piece synchronised with UTC prior to operating a RPAS in controlled airspace and at
such other times during the flight as may be necessary.
(3) Wherever time is utilised in the application of data link communications, it shall be
accurate to within 1 second of UTC.
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Student Name
Instructor Name
Date
Manoeuvre / Task Lesson Rating Notes
Number
Aircraft pre-flight inspection and 2
setup
Post-launch in-flight evaluation 12
procedures
Automated flying and flight U1
controller flight modes
First Person View (FPV) Flying U2
Parachute-assisted landing (if U13
applicable)
Evasive action (manoeuvres) to 16
avoid collisions
Post-flight inspections 2
Camera Control (If Applicable) U14
External Load (If Applicable) U16
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Student Name
Instructor Name
Date
Manoeuvre / Task Lesson Ratin Notes
Numb g
er
Flight Controls
i. Collective Control
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Student Name
Instructor Name
Date
Manoeuvre / Task Lesson Rating Notes
Number
Pre-flight Checks
Take-off Procedures
Tail in Hover
i. Tail in Hover
v. Vertical Rectangle
Nose-in Hover
Straight and Level Flight (In
all Orientations)
From Hover:
i. Fly a square box rotating
(yawning) the multi-rotor in
the direction of flight
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101.05.13
No person shall operate an RPA directly overhead any person or group of people or within a
lateral distance of 50 m from any person, unless –
(d) the operator is the holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in their
operations manual; or
(e) such person is the operator of the RPA or such person is under the direction of the operator of the RPA;
or
(f) such person or group of people forms part of the operations of the RPA, and is under control of the
operator of the RPA, and adequate provisions have been made for their safety.
101.05.14
(1) No RPA shall be operated within a lateral distance of 50 m from any structure or building, unless –
(c) the operator is a holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in their
operations manual; or
(d) permission is obtained from the owner of such structure or building.
101.05.15
No person shall operate an RPA over a public road, along the length of a public road or at a
distance of less than 50 m from a public road unless –
(d) such person is the holder of an ROC and the operation has been approved by the Director in the
operator’s operations manual; or
(e) in the case of operations over a public road, such road has been closed for public use; and
(f) reasonable care has been taken to ensure the safety of road users and pedestrians in the event of loss
of control of the RPA.
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4.6.6 Security
101.04.01
Security to be addressed in every operation and be displayed in the company’s operations
manual.
a) Appoint a security co-ordinator
b) Requirements for checks and searches of specific areas and accessible compartments of the interior
and exterior or RPAS
c) Controlling access to RPA and RPA systems
d) Preventing the interference with software and C2 Links
e) Response procedure for threats and incidents
f) Special procedures for Dangerous Goods handling and operations
g) Security briefings to crew members with regards to sensitivity of cargo and/or operations
h) Additional security measures for special and more threatening situations
i) Reporting of security related incidents to the authorities
j) Frequency of background and criminal checks
k) Details of security awareness and response procedure training
101.05.18
(1) The pilot is accountable for safe operation of the RPAS.
(2) The pilot of an RPA shall, on each flight, operate such aircraft in accordance with the
manual.
(3) The pilot of an RPA is responsible for separation and avoidance of the RPA from other
aircraft and any other obstacles and hazards.
(4) The pilot of an RPA shall pilot such RPA in a manner so as to minimize hazards to
persons and property on the ground, and other aircraft in the air.
(5) The pilot shall ensure that at least one observer is used for E-VLOS operations.
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101.05.8
1) Develop a C2 performance requirements safety case for approval
2) The following C2 functions shall be considered for the safety case
a. Downlink
i. Link Health Telemetry (for B-VLOS operations)
ii. System Health
b. Telemetry
i. RPA Flight Dynamics
ii. Situation Awareness (for B-VLOS operations)
iii. Data Records
c. Uplink
i. Flight Control
ii. RPA System Control
iii. Automatic Identification System update (for B-VLOS operations)
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500m X X X
1000m X
Beyond 1km X
400 Feet or X X X X X X
Allowable Height
Height of
Nearest
X X
Building within
300m
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Weather VMC X X
Transponder
X X X
(Mode C or S)
Altimeter X X X X X
Equipment
Strobe and/or
Landing X X X
Lights*
C2 – 101.05.8 X X X X
Approvals
ATSU /
X X
CAMU
*Navigational Lights for Airplane
The Pilot / Operator shall also proof the following to the Director:
a) Show that RPA can be controlled during flight and that device does not need to be flown manually
ordinarily
b) RPA is able to fly by means of pre-programming for a pre-determined course or group of way points
c) Proof that the RPA can be controlled during any stage of the flight, when it is pre-programmed for a
specific course or via way points
d) How the RPA is displayed in real time on a navigational map and how the pilot is able to make
appropriate calls to report the positioning of the RPA to other aircraft and/or ATC
e) How it reacts in the event of receiving a flight position command that conflicts with obstacles or high
ground
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As a pilot you have to follow by the following points before starting your flight:
a) You shall verify the relevant notifications for the area of operation before take-off, and co-ordinate if
necessary
b) Verify the NOTAM publication for your area of operation before take-off, and adapt mission planning if
needed
c) Take into consideration the Meteorological Information for your area of operation
d) Asses the weather based on suitable documentation such as forecasts, current weather or other
suitable information, to determine if it the planned flight can be carried out in accordance the system’s
technical and operational limitations
e) The weather will not affect the safe operation of the aircraft at any stages of flight
f) Do flight planning on Aeronautical Charts to determine in which type of airspace the flight will be carries
out
g) Utilise AIP, AIP Supplements and NOTAMS when doing flight plaining to ensure the flight is done
accordance the approved ROC and Operations Manual
h) Ensure before take-off that the flight can be carried out in safe way
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i) Ensure the system’s status is inspected and ready for flight before take-off
j) Be mentally and physically fit
k) Have the required documents on site
l) Have a crew briefing and delegate roles and duties of each crew member in writing
You, the pilot, are responsible for the operation, safety and its payload, if applicable, and for
the safety of the crew members.
The following items will be completed in the flight folio of the applicable aircraft used for the
flight.
91.03.5
1) An owner or operator must retain the following information for each flight in the form of a flight folio –
a) aircraft registration;
b) date;
c) name(s) of flight crew member(s);
d) duty assignment of flight crew member(s);
e) place of departure;
f) place of arrival;
g) time of departure (off-block time);
h) time of arrival (on-block time);
i) hours of flight;
j) nature of flight;
k) incidents, observations (if any);
l) signature of pilot-in-command;
m) the current maintenance statement giving the aircraft maintenance status of what maintenance,
scheduled or out of phase, is next due;
n) all outstanding deferred defects which affect the operation of the aircraft;
o) fuel and oil used; and (if applicable)
p) fuel and oil uplift (if applicable)
q) battery charge status (beginning and end of the flight, if applicable)
2) The owner or operator need not keep a flight folio or parts thereof, if the relevant information is available
in other documentation.
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Part 91.06.10
1) Except as provided by sub-regulation (4) and unless the aircraft was initially type-certificated without
such lights or is a non-type certificated aircraft approved without such lights, all aircraft shall display –
a) While operating in flight during the day and at all times at night, anti-collision lights intended to
attract attention to the aircraft;
b) While operating during night, navigation lights intended to indicate the relative path of the aircraft to
an observer;
c) While operating on the movement area of an aerodrome, lights intended to attract attention to the
aircraft, as specified in the IAIP; and
d) While operating with engines running on the movement area of an aerodrome, display a rotating
beacon to indicate that fact.
2) Except as provided by sub-regulation (4) –
a) All aircraft moving on the movement area of an aerodrome during night shall display navigation
lights intended to indicate the relative path of the aircraft to an observer; and
b) Unless stationary and otherwise adequately illuminated, all aircraft on the movement area of an
aerodrome during night shall display lights intended to indicate the extremities of their structure.
3) In respect of sub-regulations (1) (b) and (2) (a), other lights shall not be displayed if they are likely to be
mistaken for these lights.
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4) A pilot shall be permitted to switch off or reduce the intensity of any flashing lights fitted to meet the
requirements of sub-regulations (1), (2) and (3) if they do or are likely to –
a) Adversely affect the satisfactory performance of duties; or
b) Subject an outside observer to harmful dazzle.
c) The lights which shall be displayed by aircraft by day, night, on water or on the manoeuvring area
of an aerodrome, are prescribed in Document SA-CATS 91.
91.02.3 (3) No person shall act as a flight crew member of an aircraft if, prior to each flight,
the expected flight time exceeds, or is likely to exceed, the permissible aggregate of –
CARS - 101.05.20
(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub-regulations (2) to (5), an RPA shall give way to manned aircraft.
(2) The RPA shall avoid passing over, under or in front of manned aircraft, unless it passes well clear and takes
into account the effect of aircraft wake turbulence.
(3) When two aircraft are approaching head-on or approximately in a way that there is danger of collision, each
aircraft shall alter its heading to the right.
(4) When two aircraft are converging at approximately the same level, the aircraft which has the other aircraft on
its right, shall give way.
(5) An aircraft which is being overtaken has the right of way, and the one overtaking shall
alter its heading to keep well clear.
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system that enables every location on the Earth to be specified by a set of
numbers or letters. The coordinates are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents vertical position, and two or three of
the numbers represent horizontal position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation.
Latitude
• Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point north or south of
the Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels. Latitude is measured up to 90° north or south of the
equator(0°)
• Parallels of latitude are small circles,reducing in size as they move away from the equator.
• The equator is the only parallel of latitude which is a GC.
Longitude
• Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of
the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines of longitude are often referred to as meridians.
• Meridians together with its anti-meridian are GC
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• Lines of longitude are measured up to 180° East or West from the prime meridian(Greenwich Meridian)
Position
• With the use of longitude and latitude we are able to find a exact position on the earth
• For accuracy we divide degrees in to minutes and minutes in to seconds
• 1°=60’(min)
• 1°=60’’(sec)
• E.g.. 40° 08’ 02’’N 030° 14’ 34’’W
• Latitude is always given first
Direction Measurement
• Direction is always measured clockwise from true North.
• However a compass shows magnetic North.
• The difference between true and magnetic North is called variation.
• Variation is either West or East of true North depending on your position on the earth.
Agonic line is where variation is zero
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Distance Measurement
Aeronautical Chart information can be found on the Website of the CAA – www.caa.co.za the go to
Information for the Industry and select Aeronautical Information.
• Most aviation charts fall into two categories; the aeronautical topographical chart and navigation
plotting chart
• Topographic means that the features of the earth are represented fairly accurately in the chart with a minimum of
distortions
Scale
The ratio of the length of a line drawn on a chart to the corresponding distance on the surface of
the Earth.
1:1 000 000
This means 1 unit on the chart means 1 000 000 units on the Earth
Chart units can be cm or inches, Earth distance can be nautical miles, statute miles or kilometres
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!"#$% '()*%"
– Scale formula:
+#$%" ,-.%#)/(
Aeronautical Maps will be covered in your Radio Licence Course. Elements that will be discussed are:
• Positioning
• Frequencies
• Area of operation
• Zones
This information will assist you in reading a map, understanding where you are and what frequency and
zone you are operating in.
5.1.4 GPS
Watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IoRQiNFzT0k
GPS allows the user to obtain information in with regards to the Global Positioning of the Aircraft. This
information is obtained through various satellites, (24 with 4 spares) that constantly rotate the earth. Each
satellite takes 12 hours to complete an orbit. At any given stage of day or night, there will be 6-12 satellites
within view of your aircraft.
