Adsorption Processes For Water Treatment and Purification PDF

Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet
Didilia Ileana Mendoza-Castillo
Hilda Elizabeth Reynel-Ávila Editors
Adsorption
Processes
for Water
Treatment and
Purification
Adsorption Processes for Water Treatment
and Purification
Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet
Hilda Elizabeth Reynel-Ávila
Editors
Adsorption Processes
for Water Treatment
and Purification
Editors
Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet Didilia Ileana Mendoza-Castillo
Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes, México Aguascalientes, México

Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes, México
ISBN 978-3-319-58135-4 ISBN 978-3-319-58136-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-58136-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017943969
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

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Preface
Adsorption is a competitive technology for the treatment and purification of

wastewater, groundwater, and industrial effluents. This separation process may
offer a satisfactory cost-effectiveness tradeoff for water pollution control. Overall,
the adsorption process engineering implies several factors that should be analyzed,
studied, and optimized to develop economic and technically feasible water treat-
ment strategies. The complex physicochemical nature of real-life multicomponent
systems imposes new challenges for water pollution control using adsorption
systems. Therefore, the adsorption process intensification is fundamental to face
water pollution caused by anthropogenic and geogenic compounds.
This book contains eight chapters that cover the state of the art of relevant topics
of adsorption process and its application for water sanitation. In particular, this
book describes and discusses relevant themes involved in the modeling and design
of adsorption systems and the synthesis and application of alternative adsorbents for
water pollution control caused by different aquatic pollutants. These key aspects are
important to develop effective and low-cost water treatment technologies. This
book was motivated by the desire that we and our colleagues have had to present the
developments and applications in this area.
Editors are grateful to all authors and reviewers for their contribution to this
book. We also acknowledge the support of Susan Westendorf and the staff of
Springer Nature Editorial for their assistance during the preparation of this book.
Aguascalientes, México Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet

v
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet, Didilia Ileana Mendoza-Castillo,
and Hilda Elizabeth Reynel-Ávila
1.1 Adsorption: A Cost-Effective Technology
for Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Priority Pollutants in Water Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Pharmaceuticals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Fluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.5 Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.6 Emerging Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Adsorption Process Intensification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Synthesis of Tailored Adsorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Optimization and Design of Adsorption Systems . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Modeling of Adsorption Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.4 Regeneration and Final Disposal
of Exhausted Adsorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.5 Life Cycle Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Scope and Outline of Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Adsorption Isotherms in Liquid Phase: Experimental,
Modeling, and Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Jeferson Steffanello Piccin, Tito Roberto Sant’Anna Cadaval Jr.,
Luiz Antonio Almeida de Pinto, and Guilherme Luiz Dotto
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Experimental Procedures to Obtain Equilibrium Curves . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Classification of the Equilibrium Isotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.1 Subclasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
vii
viii Contents
2.4 Adsorption Isotherm Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.4.1 Henry’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.2 Monolayer Adsorption and the Langmuir Isotherm . . . . . . 30
2.4.3 Multilayer Adsorption and the BET Isotherm . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.4 Other Isotherm Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.5 Statistical Physics Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.6 Typical Values of Isotherm Parameters for Different
Adsorbate–Adsorbent Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 Regression Methods and Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.1 Model Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.2 Comparison Between Linear and Nonlinear
Regression Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6 Adsorption Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3 Adsorption Kinetics in Liquid Phase: Modeling
for Discontinuous and Continuous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Guilherme Luiz Dotto, Nina Paula Gonçalves Salau,
and Luiz Antonio Almeida de Pinto
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2 Adsorption Kinetics in Discontinuous Batch Systems . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.1 Diffusional Mass Transfer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.2 Adsorption Reaction Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 Fixed-Bed Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.1 Mass Balance and Modeling of the Breakthrough
Curves Based on Mass Transfer Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3.2 Empirical Models for Breakthrough Curves . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.3 Design of Fixed-Bed Adsorption Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4 Numerical Methods and Parameters Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.1 Solving Diffusional Mass Transfer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4.2 Solving Adsorption Reaction Models
and Empirical Models for Breakthrough Curves . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4 Hydrothermal Carbonisation: An Eco-Friendly Method
for the Production of Carbon Adsorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Carlos Javier Durán-Valle, Almudena B. Botet-Jiménez,
and Delia Omenat-Morán
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Hydrothermal Carbon Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.1 Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.2 Hydrothermal Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Contents ix
4.2.3 Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.4 Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2.5 Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2.6 Functionalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.7 Hydrothermal Versus Pyrolytic Carbonisation . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3 Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.1 Dye Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.3.2 Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.3 Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.4 Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.5 Metal Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.6 Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.7 Phenols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3.8 Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3.9 Reusability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5 Removal of Heavy Metals, Lead, Cadmium, and Zinc,
Using Adsorption Processes by Cost-Effective Adsorbents . . . . . . . . 109
Meng Xu and Gordon McKay
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.2 Adsorption Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2.1 Equilibrium Adsorption Isotherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2.2 Kinetic Studies and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3 Low-Cost Adsorbent Materials
and Metal Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.1 Agricultural Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.2 Industrial By-Products and Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.3 Marine Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.4 Zeolite and Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6 Removal of Antibiotics from Water by Adsorption/Biosorption
on Adsorbents from Different Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
José Rivera-Utrilla, Manuel Sánchez-Polo,
and Raúl Ocampo-Pérez
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.2 Adsorbent Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2.1 Commercial Activated Carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2.2 Sludge-Derived Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2.3 Activated Carbons from Petroleum Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
x Contents
6.3 Kinetic Study of the Adsorption of Tetracyclines

and Nitroimidazoles on Sludge-Derived Materials
and Activated Carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.3.1 Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles Characterization . . . . . . 157
6.3.2 Kinetic and Diffusional Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.3.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.4 Adsorption/Biosorption Equilibrium Isotherms
of Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles on Sludge-Derived
Materials and Activated Carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.4.1 Nitroimidazole Adsorption Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.4.2 Tetracyclines Adsorption Isotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.4.3 Influence of Operational Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.5 Adsorption of Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles
on Sludge-Derived Materials and Activated Carbons
in Dynamic Regime. Determination of the Breakthrough
Curves and Characteristics of the Adsorbent Columns . . . . . . . . . 193
6.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7 Biosorption of Copper by Saccharomyces cerevisiae:
From Biomass Characterization to Process Development . . . . . . . . . 205
Pietro Altimari, Fabrizio Di Caprio, and Francesca Pagnanelli
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.1 Yeast Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.2 Potentiometric Titration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.3 Immobilization into Calcium Alginate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.4 Batch Biosorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.2.5 Fixed-Bed Biosorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.3.1 Identification of the Biomass Active Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.3.2 Biosorption by Calcium Alginate Beads
Under Batch Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.3.3 Biosorption Under Fixed-Bed Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8 Transition Metal-Substituted Magnetite as an Innovative
Adsorbent and Heterogeneous Catalyst for Wastewater
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Shima Rahim Pouran, Mohammad Saleh Shafeeyan,
Abdul Aziz Abdul Raman, Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud,
and Abolfazl Bayrami
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.2 Transition Metal-Substituted Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Contents xi
8.3 Physicochemical Changes in Modified Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

8.4 Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.5 Oxidation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Contributors
Pietro Altimari Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome,

Italy
Abolfazl Bayrami Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, University
of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran
Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes, Aguasca-
lientes, México
Almudena B. Botet-Jiménez Departamento de Quı́mica Orgánica e Inorgánica,
Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
Tito Roberto Sant’Anna Cadaval Jr. Industrial Technology Laboratory, School
of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Fabrizio Di Caprio Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome,
Rome, Italy
Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Guilherme Luiz Dotto Chemical Engineering Department, Federal University of
Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
Carlos Javier Durán-Valle Departamento de Quı́mica Orgánica e Inorgánica,
Instituto Universitario de Investigación del Agua, Cambio Climático y
Sostenibilidad, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
Gordon McKay Division of Sustainability, College of Science and Engineering,
Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar
Didilia Ileana Mendoza-Castillo Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes,
Aguascalientes, México
xiii
xiv Contributors
Raúl Ocampo-Pérez Center of Research and Postgraduate Studies, Faculty of

Chemical Science, Autonomous University of San Luis Potosı́, San Luis Potosı́,
SLP, Mexico
Delia Omenat-Morán Departamento de Quı́mica Orgánica e Inorgánica,
Francesca Pagnanelli Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome,
Rome, Italy
Jeferson Steffanello Piccin Food Engineering Department, Passo Fundo Univer-
sity, UPF, Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil
Luiz Antonio Almeida de Pinto Industrial Technology Laboratory, School of
Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
Shima Rahim Pouran Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engi-
neering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Research Laboratory of Advanced Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes,
Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz,
Tabriz, Iran
Abdul Aziz Abdul Raman Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Hilda Elizabeth Reynel-Ávila Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes, Aguas-
calientes, México
José Rivera-Utrilla Inorganic Chemistry Department, University of Granada,
Granada, Spain
Manuel Sánchez-Polo Inorganic Chemistry Department, University of Granada,
Granada, Spain
Nina Paula Gonçalves Salau Chemical Engineering Department, Federal
University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
Mohammad Saleh Shafeeyan School of Chemical Engineering, College of
Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Meng Xu Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong
University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Chapter 1
Introduction
Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet, Didilia Ileana Mendoza-Castillo,

and Hilda Elizabeth Reynel-Ávila
Abstract This chapter covers fundamental aspects of adsorption process engineering.

In particular, the importance of adsorption processes for water treatment is discussed
and analyzed. Environmental impact of some key aquatic pollutants is also reviewed.
Opportunity areas for adsorption process intensification are also highlighted in this
chapter including a brief overview of the content of this book.
Keywords Adsorption • Water sanitation • Process intensification • Aquatic

pollutants
Contents
1.1 Adsorption: A Cost-Effective Technology for Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Priority Pollutants in Water Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Pharmaceuticals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Fluoride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.5 Arsenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.6 Emerging Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Adsorption Process Intensification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Synthesis of Tailored Adsorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Optimization and Design of Adsorption Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Modeling of Adsorption Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.4 Regeneration and Final Disposal of Exhausted Adsorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.5 Life Cycle Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Scope and Outline of Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A. Bonilla-Petriciolet (*)
Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes, Av. Lopez Mateos 1801, C.P. 20256,
Aguascalientes, Mexico
e-mail: [email protected]
D.I. Mendoza-Castillo • H.E. Reynel-Ávila
Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, Mexico
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

A. Bonilla-Petriciolet et al. (eds.), Adsorption Processes for Water Treatment
and Purification, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-58136-1_1
2 A. Bonilla-Petriciolet et al.
1.1 Adsorption: A Cost-Effective Technology for Water

Treatment
Water pollution control is a major environmental concern worldwide. For example,

it has been estimated that one third of world population can be affected by the lack
of safe drinking water (Schwarzenbach et al. 2010). Pollution of water resources is
caused by synthetic and natural chemicals that are released from a variety of
anthropogenic and natural sources including the geological composition of aqui-
fers. Different technologies for water treatment and purification have been exten-
sively discussed in the literature where the design and operation of affordable
methods can be still considered as a challenge. Herein, it is convenient to highlight
that all treatment methods have their own technical and economic boundaries for
real-life applications.
In particular, the adsorption process has been recognized as a viable technology
for water sanitation. Adsorption processes are widely used for the treatment of
wastewaters, groundwater, and industrial effluents including the production of
drinking water. This treatment method may offer several advantages for water
purification because it can be operated at different scenarios besides its easy use,
flexibility, versatile design, low-energy requirements, and cost-effectiveness trade-
off. Overall, the economic and technical feasibility of adsorption processes depends
on several factors including the adsorbent type, fluid properties and pollutants to be
removed, operating conditions, process configuration, regeneration, and waste
disposal.
Batch and continuous adsorption systems can be employed for water treatment,
and they offer different capabilities. Batch reactors are useful to determine adsorp-
tion rates, maximum adsorption capacities, and thermodynamic parameters includ-
ing the analysis of the adsorbate(s)-adsorbent interactions. On the other hand,
packed-bed columns are suitable for water purification in large-scale applications
where the treatment of significant volumes of fluids can be performed in short
operating times. Adsorption tests in packed columns are required to calculate
relevant parameters for scale-up such as the breakthrough and saturation times,
the bed adsorption capacity, and mass transfer parameters. This process configura-
tion also allows to determine the maximum performance of the adsorbent and to
identify the best dynamic operating scenario. Note that the operational conditions
of dynamic adsorption systems imply residence times lower than the equilibrium
time, and, consequently, the mass transfer resistances play a major role in the
removal of pollutants. Therefore, the removal effectiveness of continuous adsorp-
tion systems is usually lower than that obtained for batch processes.
Activated carbon is the universal adsorbent for liquid phase and still prevails as
the main commercial product for water pollution control (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2011;
Bhatnagar et al. 2013). However, a variety of alternative adsorbents has been
synthesized and proposed for the adsorption of aquatic pollutants. For illustration,
Table 1.1 shows a survey of different materials that can be employed in the removal
of anthropogenic and geogenic pollutants in the context of environmental water
1 Introduction
Table 1.1 Survey of materials used as adsorbents for water treatment and purification
Adsorbent Heavy metals Metalloids Halogens Dyes Pharmaceuticals Toxins Radioisotopes Organic pollutants
Alumina √ √ √ √ √ √
Activated carbon √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Biological materials √ √ √ √ √
Bone char √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Clays √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Composites √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Graphene-based adsorbents √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Low cost adsorbentsa √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Nano adsorbents √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Polymeric materials √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
a
Biomasses, agricultural, and industrial wastes and by-products
3
protection. They include aluminas (Kasprzyk-Hordern 2004), zeolites (Koshy and

Singh 2016), clays (Vinati et al. 2015), and novel adsorbents such as nanomaterials
(Santhosh et al. 2016), graphene-based adsorbents (Peng et al. 2017), magnetic
materials (Mehta et al. 2015), metal-organic frameworks (Kumar et al. 2017), and
others. Additionally, some studies have suggested the application of low-cost
adsorbents that comprise agricultural and industrial wastes and by-products
(Bhatnagar and Sillanpaa 2010; Adegoke and Bello 2015; De Gisi et al. 2016;
Ahmed and Ahmaruzzaman 2016) and biomasses (Bhatnagar et al. 2015).
To date, the vast amount of studies performed on the adsorption of aquatic
pollutants has mainly focused on the analysis and understanding of single solutions
(i.e., one adsorbate in solution). However, the multicomponent adsorption is rele-
vant for the design, optimization, and operation of real-life systems for purification
of wastewaters, industrial effluents, and groundwater. The simultaneous adsorption
of several adsorbates may imply synergic, antagonistic, or non-interaction effects
depending on the adsorbent, the number and type of adsorbates (i.e., pollutants),
and their concentrations, besides the fluid properties such as temperature and
pH. The presence of several pollutants in the same solution may significantly affect
the adsorbent performance. For instance, the adsorption of heavy metal ions in
multimetallic systems is affected by the properties and concentrations of the co-ions
(Choy and McKay 2005), while some dyes may favor the adsorption of metallic
species in mixtures metal þ dye (Hernandez-Eudave et al. 2016). The complex
physicochemical nature of real-life multicomponent systems imposes new chal-
lenges for water treatment technologies including adsorption processes.
Although adsorption is a consolidated technology, it is clear that there are
opportunity areas to improve its performance for facing current pollution problems
of groundwater and wastewater including the treatment of industrial effluents. With
this in mind, this book covers scientific advances related to the intensification of
adsorption processes for water treatment and purification. Chapters contained in
this book focus on the discussion and analysis of current topics from adsorption
research and gaps for further study that can contribute to the consolidation of this
separation process as a robust, economically feasible and environmentally friendly
method for water sanitation.
1.2 Priority Pollutants in Water Purification
There is a great variety of water pollutants with a wide range of physicochemical

properties and toxicological profiles. They include anthropogenic chemicals,
geogenic pollutants, and persistent compounds that imply different challenges for
adsorption processes. The most relevant aquatic pollutants include heavy metal
ions, metalloids, pesticides, biocides, pharmaceuticals, and other emerging
inorganic and organic compounds (Schwarzenbach et al. 2010). These pollutants
can be toxic for human beings and biota at the nanogram to milligram per liter level.
In some cases, they are considered priority in the context of water pollution control
1 Introduction 5
due to their persistence in the environment, bioaccumulation, and toxicological

profile. With illustrative purposes, key aquatic pollutants are discussed in the next
subsections.
1.2.1 Heavy Metals
Metallic species represent a significant proportion of the pollutants contained in the

effluents generated by a wide variety of industries. Heavy metal ions imply an
environmental risk due to their cumulative, toxic, and non-biodegradability
characteristics (Mouni et al. 2009). At certain concentration threshold, heavy
metals are toxic for human beings causing damages in the gastrointestinal, cardio-
vascular, renal, and peripheral central nervous systems (Ibrahim et al. 2006). The
toxicity of heavy metals is due to their ability to form compounds with cellular
components that contain sulfur, oxygen, or nitrogen producing the inhibition of
enzymes or the modification of protein structures leading to cellular dysfunctions in
the organism (Ibrahim et al. 2006). Mercury, cadmium, copper, zinc, nickel, lead,
chromium, aluminum, and cobalt are considered as priority aquatic pollutants due
to their toxicity (Dias et al. 2007; Fu and Wang 2011). According to literature,
several studies have focused on the adsorption of heavy metal ions (e.g., Rao et al.
2010; Barakat 2011; Gupta and Bhattacharyya 2012; Malik et al. 2016; Shah et al.
2016; Yu et al. 2016; Uddin 2017).
1.2.2 Dyes
Pigments and dyes are pollutants generated by food, rubber, paper, cosmetic,
pharmaceutical, automotive, and textile industries (Gong et al. 2008; Wong et al.
2009; Ghodbane and Hamdaoui 2010). It has been estimated that ~7 105 tons of
dyes per year are generated worldwide due to inefficient dyeing techniques (Wong
et al. 2009). Therefore, residual industrial effluents often contain a diversity of dyes.
These compounds can be classed in acid, basic, disperse, reactive, and direct dyes
(Ghodbane and Hamdaoui 2010). They have high molecular weights, complex
structures, and, consequently, a persistent and recalcitrant nature (Qui and Zheng
2009; Hernández-Montoya et al. 2013). Dyes and their metabolites can be toxic,
mutagenic, and carcinogenic to a wide variety of living organisms (Al-Ghouti et al.
2003). Adsorption process has proved to be an effective option to treat dye
polluted fluids. Several studies have been performed to evaluate the dye uptakes
of a vast number of adsorbents (e.g., Allen and Koumanova 2005; Demirbas 2009;
Chincholi et al. 2014; Yagub et al. 2014; Adeyemo et al. 2015; Seow and Lim 2016;
Vital et al. 2016).
1.2.3 Pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceuticals are considered as one of the emerging hazardous water pollutants

(Sarici-Ozdemir and Önal 2010; Bagheri et al. 2014). These pollutants have been
reported in trace levels (typically in ng/L and μg/L) in surface waters, wastewaters,
groundwaters and even drinking water (World Health Organization 2011). Phar-
maceuticals are generally better chemically characterized than other environmental
pollutants (World Health Organization 2011). The most common pharmaceuticals
are antibiotics, analgesics, anti-inflammatories, painkillers, and hormones. They
can be absorbed by the tissues of animals and humans (especially liver and kidney)
obstructing the metabolic processes and inhibiting the hormone receptors (World
Health Organization 2011). They can enter into the environment via the human or
animal excreta, and, consequently, these pharmaceuticals can reach the wastewater
treatment plants (Baccar et al. 2012; Bagheri et al. 2014). Recent literature has
reported that the conventional sewage treatment plants are not effective to remove/
degrade these species because they were not specifically designed for handling
trace pollutants (Baccar et al. 2012; Bagheri et al. 2014). Therefore, the pharma-
ceuticals can be continually introduced into water resources representing an envi-
ronmental risk for both ecosystems and human beings (Önal et al. 2007; Yu et al.
2008; Sarici-Ozdemir and Önal 2010; Baccar et al. 2012). Adsorption has been
proposed to remove these pollutants with satisfactory results. Adsorbents used for
pharmaceutical removal include activated carbons, silica, and zeolites (Fukahori
et al. 2011; Baccar et al. 2012; Martucci et al. 2012; Kim et al. 2014; Kyzas and
Deliyanni 2015). On the other hand, the most studied pharmaceuticals in adsorption
tests are naproxen, ibuprofen, diclofenac, erythromycin, atenolol, and carbamaze-
pine (Kim et al. 2014).
1.2.4 Fluoride
Fluoride is recognized by the World Health Organization as a toxic geogenic

pollutant that is present in groundwater (Jadhav et al. 2016). Fluoride pollution of
water resources is considered as a relevant environmental issue that is associated to
public health problems in several developing countries. It has been estimated that
over 260 million people worldwide consume fluoride-polluted groundwater (Sani
et al. 2016). Water consumption with fluoride concentrations higher than 1.5 mg/L
is associated to dental and skeletal fluorosis in human beings. Other health effects of
a chronic fluoride ingestion may include endocrine gland injury, thyroid disorder,
renal dysfunction, gastrointestinal disorders, gastric irritation, arthritis, cancer,
infertility, Alzheimer’s syndrome, and osteoporosis (Das et al. 2005; Gupta et al.
2007; Ozvath 2009; Tomar and Kumar 2013; Jadhav et al. 2016). Fluoride may
interfere with proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and enzymes that mediate coagu-
lation, glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, and neurotransmission causing
1 Introduction 7
serious disruptions to these important biochemical processes (Tomar and Kumar

2013; Kut et al. 2016). Water defluoridation can be performed via adsorption (e.g.,
Mohapatra et al. 2009; Bhatnagar et al. 2011; Miretzky and Cirelli 2011; Jagtap
et al. 2012; Loganathan et al. 2013; Velazquez-Jimenez et al. 2015; Vinati et al.
2015). However, activated carbons and other conventional adsorbents may show a
poor performance for fluoride removal.
1.2.5 Arsenic
Arsenic is also a geogenic pollutant that is widely distributed in the earth crust
(Mandal and Suzuki 2002). A chronic exposure to arsenic via mainly drinking water
may cause melanosis, keratosis, cancer (in skin, bladder, kidney, and lung), arterial
hypertension, and reproductive disorders (Shankar et al. 2014). The international
concentration and threshold of arsenic for drinking water is 10 μg/L. As stated by
Schwarzenbach et al. (2010), this pollutant exemplifies the dilemma between public
health concerns and economic feasibility of water sanitation technologies to reach
concentration levels of arsenic lower than the safety concentration threshold. The
arsenic adsorption from water implies both economic and technical challenges.
Several authors have analyzed the advantages and limitations of adsorption pro-
cesses for the treatment of water polluted by arsenic (Verma et al. 2014; Baig et al.
2015) and various adsorbents have been reported for the arsenic removal from
water (e.g., Mohan and Pittman 2007; Gallegos-Garcia et al. 2011; Verma et al.
2014; Baig et al. 2015; Habuda-Stanić and Nujić 2015; Jadhav et al. 2015).
1.2.6 Emerging Pollutants
In recent years, the advances in analytical instrumentation and techniques have

facilitated to detect very low concentrations (i.e., ng/L to μg/L) of several chemicals
present in groundwater and wastewaters (Nghiem and Fujioka 2016). This is 2the
case for the emerging chemicals, which have been recently recognized as relevant
aquatic pollutants despite they had occurred in the environment for a long time
(Jeirani et al. 2016; Nghiem and Fujioka 2016). These emerging pollutants are
generally defined as any synthetic or naturally occurring chemicals that are not
routinely monitored but come mainly from wastewaters of municipal, agricultural,
and industrial sources (Nghiem and Fujioka 2016). They can be classified depending
on their origin, use, or properties (Nghiem and Fujioka 2016). These compounds
include steroid hormones, phytoestrogens, personal care products, pesticides, hydro-
carbons, and disinfection by-products (Nghiem and Fujioka 2016). They have the
potential to cause adverse effects to biota and long-term human health effects such as
cancer. Note that several of these pollutants can be classified as endocrine disrupting
chemicals (Shi et al. 2012; Nghiem and Fujioka 2016). Conventional treatment
processes are not effective to control the water pollution problem caused by these
micro-pollutants. Adsorption has been explored for this purpose where activated
carbon (Zhang and Hofmann 2013; Jeirani et al. 2016), zeolites (Lule and Atalay
2014), clays (Bojemueller et al. 2001), and some polymers have been employed as
adsorbents of these emerging aquatic pollutants.
1.3 Adsorption Process Intensification
Process intensification is an engineering strategy to improve the performance,

metrics, and attributes of a system under investigation and, overall, it implies the
development of smaller, cleaner, and more energy-efficient technologies
(Stankiewicz and Moulijn 2000). In particular, adsorption process involves several
technical aspects that can be analyzed from a process intensification perspective;
see Fig. 1.1. It is clear that research efforts have been directed toward to improve
the different stages of adsorption process engineering for facing water pollution
control. This section provides an overview of the opportunity areas for adsorption
process intensification in water treatment and purification.
1.3.1 Synthesis of Tailored Adsorbents
The synthesis of novel adsorbents with outstanding properties for the adsorption of
aquatic pollutants is a permanent research area. Several studies have shown that the
effectiveness of adsorbents for the removal of organic pollutants is usually higher
Fig. 1.1 Engineering

aspects involved in the
adsorption process
intensification for water
sanitation
1 Introduction 9
than that obtained for inorganic compounds including geogenic chemicals. It is

important to remark that textural properties and surface chemistry are fundamental
to establish the performance of adsorbents in wastewater treatment and water
purification. Physicochemical properties of adsorbents can be tailored for a specific
application using proper synthesis protocols. The synthesis route and feedstock
(i.e., precursor) determine both the surface chemistry and textural parameters of the
adsorbent. The surface chemistry of adsorbents can be modified using thermal and
chemical treatments with acids, bases, ozone, reactive gases, and surfactants. Also,
impregnation procedures with organic and inorganic species (e.g., rare earth ele-
ments), biological modification, plasma, and microwave treatments can be used to
modify the adsorbent surface properties (Bhatnagar et al. 2013). Novel synthesis
technologies based on microwave and ultrasound offer several possibilities for
obtaining new adsorbents for water pollution control (Jamshidi et al. 2016). The
selection of a proper surface modification protocol is paramount to impact the cost-
efficacy trade-off of adsorption processes. It is convenient to remark that a signif-
icant number of variables can be involved in the synthesis of an adsorbent, which
should be manipulated using proper experimental designs to identify their effect on
adsorbent properties and the best conditions for the adsorbent preparation. This type
of studies also allows to understand the solid-liquid interfaces involved in the
adsorption of water pollutants.
During the last years, several studies have given an emphasis of tailoring the
adsorption properties of activated carbons and other adsorbents for the removal of
water inorganic and organic pollutants. However, the synthesis of effective adsor-
bents for the simultaneous removal of several pollutants in the same solution is still
a challenge. It is expected that the synthesis conditions that improve the adsorbent
performance for one pollutant could be contradictory with those conditions required
to maximize the adsorption of other pollutant. Therefore, there is a lack of studies
related to the multiobjective optimization of adsorbent synthesis for an effective
simultaneous removal of different aquatic pollutants. Green and energy-saving
technologies are also required for the industrial production of outstanding adsor-
bents for water treatment.
1.3.2 Optimization and Design of Adsorption Systems
Adsorbent performance in water treatment is a nonlinear function of several

operating parameters including fluid properties (e.g., pH, temperature), pollutant
characteristics and concentration, and the presence of other adsorbates. It is well
known that both adsorbent and adsorbate characteristics determine the adsorption
mechanism, which may include ion exchange, electrostatic interactions, surface
precipitation, chemical reactions, or a combination of them. The operating condi-
tions of adsorption processes can be optimized via experimental designs and
statistical analysis to maximize the adsorbent performance for the removal of a
specific compound or set of pollutants. For instance, the adsorption effectiveness in
packed-bed columns is a function of both the operating conditions and bed