A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D position (latitude
and longitude) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine the
user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude).The GPS is a navigation system based on transmissions
from space and assist the RPA with the following information:
• Altitude
• Velocity
• Position
• Track
• Distance
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Principal of operation:
GPS position fixing is based on a principal called, time of arrival which uses the transmission of radio
signals and accurate timing of transmission and arrival. Accurate position fixing is achieved by using three
distances from three different satellites. Using the principal of distance= speed(of radio wave) / Time
(Transmission sent)
For altitude a 4th satellite is used
The analysis of errors computed using the Global Positioning System is important for understanding how GPS works, and for knowing
what magnitude of errors should be expected. The Global Positioning System makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other
effects but there are still residual errors which are not corrected.
GPS receiver position is computed based on data received from the satellites. Errors depend on geometric dilution of precision and the
sources listed in below.
Propagation error occurs when radio signals travel from a vacuum(space) to a denser atmosphere causing it
to slow down causing a timing error.
GPS signals can also be affected by multipath issues, where the radio signals reflect off surrounding terrain;
buildings, canyon walls, hard ground, etc. These delayed signals cause measurement errors that are different
for each type of GPS signal due to its dependency on the wavelength.
A variety of techniques, most notably narrow correlator spacing, have been developed to mitigate multipath
errors. For long delay multipath, the receiver itself can recognize the wayward signal and discard it. To
address shorter delay multipath from the signal reflecting off the ground, specialized antennas (e.g., a choke
ring antenna) may be used to reduce the signal power as received by the antenna. Short delay reflections are
harder to filter out because they interfere with the true signal, causing effects almost indistinguishable from
routine fluctuations in atmospheric delay.
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Multipath effects are much less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS antenna is moving, the false
solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and only the direct signals result in stable solutions
Ephemeris data is transmitted every 30 seconds, the information itself may be up to two hours old.
Variability in solar radiation pressure has an indirect effect on GPS accuracy due to its effect on ephemeris
errors. If a fast time to first fix is needed, it is possible to upload a valid ephemeris to a receiver, and in
addition to setting the time, a position fix can be obtained in under ten seconds.
The satellite's atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The navigation message contains
corrections for these errors and estimates of the accuracy of the atomic clock. However, they are based on
observations and may not indicate the clock's current state.
These problems tend to be very small, but may add up to a few meters (tens of feet) of inaccuracy. For very
precise positioning, these effects can be eliminated by differential GPS: the simultaneous use of two or more
receivers at several survey points.
When visible GPS satellites are close together in the sky (i.e., small angular separation), the dilution of
precision (DOP) values are high; when far apart, the DOP values are low. Conceptually, satellites that are
close together cannot provide as much information as satellites that are widely separated. Low DOP values
represent a better GPS positional accuracy due to the wider angular separation between the satellites used to
calculate GPS receiver position. HDOP, VDOP, PDOP and TDOP are respectively Horizontal, Vertical,
Position (3-D) and Time Dilution of Precision.
GPS included a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA) that adds intentional, time
varying errors of up to 100 meters to the publicly available navigation signals. This was intended to deny an
enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision weapon guidance.
SA errors are actually pseudorandom, generated by a cryptographic algorithm from a classified seed key
available only to authorized users (the U.S. military, its allies and a few other users, mostly government)
with a special military GPS receiver. Mere possession of the receiver is insufficient; it still needs the tightly
controlled daily key.
Before it was turned off on May 2, 2000, typical SA errors were about 50 m horizontally and about 100 m
vertically. Because SA affects every GPS receiver in a given area almost equally, a fixed station with an
accurately known position can measure the SA error values and transmit them to the local GPS receivers so
they may correct their position fixes. This is called Differential GPS or DGPS. DGPS also corrects for
several other important sources of GPS errors, particularly ionospheric delay, so it continues to be widely
used even though SA has been turned off. The ineffectiveness of SA in the face of widely available DGPS
was a common argument for turning off SA, and this was finally done by order of President Clinton in 2000.
• Calibrate your compass before take—off (if needed and prescribed by the manufacturer)
• Read the manual and follow the procedure to the T on how to switch on the RPA
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• Utilised correct batteries and ensure they are charged
• Be ready to switch off the GPS mode and land the RPA at any stage of flight in manual mode
A solar flare occurs when magnetic energy that has built up in the solar atmosphere is suddenly
released. Radiation is emitted across virtually the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from radio
waves at the long wavelength end, through optical emission to x-rays and gamma rays at the short
wavelength end.
Where to find them? http://www.aurora-service.eu/solar-activity/
Flight planning starts long before the flight is due to take place and there are numerous tasks to be
completed before one is legal to take off. In the below section we will look at various points that needs to be
taken into consideration when doing flight planning and preparing an operational site for flight.
The following assessments at a minimum will be taken into consideration when a pilot is doing a
feasibility and risk analysis. See the Job Assessment Form along with other relevant forms to be
completed before embarking on a flight.
In the case where there are other RPA’s in the direct area, follow these procedures:
a) Allocate an observer for each RPA
b) Constant Radio Communication and/or direct communication between the different piloting teams for the RPA’s
c) Vertical and/or Horizontal separation and all times to avoid any form of accident and/or incident
d) Agree upon different frequencies for each RPA in operation
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5.2.1.3 Hazards Identification
A hazard is a condition, object, activity or event with the potential of causing injuries to personnel, damage
to equipment or structures, loss of material, or reduction of ability to perform a prescribed
function. The analytical procedure below, develops the concept of ‘the hazard’ within a safety risk
management framework which also defines risk, safety events, undesirable events, outcomes, consequences
and risk controls (barriers or mitigations).
Use the Risk Calculation and Risk Assessment form with the Risk Assessment Matrix to determine risks and
hazards. Forms can be found at the back of the manual.
Each municipality has their own by-laws and can restrict you from flying in or over certain areas. The local
Disaster Management is always a good place to start when looking at operational restrictions.
5.2.1.5 Obstructions
Obstructions must be taken into consideration on all flights and flight planning. Obstructions are more when
compared with traditional flying of helicopters and/or other aircraft.
When operating RPAs obstructions are not only seen as those that can prevent one from flying from A to B
in a straight line, but also obstructions that prevent the Pilot from keeping the RPA in direct line of sight for
VLOS, E-VLOS and R-VLOS operations and interference with the radio communication between RPA
and RPAS. The following can be seen as obstructions and must be taken into consideration during flight
planning and flight.
- Trees
- Power lines
- Buildings
- People blocking the view or are obstructing the take-off and/or landing direction
- Vehicles and any other form of obstruction that can be seen as a threat to the flight
5.2.1.6 Restrictions
Restrictions cover a wide range of possibilities that will prevent a flight from taking off or achieving the
flight objective. The following are a list of possible restrictions and must be dealt with in order to ensure a
safe flight with the best possible outcome.
• Pilot does not have the necessary ratings to operate the RPA and/or have the necessary ratings to fly the RPA in this type
of operation. E-VLOS or B-VLOS.
• No fly zone. Always check AIP, AIP Supplements and NOTAMS for any changes or temporary changes to the
operational area due such notifications.
• RPA is not certified to carry the parcel (Dangerous Goods) and/or weight of the parcel
• Did not receive approval from all landowners and/or Municipalities and Authorities
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• Did not receive approval from relevant people.
• Weather
Each flight planning will take into consideration the habitation of the direct surrounding area and those
below the RPA at all times; and that all permissions have been granted for flying over and/or
near these restricted areas and/or habitations.
After habitation has been taken into consideration and cleared for flight to proceed, all activities will be
taken into consideration; those that are similar (RPA Flights) and those that might be seen as a risk to the
RPA and/or the RPA seen as a risk to them and/or it.
Habitation includes and not limited to:
• Human Residential Area
• Animal Sanctuary
• Natural Environment / Habitation for any kind of animal
When planning a flight in a public area all possible caution must be taken to restrict public access, with the
approval from the local authorities and/or landowners, before, during and after the flight.
The following methods can be used to restrict public access to the flight area
• Red Tape to cordon of access paths and routes
• Barricades’ to block access paths and routes
• Private security to monitor and control access to flight areas
• Place notices that RPAs are in operation
Before embarking on a flight the following permissions needs to be obtained, depending on where the flight
is taking place.
• Permission from landowners and surrounding properties should you come within 50m of those properties
• The SACAA,
• Local municipalities and other authorities which might have the legal right to object, reject and/or approve the flight
must be obtained before proceeding with any flight.
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5.2.1.10 Likely Operating Site and Alternative Sites
At the start of planning for a flight the operating site and all possible restrictions and/or objections must be
taken into consideration. Always have an alternative site as a Plan B and readily available for any possible
reason that will prevent the flight taking place from the first chosen operational site for the flight.
Access 2 or more sites for a detailed weather report within 12 hours prior to the flight to ensure you are well
prepared for the weather conditions and if it is suitable for flying and within the operational limitations of
your RPA.
Good weather sites are with the regular forecast are:
• http://www.windfinder.com/
• http://aviation.weathersa.co.za/
• http://www.windyty.com
Also see Meteorology for information on TAFs and METARs and sites to get the detailed aviation weather
reports.
Refer to the Flight planning hand out Checklists
Each pilot of an RPA have the responsibility to capture data relating to their flight in the following
documents that can be either in an excel sheet or a book that can be purchased at local Aviation Shop. All
entries into these books must be done with a permanent pen and no pages that has been written on can be
removed and must be left as is.
a) Flight Folio
The flight folio contains information surrounding the flight, the pilot and the aircraft. Information that is required by law to
be present are:
i. Aircraft registration
ii. Date of flight
iii. Name(s) of flight crew member(s) – Pilot and Observer
iv. Duty assignment of flight crew member(s)
v. Place of departure
vi. Place of arrival
vii. Time of departure (off-block time)
viii. Time of arrival (on-block time)
ix. Duration of flight
x. Nature of flight (Photography, Filming, Surveillance etc.)
xi. Incidents, observations (if any)
xii. Signature of Pilot-in-Command;
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xiii. The current maintenance statement giving the aircraft maintenance status of what maintenance, scheduled or
out of phase, is next due. This will usually be displayed at the top of the page. Indicating at what time or after X
amount of landings the RPA needs to be serviced again.
xiv. All outstanding deferred defects which affect the operation of the aircraft;
xv. Fuel and oil used; or batteries
xvi. Fuel, oil or batteries was uplifted / used
b) Pilot Logbook
Your log book will contain all relevant information with regards to your flying career. Training received, hours flown, type
of work done and on what aircraft it was done.
As per the CARs –
101.03.7
(1) The holder of an RPL must maintain in a pilot logbook a record of all his or her flight time, instrument time, simulation
time and instruction time.
(2) Where electronic logbooks are used, the electronic data must be printed on paper at least every 90 days and the
printed pages filed sequentially in a binder.
(3) The pilot must retain all pilot logbooks for at least 60 months from the date that person no longer holds a valid pilot
licence.
(4) The holder of an RPL must make the logbook available for inspection upon a reasonable request by an authorised
officer, inspector or authorised person.
Information kept in the Logbook other than your personal information will be:
i. Date of Flight
ii. Aircraft Type (DJI Phantom 2)
iii. Aircraft Registration
iv. Duration of Flight
v. Start and End Location
vi. Duty (Observer, PIC, Co-Pilot)
vii. Type of Flight (Night, Photography, Aerial Display etc.)