geometry where adsorbent size and distribution, fluid flow rate, adsorbate concen-
tration, pH, temperature, and adsorbent mass are the main design parameters. These
design variables can be manipulated to identify those conditions that provide the
maximum bed adsorption capacity.
In terms of adsorption design, the reduction of mass transfer resistances is
paramount to improve the separation effectiveness and to reduce the operational
costs especially for continuous adsorption systems. In this direction, some studies
have evaluated the use of alternative bed geometries/configurations to enhance the
removal performance of packed-bed columns. For example, the adsorption of water
pollutants with tapered convergent and stratified beds (Pota and Mathews 2000; Sze
and McKay 2012) and helical coil-packed columns (Moreno-Pérez et al. 2016) have
been analyzed. Other authors have reported the application of external forces to
improve the adsorption of aquatic pollutants. They include the application of
ultrasound (Dashamiri et al. 2017), electrical, and magnetic fields (Lounici et al.
2004; González Vázquez et al. 2016) with promising results. These emerging
technologies require further investigation to determine their capabilities and limi-
tations for scale-up and industrial applications.
1.3.3 Modeling of Adsorption Processes
The modeling of adsorption processes is relevant for the design, operation, optimi-
zation, and control of water purification technologies for real-life applications.
Adsorption models can be classed as theoretical, semiempirical, and empirical.
They may involve simple analytical expressions or complex systems of algebraic
and differential equations when mass transfer phenomena are considered. Adsorp-
tion data can be also modeled using computationally intelligent data processing
algorithms such as artificial neural networks (Tovar-Gómez et al. 2013) or fuzzy
logic (Asl et al. 2017).
Adsorption models are indeed nonlinear and multivariable especially when they
are applied in the analysis of multicomponent systems (i.e., groundwater, industrial
effluents, and wastewater). Therefore, the modeling of adsorption data is considered
as a challenging mathematical problem that should imply a nonlinear data regres-
sion procedure for the determination of model parameters with a proper error
function and a detailed statistical analysis for establishing the model performance
(Dotto et al. 2013). Note that, depending on the model complexity, the application
of other computational strategies is often necessary in adsorption data correlation,
e.g., the use of numerical methods for solving partial differential equations when
mass transfer models are applied. It is desirable that an adsorption model can
provide a reliable estimation of the process performance without requiring the
use of extensive experimental data and it should have a suitable mathematical
complexity, a capability for providing an acceptable accuracy in the correlation
and estimation of adsorption performance at different operating conditions, and the
1 Introduction 11
model should be useful for assessing the effect of operating variables on the
adsorption effectiveness. In summary, the selected model should reflect a compro-
mise between its mathematical complexity and the accuracy obtained for process
description.
It is convenient to remark that the numerical performance of adsorption models
cannot be determined a priori and they may show limitations for data analysis
depending on the adsorption system under study and its operating conditions.
In fact, there is no general model applicable to all adsorbate(s)/adsorbent systems,
and different adsorption models should be tested for identifying the best option for
the case of study at hand. To date, there is a lack of studies to identify and to
compare the relative advantages and limitations of available models in the analysis
of adsorption processes for the removal of priority water pollutants especially in
multicomponent systems. As stated, multicomponent adsorption systems impose
challenges for available models due to the simultaneous presence of antagonistic,
synergic, and non-interaction effects. For example, the simultaneous removal of
heavy metals and acid dyes is complex due to the synergistic adsorption promoted
by the dye molecule and the competitive adsorption between metallic species
(Tovar-Gómez et al. 2015). For this type of mixtures, traditional models may fail
to reproduce and predict the adsorbent performance at different operating scenarios.
It is clear that reliable adsorption models are required for the analysis of
multicomponent systems containing different organic and inorganic pollutants,
which should be representative of groundwater, wastewater, and industrial
effluents.
1.3.4 Regeneration and Final Disposal of Exhausted

Adsorbents
Regeneration of exhausted adsorbents is a fundamental stage to establish the

economic feasibility of adsorption as a water purification technology. The adsor-
bent performance is gradually reduced due to the progressive accumulation of
adsorbates on adsorbent surface causing its exhausting. The strength of the inter-
actions adsorbate(s)-adsorbate and the adsorbate concentration loaded on the
adsorbent play a major role in the regeneration process. Therefore, the regeneration
is used to remove the adsorbates accumulated on the surface and to recover the
adsorbent capacity. Note that there is a decrement of the adsorption capacity of the
adsorbent in each regeneration cycle.
Regeneration strategies can be classified in thermal, chemical, microbiological,
and vacuum regeneration (Salvador et al. 2015a, b). The mechanisms used in
adsorbent regeneration may imply heating, pH variation, changes in the medium
for adsorbate extraction, chemical reactions, and degradation (Salvador et al.
2015a, b). These regeneration methods can use different reagents such as solvents,
organic and inorganic chemical compounds, electrical current, physical waves, and
microorganisms (Salvador et al. 2015a, b). The recovery of adsorption capacity is

determined by the regeneration agent, the physicochemical properties of adsorbent
and loaded pollutants, and the operating conditions. Desorption and regeneration
efficiencies of these methods may vary substantially, and the best option for the
adsorbent and pollutants at hand should be identified. Regeneration conditions
should be optimized to improve the adsorbent lifetime favoring its uses in several
adsorption-desorption cycles and to reduce the damage in the adsorbent structure
avoiding a significant loss of mass and active sites.
For the case of adsorbents used in water treatment, the chemical regeneration is
the common approach to perform the adsorption-desorption cycles. Recently, novel
regeneration methods have been proposed, and they include the use of microwaves
or ultrasound (Salvador et al. 2015a, b). Electromagnetic and mechanical waves are
applied in microwaves and ultrasound regeneration processes, which have been
recognized as energy-saving methods. However, the industrial use of these tech-
nologies requires further research to solve their disadvantages. Some studies have
also analyzed the potential of microbiological regeneration for adsorbents
employed in water treatment (e.g., Aguayo-Villarreal et al. 2016). In conclusion,
low-cost and eco-friendly regeneration technologies are required to enhance the
cost-efficacy trade-off of adsorption processes for water treatment and purification.
Finally, the disposal of adsorbents at their end of operational life after several
adsorption-desorption cycles is also a key aspect to reduce the environmental
impact caused by solid waste generation. The traditional approach for the disposal
of exhausted adsorbents includes their incineration and use in landfills. However,
the improper disposal of exhausted adsorbents may increase the costs of water
treatment. The use of spent adsorbents in other industrial applications is an attrac-
tive approach for waste minimization. For example, Rao et al. (2009) have analyzed
the disposal of fluoride-loaded bone char as a fine aggregate of concrete. Further
studies are required in this direction to determine alternatives for the reusing and
disposing of spent adsorbents.
1.3.5 Life Cycle Analysis
Life cycle analysis is useful to assess and quantify all the environmental interactions
over the stages of the life cycle of an adsorbent manufacturing chain, its use,
and disposal in terms of inputs of energy and natural resources and of outputs of
emissions to the different environmental compartments (Arena et al. 2016). This
analysis should include the effects on natural resources, environment, and
human health.
The capabilities and limitations of different adsorbents can be identified via the
life cycle assessment providing a detailed sustainability analysis of the water
purification process. For example, Alhashimi and Aktas (2017) have analyzed
and compared the environmental and economic performance of biochar and acti-
vated carbon for the adsorption of heavy metals. Results showed that biochar is a
1 Introduction 13
better adsorbent with lower energy demand and global warming potential impact
than those of activated carbon for heavy metal removal. Authors of this chapter
consider that this type of comparisons should be extended for other adsorbents.
Although several promising adsorbents have been recently proposed for water
treatment, the assessment of environmental impacts involved in the manufacturing
chain of these materials is still lacking. Therefore, the industrial production and
commercialization of these adsorbents can be a matter of debate. Further studies in
this direction are required to identify and develop sustainable synthesis routes for
the industrial production of adsorbents with outstanding properties for water san-
itation. Therefore, it is mandatory to analyze the advantages and limitations, from
environmental impact and economical perspectives, of novel adsorbents in com-
parison to activated carbon using the life cycle analysis.
1.4 Scope and Outline of Chapters
This book covers the state of the art of relevant topics of adsorption processes for
water pollution control. Chapters contain the analysis and discussion of data
modeling, synthesis of new adsorbents, and the application of adsorbents for the
removal of aquatic pollutants.
In particular, Chap. 2 covers different fundaments related to adsorption equilib-
rium in liquid phase including its experimental determination, analysis, and model-
ing in batch reactors. Guidelines and experimental procedures to obtain adsorption
isotherms are discussed. The Giles classification of adsorption isotherms in liquid
phase is introduced and analyzed. Different models commonly used for data fitting
of adsorption isotherms in liquid phase are discussed. In particular, this chapter
introduces the basis of statistical physical models for representing and understand-
ing the liquid-phase adsorption. Advantages and limitations of linear and nonlinear
regression analysis are also discussed including statistical criteria for determining
the model accuracy. Finally, the thermodynamics of adsorption process is described
given a special emphasis in the calculation of equilibrium constant and its impli-
cation in the estimation of thermodynamic parameters.
Kinetics approaches used for adsorption modeling are covered and reviewed in
Chap. 3. The description and fundaments of diffusional mass transfer and reaction
models are provided. Additionally, the characteristics of the breakthrough curves
obtained for dynamic adsorption systems (e.g., packed-bed columns) are analyzed
including mass transfer and empirical models for their correlation and representa-
tion. This chapter also contains the design of fixed-bed columns, numerical
methods used for solving mass transfer-based models, parameter estimation pro-
cedures, and statistical criterions for data analysis.
Hydrothermal carbonization is examined in detail in Chap. 4. Specifically, this
chapter discusses the basis, synthesis variables, operating conditions, and advan-
tages of using this thermochemical route for the preparation of adsorbents for water
treatment. Authors have reviewed different raw materials and synthesis conditions
for the preparation of hydrochars. Physicochemical properties of hydrochars are

also compared with those adsorbents obtained with pyrolysis. A detailed review of
the application of hydrochars in the adsorption of dyes, pesticides, drugs, endocrine
disruptive chemicals, phosphorus, phenols, and heavy metals is reported. Some key
points related to the reusability of hydrochars are also presented in this chapter.
The application of low-cost adsorbents for the removal of lead, cadmium, and
zinc from aqueous solution is analyzed and discussed in Chap. 5. This discussion is
focused on agricultural wastes, industrial by-products and wastes, marine materials,
zeolites, and clays. The chapter provides the characteristics of these low-cost
adsorbents, their sources, and metal adsorption capacities at different operating
conditions. This analysis also includes the best kinetic and isotherm models used in
adsorption data fitting of heavy metal ions.
The adsorption of tetracyclines and nitroimidazole drugs on different adsorbents
is reported in Chap. 6. Commercial activated carbons, sludge-derived materials, and
activated carbons obtained from petroleum coke with different chemical and textural
natures have been studied. This chapter describes the results of adsorption studies in
static and dynamic regime using ultrapure water, surface water, groundwater, and
urban wastewater. Authors have highlighted the influence of solution chemical
nature (pH and ionic strength) on the adsorption of these compounds analyzing the
adsorbent-adsorbate interactions. Also, the impact of microorganisms on the per-
formance of activated carbon for the removal of these pollutants has been analyzed.
In Chap. 7, authors have studied the biosorption of copper using Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. This chapter illustrates the importance of developing a model capable of
describing the effect of operating conditions on biosorption performance. Batch and
packed-bed biosorption studies are reported given an especial emphasis on the
modeling of experimental data.
Finally, Chap. 8 introduces the application of transition metal-substituted magnetite
as a material with a dual function: adsorbent and heterogeneous catalyst for water
sanitation. Authors have covered the synthesis of this type of adsorbents, their physi-
cochemical properties, and its performance as both adsorbent and Fenton catalyst.
Editors and authors of this book consider that topics covered in these chapters
are relevant to contribute for the development of adsorption processes for water
treatment and sanitation.
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Chapter 2
Adsorption Isotherms in Liquid Phase:
Experimental, Modeling, and Interpretations

Luiz Antonio Almeida de Pinto, and Guilherme Luiz Dotto
Abstract Adsorption is a fundamental unit operation used for several purposes in

the academy and industry. Particularly, adsorption in liquid phase is used to remove
recalcitrant compounds from effluents (dyes, heavy metals, phenols, pharmaceuti-
cals, and others), to recover valuable metals from leachates (gold, silver, cobalt, and
others), and to purify products during the industrial processing (fuels, juices,
liquors, wines, and others). For all these applications, the obtainment, modeling,
and interpretation of the equilibrium isotherms are a key and fundamental study.
Based on the abovementioned, this chapter presents the particularities of adsorption
equilibrium isotherms in liquid phase from scientific and technological viewpoints.
From the scientific viewpoint, the importance of adsorption isotherms will be
addressed. For example, the equilibrium isotherms provide parameters for
decision-making of the researcher in relation to the adsorption capacity of a
particular adsorbent, give an idea how the interaction of adsorbent–adsorbate
occurs, and provide means to find thermodynamic parameters, among others.
From technological viewpoint, the adsorption capacity of the material is a basic
parameter for the project. Thus, in this chapter the following points are highlighted:
experimental procedures to obtain equilibrium curves, isotherm analysis, models
used to correlate the equilibrium data and interpretation of its parameters, regres-
sion methods (comparison between linear and nonlinear regression methods), error
analysis, adsorption thermodynamics, and the use of these data for equipment
design.
J.S. Piccin
Food Engineering Department, Passo Fundo University, UPF, Br. 285, Km 171, 99052-900,
Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil
T.R.S. Cadaval Jr. • L.A.A. de Pinto
Industrial Technology Laboratory, School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio
Grande, km 08 Itália Avenue, 96203-900, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
G.L. Dotto (*)
Chemical Engineering Department, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue,
97105-900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil

20 J.S. Piccin et al.
Keywords Adsorption • Equilibrium • Isotherms • Liquid phase • Modeling
Contents
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Experimental Procedures to Obtain Equilibrium Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Classification of the Equilibrium Isotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.1 Subclasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Adsorption Isotherm Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.1 Henry’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.2 Monolayer Adsorption and the Langmuir Isotherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.3 Multilayer Adsorption and the BET Isotherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.4 Other Isotherm Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.5 Statistical Physics Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.6 Typical Values of Isotherm Parameters for Different Adsorbate–Adsorbent
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 Regression Methods and Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5.1 Model Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.2 Comparison Between Linear and Nonlinear Regression Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6 Adsorption Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.7 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.1 Introduction
Adsorption is a unit operation that involves the contact of a solid phase with a fluid
phase (liquid or gas) (Ruthven 1984). In this work, only the solid–liquid adsorption
is addressed. The solid phase is known as adsorbent and the liquid phase (the
solvent, normally water) contains one or more compounds to be adsorbed (the
adsorbates). Due to unbalanced forces, the adsorbate is attracted to the adsorbent
surface, and consequently, the degrees of freedom and the surface free energy are
reduced (Suzuki 1993). The transference of the adsorbate from the liquid phase to
the solid phase continues until the equilibrium to be reached between the amount of
adsorbate linked in the adsorbent and the amount of adsorbate remaining in the
solution. The affinity degree between the adsorbent and adsorbate determines this
distribution in liquid and solid phases (Rouquerol et al. 2014).
In general, the adsorption can be classified according to the type of interaction
that occurs between the adsorbent and adsorbate. If there is an electron transfer
between the adsorbent and adsorbate, then, it is a chemical adsorption or chemi-
sorption. In this case, the adsorption involves electron transfer, and it is of high
energy, ranging from 40 to 800 kJ/mol and, consequently, desorption is difficult,
and thus the process is irreversible and only a monolayer is observed. In chemi-
sorption, the interactions can occur mainly by ionic or covalent bonds (Crini and
Badot 2008). Otherwise, if no electron exchange is observed, a physical adsorption
or physisorption occurs. In this case, the adsorption energies are low, ranging from
5 to 40 kJ/mol and, consequently, desorption is possible and the process can be
reversible and multilayer adsorption is possible. In physisorption, the interactions
2 Adsorption Isotherms in Liquid Phase: Experimental, Modeling. . . 21
can be electrostatic, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals, or dipole–dipole (Bergmann

and Machado 2015). It should be highlighted that this classification between
physical and chemical adsorption is a general behavior, but is not a dogma. Each
case should be examined separately.
Several advantages have been cited regarding the adsorption operation. For
example, in comparison with other unit operations, the adsorption in liquid medium
has a low energetic requirement and its implementation and operation are easy.
Many materials can be used as adsorbents, which can be regenerated and reused
several times. This practice becomes the adsorption in a low-cost operation. Also,
adsorption is efficient since it can remove or recover all the adsorbate from the
solution, providing a perfect separation. After, the adsorbent and adsorbate could be
reused. In some cases, adsorption is also selective (Do 1998). On the other hand,
after the adsorption, an additional operation can be necessary to provide a good
solid–liquid separation, for example, filtration, sedimentation, or centrifugation.
Another drawback is high cost of activated carbon, the adsorbent most commonly
used, mainly due its high surface area. In some cases, a secondary problem can
occur with the disposal of the generated sludge (Bansal and Goyal 2005).
To develop an adequate adsorption system, the adsorbent choice is the first and
fundamental aspect. A good adsorbent should have the following characteristics:
low cost; availability; efficiency; high surface area and pore volume; mechanical,
chemical, and thermal stability; ease of desorption and reuse; and able to provide a
fast kinetics and, mainly, present a high adsorption capacity (Rodrigues 2015). For
this proposal, the activated carbon is the adsorbent most utilized (Bansal and Goyal
2005). Other common adsorbents are clays, silica, and zeolites (Rouquerol et al.
2014). However, in the last years, several researches have been focused on the
preparation, characterization, and application of nonconventional adsorbents. Some
examples are powdered agro-wastes, powdered industrial wastes, chitosan, chitin,
fungi, bacteria, and algae (Dotto et al. 2015a). Surely, these studies are relevant,
but, to choose an adequate adsorbent, among other information, the following
question is fundamental: in which process the adsorbent will be used?
In operational terms, some configurations are possible for an adsorption process,
for example, discontinuous batch adsorption, continuous stirred-tank reactor
(CSTR), fixed bed adsorption, expanded bed adsorption, fluidized bed adsorption,
simulated moving bed adsorption, and others (Rouquerol et al. 2014; Dotto et al.
2015a; Rodrigues 2015). In this chapter, the discontinuous batch adsorption and the
fixed bed adsorption will be addressed, since they account for about 90% of the
scientific literature.
Figure 2.1 shows a schematic representation of a discontinuous batch adsorption
operation. In this case, a certain amount m of a pure adsorbent is put in contact with
a solution with an initial volume V0 and an initial concentration of adsorbate C0.
The solution is stirred at temperature constant until the end of operation (e.g., the
equilibrium). During the operation period, the adsorbate is transferred to the
adsorbent surface, decreasing its concentration in the solution until Ce and increas-
ing its quantity in the solid phase until qe (Crini and Badot 2008).
Stirring at
constant T until
the equilibrium
m, C0, m, Ce,
V0, q0 Vf, qe
Fig. 2.1 Schematic representation of a discontinuous batch adsorption operation
In discontinuous batch operations, a simple mathematic treatment is normally

performed to obtain the amount of adsorbate adsorbed into the adsorbent at
equilibrium (qe). A global mass balance of the adsorbate is given by Eq. (2.1)
(Geankoplis 1998):
C0 V 0 þ q0 m ¼ Ce V f þ qe m ð2:1Þ
For a virgin adsorbent, the amount of adsorbate at the beginning is equal to 0,

leading to Eq. (2.2):
C0 V 0 ¼ Ce V f þ qe m ð2:2Þ
or
C0 V 0 Ce V f
qe ¼ ð2:3Þ
m
In the majority of the experimental cases, the aliquot removed for quantification
of the adsorbate is negligible regarding the total volume of the solution, leading to
V0 ¼ Vf ¼ V. So, the amount of adsorbate adsorbed into the adsorbent at equilibrium
is given by Eq. (2.4):
ðC0 Ce ÞV
qe ¼ ð2:4Þ
m
The discontinuous batch adsorption systems are useful and fundamental to verify
the quality of an adsorbent and define some operational parameters, such as pH,
temperature, amount of adsorbent, and operation time, in laboratory scale. Also it is
used for industrial applications for small volumes (Piccin et al. 2009, 2011).
Figure 2.2 shows a schematic representation of a fixed bed adsorption operation.
In fixed bed adsorption systems, a solution with initial adsorbate concentration C0
(normally named influent) is pumped at a flow rate Q, through a column with
Fig. 2.2 Schematic representation of a fixed adsorption operation
Z height, which is packed with a certain amount m of adsorbent. During the

operation, the adsorbate is transferred from the solution to the adsorbate surface.
As a consequence, the solution is clarified, achieving an output concentration of Ct.
The output solution is normally named effluent. The equilibrium is attained when
the bed saturation occurs, i.e., Ct ¼ C0 (Shafeeyan et al. 2014).
In the case of fixed bed operations, the data analysis is performed aiming to
obtain the breakthrough time (tb), exhaustion time (te), length of mass transfer zone
(Zm), effluent volume (Veff), maximum capacity of the column (qeq), and removal
percentage (R). The breakthrough time (tb) is considered when the outlet adsorbate
concentration attains low levels (in general less than 5%) in relation to the initial
concentration, and the exhaustion time (te) is considered when the outlet concen-
tration attains 95% of the initial concentration. The Zm reflects the shortest possible
adsorbent bed length needed to obtain the breakthrough time tb at t ¼ 0. The metric
length of this zone is calculated by Eq. (2.5) (Worch 2008):

tb
Zm ¼ Z 1 ð2:5Þ
te
The volume of the effluent, Veff, is given by Eq. (2.6):
V eff ¼ Qttotal ð2:6Þ
where ttotal is the total operation time.

The maximum capacity of the column (qeq) is given by Eq. (2.7):

Ð
ttotal Ct
QC0 1 dt
0 Co
qeq ¼ ð2:7Þ
m
The integral in Eq. (2.7) is the area above the breakthrough curve from Ct/C0 ¼ 0
to Ct/C0 ¼ 1.
The removal percentage (R) is given by Eq. (2.8) (Dotto et al. 2015b):

Ð
ttotal Ct
1 dt
0 Co
R¼ 100 ð2:8Þ
ttotal
The fixed bed systems are useful and fundamental in order to scale up the
adsorption operations. The real operational conditions, such as flow rate and bed
height, can be simulated, and parameters for scale-up can be obtained. For example,
from laboratory fixed bed experiments, it is possible to estimate the column height
necessary to obtain a good quality effluent in a determined time. This height can be
easily transferred for pilot or industrial scale (Vieira et al. 2014; Dotto et al. 2015b).
To develop an adsorption operation, in discontinuous batch or in fixed bed
systems, the first step is the adsorbent choice and the second is the obtainment of
the adsorption isotherms. Adsorption isotherms are a relation between the amount
of adsorbate adsorbed in the adsorbent (qe) and the amount of adsorbate remaining
in the liquid phase (Ce), when the two phases are in dynamic equilibrium at a
determined temperature. In liquid phase adsorption systems, the isotherm curves
are important due to the following aspects:
• From the isotherm parameters, it is possible to obtain the maximum adsorption
capacity of a determined adsorbent under different experimental conditions. The
maximum adsorption capacity is an indicative of the adsorbent quality.
• Also from the isotherm parameters, it is possible to obtain information about the
energetic, steric, and affinity viewpoints.
• The isotherm shape can provide information about the interaction mechanism
that occurs between the adsorbent and the adsorbate.
• In terms of the adsorption rate modeling, a local equilibrium is generally
considered, in order to solve the partial differential equations. This local equi-
librium is mathematically described by the adsorption isotherms.
• Thermodynamic adsorption parameters, such as standard Gibbs free energy
change (ΔG0), standard enthalpy change (ΔH0), and standard entropy change
(ΔS0), can be found from the isotherms. These parameters are fundamental to
verify the spontaneity and nature of the adsorption operation.
In the light of this knowledge, the equilibrium isotherms should be examined
carefully. Firstly, the equilibrium experiments should be performed with several
experimental points. After, the isotherm curves should be correctly classified.

Suitable models should be fitted to the curves, in order to find an adequate
representation and consistent parameters. For this, a correct statistic treatment is
necessary. Finally, the isotherms can be used to find information about the adsorp-
tion operation.
2.2 Experimental Procedures to Obtain Equilibrium

Curves
For the construction of adsorption isotherm, it is necessary that a series of equilib-

rium concentration data of the liquid phase with its respective adsorption capacity is
obtained. These data not only should be in temperature equilibrium but also in all
other system conditions, such as adsorbent characteristics, agitation, solution vol-
ume, and especially pH, in the case of adsorption in liquid phase. Then, in the batch
adsorption tests, an adsorbent dosage (m) is mixed with a certain volume (V0) of a
solution at an initial solute concentration (C0).
In this context, a number of methods have been standardized to obtain the
adsorption isotherms and this section will handle some of these methods. The
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) reports two methodologies
for the determination of adsorption isotherms in liquid phase. The ASTM D-3860 is
the standard practice for the determination of adsorptive capacity of activated
carbon by aqueous phase isotherm technique. This practice covers the determina-
tion of the adsorptive capacity of activated carbon to remove undesirable constit-
uents from water and wastewater. The method suggested by the ASTM, in this case,
reports that different adsorbent dosages are placed into contact with a solution
containing known solute concentration. Thus, when equilibrium is reached, differ-
ent values of equilibrium concentrations (Ce) are obtained and the adsorption
capacities (qe) are calculated by Eq. (2.4). According to the method, for the
activated carbon, usually after few hours equilibrium is reached. However, the
time required for equilibrium to be reached will be treated later.
Already the ASTM D-4706 test method covers the determination of the relative
activation level of unused or reactivated carbons by adsorption of iodine from
aqueous solution. This test method is based upon a three-point adsorption isotherm,
and the standard iodine solution is treated with three different weights of activated
carbon under specified conditions, according to the ASTM D-3860. The equilib-
rium data are processed using the Langmuir model (which will be discussed later)
and the iodine number is the maximum adsorption capacity of the monolayer (qm).
Van Den Hul and Lyklema (1968) and Hang and Brindley (1970) proposed a
method for determining the available surface area for adsorption in an aqueous
medium based on adsorption isotherm Methylene Blue dye (CAS No. 61-73-4).
This method is based on the adsorption of a layer of Methylene Blue on the surface
(internal and external) material. Based on the maximum monolayer adsorption
capacity (qm) obtained by Langmuir model (Eq. (2.18)) that is treated subsequently,
it is possible to obtain the number of molecules adsorbed per unit area (the
projected area of the Methylene Blue molecule is 1.08 1018 m2/molecule) and
the total area (ap, in m2/g) of the adsorbent according to Eq. (2.9):
ap ¼ 1:7388qm ð2:9Þ
Although the methods of ASTM suggest that the adsorption isotherms are
performed by different dosages of adsorbent, more recent works by adsorption,
especially those that use nonconventional adsorbents, have chosen to use fixed
adsorbent dosages, and different point isotherms are obtained varying the solute
initial concentration of the solution. By this method, variations in the adsorption
system conditions are less susceptible. In this case, for example, stock solutions
containing 300 or 400 mg/L (or more) are diluted in the ratio 1:1 (solution/solvent)
obtaining different initial conditions. Both methods (different dosages of adsorbent
and different initial concentrations of the solute solution) lead to the same result if
the technique is properly developed.
However, we want to draw attention to the considerations regarding the adsorp-
tion equilibrium. Several authors have presented data kinetic adsorption capacity
justifying that equilibrium is achieved within hours after consecutive measurements
performed in relatively short times (few minutes or a few hours) showing similar
results. However, we consider that for determining the correct balance, this should
be measured in longer periods of time, i.e., from 8 to 12 h, being performed until
there are no observed changes in the equilibrium concentration. The evaluation of
these changes can be detected by lower coefficients of variation of 5% in the
equilibrium concentration in three consecutive measurements, as suggested by
some authors.
2.3 Classification of the Equilibrium Isotherms
As described above, the equilibrium isotherms show the amount of adsorbate that
can be adsorbed by the adsorbent (qe) in relation to the equilibrium concentration of
the adsorbate in fluid phase (Ce). These are critical parameters in the adsorption
system design. Furthermore, the shape of the equilibrium curve helps to explain
certain phenomena associated with the interaction between the adsorbate and
adsorbent. Therefore, the isotherm shape not only provides information on the
affinity between the molecules but also reflects the possible mode of interaction
between adsorbate and adsorbent (Wong et al. 2004).
The classification of liquid–solid adsorption isotherms describes a system (Giles
et al. 1960) and suggests how their form can be used to diagnose the adsorption
mechanism, in order to obtain information regarding the physical nature of the
adsorbate and the adsorbent surface and also to measure the specific surface area of
the adsorbent. In this classification, the equilibrium curves are identified according
s L H C
1
Adsorption capacity qe (mg or mol)/g
2
σ σ
σ σ
3
4
mx
Equilibrium concentration Ce (mg or mol)/L

Fig. 2.3 Adsorption isotherm classification (Giles et al. 1960)
to the initial slope into four main classes, and subgroups are described for each
class, based on the shapes of the upper parts and slope changes. Figure 2.3 shows
the classification proposed by Giles et al. (1960).
The main classes are (i) S curves or vertical orientation isotherm, (ii) L curves or
normal or “Langmuir” isotherms, (iii) H curves or high affinity isotherms, and
(iv) C curves or constant partition isotherm.
S Curves As can be seen in Fig. 2.3, the S type isotherm has an inclined slope of the
curve followed by a vertical orientation. Initially, when the adsorbate concentration
increases, there is a chance of the adsorbate to find an available site so that it can
occupy, due to competition between solute molecules. Thus, the adsorption capac-
ity is “limited,” reaching a plateau. However, this behavior in type S isotherms is
opposed, causing the increase of curve slope. This is due to a vertical orientation
tendency of the solute molecules in a higher concentration, and then more sites are
Fig. 2.4 Schematic representation of the molecule orientation in S type isotherms: (a) at low
concentration; (b) at high concentration (Giles et al. 1960)
available for adsorption. In practice, the S curve usually appears when three
conditions are fulfilled: (a) the solute molecule is monofunctional; (b) there is a
moderate intermolecular attraction, leading to pack vertically in regular array in the
adsorbed layer; and (c) there is strong competition, for substrate sites, from
molecules of the solvent or another adsorbed species. Figure 2.4 shows a schematic
representation of the orientation of the molecules in S type isotherms.
L Curves The normal or Langmuir isotherms are most commonly found in solute
adsorption in aqueous solution. The initial shape of the equilibrium curve follows
the basic premise that the higher the solute concentration, the greater the adsorption
capacity until the number of adsorption site clearance is limited, occurring compe-
tition between solute molecules for the available sites. Usually, it is an indicative
that the molecules are adsorbed flat on the surface or, sometimes, of vertically
oriented adsorbed ions with particularly strong intermolecular attraction. Thus they
have one of the following characteristics: (i) the adsorbed molecules are more likely
to be adsorbed flat or (ii) are systems with high polar solute and substrate. This
isotherm type indicated that the adsorption occurs due to relatively weak forces,
such as van der Waals forces.
H Curves The basic difference between the normal isotherms or L type with the
high affinity isotherm relates to the beginning of the equilibrium curve. While L
type isotherm has its beginning in the origin, H type isotherm shows an initial
portion with a vertical orientation, and qe values are higher than zero, even when the
concentration of solute tends to values close to zero. The adsorbed species are often
large units, for example, ionic micelles or polymeric molecules However, some-
times, they can be simple ions, which exchange with others of much lower affinity
with adsorbent surface, for example, sulfonated dye. This isotherm type indicates
chemisorption and adsorption by electrostatic forces. Other classifications com-
monly used for H type isotherms are like an irreversible isotherm, because when an
adsorption occurs at a high concentration, a concentration reduction does not
change the adsorption capacity.
C Curves The isotherms with partition constant are characterized by a linear
behavior of the equilibrium data at low concentrations of solute. This behavior
follows Henry’s law for ideal gas equilibrium phases, which translated to adsorp-
tion processes, and suggests that the adsorption capacity is proportional to the
solute concentration, up until the maximum possible adsorption, where an abrupt
change to a horizontal plateau occurs. This is the type of curve obtained for the
partition of a solute between two practically immiscible solvents. In such cases, the
affinity of the solute by the solid is greater than the affinity for the solvent, or when
the adsorption sites are available in quantities sufficient for the adsorption of all
solute, but the bonding forces between the solute and the solvent are weak and
depend on the liquid phase concentration.
2.3.1 Subclasses
The subclass 1 of S type isotherm indicates a complete vertical behavior of the

adsorption capacity, possibly caused by surface precipitation of solute on the
surface of the adsorbent. In the case of classes L, H, and C, they occur when the
adsorption sites were not fully occupied, or there was not a complete vertical
orientation of the molecules of the solvent. This isotherm type is usually described
by the Freundlich model (for the case of L and H type) or Henry’s law (for the
C type).
The subclass 2 indicates that there is no intermolecular interaction between the
solute, forming a long plateau, indicating a saturation of the adsorbent monolayer.
In this case, a high energy barrier should be overcome before the additional
adsorption can occur on new sites, after the surface has been saturated to the first
degree. Therefore, the solute has high affinity for the solvent, but low affinity for the
layer of solute molecules already adsorbed. In this case, equilibrium data can be
represented by Langmuir model and the plateau is represented by the maximum
adsorption capacity (qm) (for the case of L and H isotherm type).
In subclass 3, a short plateau must mean that the adsorbed solute molecules
expose a surface, which has nearly the same affinity for more solute as the original
surface possessed. This indicates that the solute in the solution has some
intermolecular interaction with the solute in the adsorbent surface, leading to the
formation of multilayers.
The subclasses 4 are attributed to the development of a fresh surface in which
adsorption can occur. The second plateau represents the complete saturation of the
new surface. This additional layer may occur when (i) a proportion of the original
surface may be uncovered by reorientation of the molecules already adsorbed, due
to intermolecular interactions, (ii) formation of new surfaces in crystalline solids,
generating new adsorption sites, or (iii) already exposed parts that allow the
formation of two layers, for example, due to formation of micelles.
Finally, the mx subclass occurs occasionally when a fall in slope occurs after the
first inflection. This is probably due to the association of the solutes in solution;
with increase in concentration, the solute–solute attraction begins to increase more
rapidly than the adsorbent–solute attraction.
2.4 Adsorption Isotherm Models
2.4.1 Henry’s Law
Henry’s law can be applied for the adsorption on a uniform surface at sufficiently
low concentrations, in which all molecules are isolated from their nearest neigh-
bors. The relationship between the fluid phase concentration and the adsorbed phase
equilibrium concentration is linear, with a constant of proportionality, which is
equal to the adsorption equilibrium constant, known as the Henry constant (KH).
This linear relationship is commonly referred to as Henry’s law by analogy with the
limiting behavior of dissolution of gases in liquids. The constant of proportionality,
which is simply the adsorption equilibrium constant, is referred to as the Henry
constant (KH) and may be expressed in terms of concentration:
qe ¼ K H Ce ð2:10Þ
For physical adsorption, there is no change in molecular state of adsorption, i.e.,

for adsorption on a uniform surface at sufficiently low concentration, all molecules
are isolated from their nearest neighbors. The equilibrium relationship between
fluid phase and adsorbed phase concentration will be linear, and the relation to the
surface concentration (ns) can be presented in Eq. (2.11):
KH
ns ¼ Ce ð2:11Þ
a
where a is the specific surface area per unit volume of the adsorbate (Ruthven
1984).
2.4.2 Monolayer Adsorption and the Langmuir Isotherm
The adsorbent and the adsorbate are in dynamic equilibrium, and the fractional
coverage of the surface depends on the concentration of the adsorbate. The extent of
surface coverage is normally expressed as the fractional coverage, θ (Langmuir
1918):
Number of adsorption sites occupied

θ¼ ð2:12Þ
Number of adsorption sites available
The physical simplicity of the isotherm is based on four assumptions (Atkins and
De Paula 2006):
• Adsorption cannot occur beyond monolayer coverage.
• Each site can hold only one adsorbate molecule.
• All sites are energetically equivalent and the surface is uniform.

• The ability of a molecule to adsorb in a given site is independent of the
occupation of neighboring.
In the dynamic adsorption equilibrium, the adsorption and desorption rates are
the same, so
AðaqÞ þ MðsurfaceÞ , AMðsurfaceÞ ð2:13Þ
The rate of surface coverage due to adsorption is proportional to the solution

concentration CA of A and the number of vacant sites N(1 θ), where N is the total
number of sites and can be expressed as
dθ
¼ ka CA N ð1 θÞ ð2:14Þ
dt
The change of θ due to desorption is proportional to the number of adsorbed

species Nθ, so
dθ
¼ kd Nθ ð2:15Þ
dt
where the kinetic constants are ka for adsorption and kd for desorption.
At equilibrium, there is no change in the composition in both phases (the sum of
these two rates is equal to zero), and solving for θ results in the Langmuir isotherm:
K L Ce
θ¼ ð2:16Þ
1 þ K L Ce
where the Langmuir constant (KL) is
ka
KL ¼ ð2:17Þ
kd
Considering the exchange of molecules between adsorbed and liquid phase, the
fraction covered can be considered the relation between the adsorption capacity at
equilibrium (qe) and the maximum adsorption capacity, which occur when all sites
of the monolayer are occupied (qm).
qe
θ¼ ð2:18Þ
qm
Replacing Eq. (2.18) in Eq. (2.16), the Langmuir equation becomes
qm k L C e
qe ¼ ð2:19Þ
1 þ k L Ce
2.4.3 Multilayer Adsorption and the BET Isotherm
When the initial adsorbed layer becomes a surface for further adsorption, instead of
the isotherm stabilized in a saturated monolayer, the formation of multilayers can
be expected. The most widely used isotherm for the multilayer adsorption was
derived by Brunauer et al. (1938) and is called the BET isotherm. In liquid systems,
the BET isotherm is (Ebadi et al. 2009)
qBET k1 Ce
qe ¼ ð2:20Þ
ð1 k 2 C e Þð1 k 2 C e þ k 1 C e Þ
where qBET is the monolayer adsorption capacity (mg/g), k1 and k2 are the BET
constants (L/mg).
2.4.4 Other Isotherm Models
In the Langmuir isotherm model, the independence and energetic equivalence of

the adsorption sites are attributed. Deviations of this supposition can be identified
using other models. Various attempts have been made to take these variations into
account.
2.4.4.1 Temkin Isotherm
The Temkin isotherm equation assumes that the heat of adsorption of all the
molecules in the layer decreases linearly with coverage due to adsorbent–adsorbate
interactions and that the adsorption is characterized by a uniform distribution of the
binding energies, up to some maximum binding energy. The Temkin model is given by
RT
θ¼ ln ðK T Ce Þ ð2:21Þ
ΔQ
where θ is the fractional coverage (defined in Eq. 2.17), R is the universal gas
constant (kJ/mol K), T is the temperature (K), ΔQ ¼ ΔH is the variation of
adsorption energy (kJ/mol), and KT is the Temkin equilibrium constant (L/mg).
2.4.4.2 Freundlich Isotherm
The Freundlich isotherm assumes that the adsorption occurs on a heterogeneous

surface, and the amount that is adsorbed increases infinitely with an increase in
concentration (Freundlich 1906). In liquid phase, this isotherm is given by
qe ¼ kF C1=n
e
F
ð2:22Þ
where kF is the Freundlich constant (a common error is noted in kF unit, i.e., mg1c
Lc/g, where c ¼ 1/nF) and 1/nF is the heterogeneity factor. This isotherm attempts to
incorporate the role of adsorbate–adsorbate interactions on the surface.
2.4.4.3 Dubinin–Radushkevich (D-R) Isotherm
The Dubinin–Radushkevich (D-R) isotherm model considers that adsorbent size is

comparable to the micropore size, and the adsorption equilibrium relation for a
given adsorbate–adsorbent combination can be expressed independently of temper-
ature by using the adsorption potential (ε), according to Eq. (2.23):

1
ε ¼ RT ln 1 þ ð2:23Þ
Ce
The D-R isotherm assumes a Gaussian-type distribution for the characteristic

curve and the model can be described by Eq. (2.24):

qe ¼ qmax exp βε2 ð2:24Þ
where qmax is the D-R constant (mg/g) and β gives the mean sorption free energy
E (kJ/mol) at the moment of its transfer to the solid surface from the bulk solution
and can be computed using Eq. (2.25):
1
E¼ ð2:25Þ
ð2βÞ1=2
2.4.4.4 Redlich–Peterson (R-P) Model
The Redlich and Peterson (1959) developed an empirical isotherm model at three
parameters used to represent the adsorption equilibrium over a wide concentration
range and can be applied in either homogeneous or heterogeneous systems due to its
versatility. The R-P model combines elements of Langmuir and Freundlich models
and is shown in Eq. (2.26):
kR Ce
qe ¼ ð2:26Þ
1 þ aR Ce β
where kR and aR are the R-P constant (L/g and Lβ/mgβ, respectively) and β is the
exponent, which can vary between 1 and 0.
Besides the R-P model, a number of other isotherm models of three and four
parameters were developed empirically. However, most are simple modifications of
Langmuir and Freundlich models, without a significant relevance in adsorption
studies.
2.4.5 Statistical Physics Models
Some models based on statistical physics are used to fit and interpret the adsorption
isotherms in liquid phase. The hypotheses of the statistical physics models are more
complicated and are developed by using the canonical ensemble in statistical
physics. Consequently, the interpretations of the adsorption process using the
statistical physics models are more useful. The statistical physics models have
physicochemical parameters, which are able to explain the adsorption from the
macroscopic and microscopic viewpoints.
The statistical physics models suppose that a variable number of ions/molecules
are adsorbed on NM receptor sites per unit surface (identical receptor sites) and
independent receptor sites (NM1 and NM2) of the adsorbent surface. To establish the
statistical physics models, it is necessary to write the expression of the partition
function of one receptor site. The general expression is given by
X
Zgc ¼ eβðεi μÞNi ð2:27Þ
N i ¼0, 1...
where (εi) is the adsorption energy of receptor site, μ is the chemical potential of
receptor site, Ni is the occupation state of receptor site, and β is defined as 1/kBT
(where kB is the Boltzmann constant and T the absolute temperature).
If the receptor sites are identically related to NM receptor sites, the total grand
canonical partition function is written as
N
Z gc ¼ zgc M ð2:28Þ
But, if the receptor sites are independent (two types of receptor sites), the total
grand canonical partition function is given by
N N
Zgc ¼ zgc1 M1 zgc2 M2 ð2:29Þ
According to the literature, the average site occupation number No can be written as
∂ ln Z gc
N o ¼ kB T ð2:30Þ
∂μ
When the thermodynamic equilibrium is reached, the equality between the

chemical potentials can be written as μm ¼ μ/n where μ is the chemical potential
of the adsorbed ions/molecules, n is the number or fraction of ions/molecules per

site, and μm is the chemical potential of dissolved ions/molecules as

N
μm ¼ kB T ln ð2:31Þ
ztr
where ztr is the translation partition function, according to

2πmkB T 3=2
ztr ¼ V ð2:32Þ
h2
where m is the adsorbed mass, h is the Planck constant, and V is the volume of
studied system. Finally, the adsorbed quantity as function of concentration describ-
ing the expression of the statistical physics model is given by
Q ¼ nN 0 ð2:33Þ
By the application of the general methodology describing the statistical physics

model development, the expressions of the discussed models are presented in
Table 2.1.
2.4.6 Typical Values of Isotherm Parameters for Different