It is important to complete the Folio and Logbook after each flight and keep your totals complete in the
summary section on each page. Summaries on only completed once the page is filled. Unless you have an
electronic version that keeps the totals up to date as entries are made.
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Pilot UAV Log Book
Type Reg. To From PIC Description Solo Dual Solo Dual Solo Dual Instructor
Totals Brought Forward
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5.3 Check lists and site inspections
Briefing:
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ON SITE SURVEY
OPERATING SITE LOCATION
JOB DATE OPERATING SITE NAME:
WIND SPEED:
WIND DIRECTION:
NOTES:
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2 - AT RISK
MEASURES MEASURES
5 PROBABILITY
5 PROBABILITY
4 SEVERITY
6 RISK
4 SEVERITY
6 RISK
(Something with the potential to cause
harm, how will it be realised and what is
the potential injury?)
FURTHER ACTIONS (Further control measures which could be implemented at the planning stage to improve safety)
ADDITIONAL COMMENTS (Actions identified by personnel on site, to make the operation safer)
ACCOUNTABLE MANAGER
AT RISK (Column 2) SEVERITY (Column 4 and 8) PROBABILITY (Column 5 and 9) RISK RATING (Columns 6, 8 and 10)
E - Employees 1 NO INJURY, PROPERTY DAMAGE 1 EXTREMELY UNLIKELY Severity X Probability - 1 to 5 MIN Y - Acceptable Risk
C - Client 2 MINOR INJURY 2 REMOTE POSSIBILITY Severity X Probability - 5 TO 10 LOW Y - Acceptable Risk
V - Visitors 3 REPORTABLE INJURY 3 WILL POSSIBLY OCCUR Severity X Probability - 12 TO 15 MED ? - May need further consideration
P - Public 4 MAJOR INJURY / SINGLE FATALITY 4 WILL PROBABLY OCCUR Severity X Probability - 16 TO 25 HIGH N - Unacceptable Risk
A - All 5 MULTIPLE FATALITIES 5 ALMOST CERTAIN
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5.4 B-VLOS Flying
5.6 Observer
The Observer reports to the PIC and have the following responsibilities:
a) A visual observer is required to perform the see and avoid function as alternative compliance to the Right-of-Way Rules
b) The task of the observer is to provide the pilot of the RPA with instructions to steer the RPA clear of any potential collision
with other traffic
c) Visual observer duties require the ability to maintain visual contact with the RPA when within 500m of the Observer at all
times while scanning the immediate environment for potential conflicting traffic.
d) Communicate with pilot via two way radio to inform the pilot of any possible dangers and/or directional information for the
safe operation of the RPA
6 Meteorology
Weather plays an important role in Aviation and it is essential to understand the various factors that can
affect flying conditions. In the following sections we will be looking at various factors, how they are
formed and what they essentially can result in, rain, thunderstorms, gusting winds etc.
The density of air is the mass per unit volume of Earth's atmosphere.
Factors
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Height
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• PRESSURE
When air is compressed, at a constant temperature, more molecules occupy a given volume, thus the mass
increases which results in an increase in density.
Conversely, when air expands, less molecules occupy the original volume, mass is less and therefore density
decreases.
§ TEMPERATURE
When air is heated, while keeping the pressure constant, it expands and therefore, less molecules occupy a given
volume and density decreases. The converse also applies.
§ HUMIDITY
As we have already discussed water vapour weighs less than dry air, therefore less molecules occupy a given
volume.
Thus density decreases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. In other words, water vapour
molecules displace the molecules of air: less air per unit volume, decreased density. Therefore, the higher the
humidity, the lower the density.
§ HEIGHT/ALTITUDE
Air density varies with altitude, a increase in altitude will result in a decrease in air density.
This is the reading obtained on the altimeter with the subscales set to the Standard pressure of 1013.25 hPa
(QNE).
Q-Codes:
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QNE – The height of the aircraft above the standard ISA setting of 1013.25 hPa.
QFE – The height of an aircraft above the airfield or terrain (reference point).
Example 1:
Calculate the pressure altitude at grand central, airfield elevation is 5327 ft. QNH is 1028.
Solution:
1 hPa = 30ft
Thus we have to subtract 442.25ft from the airfield elevation to get our pressure altitude.
Density altitude is the term used to describe the effect of temperature and altitude on air density.
When our outside temperature is higher than the ISA temperature = Density altitude higher than Pressure
altitude.
When our outside temperature is lower than the ISA temperature = Density altitude is lower than Pressure
altitude.
To calculate Density altitude, pressure altitude is corrected for any temperature deviation from the ISA
temperature.
A correction of 120ft for each one degree deviation from the ISA temperature is applied to the pressure
altitude.
Example 1:
Temperature is 25 C, Airfield elevation is 4400ft, QNH is 1027 hPa. Determine the density altitude:
4000ft x -2 / 1000ft = -8 + 15 = 7 C
25 C – 7 C = 18 C
For every temp dev from ISA we have to add or subtract 120ft
18 C X 120 ft = 2160ft
In meteorology, visibility is a measure of the distance at which an object or light can be clearly seen.
During clear nights when terrestrial radiation is a maximum, a thin layer of air near the ground will
be cooled by contact and, providing dew point temperature is not too low, condensation will take
place in the form of water droplets.
If there is no wind, these droplets condense on the ground in the form of dew.
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Frost occurs when the dew point is below zero, resulting in deposition (water vapor directly to ice).
ADVECTION FOG
Advection is the horizontal movement of an air mass and advection fog may, therefore, occur any
time warm moist air moves over a cold surface.Like radiation fog, it tends to form because of the
wind, but not when the wind is too strong. The air is cooled by contact with the cold surfaces to
below its dew point and water droplets then become visible in the form of fog. This type of fog
usually occurs over the sea, where the warm moist air mass blows over the cold Benguella current
being especially common along the west coast of South Africa.
UPSLOPE FOG
This type of fog is found where the land generally slopes upwards. Fog will form when the air cools,
due to adiabatic cooling as it ascends to higher altitudes and develops more frequently at night, due
to terrestrial radiation.
It is common on the great plains of the Lesotho and natal Midlands, but in the mountains upslope
fog may be far more common. It is one of the few types of fog that persists with stronger winds.
VALLEY FOG
When a Katabatic wind is persistent in mountainous regions, there is continuous down slope of
colder air into the valley or basin. The temperature at the bottom progressively attains a lower
temperature until dew point is reached and fog results, slowly building upwards. Fog due to these
phenomena is called valley fog.
SMOG FOG
This is a combination of both fog and smoke, normally occurring during the night when large
amounts of smoke from industry and home coal fires are emitted into the atmosphere. This smoke is
mixed with the fog (radiation fog) and acts as suitable nuclei for condensation to take place.
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6.3.1 Gust Front
A gust front is the leading edge of cool air rushing down and out from a thunderstorm. There are two main
reasons why the air flows out of some thunderstorms so rapidly. The primary reason is the presence of
relatively dry air in the lower atmosphere. This dry air causes some of the rain falling through it to
evaporate, which cools the air. Since cool air sinks (just as warm air rises), this causes a down-rush of air
that spreads out at the ground. The edge of this rapidly spreading cool pool of air is the gust front. The
second reason is that the falling precipitation produces a drag on the air, forcing it downward. If the wind
following the gust front is intense and damaging, the windstorm is known as a downburst.
In coastal regions, sea breezes and land breezes can be important factors in a location's prevailing winds.
The sea is warmed by the sun more slowly because of water's greater specific heat compared to land. As the
temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it by conduction. The warm air is
less dense than the surrounding environment and so it rises. This causes a pressure gradient of about 2
millibars from the ocean to the land. The cooler air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows
inland into the lower pressure, creating a cooler breeze near the coast. When large-scale winds are calm, the
strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and
the sea. If an offshore wind of 8 knots (15 km/h) exists, the sea breeze is not likely to develop.
At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean because of differences in their specific heat values.
This temperature change causes the daytime sea breeze to dissipate. When the temperature onshore cools
below the temperature offshore, the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, establishing a
land breeze, as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it.
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6.3.3 Mountain Winds
Where there is a tendency for air to flow upslope, it is called Anabatic. This wind owes its presence to the
heating of the hill slope by the sun, which in turn heats up the air in contact with it and becomes warmer
than the air the same level and is therefore lighter and ascends.
This thermal upslope current is replaced by cooler air from the valley, the general motion being upslope, in
the form of a gentle breeze
This is the reverse of an Anabatic wind. During the night, the ground loses its heat by radiation. Air in
contact with the slope thus becomes colder than the surrounding air of the free atmosphere. Being denser
and heavier, it starts to sink into the lower valleys.
The importance lies in the effect of local “pooling” of this cold air in the valley and, should the temperature
be lowered sufficiently to dew point, local fog or mist occurs.
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6.4 Clouds
Clouds form in the Earth's atmosphere when water evaporates into vapour from oceans, lakes, ponds, and
even streams and rivers; and by evaporation or transpiration over moist areas of Earth's land surface. The
vapour rises up into colder areas of the atmosphere due to convective, orographic, or frontal lifting. This
subjects the rising air to a process called adiabatic cooling.
The water vapour attaches itself to condensation nuclei which can be anything from dust to microscopic
particles of salt and debris. Once the vapour has been cooled to saturation, the cloud becomes visible. All
weather-producing clouds form in the troposphere, the lowest major layer of the atmosphere. However very
small amounts of water vapour can be found higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere and may
condense into very thin clouds if the air temperatures are sufficiently cold. The nephology branch of
meteorology is focused on the study of cloud physics.
The list of cloud types is a summarisation of the modern system of cloud classification according to their
height, forming mechanism and other characteristics that have been adopted universally. Below are some of
the more popular clouds you will find in South Africa.