Adsorbate–Adsorbent Systems
Table 2.2 presents typical values of the parameters of the isotherm models for
different adsorption systems in liquid phase. Henry’s law is applied to represent C1
isotherm type, according to Giles et al. (1960) classification, when the number of
Table 2.1 Statistical physics models based on the general partition function
Model Equation
Monolayer model with one energy Q (2.34)
Q¼ c0 n
1=2
1þ
c
Monolayer model with two energies n1 N 1M n2 N 2M (2.35)
Q¼ c n1 þ c n2
1 2
1þ 1þ
c c
n 2n
Double layer model with two energies c c (2.36)
þ2
c1 c2
Q ¼ nN M n 2n
c c
1þ þ
c1 c2
Multilayer model with saturation ½F1 ðcÞ þ F2 ðcÞ þ F3 ðcÞ þ F4 ðcÞ (2.37)
Q ¼ nN M
½GðcÞ
Table 2.2 Isotherm parameters for several adsorbent–adsorbate systems
36
Adsorbent Adsorbate Parameters References

Henry law kH (L/g)
Fungal biomass Acid yellow 49 0.848 Russo et al. (2010)
Chromium tanned leather waste Acid yellow 194 1.909 Piccin et al. (2013)
Calcined diatomite Methylene Blue 0.26 Khraisheh et al. (2005)
Reactive black 0.36
Reactive yellow 0.17
Diatomaceous earth Reactive black 0.42 Al-Ghouti et al. (2003)
Reactive yellow 0.18
Langmuir model kL (L/mg) qm (mg/g)
Sugarcane bagasse Ni(II) 0.173 64.1 Dotto et al. (2016b)
Chitosan/bentonite composite Methylene Blue 2.055 496.5 Dotto et al. (2016c)
Chitosan FD&C red 40 0.395 372.9 Piccin et al. (2009)
Papaya seeds Tartrazine 0.373 51.0 Weber et al. (2014)
Fungal biomass Acid blue 62 0.024 300 Russo et al. (2010)
Natural palygorskite Methylene Blue 0.010 187.3 Zhang et al. (2015)
S. melongena leaf powder Pb(II) 0.274 71.4 Yuvaraja et al. (2014)
CoFe2O4 graphene oxide Pb(II) 0.095 299.4 Zhang et al. (2014)
Hg(II) 0.237 157.9
Activated carbon Lanaset gray G 0.208 108.7 Baccar et al. (2010)
Activated carbon Anthracene 0.260 8.35 Saad et al. (2014)
Activated carbon Fluoxetine 0.375 1112.0 Nabais et al. (2008)
Freundlich model kF (mg1 cLc/g) nF
Ca-bentonite Congo red 26.91 3.23 Lian et al. (2009)
Dried soya bean meal Reactive red 2 5.268 1.079 Sahadevan et al. (2009)
NKA-2 resin Flavones 23.11 1.789 Chen and Zhang (2014)
Fe3O4 nanospheres Neural red 10.62 2.17 Iram et al. (2010)
J.S. Piccin et al.
Activated carbon Polyphenols 6787.97 0.112 Marsal et al. (2009)
Acid-treated oil shale ash Deltamethrin 2.406 2.01 Al-Qodah et al. (2007)
Cationic polymer-loaded bentonite Acid scarlet GR 15.35 4.484 Li et al. (2010)
Acid dark blue 2G 20.58 5.319
Cashew nut shell Congo red 1.357 2.279 Kumar et al. (2010)
Cationic polymer/bentonite Acid dark blue 2G 12.834 4.47 Qian Li et al. (2010)
Fungal biomass Acid red 266 114 3.7 Russo et al. (2010)
Temkin model kT (L/g) ΔQ (J/mol)
Activated carbon from waste biomass Methylene Blue 33.8 1307 Nunes et al. (2009)
Zeolites Phenol 16.7 537.6 Yousef et al. (2011)
Surface modified tannery waste Rhodamine B 1.04 69.9 Anandkumar and Mandal (2011)
Cr (VI) 7.06 117.3
BET model k1 (L/mg) k2 (L/mg) qBET (mg/g)
Perfluorooctyl alumina MTBE 1.2251 102 4.6965 104 3.5 Ebadi et al. (2007)
Chitosan films Vanadium 1.3 102 2.97 103 90.13 Cadaval et al. (2016)
Formaldehyde-pretreated Pinus pinaster bark Phenol 37.84 6.19 102 0.086 Vázquez et al. (2007)
Chromium-tanned leather waste Acid black 210 0.522 1.7 103 108.8 Piccin et al. (2013)
Carbonized bark Pentachlorophenol 16.224 0.184 0.841 Ebadi et al. (2009)a
RP model kR (L/mg) αR (Lβ/mgβ) β
Cashew nut shell Congo red 5.548 3.186 0.638 Kumar et al. (2010)
2 Adsorption Isotherms in Liquid Phase: Experimental, Modeling. . .
Zeolites Phenol 51.5 6.28 0.72 Yousef et al. (2011)

a
Using data of Edgehill (1998)
37
adsorption sites is very superior to the number of adsorbate molecules, due to a

hydrophobic interaction between the adsorbent and adsorbate. The increase of kH
constant represents an increase of adsorption capacity at low concentrations.
The Langmuir model is satisfactory to represent H2 or L2 isotherm type,
according to Giles et al. (1960) classification. In practice, the constant kL is
associated with increased affinity of the adsorbate by adsorbent, since kL represents
the inverse of the equilibrium concentration in the liquid phase when the adsorption
capacity reaches 50% of the monolayer adsorption capacity (or f(1/kL) ¼ 0.5qm,
where f is the function of the Langmuir isotherm). Therefore, kL increase leads to a
higher initial slope of the adsorption isotherm. On the other hand, qm is associated
with the curve plateau formation and complete saturation of the monolayer adsor-
bate. qm is in the order from unity to tens of milligrams per gram in the case of
monatomic ion adsorption and in the order from hundreds to thousands of milli-
grams per gram for dyes and larger molecule adsorption. However, Table 2.2 shows
that the maximum monolayer adsorption capacity can vary due to many factors,
such as chemical structure of the adsorbate and adsorbent, molecular size, and
nature of the adsorbent.
The Freundlich model is satisfactory to describe the adsorption isotherm data of
types S, L, and C (subclass 1). The 0 < nF < 1 when the isotherm is of class S
(or unfavorable), nF > 1 when the isotherm is of class L (or favorable), and nF ¼ 1
when the isotherm is of class C. In the latter case, usually when the number of
adsorption sites is greater than the number of molecules to be adsorbed, the
Freundlich model is simplified to Henry model. Already, the kF values are associ-
ated with the initial slope of the isotherm curve.
The BET isotherm is an extension of the Langmuir theory for monolayer
adsorption to multilayer adsorption, and it is satisfactory to represent the H3 or
L3 isotherm type, according to the Giles et al. (1960) classification. qBET and k1
have the same physical significance as to that of qm and kL Langmuir constant,
respectively.
Then, an increase in the equilibrium concentration leads to an increase of
adsorption capacity. This behavior is due to secondary adsorption at a given site,
forming a multilayer and providing a suitable adjustment to the BET model. The
multilayer formation may occur due to a change in organizational form of dye
molecules arranged on the surface of the adsorbent, in horizontal to vertical
alignment, or due to solubility reduction caused by superficial hydrophobic inter-
actions between the adsorbate and the adsorbent (Piccin et al. 2013). The k2
constant represents the inverse of the concentration value when the isotherm
becomes a vertical line and is associated with superficial solubility of adsorbate
(Cs ¼ 1/k2). The k2 value increment is due to a vertical orientation of the isotherm at
lower equilibrium concentration in the liquid phase. In this case, Ebadi et al. (2009)
demonstrated that the use of adsorbent solubility concentration leads to serious
errors in the interpretation of the adsorption data. According to the authors, k2 or Cs
must be obtained by adjusting the model to experimental data. When k2 tend to
600
333 K
313 K
500
293 K
400
qe (mg/g)
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Ce (mg/L)
Fig. 2.5 Equilibrium isotherms following the BET multilayer model for vanadium adsorption
onto chitosan films (Cadaval et al. 2016)
zero, the BET model can be mathematically simplified to the Langmuir model,
releasing degrees of freedom for the model and simplifying the use of the data
(Piccin et al. 2013).
Figure 2.5 shows the equilibrium curves of vanadium adsorption onto chitosan
films at different temperatures (Cadaval et al. 2016). In this example, the temper-
ature increase led to an increase in the qBET value from 90.9 to 102.3 mg/g. This
behavior suggests an endothermic phenomenon. The k1 and k2 values increased
with increasing temperature. The k1 increase indicates that lower equilibrium
concentrations are necessary to saturate the monolayer, and the k2 increase indicates
that smaller equilibrium concentrations are necessary to the isotherm that becomes
a vertical line. However, Piccin et al. (2013) observed contrary behavior toward the
concentration of surface saturation (Cs). In this case, a temperature reduction led to
a reduction of Cs values, indicating that the highest adsorption capacities by
multilayer formation were obtained with lower equilibrium concentrations. This
reduction is associated with the solubility of the dye in water, generally lower at
high temperatures, and the increased adsorbate–absorbent forces at low
temperatures.
Regarding the Redlich–Peterson model, and other models of three and four
parameters reported in the literature (Wong et al. 2004; Piccin et al. 2009; Kumar
et al. 2010; Yousef et al. 2011), in most cases these do not provide suitable
adjustments to the experimental data to the point of its use to be justified. In this
case, simpler models such as Langmuir or Freundlich are satisfactory to represent
the experimental data.
2.5 Regression Methods and Error Analysis
Several models are able to describe the experimental results of adsorption and are
used in equilibrium, kinetics, and mechanisms studies. In the process of statistically
analyzing empiric data, errors that lead to the unreliable results can occur. The
misuse of linearization is a common error in data analysis. When the data are
transformed in order to achieve a linear equation, it is required to know how the
error-structure of the data is affected by this tranformation. When the errors are
additive on the dependent variable and the usual assumptions of normality and
equal variance throughout the range of the data are checked, then the transformation
of the dependent variable with a nonlinear function can eliminate the distributional
properties. This can occur in the linearization of adsorption isotherms; for example,
the Langmuir model (Eq. 2.19) is nonlinear; thus the dependent variable does not
depend linearly on the independent variable (El-Khaiary and Malash 2011).
These nonlinear forms can be mathematically manipulated and linearized at
different linear forms. Moreover, the statistical tests used to check the fit will often
not detect that the parameters are biased. Table 2.3 presents the different lineari-
zations to the Langmuir and Freundlich models.
The statistical regression methods consist in minimizing objective functions
through the variation of the model parameters. Table 2.4 summarizes some of
these functions and its main characteristics.
From Eqs. (2.42), (2.43), and (2.44), SSE, R2, and ABS provide a better fit for
higher yexp values, because errors are proportional to their magnitudes. SSE is the
most common error function in use. In the R2 function, the objective is to maximize
the results, and the ABS is similar to the SSE to some extent. In relation to
Eqs. (2.45), (2.46), (2.47), and (2.48), the values of (χ 2), ARE, HYBRID, and
MPSD improve the fit at low concentrations by dividing by the experimental
value HYBRID, and MPSD also includes the number of degrees of freedom of the
system, which is important in the analysis of models with different parameter
numbers.
The main objective function used for both linear and nonlinear regressions is the
sum of the squares of the errors (SSE). In the case of linearized forms of the
Langmuir model, the function y ¼ β0 + β1x represents the experimental data.
Table 2.3 Linearized form of adsorption isotherm models

Model Linearized form Plot
Langmuir I Ce 1 1 Ce (2.38)
¼ þ Ce vs:Ce
qe kL qm qm qe
Langmuir II 1 1 1 1 1 (2.39)
¼ þ vs:
qe qm kL qm Ce qe C e
Langmuir III qe qe (2.40)
¼ kL qm þ kL qe vs:qe
Ce Ce
Freundlich 1 log (qe) vs . log (Ce) (2.41)
logðqe Þ ¼ logðkF Þ þ logðCe Þ
nF
Table 2.4 Error function used for isotherm model regression

Function name Error function
Sum of square error (SSE) n
P 2
(2.42)
SSE ¼ yi, exp yi, mod
i¼1
Coefficient of determination (R2) n
P 2
(2.43)
yi, exp yi, mod
i¼1 SSE
R2 ¼ 1 n
P 2 ¼ 1
SST
yi, exp yi, exp
i¼1
Sum of the absolute errors (ABS) n
P (2.44)
ABS ¼ y
i, exp yi, mod
i¼1
2
Chi-square (χ 2) (2.45)
Pn yi, exp yi, mod
χ2 ¼
i¼1 yi, mod
X n
Average relative error (ARE) 100 y yi, mod (2.46)
ARE ¼ i, exp
n i¼1 yi, mod
2
Hybrid fractional error function (2.47)
100 X n yi, exp yi, mod
(HYBRID) HYBRID ¼
n np i¼1 yi, mod
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Marquardt’s percent standard devi- u 2 32 (2.48)
u yi, exp yi, mod
ation (MPSD) u 1 X n
MPSD ¼ 100t 4 5
n np i¼1 yi, mod
Where yi, exp. is the experimental value of independent variable, yi, mod is the modeled value, yexp is
the mean of observed values, SST is the sum of squares of total deviations, n is the number total of
informations, and np is the number of parameters of the model
Thus, β0 and β1 values can be obtained from the minimization of the objective
function (SSE) using the method of linear least squares estimation. However, for
nonlinear form of the isotherm models, there is no closed method for obtaining
parameters. Instead, in this case, numerical algorithms are used to minimize the
objective function and obtain the values of the model parameters. Most algorithms
involve choosing initial values for the parameters. Then, the parameters are refined
iteratively, that is, the values are obtained by successive approximation. The most
commonly used algorithms, in this case, are the Gauss–Newton, Levenberg–
Marquardt and the Generalized Reduced Gradient.
2.5.1 Model Accuracy
The coefficient of determination (R2), defined above, to obtain the more suitable
model to represent equilibrium and kinetic and thermodynamic parameters is
another common practice in adsorption experiments.
The R2 value is very sensitive to extreme data points, resulting in misleading
indication of the fit. The R2 is also influenced by the range of the independent
variable and increases as the range of independent variable increases and decreases
as the range decreases. These issues can be avoided by fitting the data to the model
without any transformations and by examination of extreme points.
Another relevant fact is that the R2 can be made manipulated using more
parameters in the model, since the increase in the number of regression parameters
leads to decreases in SSE value. Therefore, the good fit cannot be based only on SSE
(and R2). This is especially common in adsorption studies when it comes to
estimating equilibrium parameters. For this fact, the analysis of the adjusted
determination coefficient (Radj2), which takes into account the experimental degrees
of freedom (n1) and the model degrees of freedom (n(np + 1)), can be a good
tool in selecting models. Radj2 is described in Eq. (2.49):
!
n1
Radj 2 ¼ 1 1 þ R2 ð2:49Þ
1 np þ 1
where n is the number of information and np is the number of model parameters.