Formation
• High-level ascent
• Shape due to wind shear
Characteristics
• White, without shading
• Delicate filaments
• Patches of narrow bands
• Fibrous or silky appearance
• Hook-shaped feathery filaments
• Composed of ice crystals
Precipitation
• None
Formation
• Convection
• Develops from cirrus of cirrostratus
Characteristics
• Thin white patch, sheet or layer
• Very small elements - grains, ripples
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• Width of less than one finger held at arm's length
• Merged or separate
• More or less regularly arranged
Precipitation
• None
Formation
• Widespread upper-level ascent
Characteristics
• Transparent whitish veil
• Fibrous or smooth
• May cover whole sky
• Commonly produces halo
Precipitation
• None
Formation
• Convection
• Wave flow near mountains
Characteristics
• Grey, featureless sheet or layer cloud
• Usually waved or in lumps or layers
• May be lens-shaped near mountains or islands
• White or grey or both white and grey
• Smallest elements have apparent width of two
fingers when held at arm's length
Precipitation
• Virga
• Light showers occasionally
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6.4.5 Altostratus Clouds
Formation
• Widespread ascent
Characteristics
• Grey, featureless sheet or layer cloud
• Can be fibrous or uniform
• Covers whole or part of sky
• Sun shines weakly (as if through ground
glass)
• Great horizontal extent
Precipitation
• Rain
Formation
• Widespread ascent
Characteristics
• Dark grey cloud layer
• Generally covering the sky
• Dense and thick enough to hide sun or moon
• Base indistinct as a result of continuous rain or
snow
• Base often lower than 2 500 meters
Precipitation
• Rain or snow - almost continuous
Formation
• Convection
• Surface heating
• Instability
Characteristics
• Detached cloud
• Develops vertically upwards
• In the form of turrets, towers
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• Tops domed or cauliflower-shaped
• Shaped outlines
• Sunlit parts are bright white
• Base nearly horizontal, relatively dark
• Size depends on stage of development
Precipitation
• Showers of rain
• Snow from large cumulus
Formation
• Convection
• Surface heating
• Instability
Characteristics
• Bulging, dense cloud masses
• Huge cumulus cloud
• Fibrous top, often anvil-shaped or plume
shaped
• Base dark and stormy looking
• Thunder and lightning common
• Low tattered clouds below base
• Associated with gusts and squalls
Precipitation
• Showers of rain, snow - may be heavy
• Hail
Formation
• Spreading out of cumulus (usually evenings)
• Turbulent mixing under stable layer
Characteristics
• Grey or white layer with darker areas
• Often regular undulations
• Elements have apparent width of three or more fingers when extended at arm’s length
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Precipitation
• Occasional light rain
• Drizzle
Formation
• Low-level ascent or cooling
• Due to Precipitation that has saturated the air
• Lifting fog or mist
Characteristics
• Grey uniform layer
• May be continuous or patchy
• Resembling fog, but not on the ground
• May appear as shreds of fragments below
nimbostratus
• May cover tops of mountains or hills
Precipitation
• Drizzle
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6.5 Thunderstorms
There must be sufficient moisture present in the atmosphere, especially in the lower levels. Instability must
persist. There must be a lifting process (called trigger action) which will give rise to a sample of air
becoming saturated. This trigger action may be one of the following:
CONVERGENT THUNDERSTOMS :are the result of localized convection in an unstable air mass.
ORGRAPHIC THUNDERSTORMS: are caused by air that is forced up by a mountain or hillside.
Warm, moist air rises. As this occurs the air begins to condense into a cumulus cloud. As the warm air
within the cloud continues to rise, it eventually cools and condenses.
Mature Stage
Characterized by the presence of both updrafts and downdrafts within the cloud. The downdrafts are
initiated by the downward drag of falling precipitation.. As the mature-stage thunderstorm develops, the
cumulus cloud continues to increase in size. lightning usually begins when the precipitation first falls from
the cloud base. During this phase of the life cycle, the top of the resulting cumulonimbus cloud will start to
flatten out, forming an anvil shape often at the top of the troposphere.
Decaying Stage
Characterized by downdrafts throughout the entire cloud. Anvil becomes more pronounced in this stage. The
decay of a thunderstorm can also be initiated when the precipitation within the storm becomes too heavy for
the updrafts to support, when the source of moisture is cut off, or when lifting ceases.
Weather reports are essential phase of flight planning. Dependant on the type of work to be done, weather
will determine the feasibility of flight and projected outcome of the flight.
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Weather reports for Aviators are issued in 2 formats – METARs and TAFs. Below are an example of each
and what the information displayed means.
CAVOK – Ceiling and visibility OK. Replaces visibility/RVR, present weather, and clouds if:
- No CB and no cloud below 1500M (5000ft) or below highest minimum sector altitude whichever is greater, and
- No precipitation, thunderstorm, sandstorm, dust storm, shallow fog, or low drifting dust/sand/snow.
Example:
FVHA 261800Z 32007KT 9999 TS FEW033CB 20/17 Q1020 NOSIG
SCT035TCU
BKN080
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Example 1:UTC
GROUP (3)-Wind
Example 1:32007KT
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Example 1:9999-10KM OR MORE
Example 1:03L/0800
Example 1:TS
Meaning: Thundershowers
Example 1: FEW030CB
Example 1:20/17
GROUP (8)-QNH
The observed QNH value rounded down to the nearest whole hectopascal is indicated, preceded without space, by the letter
indicator Q.
If the value of QNH is less than 1 000 hPa, it is preceded by 0; for Example QNH 995.6 is reported as Q0995
Example: WSRWY21R
BECMG - Becoming
TEMPO - Temporary
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NOSIG - No significant change
· Change Indicator
- BECMG = Becoming (used where changes are expected to reach or pass through specified values
TS Thunderstorm SN Snow
VC Vicinity (7) VA Volcanic Ash SS Sandstorm
Unknown
UP
Precipitation
(1) Visibility at least 1000m (5/8SM) but not more than 9600m (6SM)
(7) Within 8KM (5SM) of the aerodrome but not at the aerodrome
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6.6.2 TAF
1. Probability groups(s)
- PROB and 2 digits (30 or 40).
- Probability 30% or 40% used to indicate the probability of occurrence of alternate element(s) or temporary fluctuations. May also be
listed as TEMPO by some non US weather services.
- TIME (beginning 2 digits, ending 2 digits)
- Forecast weather phenomena.
2. Forecast Change
o Indicators
§ BCMG=Becoming (used when changes are expected to reach or pass through specified values)
§ FM = From and 2 digit time
§ TO = To and 2 digit time
§ TEMPO = Temporary fluctuation
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AFT After ATLC Atlantic
AFTN Afternoon ATTM At this time
AGL Above Ground Level AURBO Aurora Borealis
AGN Again AUTOB Automatic weather reporting system
AHD Ahead AWOS Automatic weather observing system
AIREP Air Report B Beginning of precipitation (time in
AIRMET Airmen’s Meteorological Info minutes (wx reports only)
ALF Aloft BACLIN Baroclinic prognosis
ALG Along BATROP Barotropic or barotropic prognosis
ALGHNY Allegheny BC British Columbia
ALQDS All quadrants BCFG Fog patches
ALSTG Altimeter setting BCKG Backing
ALTA Alberta BCM(G) Become (becoming)
ALUTN Alleutian BD Blowing dust (wx reports only)
AMD Amended forecast BFDK Before dark
AMDT Amendment BINOVC Breaks in overcast
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Pilots must report any significant weather or flight condition to ATC as soon as possible. Additionally, all
significant weather or flight conditions that clearly differ from the forecast should be reported to Dispatch.
There is no specific format for this type of report.
NOTE: Report wind shear encountered during departure or approach to the tower controller as soon as
possible. Use the term “PIREP” to ensure that it is rebroadcast.
6.6.6 AIRMETs
Hazardous weather advisories of moderate intensity will be issued as AIRMETs. AIRMETs are issued
when the following conditions are expected to cover an area of at least 3000 square miles:
§ Moderate icing.
§ Moderate turbulence.
§ Sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more.
§ Ceilings less than 1,000 ft. and/or visibility less than 5km affecting 50% of an area at one time.
§ Extensive mountain obscuration.
6.6.7 SIGMETs
Hazardous weather advisories of severe intensity will be issued as SIGMETs. SIGMETs are reported as
convective or non-convective.
Convective SIGMETs report only thunderstorms and related phenomena (tornadoes, heavy precipitation,
hail and high surface winds.
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Non-convective SIGMETs are issued when the following conditions occur or are expected to cover an area
of at least 3,000 square miles:
§ Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms.
§ Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms.
§ Widespread dust storms, sandstorms, or volcanic ash lowering surface or inflight visibilities to below 5km.
§ Volcanic eruption.
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The theory and practical lessons will be taught in your Radio Course with a Certified Radio Instructor.
When to make radio calls will be continuously practiced during Simulator and Flight Training to ensure you
are comfortable with all aspects of this important part of aviation.
101.05.16
1) Except for R-VLOS operations, no RPAS shall be operated unless the pilot has a functioning air-band radio in his
possession, tuned to the frequency or frequencies applicable to the ATSU providing services or controlling such area or
airspace or to aircraft in such area or airspace.
2) The air-band radio shall have the required output and be configured in such a way that the range, strength of transmission
and quality of communication extends beyond the furthest likely position of the RPA from the pilot.
3) For VLOS, E-VLOS and B-VLOS operations, the pilot shall, using the registration of the RPA as a call-sign, make the
required radio calls, indicating the altitude, location and intended operation of the RPA in that area and at such intervals
as are required in order to ensure adequate separation from other aircraft is maintained.
4) For approved RPA operations in controlled airspace, the pilot shall maintain radio contact, using the registration of the
RPA as a call-sign, with the relevant ATSU, and acknowledge and execute such instructions as the ATSU may give at any
time during the operation of the RPA.
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7.2 NATO Phonetic Alphabet
The ICAO developed this system in the 1950s in order to account for discrepancies that might arise in
communications as a result of multiple alphabet naming systems coexisting in different places and
organizations.
In the official version of the alphabet, the non-English spellings Alfa and Juliett are used. Alfa is spelled
with an f as it is in most European languages because the English and French spelling alpha would not be
pronounced properly by native speakers of some other languages – who may not know that ph should be
pronounced as f. Juliett is spelled with a tt for French speakers, because they may otherwise treat a single
final t as silent. In some English versions of the alphabet, one or both of these may have their standard
English spelling.
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7.3 Communication in Aviation
Communication can be regarded as a means of exchange of information between two different parties. In the
context of Aviation industry, the role of communication is vital. For the purpose of exchange of some
crucial and essential information, instruction and command between Pilots, the Observer, other support staff
and Air traffic controller, there is a need of having some intensive means and types of communication. As a
Remote Pilot you will be on the ground and not in the cockpit as other pilots, still you have a responsibility
to communicate with ATC and other aviation traffic in the surrounding area of operation.
In the safety issue of aviation, reliable communication is required and necessary. In recent radio telephone
survey it was found that 80% of Radio Frequency Transmissions (RFT) by pilots were incorrect.
Surprisingly, some statistics from the air traffic controller showed that 30% of all incidents occurred due to
communication errors and rising to 50% in airport environments and hence, there are many reasons for
making communication errors in different situations. Also, some of the important factors to produce errors
could be lack of information, mishearing or misunderstanding of information, sign confusion and Language
problems.
a) Use clear and unambiguous phraseology at all times; challenge poor RFT
b) Try to avoid issuing more than two instructions in one transmission
c) Be aware that you tend to be less vigilant when speaking in your native language
d) Always insist on complete and accurate read-backs from pilots
e) Set the clearance given, not the clearance expected
f) Both pilots, if applicable, should monitor the frequency whenever possible
g) On frequency change, wait and listen before transmitting
h) ATC instructions should be recorded where possible
i) Use standard phraseology in face-to-face telephone coordination
j) Monitor all read-backs, try to avoid distractions - especially the telephone
k) When monitoring messages - write as you listen and read as you speak
l) If you are unsure, always check!
The following phases have been identified as incorrect and ones that can easily cause confusion:
a) In turn - intended sequence is unclear
b) Next exit - who’s next are you referring to
c) Pull forward - clearance is not clear
d) One hundred and eleven hundred - as in flight level
e) Three digit numbers ending in zero - heading often confused with flight level
f) Similar sounding letters and numbers - B,G,C, D and 3
g) Made a ... interpreted as Mayday
h) Holding position interpreted as hold in position
i) Climb to, two thousand - action, followed by qualifier
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7.3.3 Listening
Listening is an important skill and one that needs to be effectively used as a pilot. As a
Remote Pilot you have possibilities of receiving communication from various points at any
given stage during the flight. Here are a few examples of where communication can come
from during the different stages of flight:
• ATC before take-off
• Observer during flight
• Other Aviation traffic during flight
• The producer of the film during flight
• Crew members or other persons passing by
It is essential, while flying to concentrate on communication that is relevant to the flight and
minimise disturbance.
How to become an active listener:
1. Pay Attention. Give the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message. ...
2. Show That You're Listening. Use your own body language and gestures to convey your attention.
...Only when the person is can see you, if you are communicating with ATC or other aviation traffic,
nodding your head is not going to relay the message.
3. Provide Feedback. ...
4. Defer Judgment. ...
5. Respond Appropriately.
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8 Principles of Flight
8.1 Introduction
The mechanics of flight are highly complex, encompassing principles such as the four forces
and axes, as well as technical terms such as control surfaces, adverse yaw and coordinated
flight. While this lesson covers all of these topics, its purpose is to provide just a very basic
insight into the true mechanics of flight and body-axis systems.
Every aircraft, whether an airplane, helicopter or rocket, is affected by four opposing forces:
Thrust, Lift, Drag and Weight. Control surfaces, such as the rudder or ailerons, adjust the
direction of these forces, allowing the pilot to use them in the most advantageous way
possible. A force can be thought of as a push or pull in a specific direction. It is a vector
quantity, which means a force has both a magnitude (amount) and a direction. For this lesson
we will deal specifically with fixed-wing airplanes. Other aircraft, such as hot air balloons
and helicopters, use the same basic principles but the physics are very different.
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8.3.1 Lift
LIFT IS A AERODYNAMICALLY GENERATED FORCE AND IS GENERATED BY AIR MOVING OVER
THE WINGS OF AN AIRCRAFT
LIFT FORMULA
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1
/2 p – Rho
Rho relates to the density of the air at the level and in the conditions in which you are
currently flying.
Can you, as the pilot change the density of the air that you are busy flying in?
2
V – Velocity Squared
Velocity relates to the speed at which you are flying. Notice its effect is squared, so it has a
very significant impact on the creation of lift.
Can you as the pilot change the speed of the aircraft in any way?
8.3.2 Drag
DRAG IS THE RESISTANCE TO MOTION OF AIRCRAFT THROUGH THE AIR & ACTS PARALLEL AND IN
THE SAME DIRECTION AS THE RELATIVE AIRFLOW.
8.3.3 Weight
Weight always acts vertically down towards the Centre of the earth through a single point
known as the Centre of gravity.
While aircraft is on the ground, weight balanced by a reacting force of the ground through the
wheels, but during flight weight must be balanced by another force, known as LIFT.
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8.3.4 Thrust
Thrust Is a Force That Counteracts Drag & Pulls or pushes an aircraft through the air
thrust is provided by a propeller – engine combination or jets
In order for an aircraft to reach its destination, the forces of flight have to be precisely
manipulated. To do this, the aircraft has control surfaces which can direct airflow in very
specific ways.
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As the name implies, the elevator helps “elevate” the aircraft. It is usually located on the tail
of the aircraft and serves two purposes. The first is to provide stability by producing a
downward force on the tail. Airplanes are traditionally nose-heavy and this downward force
is required to compensate for that. The second is to direct the nose of the aircraft either
upwards or downwards, known as pitch, in order to make the airplane climb and descend.
The ailerons are located at the rear of the wing, one on each side. They work opposite to each
other, so when one is raised, the other is lowered. Their job is to increase the lift on one wing,
while reducing the lift on the other. By doing this, they roll the aircraft sideways, which
allows the aircraft to turn. This is the primary method of steering a fixed-wing aircraft
The rudder is located on the tail of the aircraft. It works identically to a rudder on a boat,
steering the nose of the aircraft left and right. Unlike the boat however, it is not the primary
method of steering. Its main purpose is to counteract the drag caused by the lowered aileron
during a turn. This adverse yaw, as it is known, causes the nose of the airplane to point away,
or outwards, from the direction of the turn. The rudder helps to correct this by pushing the
nose in the correct direction, maintaining what is known as coordinated flight.
Each axis of flight is an imaginary line around which an airplane can turn. Think of an
airplane rotating around an axis like a wheel rotates around an axle. Regardless of the type of
aircraft, there are three axes upon which it can move: Left and Right, Forwards and
Backwards, Up and Down. In aviation though, their technical names are the lateral axis,
longitudinal axis and vertical axis.
The lateral axis runs from wing tip to wing tip. The aircraft pitches around this axis.
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The longitudinal axis runs from the nose of the aircraft to the tail. This is the axis around
which the aircraft rolls.
The vertical axis is slightly different to the others, running vertically through the centre of the
aircraft. The aircraft yaws around this axis.
The centre of gravity, also known as CG, is the effective point whereby all weight is
considered to be. The CG is also the same point where the axes of flight meet. This point isn’t
fixed on any aircraft, but moves forwards or backwards along the longitudinal axis,
depending on how the aircraft is loaded. It is vital that its centre of gravity remain within
certain limits however, as an aircraft that is too nose- or tail-heavy will either not fly, or be so
difficult to control that it becomes too dangerous to try. These limits are referred to as its
operational envelope.
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For an airplane to fly in a controlled manner, control surfaces are necessary. The 4 main
surfaces are ailerons, elevator, rudder and flaps as shown below:
To understand how each works upon the airplane, imagine 3 lines (axis - the blue dashed
lines in the picture above) running through the plane. One runs through the centre of the
fuselage from nose to tail (longitudinal axis), one runs from side to side (lateral axis) and the
other runs vertically (vertical axis). All 3 axis pass through the Centre of Gravity (CG), the
airplane's crucial point of balance.
When the airplane is in forward flight it will rotate around each axis when movement to any
control surface is made by the pilot. The table below shows the appropriate actions...
The following sections explain how each control surface effects the airplane. It's important to
understand that all control surfaces work in the same way, in that they alter the camber (air
foil shape) of the complete flying surface. This, in turn, changes the forces acting on the
surfaces and so that surface reacts in accordance with the change in force. The force in
question is best known to us as lift, but this particular force occurs in any direction - not just
upwards.
Incidentally, if you're completely new to the radio control flying, a controllable function of
any model is referred to as a channel so an airplane with control to, say, four functions will
be called a 4 channel plane, sometimes abbreviated to just 4 ch..
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Remote airplane controls are, of course, the same as those found on real airplanes and they
control the model in exactly the same way.
8.4.1 Throttle
Throttle controls the speed of the engine and hence how fast or slow the propeller turns.
On a glow plug (or petrol) airplane engine the throttle works the same as any internal
combustion engine throttle, by changing the amount of fuel and air that enters the combustion
chamber of the engine. The carburettor is operated by a single servo connected to the venturi
of the carb, which opens and closes (thus changing the fuel/air mixture) in response to your
throttle stick movements on the transmitter.
On an electric airplane the throttle is usually referred to as motor power rather than throttle.
Very basic electric planes (i.e. toy ones) might not have proportional control to motor power
but just a simple on/off switch instead.
Electric airplanes that do have control to motor power have an electronic speed control,
or ESC, that controls power to the motor in direct response to your Tx stick movements.
In the air throttle/motor power not only controls the forward speed of the airplane but also,
more importantly, the rate of climb and descent, because different amounts of lift are
generated at different airspeeds. For example, if your landing approach path is too low you
can make the airplane rise slightly without changing speed much, simply by opening the
throttle instead of using up elevator. Conversely, closing the throttle will cause the airplane to
sink before the speed reduces.
Using throttle/motor power in this way is the correct way to fly your rc airplane, but many
pilots use the elevator to control altitude and rates of climb and descent.
8.4.2 Elevators
The elevators are the hinged section of the tailplane, or horizontal stabiliser, at the very rear
of the airplane and are the single most important control surface.
Elevators control the horizontal pitch attitude of the airplane, in other words whether the
nose of the plane points upwards or downwards.
When elevators are in the up position (upward deflection) the nose of the airplane is forced to
point upwards, and with the elevators deflected downwards then the nose is forced
downwards. This resulting nose up/nose down pitch attitude comes about as the
upward/downward deflection of the elevators changes the amount of down force being
generated by the tailplane.
It's worth noting that a plane can still fly level, or even be descending, with a very nose-up
attitude but a nose-down pitch attitude will almost always result in the plane entering a dive,
thanks to our friend gravity!
Elevators directly affect the plane's airspeed more than the need to climb or dive.
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Elevators should be used in conjunction with rudder and/or ailerons when making a turn.
8.4.3 Ailerons
Not all airplane controls include ailerons, in fact the majority of 3 channel radio control
airplanes use rudder instead. But where fitted, ailerons control the roll of the airplane about
its longitudinal axis (imagine a straight line running through the centre of the fuselage, from
nose to tail).
Ailerons work in pairs and are found on the trailing (rear) edge of the wing, and they work
opposite to each other i.e. when one aileron moves up, the other one moves down and vice
versa.
Ailerons work by changing the amount of lift generation over the wing. As an aileron moves
upwards so it disrupts the smooth airflow over the wing surface and so lift is reduced slightly
on that wing. Over on the other wing the aileron moves downwards and increases lift slightly.
As a result, the airplane tilts and hence rolls towards the side that's experiencing less lift.
When up elevator is applied at the same time as ailerons, the airplane is pulled round in to a
banked turn; the ailerons cause the plane to roll and the up elevator causes the nose to pitch
round in that direction.
Ailerons are used in all aerobatic manoeuvres that involve a rolling motion.
8.4.4 Rudder
The rudder is the hinged section of the fin, or vertical stabiliser, at the rear of the airplane.
It's used for directional control by changing the yaw of the airplane and works in the correct
sense i.e. moving the rudder to the left causes the airplane to turn left and vice versa.
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Applying rudder makes the nose of the airplane point to the left or right, but rudder alone
does not make the airplane roll like ailerons do. It's actually the dihedral, or the upward 'V'
angle of the wing when viewed from the front, that makes the plane roll when rudder is
applied; a plane with very little or no dihedral will have a much flatter turn when rudder is
applied.
Rudder is also very important on the ground, it's the one control that will keep your airplane
tracking straight during a take-off run or landing roll if your plane isn't fitted with a steerable
nose or tail wheel.
Some airplanes are designed in such a way that they cannot have separate ailerons and
elevators - delta-wing planes, for example. When this is the case control surface 'mixing' is
necessary and this is only possible on computerised radios that offer a mixing capability.
When elevators and ailerons are combined together, or mixed, they become elevons. They
look just like elevators but move together, as elevators do, and individually, as ailerons do. In
short, one pair of elevons does the job of elevators and ailerons.
Flaperons are control surfaces that mix the actions of ailerons with flaps. In other words, one
pair of control surfaces along the trailing edge of the wing take on the job of aileron
control and flap control, when needed.
Spoilerons are, in effect, the inverted version of flaperons. Spoilers are often found on large
gliders and operate by the control surfaces moving upwards as opposed to flaps that drop
down. When spoilerons are deflected, the amount of lift is drastically reduced and so the
glider's rate of descent quickly increases, enabling the pilot to land it in a smaller space.
There are other types of airplane control mixing too, but those listed above are by far the
most common that you'll encounter.
Channel mixing is another type of mixing supported by most modern computer radios. I this
case two separate channels can be mixed to operate together.
A common example of channel mixing is an aileron and rudder mix; a small amount of
rudder is automatically applied when you operate the ailerons. The purpose of this is to
produce a cleaner turn and can prevent the effects of adverse yaw, a common situation
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whereby the tail drops during a turn due to increased drag over the higher wing. Aileron
Differential is the 'mechanical' answer to this issue.
Aileron differential simply means that the ailerons move more in one direction than the other, with the greater
deflection being upwards. Ailerons that are set up this way are called differential ailerons.
The reason why ailerons are sometimes set up this way is to counteract any adverse yaw when the airplane is
turning.
Adverse yaw is a term used when the nose of the plane isn't quite pointing in the direction it should be pointing
in, as the plane turns. A more visually obvious sign of adverse yaw is the tail end of the plane dropping (side-
slipping) during the turn.
This adverse yaw occurs because a downward deflected aileron (i.e. the aileron on the outer wing during the
turn) causes more drag than the upward deflected aileron, and this drag tries to pull the airplane in the opposite
direction of the turn.
For example, if the plane is in a banked turn to the right, there's increased drag on the left hand wing (because of
the down aileron) which causes an unwanted yaw to the left, even though the plane is turning to the right.
The correct fix for this common issue is to apply a small amount of rudder during the turn in
co-ordination with the aileron deflection. It's how real planes are flown and is known as 'co-
ordinated flying'. The deflected rudder forces the nose of the plane round in the direction its
turning, thus acting against the drag and so no tail-drop is seen.
Rudder can be applied manually during the turn, but a very easy and convenient fix if you
have a computer-based transmitter with channel mixing capability is to mix rudder with
aileron, so a small amount of rudder is automatically applied when you move the aileron
stick.
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While a helicopter is a far more complex machine than an aeroplane, the fundamental
principles of flight are the same. The rotor blades of a helicopter are identical to the wings of
an aeroplane –when air is blown over them, lift is produced. The crucial difference is that the
flow of air is produced by rotating the wings – or rotor blades – rather than by moving the
whole aircraft. When the rotor blades start to spin, the air flowing over them produces lift,
and this can cause the helicopter to rise into the air. So, the engine is used to turn the blades,
and the turning blades produce the required lift.
The lifting force is produced by the main rotor. As they spin in the air and produced the lift.
Each blade produces an equal share of the
lifting force. The weight of a helicopter is
divided evenly between the rotor blades
on the main rotor system. If a helicopter
weighs 20kg and it has two blades, then
each blade must be able to support 10kg.
In addition to the static weight of
helicopter, each blade must be accept
dynamic load as well. For example, if a
helicopter pull up in a 1.5 g manoeuvre
(1.5 time the gravity force), then the effective weight of helicopter will be 1.5 time of static
helicopter weight or 30kg, due to gravitational pull.
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If the pilot wants to create more lift to move the helicopter upwards, he/she angles the blades
so that they have a larger pitch angle. The pilot does this by simply raising the collective.
If the pilot wants to move the machine forwards, he/she angles the blades at different stages
on their way around the mast, producing more lift on one quadrant of the rotor disc than the
other. If this lift is greater at the back, the rotor disc will tilt forward which will pull the
helicopter forward. The pilot does this by bushing forward on the cyclic.
The tail rotor is very important. If you spin a rotor with an engine, the rotor will rotate, but
the engine and helicopter body will tend to rotate in opposite direction to the rotor. This is
called Torque reaction. Newton's third law of motion states, “To every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction”. The tail rotor is used to compensate for this torque and hold the
helicopter straight. On twin-rotors helicopter, the rotors spin in opposite directions, so their
reactions cancel each other.
They do this by incorporating a drive shaft from the main rotor mast all the way to the tail of
the aircraft which powers the anti-torque tail rotor. Just like the main rotor disc, the tail rotor
blades can change pitch with input from the pilot to increase or decrease thrust. This has the
added benefit of allowing the pilot to turn the helicopter around the vertical axis.
Unlike most helicopters, quadcopters use two sets of identical fixed pitched propellers; two
clockwise (CW) and two counter-clockwise (CCW). These use variation of RPM to control
lift and torque. Control of vehicle motion is achieved by altering the rotation rate of one or
more rotor discs, thereby changing its torque load and thrust/lift characteristics.
Each rotor produces both a thrust and torque about its
centre of rotation, as well as a drag force opposite to the
vehicle's direction of flight. If all rotors are spinning at
the same angular velocity, with rotors one and three
rotating clockwise and rotors two and four counter
clockwise, the net aerodynamic torque, and hence the
angular acceleration about the yaw axis, is exactly zero,
which implies that the yaw stabilizing rotor of
conventional helicopters is not needed. Yaw is induced
by mismatching the balance in aerodynamic torques
(i.e., by offsetting the cumulative thrust commands
between the counter-rotating blade pairs).
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A Multi-Rotor hovers or vertically takes off/lands by applying equal thrust to each of the four
rotors. In this diagram, the thickness of the arrows indicate the relative amount of thrust
applied.
A Multi-Rotor yaws in the anticlockwise direction by applying more thrust to the two
clockwise rotors than the two anticlockwise rotors. A conservation of angular momentum
causes the Multi-Rotor to rotate as desired. In this diagram, the thickness of the arrows
indicate the relative amount of thrust applied.
A Multi-Rotor adjusts its Aircraft principal axes by increasing thrust in one of the rotors and
decreasing thrust in its diametrically opposite rotor. In this diagram, the thickness of the
arrows indicate the relative amount of thrust applied.
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Radio control gear has been used for model aircraft for many years and the development of
the new more reliable systems have become a big part of RPAS guidance.
So let's now take a brief and uncomplicated look at each of the main components that your
typical radio control system consists of...
The transmitter, commonly just called the radio, is the main box that you hold and use to
control your rc aircraft.
When talking about transmitter modes it is referring to how the transmitter is configured to
control the airplane i.e. which sticks operate which controls on the plane.
Four different modes are possible but only modes 1 and 2 are commonly used.
Mode selection is dependent on pilots preference and can be changed as the pilot or operator
sees fit.
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In the same way as a normal radio or TV receives the signal from the broadcasting station, so a radio control RX
receives the signal that is emitted by the transmitter when you move a stick or flick a switch. These signals are
then passed through to the servos, or ESC, which respond appropriately.
9.1.4 Servos
What is a servo?
A Servo is a small device that incorporates a three wire DC motor, a gear train, a
potentiometer, an integrated circuit, and an output shaft bearing. Of the three wires that stick
out from the motor casing, one is for power, one is for ground, and one is a control input line.
Servos are controlled by sending them a pulse of variable width. The control wire is used to
send this pulse. The parameters for this pulse are that it has a minimum pulse, a maximum
pulse, and a repetition rate.
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An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit with the purpose to vary an
electric motor's speed, its direction and possibly also to act as a dynamic brake. ESCs are
often used on electrically powered radio controlled models, with the variety most often used
for brushless motors essentially providing an electronically generated three-phase electric
power low voltage source of energy for the motor.
Regardless of the type used, an ESC interprets control information not as mechanical motion
as would be the case of a servo, but rather in a way that varies the switching rate of a network
of field effect transistors. The rapid switching of the transistors is what causes the motor itself
to emit its characteristic high-pitched whine, especially noticeable at lower speeds. It also
allows much smoother and more precise variation of motor speed in a far more efficient
manner than the mechanical type with a resistive coil and moving arm once in common use.
Most modern ESCs incorporate a battery eliminator circuit (or BEC) to regulate voltage for
the receiver, removing the need for separate receiver batteries. BECs are usually either linear
or switched mode voltage regulators.
ESC systems for brushed motors are very different by design; as a result brushed ESC's are
not compatible with brushless motors. Brushless ESC systems basically drive tri-phase
brushless motors by sending a sequence of signals for rotation.
ESCs are normally rated according to maximum current, for example, 25 amperes or 25 A.
The Data Link is small size, lightweight, and low power bi-directional, digital, wireless video
link. Compliant with the Small Unmanned Airborne Systems waveform, it can also be used to
enable enhanced command and control of small RPAs. The Data Link enables maximum
flexibility and interoperability between small airborne and ground systems with limited
power availability, and bandwidth to maximize the number of systems that can operate within
an area.
Watch the video on YouTube on Communications and Data Links Sample
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iWOVts2eYIQ
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There are many types of flight controller systems,the main purpose of flight controller or
autopilot is to help the pilot in manipulating the flight path of the aircraft.
• GPS flying ability to assist the pilot in maintaining a smooth flight path.
• Waypoint control
• Pre programed point of interest
• Re turn home
• Automatic take off and landing
• Follow me
• Sense and avoid
• Manual
• Stabilise
• Auto
• Acro
• Loiter
• Circle
Flight controllers and autopilots do not replace the pilot but assist them.
• Velocity
• Orientation
• Gravitational forces
The IMU use a combination of accelerometers and gyroscopes to get these measurements.
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10 TECHNICAL
10.1.1 Power Units
With the exception of gliders, all airplanes need a motor of some kind to generate
the thrust to pull (or push) the model through the air.
The two primary power types are internal combustion (IC) and electric power (EP). IC is a
collective term that covers all engine types that run on fuel; these are petrol (gasoline), glow
plug, diesel and turbine. Glow plug is often referred to as 'nitro' but is exactly the same thing.
To confuse things even more IC powered airplanes, particularly glow plug ones, are often just
referred to as 'gas' planes even though this name suggests that they're gasoline powered when
in fact they use a different type of fuel.
There are many different choices of both IC and EP airplanes available and the size of the
engine or motor used depends on the size and weight of the model, as well as the desired
performance.
There are two common types of glow plug engine; ringed and ABC.
The primary difference is in the method of the compression seal; a traditional ringed engine
uses an iron ring inserted around the aluminium piston that presses against the steel cylinder
wall to keep the fuel/air mixture inside the compression chamber and oil out of it, whereas a
more modern ABC engine does not have a ring but instead features a tapered sleeve inside
the cylinder.
The letters ABC refer to the materials used; the piston is aluminium, the cylinder
is brass and the inside of the cylinder (sleeve) is chrome plated.
The sleeve is tapered inwards towards the top of the compression chamber and expands
outwards as the engine heats up. The tolerances between sleeve and piston are such that a
perfect seal is created when the engine is at running temperature.
The downside is that when the engine is cold, there is not a good seal between sleeve and
piston away from the top of the combustion chamber and this can make starting a cold ABC
more tricky.
Instead of a spark ignition glow engines use a glow plug that is ignited with an external
battery(1.5v).When the battery/glow driver is removed the glow plug continues to burn due to
heat from the compression and the catlytic effect of the platinum with in the glow plug.
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Gasoline (petrol) engines are often found in larger airplanes and these differ to glow engines
in terms of physical appearance, design, size and power output.
However they are not limited to large scale airplanes; as time passes so smaller petrol
engines for model aircraft are becoming available, and many fliers are even converting their
glow plug engines over to petrol with several manufacturers now supplying conversion kits.
Both 2-stroke and 4-stroke gasoline airplane engines are available and they vary in levels of
complexity. For example, some use a traditional magneto ignition system while others might
have electronic ignition, and there are even liquid cooled engines available.
The main advantages of a gasoline powered model plane engine are the running costs (petrol
is much cheaper than glow fuel) and the cleanliness; petrol burns cleaner than glow fuel and
doesn't leave behind the oily residue.
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Model airplane engines have a very simple carburettor, generally speaking. It's typically
located on the top front of the engine crankcase, although newer engines have the carb
located at the rear for safer adjusting (to keep fingers well clear of the prop).
The carb consists of a venturi where the fuel and air mix, idle screw to adjust the idle speed
of the engine, mixture screw, or 'needle valve', to allow fine tuning of the fuel/air mixture
and hence the high-end RPM and a rotating barrel.
This rotating barrel features an external servo arm that is connected to the throttle servo
linkage, and the barrel rotates in response to your input at the transmitter. As you push up the
throttle stick on the Tx, the barrel turns opening the venturi to let more air and fuel into the
combustion chamber. As you shut down the throttle, so the barrel rotates back again and the
mixture is reduced by the closing of the venturi.
A 2-stroke glow plug engine works thus... As the fuel passes in to the carburettor it mixes
with air being sucked in through the open venturi, this fuel/air mixture then passes through
transfer ports that run vertically up the outside of the piston chamber. These ports exit in to
the combustion chamber above the piston. The mixture gets forced up in to the combustion
chamber every time the piston completes a downward stroke.
Once inside the combustion chamber the fuel/air mixture gets compressed by the piston rising
back up. This rapid compression greatly increases both the pressure and temperature of the
fuel/air mixture, and the red hot filament of the glow plug ignites the mixture when the piston
reaches Top Dead Centre (TDC), assuming that the ignition timing is correct (ignition timing
can be advanced or retarded if necessary by fitting a different length glow plug, or altering
the height of the current plug by using shims or washers).
The resulting explosion forces the piston back down again. As the piston moves downwards,
the burned gases are expelled through the exhaust ports, and the cycle begins again.
In order to make the operation more reliable, more efficient, and less noisy the recent trend
has been to use brushless D.C (BLDC) motors. They are also lighter compared to brushed
motors with the same power output.
Motor operation is based on the attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles. Using the
three-phase motor shown in Figure 7, the process starts when current flows through one of
the three stator windings and generates a magnetic pole that attracts the closest permanent
magnet of the opposite pole.
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10.2 Batteries
The more voltage a battery has, the faster your car will go. Battery voltage is determined by
the number of cells in the battery. As we just mentioned, NiMH cells deliver 1.2 volts each; a
6-cell pack has 7.2 volts, a 7-cell pack has 8.4 volts, and an 8-cell pack has 9.6 volts.
Obviously 8 cell batteries take more room than 6 cell batteries, so you may not have room to
increase your voltage. Also, if you upgrade to a higher voltage pack, you need to make sure
your ESC can handle the increased voltage.
CAUTION: You have to take care of these batteries. Overcharging or misuse can cause them
to explode. One of the cells can shoot off and embed in a wall. Always be sure to discharge
your NiCd battery completely after each usage. You don't have to completely discharge
NiMH or LiPo batteries, but you do with NiCd batteries.
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o Always use a LiPo bag when charging them as they can burst into flames if
charged incorrectly. Using LiPo bags makes them safer to use than NiCd or
NiMh batteries, as the bag's purpose is to contain any fire that may erupt.
Most LiPo batteries come with a 'balance' plug. This plug keeps each cell charged evenly;
this way none of the cells can become overcharged. You will want to purchase a battery
charger that is LiPo compatible. Many LiPo compatible battery chargers come with a LiPo
balancer feature. If your battery charger doesn't have a 'balancer' feature, you can actually
purchase a LiPo battery 'balancer' separately.
You don't want to discharge a LiPo battery below 3V per cell. For example, on a two cell
pack you will have 7.4 V. You don't want to go below 6V. Speed controls will often have a
LiPo cut-off on them. This prevents the LiPo battery from running too low. If your speed
control doesn't have a built in LiPo cut off, you can purchase an external one. Always
remember to unplug the battery pack from the Speed Control when you are done racing for
the day. Usually the on/off switch on the speed control stops the communication from the
receiver to the speed control; but doesn't stop the drain on the battery. Always remove your
battery from your vehicle when you are finished. Store it inside where the temperate isn't
frigid or super-hot. Extreme temperatures are hard on LiPo batteries.
Obviously a single Li-Po cell (1S) can't be balanced against itself, but any pack with two or
more cells should be balanced - if not with every charge then certainly on a regular basis.
Balancing Li-Po battery packs ensures that each cell matches the voltage of the other one, or
as closely as possible, to prevent irregular current flow and hence give your aircraft optimum
performance, as well as preserving the longevity of the pack by protecting it against possible
damage.
It's generally accepted that a difference of 30 - 50mV (.03 - .05v) between cells is acceptable,
but different manufacturers might state different amounts and the specifications for your
particular pack should be read and followed.
A multi-cell pack should have two sets of leads coming out of it; one set connects to the ESC
and is made up of a red (positive) and black (negative) lead and the other set will be made up
of thinner wires that all go into a single white connector,
with each separate wire coming from each cell. This is
the balancing connector and the number of leads going in
to it will be determined by how many cells the battery
pack has. A 2S pack will have 3 leads - one for each cell
plus a negative; a 3S pack will have four leads - one for
each cell and a negative, a 4S pack five leads etc.
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To balance the pack you need a balancing charger, or a separate Li-Po balancer used in
conjunction with a charger. The charger needs to be specific for lithium polymer batteries,
you cannot use a NiMH or NiCd charger on Li-Po packs because the charging algorithms are
different between the chemicals.
Above: a quality charger with separate balancing board and a cheap & simple Li-Po specific
charger (top right)
There are a couple of ways to check whether your Li-Po pack is balanced.
Use a Li-Po voltage checker, such as the one pictured right. You simply plug it in to the white
balance connector of the pack. It will cycle through each cell in turn
and tell you the voltage of each one.
The second method requires the use of a voltmeter / multi meter and
a bit of simple arithmetic...
With the negative lead of the voltmeter touching the negative
terminal of the white balance connector of the pack, touch the
positive lead of the meter on
to each of the other terminals
of the connector, one at a
time. Determine the highest
reading (i.e. the total voltage
of the pack) and then move
the meter lead to the next
terminal, this will give you a
lower reading. Calculate the
difference between the two
readings, this gives you the
voltage of the first cell. Now
touch the meter lead on the
next terminal and subtract this voltage from the second terminal reading - this will give you
the voltage of the second cell. Work your way through each terminal until you arrive at the
last one, the reading of which will be the voltage of the last cell in the pack.
By calculating the voltage differences between each cell, you'll be able to see how well the
pack is balanced.
Above: step 1, get the battery pack total voltage - here it's 12.79V
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• For NiCd packs: discharge down to 0.9v per cell, before you store them.
• NiMH packs: discharge down to about a 50% charge. Before you charge a NiMH
pack for the first time in the day, drain the pack completely on a discharger or in the
model and you are then ready to charge the pack for use throughout the day.
• LiPo: Discharge your pack no lower than 3V for cell. 2 cell (2S or 2 Series) = 6V, 3
cells = 9V, etc... LiPo storage of 2 weeks or more: LiPo packs should be stored at
around 3.8v per cell.
• Always remove any battery from the vehicle when you are done running it.
This is simply how fast a battery can be discharged safely. It is called the C-rating. A battery
with a discharge rating of 10C means you could safely discharge it at a rate 10 times more
than the capacity of the pack, a 15C pack = 15 times more, a 20C pack = 20 times more, and
so on.
On a 20C rating on a 2000 mAh battery: 20 x 2000 = 40,000 milliamps or 40 amps. Time
wise, a 40 amp draw on this pack would exhaust it in about 3 minutes (2000/60min = 33.3
per min. multiplied by 20c = 666 mAh per minute - divided into the packs capacity of 2000
mA = 3 minutes). Now that’s a lot of math!
LiPo Battery packs will show the continuous C rating and some are now indicating a burst
rating as well. A burst rating indicates the battery discharge rate for short bursts of extended
power. An example might be something like *Discharge rate = 20C Continuous/40C Bursts*
The higher the C rating, usually the more expensive the battery. This is where you can save
some money. Getting an extremely high discharge rated pack when there is no way you could
possibly pull the full amount of power is not required but it won't hurt either. The most
important thing is you can't go with too low a discharge C rating or you will damage your
battery and possibly your ESC (electronic speed control).
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Series
Individual Lithium Polymer cells have a nominal voltage of 3.7 volts (vs. 1.2 volts per cell
for Ni-Cods). Cells are wired in series to give the following pack voltages:
1 cell = 3.7 volts
2 cells in series = 7.4 volts
3 cells in series = 11.1 volts
Parallel
Unlike Ni-Cd and Ni-MH cells that self-discharge when wired in parallel, LiPo cells can be
hooked up, charged and discharged in parallel with no detrimental effect. Wiring two LiPo
cells in parallel doubles the capacity (more run time), plus an important advantage of wiring
in parallel is that each cell only sees half the total current. With 3 cells in parallel, each cell
sees one third the current.
3S 2P
A battery pack that has three cells in series (giving 11.1 volts) and 2 of these 3-cell packs are
wired in parallel is commonly referred to as a 3S, 2P (3 series, 2 parallel). So if you want to
go faster run them in series, if you want longer run times then run them in parallel.
Milliamps Hour (mAh) is important because it's the easiest way to distinguish the strength or capacity
of a battery. The higher the mAh, the longer the battery will last. Batteries with different mAh ratings
are interchangeable. If your battery is rechargeable then the mAh rating is how long the battery will
last per charge.
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Internal resistance testing is a relatively simple way of measuring the health of your LiPo
batteries. Internal resistance is the electrical resistance that occurs inside the battery cells themselves
as the battery creates electricity. The higher the internal resistance the less current can flow from the
battery to your ESC and motor.
Older, abused, puffed, crashed, and lower quality batteries have a higher internal resistance and
therefore cannot maintain voltage to your ESC and motor when you apply power. Because the battery
itself creates current, you cannot simply hook up an ohmmeter and measure resistance. Instead you
must measure the voltage, then apply a known electrical load (halogen light bulbs in this
demonstration), re-measure the voltage and also measure the amperage. The internal resistance is the
voltage drop divided by the amperage.
Measuring this occasionally will give you a good idea of the "health" of your battery packs. If you
have a battery that doesn't give the "juice" or "oomph" like it used to, this is a good way to actually
quantify the loss in power and determine whether the battery should be reassigned to bench work or
the garbage.
10.3 Gyroscopes
A gyroscope is a device that uses Earth's gravity to help determine orientation. Its
design consists of a freely-rotating disk called a rotor, mounted onto a spinning axis
in the center of a larger and more stable wheel.
When things rotate around an axis they have what’s called angular velocity. A spinning
wheel can be measured in revolutions per second (RPS) or degrees per second (°/s).
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Note that the z axis of the gyro below aligns with the axis of rotation on the wheel.
If you attach the sensor to the wheel shown above, you can measure the angular velocity of
the z axis of the gyro. The other two axes would not measure any rotation.
Imagine if the wheel spins once per second. It would have an angular velocity of 360
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degrees per second. The spinning direction of the wheel is also important. Is it clockwise
around the axis, or is it counter-clockwise?
A triple axis MEMS gyroscope, similar to the one pictured above (ITG-3200), can measure
rotation around three axes: x, y, and z. Some gyros come in single and dual axis varieties,
but the triple axis gyro in a single chip is becoming smaller, less expensive, and more
popular.
Gyros are often used on objects that are not spinning very fast at all. Aircrafts (hopefully) do
not spin. Instead they rotate a few degrees on each axis. By detecting these small changes
gyros help stabilize the flight of the aircraft. Also, note that the acceleration or linear velocity
of the aircraft does not affect the measurement of the gyro. Gyros only measure angular
velocity.
10.4 Accelerometer
There are many different ways to make an accelerometer! Some accelerometers use the
piezoelectric effect - they contain microscopic crystal structures that get stressed by
accelerative forces, which causes a voltage to be generated.
In some accelerometers, piezoelectric crystals such as quartz do the clever work. You have
a crystal attached to a mass, so when the accelerometer moves, the mass squeezes the
crystal and generates a tiny electric voltage.
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There are many parts to a Remote Helicopter. As a rule of thumb your time will be split into
3 equal parts dependant on the size and functionality the helicopter has to offer.
The main rotor blades generate lift by spinning in a clockwise motion and pushing air
downward. They move anywhere from +/-10 degrees pitch. For basic flying, we'll
keep these numbers conservative. The higher in pitch the blades travel, the more lively
the helicopter will fly. You don't need to know the exact degrees of pitch your blades
are angled. Once you become more competent at flying, you will get a sense for the
aircraft and know the sounds and feel for it. Keep in mind that the steeper the pitch,
the harder the motor has to work, and the more lift it will generate.
The tail rotor counteracts the torque of the blades. It pushes air against that torque in a
counter clockwise motion to stabilize the aircraft. The change in pitch of the tail rotor
blades determines how fast the helicopter turns left and right. The pitch changes
through servo movement inputs. The gyro also controls the pitch of the tail, but that's
an automatic adjustment, and doesn't need your input.
Check to make sure the belt that drives the tail rotor is taught before every flight. It
seems to loosen in the warmer weather and humidity changes.
10.5.3 Body
The body or frame of the helicopter holds everything together. All of the electronics are
attached to it and it's important to make sure that it doesn't get damaged whether in storage or
in flight. In-flight damage is called a crash. In-storage damage is called "hangar rash" and it is
very common. Considering that the helicopter will spend most of its life on a shelf choose a
safe place for it to rest.
The landing gear is better known as the skids, and will not be used directly until you can
competently hover the aircraft. It is however, used to attach the training gear, and provides
clearance for the motor battery. The landing gear “gives” to provide a soft landing for the
helicopter. It will eventually break after multiple hard landings.
10.5.5 Motors
Helicopters are available with many types engine\motor options,the main options are.
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• Electric
• Petrol
• Glow
• Turbine
The details of the types of engines will be discussed under the General technical section
The selection of motor type will depend on the application that the helicopter will be used
for.
10.5.6 Swashplate
A swashplate is a device that translates input via the helicopter flight controls into motion of
the main rotor blades. Because the main rotor blades are spinning, the swashplate is used to
transmit three of the pilot's commands from the non-rotating fuselage to the rotating rotor hub
and mainblades.
The swashplate consists of two main parts: a stationary swashplate and a rotating swashplate.
The stationary (outer) swashplate is mounted on the main rotor mast and is connected to the
cyclic and collective controls by a series of pushrods. It is able to tilt in all directions and
move vertically. The rotating (inner) swashplate is mounted to the stationary swashplate by
means of a bearing and is allowed to
rotate with the main rotor mast. An anti-
rotation link prevents the inner swash
from rotating independently of the
blades, which would apply torque to the
actuators. The outer swashplate
typically has an anti-rotation slider as
well to prevent it from rotating. Both
swashplates tilt up and down as one
unit. The rotating swashplate is
connected to the pitch horns by the pitch
links. Alternative mechanics to the
stationary (outer) swashplate are the
hexapod and the universal joint.
Swashplates for helicopters having two
rotors mounted on the same shaft are
much more complex than the single
rotor helicopters.
Swashplate on a radio-controlled
helicopter 1 Non-rotating outer ring
(blue) 2 Turning inner ring (silver) 3
Ball joint 4 Control (pitch) preventing
turning of outer ring 5 Control (roll) 6 Linkages (silver) to the rotor blade
Collective Blade Control
Cyclic controls are used to change a helicopter's roll and pitch. Push rods or hydraulic
actuators tilt the outer swashplate in response to the pilot's commands. The swashplate moves
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in the intuitively expected direction, tilting forwards to respond to a forward input, for
instance. However "pitch links" on the blades transmit the pitch information way ahead of the
blade's actual position, giving the blades time to "fly up" or "fly down" to reach the desired
position, in addition to a 90 degrees advance to account for the gyroscopic precession. That
is, to tilt the helicopter forward, the difference of lift around the blades should be maximum
along the left-right plane, creating a torque that, due to the gyroscopic effect, will tilt the rotor
disc forward and not sideways.
Collective Blade Control
To control the collective pitch of the main rotor blades, the entire swashplate must be moved
up or down along its axis without changing the orientation of the cyclic controls.
Conventionally, the entire swashplate is moved along the mainshaft by a separate actuator.
However, some newer model helicopters remove this mechanically complex separation of
functionalities by using three interdependent actuators that can each move the entire
swashplate. This is called cyclic/collective pitch mixing.
Multi-Rotors all basically uses the same parts, however the number of ESCs and motors will
depend on the number of arms your Multi-Rotor have. In the section to follow we will go
through the various parts used in Multi-Rotors.
10.6.1 Frame
10.6.2 Gimbal
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10.6.3 Motor
Multi-Rotors uses brushless motors as they are seen as the most advanced technology and
very low in maintenance. The motors have an obvious purpose: to spin the propellers.
Motors are rated by kilovolts, and the higher the kV rating, the faster the motor spins at a
constant voltage. When replacing your motors, most websites or manufacturers will indicate
how many amps the ESC you pair it with should be and the size of propeller you should use.
The flight control board is the ‘brain’ of the Multi-Rotor. It houses the sensors such as
gyroscopes and accelerometers that determine how fast each of the quadcopter’s motors spin.
Flight control boards range from simple to highly complex.
10.6.4.1 Telemetry
A telemetry GPS is a highly advanced sensor that is connected to the Flight Controller, it
allows you to measure the position (longitude & latitude), distance, speed, rate of climb /
decent and altitude of you aircraft using live GPS data and the inbuilt atmospheric pressure
sensor for accurate altitude readings. These readings will be accessible via the Flight
Application; if your Multi-Rotor is equipped with one and your Ground Station is connected
to some form of displaying device.
10.6.5 Propeller
A quadcopter has four propellers, two “normal” propellers that spin counter-clockwise, and
two “pusher” propellers that spin clockwise. The pusher propellers will usually be labelled
with an ‘R’ after the size. The propeller size is determined by the size of the motor in
conjunction with the amps allowed by the ESC. Also see Principles of flight for Multi-Rotors.
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Risk Management
The calculated Risk Factor for each identified risk is then reviewed
Where the risk factor is unacceptably high (level 6 or above) a mitigating factor or control
measure is needed to reduce the likelihood or consequence to manage the risk to an
acceptable level/factor. Multiple control measures may be needed to reduce the risk to an
acceptable level. Even if the risk is acceptable you should consider any factor that could be
applied to reduce the risk further.
The control measure is recorded on the Risk Calculation Sheet and a new Risk Factor
calculated.
Note – The risk assessment should also include any risk to the Controller, Observer and
anyone else involved in the operation of the RPA and/or project.
Where the residual risk is unacceptable the flight and/or project will not proceed.
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Other Factors
As this is a generic Risk Assessment process it cannot consider all possible areas of risk for
every situation. There may be other areas that need consideration in addition to the Risk
Assessment Sheet prompts. Therefore this risk assessment process should be considered a
guide as to the minimum areas for inclusion in your Risk Assessment.
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Extreme and High risks must be reported to Insignificant Minor Moderate Major Severe Catastrophic
Numerical Historical 0 1 2 3 4 5
Is expected to occur in most
>1 in 10 circumstances Almost Certain (5) 5 6 7 8 9 10
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If these controls are not immediately NOTE: Risk (and not cost) must be the
accessible, set a timeframe for their primary consideration in determining the
High implementation and establish interim risk timeframe. A timeframe of greater than 14
reduction strategies for the period of the set days would generally not be acceptable for
timeframe. any hazard identified as high risk.
Take reasonable steps to mitigate the risk. Interim measures until permanent
Until elimination, substitution or solutions can be implemented:
engineering controls can be implemented,
institute administrative or personal • Develop administrative controls to
protective equipment controls. These limit the use or access.
“lower level” controls must not be • Provide supervision and specific
Medium considered permanent solutions. The time training related to the issue of concern.
for which they are established must be A timeframe of up to 30 days is
based on risk. At the end of the time, if allowable to reduce risk to an
the risk has not been addressed by acceptable level before proceeding with
elimination, substitution or engineering the flight or operation.
controls a further risk assessment must be
undertaken.
Take reasonable steps to mitigate and
monitor the risk. Institute permanent
controls in the long term. Permanent
controls may be administrative in nature if
Low the hazard has low frequency, rare
likelihood and insignificant consequence.
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12.3 Security Incident Report Form
UAVI
Security Incident Report
Report Date
Date of Incident
Time of Incident
Location of Incident
Nearest Town
Department Area
Select Category (Mark with a X)
Aviation Security Emergency Damage to Security System Suspicious Activity
Disruptive Person Procedural Failures Laser Light
Interference with Aviation Prohibited Item / Weapon in Technical Failure to Security
Operations a Secure Area System
Suspicious Item/s Threats Unauthorised Access
Unscreened Access Other
Other Details -
Description of Incident
Action
Prevention Actions
Section A
RPA Type
RPA Registration
Place of Departure
Place of Arrival
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Designated Pilot
Designated Observer
Section B
Who was the Cargo received from?
What was the intended destination of the
Cargo?
Had the Cargo previously examined?
If yes, by whom?
Description of Cargo
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12.5 Job Safety Assessment
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12.6 Accident / Incident / Hazard Form
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12.7 Annexure A – RPA Sales or Re-Sales Labelling (SA-CATS 101.01.7)
Operations as a hobbyist are subject to the terms of Part 94, whereas private use is restricted in terms of Part 101 of
the Civil Aviation Regulations.
For private use –
1. The RPAS may only be used for an individual's personal and private purposes where there is no commercial
outcome, interest or gain;
2. The RPA may only be operated over property for which the operator has ownership or permission;
3. The RPAS can only be used in Restricted Visual Line of Sight which means within 500m of the pilot, and
never to exceed the height of the highest obstacle within 300m of the pilot, during which the pilot can maintain
direct unaided visual contact with the device to manage its flight and collision avoidance; and
4. The pilot must observe all statutory requirements relating to liability, privacy and any other laws enforceable
by any other authorities.
1. the RPA must first be approved by the South African Civil Aviation Authority for use by way of an RPA Letter
of Authority (RLA);
2. all RPAs must be registered by the South African Civil Aviation Authority prior to use;
3. an RPA may only be operated in terms of Part 101 of the South African Civil Aviation Regulations which
includes specific requirements that the operator shall hold an RPA Pilot License;
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12.8 Annexure B – VLOS and E-VLOS Diagram
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13 Aircraft and Support Material
Attached the following support documents for the various parts of the RPA used for training:
a) Parkzone Radian Pro 5480
b) 3D Robotics APM 2.6 Autopilot
c) 3D Robotics uBlox GPS with Compass
d) 3D Robotics Antenna 433 MHz RP-SMA 2dBi
e) 3D Robotics APM Airspeed Sensor
f) 3D Robotics APM Power Module with XT60 Connectors
g) Spektrum DX8
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