Moreover, Akaike’s information criterion (AIC) (Anderson and Burnham 2002)
is a well-established statistical method that can be used to compare the models with
different numbers or parameters. For a small sample size, AIC is calculated for each
model from Eq. (2.50):

SSE 2np np þ 1
AIC ¼ n ln þ 2np þ ð2:50Þ
n n np þ 1
A smaller AIC value suggests that the model has more likely to show a better fit.
The AIC values can be compared using the evidence ratio (Er), which is defined by
1
Er ¼ ð2:51Þ
e0:5Δ
where Δ is the absolute value of the difference in AIC between the two models. The
evidence ratio means how many times one model is more likely than the other one
in relation to the experimental data.
2.5.2 Comparison Between Linear and Nonlinear Regression

Methods
In this section, we want to show the effect of the regression method used on the
parameters of the model and the adjustment to the experimental data. To exemplify
this, we use common adsorption data of a FD&C Red No. 40 dye onto chitosan with
deacetylation degree of 84%, particle size of 99 μm, and pH 7.0 at 25 C (Piccin
et al. 2009). The model parameters were obtained by the different linearized forms
of models (Table 2.5), using the linear least squares estimation method, and by the
nonlinear models (Eqs. (2.19), (2.20), (2.21), and (2.22)), using GRG nonlinear
algorithm of add-in solver function of MS Excel (Microsoft, USA). Figure 2.6
shows the experimental data. Figure 2.7 shows the linearized data according to
Langmuir I, II, and III and Freundlich forms, respectively.
According to Fig. 2.7d, the linearized form of Freundlich model shows a best fit
(R2 ¼ 0.9797). However, the forms I and III of Langmuir model have poor
adjustment (R2 < 0.900) to the experimental data. However, in Table 2.5, it can
be observed that the R2 and SSE values for Langmuir, independent of the way of
obtaining the model parameters, provide a better fit to the experimental data. These
data make it clear that the different forms of linearization can lead to serious errors
Table 2.5 Model parameters and respective determination coefficient (R2) and sum of square
error (SSE) from adsorption of acid red No. 40 onto chitosan obtained by different regression
methods
Model Parameters
Langmuir kL 103 (L/mg) qm (mg/g) R2 SSE
Nonlinearized 4.656 181.6 0.9918 174.41
Langmuir I 4.121 193.6 0.9911 188.63
Langmuir II 2.659 269.4 0.9684 675.36
Langmuir III 3.739 207.4 0.9899 218.65
Freundlich kF (mg1c Lc/g) nF R2 SSE
Nonlinearized 2.896 1.559 0.9821 383.44
Linearized 1.659 1.328 0.9690 662.51
Fig. 2.6 Adsorption equilibrium data of acid red No. 40 dye by chitosan (Piccin et al. 2009)
Fig. 2.7 Adjustment of the linearized forms of models to equilibrium experimental data of FD&C
red No. 40 dye onto chitosan: (a) Langmuir I; (b) Langmuir II; (c) Langmuir III; and (d)
Freundlich
in the conclusion of which model is most suitable to represent the experimental

data. The use of one variable both as dependent and independent variable, as in the
case of Langmuir I (Ce) and Langmuir III (qe), leads to an inadequate correlation.
The error distribution of the dependent variable (Ce/qe or qe/Ce) is different from
both the error distributions of Ce and qe. In the case of Langmuir II, the reversal of
relative weights of data points because of 1/qe and 1/Ce in dependent and indepen-
dent variables, respectively, leads to distortion of error distribution. This distortion
can be observed in Fig. 2.7b, where most of the data are grouped together in a small
space of the Cartesian plane, near to the origin. For the Freundlich linearized model,
an alteration of relative weights of the data because of log(qe) in the dependent
variable and a distortion of relative weights of data because of log(qe) and log(Ce)
in the dependent and independent variables, leading to distortion of error distribu-
tion, occur.
Furthermore, it is observed that Langmuir II form, which has best linearized fit,
overestimates the qm values, when compared to the other forms of the model. In this
case, the model fit curve introduces distortions of the experimental data for high
adsorption capacity, as shown in Fig. 2.7 (solid lines), which can lead to errors in
the analysis and design of the equipment. For this reason, the correct form of the
analysis and modeling equilibrium curves is through normalized form (or not
linearized) of the equilibrium data. The linearization can be used as a method of

visual analysis of the data range to which a model will fit properly to the experi-
mental data (e.g., equilibrium curves with multilayer adsorption), but not as the
conclusion about the adjustment of or obtaining the model parameters.
2.6 Adsorption Thermodynamics
In solid–liquid adsorption systems, the estimation of the thermodynamic parame-

ters is essential. In general, the adsorption thermodynamics is studied by the
estimation of standard Gibbs free energy change (ΔG0), standard enthalpy change
(ΔH0), and standard entropy change (ΔS0) (Crini and Badot 2008). From these
parameters, it is possible to verify if the adsorption is favorable, spontaneous,
endothermic, or exothermic. It is possible to obtain information regarding the
disorder in the solid–liquid interface during the adsorption. Also, it is possible to
infer about the adsorption nature, i.e., physisorption or chemisorption, and verify if
the operation is controlled by enthalpy or entropy (Ruthven 1984; Dotto et al.
2016a). Indeed, the correct calculation of the adsorption thermodynamic parame-
ters is fundamental.
In the thermodynamic sense, the majority of the studies has considered the
adsorption as a reaction (Liu 2009):
A þ B !AB ð2:52Þ
The adsorbent (A) interacts with the adsorbate (B), forming AB. When this
reaction attains the thermodynamic equilibrium, the chemical potentials in the
liquid phase (μl) and in the solid–liquid interface (μsl) are equal, and the Gibbs
free energy change (ΔG) tends to zero, leading to Eq. (2.53) (Chen and Zhang
2014):
ΔG ¼ μsl μl ¼ ΔG0 þ RT ln ðK e Þ ¼ 0 ð2:53Þ
then,
ΔG0 ¼ RT ln ðK e Þ ð2:54Þ
where R is the universal gas constant, T is the temperature, and Ke is the equilibrium
thermodynamic constant.
The relationship of ΔG0 with ΔH0 and ΔS0 can be expressed as (Liu 2009)
ΔG0 ¼ ΔH 0 TΔS0 ð2:55Þ

Substituting Eq. (2.54) in Eq. (2.55), the following relation is obtained:
ΔH 0 ΔS0
ln ðK e Þ ¼ þ ð2:56Þ
RT R
Then, by the plot of ln (Ke) versus (1/T), the values of ΔH0 and ΔS0 can be found.
The graph is known as the Van’t Hoff plot. This methodology is used in several
works in order to estimate the adsorption thermodynamic parameters (Crini and
Badot 2008; Dotto et al. 2015a).
The use of Van’t Hoff plot is relatively simple but is dependent of the correct
calculation of the equilibrium thermodynamic constant Ke. Indeed, the Ke values
are calculated by different manners in the literature, and some of these manners are
unreasonable (Milonjic 2007). For example, in most cases, Ke is used with units.
However, from the mathematical viewpoint, a parameter that has a dimension
cannot be computed logarithmically. The parameter in transcendental functions
must be dimensionless; otherwise, the computation for this parameter does not
make sense (Zhou et al. 2012). In other cases, Ke is obtained from the distribution
constant (Ke ¼ Cad/Ce) (being Ce and Cad, the adsorbate concentrations in solution
and in solid phase at equilibrium, respectively). This is valid only at very low
adsorbate concentrations. Another way is the use of the isotherm parameters (e.g.,
Langmuir, Ke ¼ ρqmKL). This is not completely correct but is reasonable, since the
initial slope of the isotherm can be compared with the Henry constant KH (Dotto
et al. 2013).
As presented above, the correct calculation of Ke is a discussed topic, without
common sense. Here, a reasonable mean to find Ke is presented. In a solid–liquid
adsorption system, the equilibrium thermodynamic constant is given by Eq. (2.57)
(Liu 2009):
activity of occupied sites

Ke ¼ ð2:57Þ
ðactivity of vacant sitesÞðactivity of adsorbate in solutionÞ
Assuming that the activity of the occupied and unoccupied sites is the same,
Eq. (2.57) becomes (Zhou et al. 2012)
θ
Ke ¼ ð2:58Þ
ð1 θÞαe
where αe is the activity of the adsorbate in solution at equilibrium and θ is the

fraction of the surface covered at equilibrium. For the Langmuir model, θ is given
by Eq. (2.18) (for other isotherms, qm can be replaced by the parameter relative to
the maximum adsorption capacity in mol/g). The activity of a substance can be
related to its molar concentration (Ce) according to Eq. (2.59) (Smith et al. 2005):
γ e Ce
αe ¼ ð2:59Þ
γ 0 C0
where γ e is the activity coefficient at the adsorption equilibrium, γ 0 is the activity

coefficient at the standard state, and C0 is the molar concentration of the standard
reference solution (1 mol/L).
Substituting Eqs. (2.18) and (2.59) in Eq. (2.58), for very dilute solutions (γ e ¼ γ 0),
Eq. (2.60) is obtained (Zhou et al. 2012):
qe
qm
Ke ¼ ð2:60Þ
qe Ce
1
qm C 0
or

Ce
qm K e 0
qe ¼ C ð2:61Þ
Ce
1 þ Ke 0
C
In this way, the dimensionless Ke can be found by fitting of the Eq. (2.61) with
the experimental data of qe (mol/g) versus Ce (mol/L), considering C0 ¼ 1 mol/L.
The regression and the parameter estimation should have good statistical indicators,
as presented in Sect. 2.5.
After the correct estimation of the thermodynamic parameters, some important
information about the adsorption can be obtained. For example, the negative values
of ΔG0 show a spontaneous and favorable process. The higher the ΔG0 magnitude,
the more favorable and spontaneous the adsorption. Negative values of ΔH0
indicate an exothermic process, while positive values of ΔH0 show an endothermic
process. The magnitude of ΔH0 can give an idea about the interactions that occur
between the adsorbent and adsorbate. Physisorption, such as van der Waals inter-
actions, is usually lower than 20 kJ/mol, and electrostatic interaction ranges from
20 to 80 kJ/mol. Chemisorption bond strengths can be from 80 to 450 kJ/mol. In
relation to the ΔS0, negative values show that the randomness decreases at the solid
solution interface during the adsorption, and positive values suggest the possibility
of some structural changes or readjustments in the adsorbate–adsorbent complex.
Finally, if ΔH0 contributes more than the TΔS0 to find negative values of ΔG0, the
adsorption is an enthalpy controlled process; otherwise, if TΔS0 contributes more
than ΔH0, the adsorption is an entropy controlled process (Crini and Badot 2008;
Bergmann and Machado 2015).
2.7 Concluding Remarks
This chapter presented some fundamental aspects about the equilibrium isotherms
in liquid phase adsorption, taking into account the academic and industrial view-
points. In order to obtain accurate and correct interpretations about the adsorption
operation from the equilibrium isotherms, some paramount aspects should be

remarked:
• The correct determination of the adsorption equilibrium requires at least 8 h of
experiment. The experiments should be performed until the liquid phase con-
centration remains constant (coefficients of variation lower than 5%) after three
consecutive measurements.
• The choice of the equilibrium models to be fitted with the experimental data
cannot be performed indiscriminately. The experimental equilibrium curves
should be classified according to the shape, and then only the adequate models
should be used to fit the experimental data.
• For a correct parameter estimation from the isotherm models, the use of
nonlinear estimation method is strongly suggested. To ensure the fit quality,
the coefficient of determination (R2) and at least one error analysis should be
used. In some cases, the adjusted determination coefficient (Radj2) and AIC are
also necessary.
• The Van’t Hoff plot (ln (Ke) versus (1/T)) is a simple and reasonable way to find
ΔH0 and ΔS0 values. However the equilibrium thermodynamic constant (Ke)
should be used without units. Otherwise, the thermodynamic parameters have no
sense.
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Chapter 3
Adsorption Kinetics in Liquid Phase: Modeling
for Discontinuous and Continuous Systems
Guilherme Luiz Dotto, Nina Paula Gonçalves Salau,

and Luiz Antonio Almeida de Pinto
Abstract Adsorption is one of the most widely applied unit operations to separate
molecules that are present in a fluid phase using a solid surface. Adsorption kinetic
aspects should be evaluated in order to know more details about its mechanisms,
characteristics, and possibilities of application. These data can determine the
residence time to reach the required concentration of the adsorbate, making possi-
ble the design and operation of an adsorption equipment and defining the perfor-
mance in batch and continuous systems. This chapter presents the particularities of
adsorption kinetics in liquid phase. Batch and fixed-bed systems are considered. For
discontinuous batch systems, diffusional mass transfer models and adsorption
reaction models are discussed. For fixed-bed systems, the shape of breakthrough
curves is studied on the basis of mass balance equations and empirical models.
Furthermore, the design and scale up of fixed-bed columns are detailed according to
the length of unused bed (LUB) and bed depth service time (BDST) concepts.
Several numerical methods are presented in order to solve the required models
for batch and fixed-bed systems. Some parameter estimation techniques are
discussed in order to obtain the fundamental parameters for adsorption purposes,
like mass transfer coefficients and empirical parameters.
Keywords Adsorption • Kinetics • Mass transfer • Liquid phase • Modeling
G.L. Dotto (*) • N.P.G. Salau

Chemical Engineering Department, Federal University of Santa Maria, 1000 Roraima Avenue,
97105-900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
J.S. Piccin
Food Engineering Department, Passo Fundo University, UPF, Br. 285, Km 171, 99052-900,
Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil
T.R.S. Cadaval Jr. • L.A.A. de Pinto
Industrial Technology Laboratory, School of Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Rio
Grande, km 08 Itália Avenue, 96203-900, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil

54 G.L. Dotto et al.
Contents
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2 Adsorption Kinetics in Discontinuous Batch Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.1 Diffusional Mass Transfer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.2 Adsorption Reaction Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 Fixed-Bed Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.1 Mass Balance and Modeling of the Breakthrough Curves Based on Mass
Transfer Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3.2 Empirical Models for Breakthrough Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.3 Design of Fixed-Bed Adsorption Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4 Numerical Methods and Parameters Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.1 Solving Diffusional Mass Transfer Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4.2 Solving Adsorption Reaction Models and Empirical Models for Breakthrough
Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1 Introduction
Adsorption is one of the most widely applied unit operations used to separate
molecules that are present in a fluid phase (adsorbate) using a solid surface
(adsorbent). In this chapter, the adsorption kinetics in liquid phase will be
addressed. Adsorption kinetics is expressed as the rate of adsorbate removal from
the fluid phase to the adsorbent or the time involving the mass transfer of one or
more components contained in a liquid to the adsorbent (Qiu et al. 2009). When
adsorption is studied, kinetic aspects should be evaluated in order to know more
details about its mechanisms, characteristics, and possibilities of application. These
data can determine the residence time to reach the required concentration of the
adsorbate, making possible the design and operation of an adsorption equipment
and defining the performance in batch and continuous systems (Ruthven 1984).
Several mathematical models have been suggested to describe adsorption oper-
ations, which are classified as diffusional models and adsorption reaction models.
Both are used to describe the kinetic peculiarities of adsorption operation; however,
they are completely uneven in its essence (Qiu et al. 2009). Adsorption diffusion
models are constructed based on three successive steps: external mass transfer,
intraparticle diffusion, and adsorption on active sites. On the other hand, adsorption
reaction models, originating from chemical reaction kinetics, are based on the
whole process of adsorption, without considering the adsorption diffusion steps
previously mentioned. They are widely used to represent the adsorption data in the
literature. The more extensively adsorption reaction models utilized are the pseudo-
first-order, pseudo-second-order, and Elovich equation (Wan and Hanafiah 2008;
Cadaval et al. 2013; Dotto et al. 2013).
Here, we reviewed diffusional models and adsorption reaction models to be
applied in discontinuous and continuous adsorption operations. The models and its
mathematical solutions are detailed.
3 Adsorption Kinetics in Liquid Phase: Modeling for Discontinuous. . . 55
3.2 Adsorption Kinetics in Discontinuous Batch Systems
In a discontinuous batch adsorption system, the kinetic profile is fundamental due to

several reasons. The kinetic profile provides information about the adsorption rate,
equilibrium time, and effectiveness of the adsorbent. Furthermore, based on the
kinetic curve, it is possible to infer the mass transfer mechanisms, which are the
rate-limiting steps of the adsorption process (Ruthven 1984; Suzuki 1993; Qiu et al.
2009). The kinetic profile in a discontinuous batch adsorption system is normally
represented by curves of Ct (adsorbate concentration in the bulk solution) versus
t (contact time) or qt (amount of adsorbate adsorbed on the adsorbent) versus t. In
order to obtain information about the adsorption process from these curves, several
empirical, semiempirical, theoretical, and diffusion-based models are employed
(Do 1998; Qiu et al. 2009; Plazinski and Rudzinski 2009; Piccin et al. 2011;
Baz-Rodrı́guez et al. 2012; Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012; Dotto et al. 2014, 2016).
In this section, these models are divided in two main classes, which are normally
employed in the majority of adsorption articles: diffusional mass transfer models
and adsorption reaction models.
3.2.1 Diffusional Mass Transfer Models
Figure 3.1 shows the representation of the main mass transfer mechanisms that
occur in a discontinuous batch adsorption operation. In this case, the adsorbent
particle with radius R is defined as volume of control, and three consecutive steps of
mass transfer are considered: external mass transfer, intraparticle diffusion, and
adsorption on active sites (Ruthven 1984; Do 1998; Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012;
Dotto et al. 2016). The external mass transfer mechanism is relative to the move-
ment of the adsorbate (molecules/ions) from the bulk solution (with concentration
Ct) to the external surface of the adsorbent particle (with concentration CS(t)). This
mass transfer step is governed by the external mass transfer coefficient (kf). The
intraparticle diffusion mechanism in turn is relative to the movement of the
adsorbate (molecules/ions), inside the adsorbent particle. The intraparticle diffusion
mechanism occurs by effective pore volume diffusion, surface diffusion, or a
combination of both mechanisms. The effective pore volume diffusion describes
the transport of the adsorbate (molecules/ions) in the liquid phase inside of the
particle and is represented by DP, the effective pore volume diffusion coefficient.
The surface diffusion is relative to the transport of the adsorbate over the surface of
the adsorbent particles, from sites of higher energy to sites of lower energy. This
mechanism is represented by the surface diffusion coefficient DS. Finally, the
adsorption on active sites is relative to the interaction of the adsorbate with the
active sites of the adsorbent. In this context, the diffusional mass transfer models
are constructed on the basis in the three abovementioned consecutive steps: external
mass transfer, intraparticle diffusion (effective pore volume diffusion, surface
Intraparticle
diffusion
R
RPM
Surface diffusion
Ds
T q(r,t)
C(t) kf Cs(t)
External mass DP
transfer
Cm V
Effective pore
C(r,t) volume diffusion
Fig. 3.1 Representation of the main mass transfer mechanisms which occur in a discontinuous
batch adsorption operation
diffusion, or a combination of both mechanisms), and adsorption on an active site;

and they represent realistically the adsorption kinetics (Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012;
Nieszporek 2013; Dotto et al. 2014).
One of the most complete diffusional models is the pore volume and surface
diffusion model (PVSDM). This model is based on the following assumptions:
batch system adsorption occurs at constant temperature; the particles are spherical;
the mass transport by convection within the pores is negligible; the intraparticle
diffusion can occur by pore volume diffusion and surface diffusion or both; the
values of effective pore volume diffusion coefficient (Dp) and effective surface
diffusion coefficient (Ds) are constant; and the adsorption rate on an active site is
instantaneous (Leyva-Ramos and Geankoplis 1985; Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2010).
This model is defined as
dCt
V ¼ mSkF Ct CsðtÞ r¼R ð3:1Þ
dt
t ¼ 0, Ct ¼ C0 ð3:2Þ

∂Cr ∂q 1 ∂ 2 ∂Cr ∂q
εp þ ρp ¼ 2 r Dp þ ρp D s ð3:3Þ
∂t ∂t r ∂r ∂r ∂r
t ¼ 0, 0 r R, Cr ¼ 0 ð3:4Þ

∂Cr
¼0 ð3:5Þ
∂r r¼0

∂Cr ∂q
Dp þ ρ D ¼ k C C ð3:6Þ
∂r r¼R ∂r r¼R
p s F t s ðt Þ r¼R
In Eqs. (3.1), (3.2), (3.3), (3.4), (3.5), and (3.6), V is the volume of solution, m is
the amount of adsorbent, εp is the void fraction of the adsorbent, ρp is the apparent
density of the adsorbent, S is the external surface area per mass of the adsorbent, C0
is the initial adsorbate concentration in the bulk solution, Cr is the adsorbate
concentration varying with the position and time, and q is the mass of adsorbate
per mass of adsorbent varying with the position and time, respectively. The other
symbols were already defined.
The PVSDM model can be simplified by considering that the sole intraparticle
diffusion mechanism may be either pore volume diffusion (PVDM) (Dp 6¼ 0,
Ds ¼ 0) or surface diffusion (SDM) (Dp ¼ 0, Ds 6¼ 0). Furthermore, to solve this
model, it is considered that there exists a local equilibrium between the adsorbate
concentration of the pore solution, Cr, and the mass of adsorbate adsorbed on the
pore surface, q. This equilibrium relationship between Cr and q is represented by
the adsorption isotherm:
q ¼ f ðCr Þ ð3:7Þ
The isotherm studies are detailed in Chap. 2 of this book. Also, if V is constant, it
is evident that Ct and qt are always related by Eq. (3.8):
ðC0 Ct ÞV
qt ¼ ð3:8Þ
m
For illustration, the overall adsorption rate of Reactive Black 5 dye (RB5) on
chitosan-based materials (powder and film) was investigated by Dotto et al. (2016)
using the PVSDM model. The geometry of the adsorbents and swelling effects were
evaluated. The authors found that the surface diffusion was the intraparticle diffu-
sion mechanism that governed the adsorption, since its contribution was higher than
92% regardless the position and time. The Ds values ranged from 2.85 1011 to
12.1 1011 cm2/s. The swelling effect was most pronounced for the chitosan
films, providing an increase of about 65 times in the Ds value. On the other hand,
Flores-Cano et al. (2016) studied the adsorption rate of metronidazole,
dimetridazole, and diatrizoate on activated carbons using the PVSDM model. The
results revealed that the surface diffusion contributed >90% of the total
intraparticle diffusion, confirming that surface diffusion is the mechanism that
controls the intraparticle diffusion of these pollutants on activated carbons. Finally,
Largitte and Laminie (2015) evaluated the concentration decay curves for the
adsorption of lead on a granular activated carbon using the PVSDM model. The
results showed that the PVSDM model fitted the data reasonably well and the values
of DP were higher than those of DS. kL was around 104 cm s1, whereas DP and DS
were around 106 and 0 cm2/s. Therefore, the overall rate of adsorption was
controlled by intraparticle diffusion, which was exclusively due to the pore volume
diffusion.
Three models can be derived from the PVSDM model: external mass transfer
model (EMTM), pore volume diffusion model (PVDM), and surface diffusion
model (SDM) (Costa and Rodrigues 1985; Leyva-Ramos and Geankoplis 1985;
Garcia-Reyes and Rangel-Mendez 2010).
The external mass transfer model (EMTM) assumes that the movement of solute
from the liquid phase to the adsorbent is only due to external mass transfer. In this
way, the intraparticle diffusion is instantaneous, so there is not a concentration
gradient inside the particle. Therefore, the intraparticle diffusion resistance is
considered to be insignificant. EMTM model is given by Eqs. (3.9), (3.10),
(3.11), and (3.12) (Dotto et al. 2016):
dCt
dt
t ¼ 0, Ct ¼ C0 ð3:10Þ

mεp dCr dq
þ m t ¼ mSkF Ct CsðtÞ r¼R ð3:11Þ
ρp ∂t dt
r¼R
t ¼ 0, Ct ¼ 0, qt ¼ 0 ð3:12Þ
The pore volume diffusion model (PVDM) with external resistance is a simpli-
fication of the PVDSM model, used when the intraparticle diffusion is controlled
only by effective pore diffusion (Dp 6¼ 0, Ds ¼ 0). This simplification leads to
(Garcia-Reyes and Rangel-Mendez 2010)
dCt
dt
t ¼ 0, Ct ¼ C0 ð3:14Þ

∂Cr ∂q 1 ∂ 2 ∂Cr
εp þ ρp ¼ r Dp ð3:15Þ
∂t ∂t r 2 ∂r ∂r
t ¼ 0, 0 r R, Cr ¼ 0 ð3:16Þ

∂Cr
¼0 ð3:17Þ
∂r r¼0

∂Cr
Dp ¼ k C C ð3:18Þ
∂r r¼R
F t s ðt Þ r¼R
Based on the same analogy, the SDM model is used when the intraparticle
diffusion mechanism is only controlled by surface diffusion; then the set of
governing equations are given by
dCt
dt
t ¼ 0, Ct ¼ C0 ð3:20Þ

∂Cr ∂q 1 ∂ 2 ∂q
εp þ ρp ¼ 2 r ρp Ds ð3:21Þ
∂t ∂t r ∂r ∂r
t ¼ 0, 0 r R, Cr ¼ 0 ð3:22Þ

∂Cr
¼0 ð3:23Þ
∂r r¼0

∂q
ρp Ds ¼ kF Ct CsðtÞ r¼R ð3:24Þ
∂r r¼R
Furthermore, if the external mass transfer is negligible, Eq. (3.18) (PVDM) and
Eq. (3.24) (SDM) can be replaced by the adsorption isotherm, or by other boundary
condition.
Another important model used in adsorption systems is named homogeneous
surface diffusion model (HSDM). This model considers a dual mass transport
mechanism across the hydrodynamic boundary layer surrounding the adsorbent
particle and intraparticle resistance within the particle in the form of surface
diffusion (Leyva-Ramos and Geankoplis 1985). Mathematical equations of
HSDM are
dqt
m ¼ mAkF Ct CsðtÞ r¼R ð3:25Þ
dt
t ¼ 0, Ct ¼ C0 ð3:26Þ
dqt dCt
m ¼V ð3:27Þ
dt dt

∂q 1 ∂ 2 ∂q
ρp ¼ r ρp Ds ð3:28Þ
∂t r 2 ∂r ∂r
t ¼ 0, 0 r R, q ¼ 0 ð3:29Þ

∂q
¼0 ð3:30Þ
∂r r¼0

∂q
ρp Ds ¼ kF Ct CsðtÞ r¼R ð3:31Þ
∂r r¼R
In the same way of the other models, HSDM requires a relation between the
amount of adsorbate adsorbed on the adsorbent and the amount of the adsorbate in
the solution, which is given by the adsorption isotherm.
3.2.2 Adsorption Reaction Models
Adsorption reaction models originating from chemical reaction kinetics are based
on the adsorption as a single phenomenon, unlike diffusive model. Adsorption
reaction models are widely utilized to describe the kinetic process of adsorption.
In batch systems, the more applied models are the pseudo-first-order, pseudo-
second-order, and Elovich equation (Qiu et al. 2009; Largitte and Pasquier 2016).
3.2.2.1 Pseudo-First-Order Model
The pseudo-first-order model presented by Lagergren is based on the solids’

capacity to adsorb and is given by Eq. (3.32) (Lagergren 1898):
dqt
¼ k 1 ð qe qt Þ ð3:32Þ
dt
where qe and qt (mg/g) are the adsorption capacities at equilibrium and time t (min),
respectively, and k1 (min1) is the pseudo-first-order rate constant of the kinetic
model. Integrating Eq. (3.32) using the initial conditions of qt ¼ 0 at t ¼ 0 and
qt ¼ qt at t ¼ t leads to Eq. (3.33) (Ho 2004):

qe
ln ¼ k1 t ð3:33Þ
qe qt
which can be rewritten as
qt ¼ qe ð1 expðk1 tÞÞ ð3:34Þ
Several scientific papers present the pseudo-first-order model as the most suit-
able to represent adsorption kinetics. For the adsorption of FD&C yellow 5 onto
chitosan film, the pseudo-first-order model was the more satisfactory (Cadaval et al.
2015). In this study, a little effect of the stirring rate was confirmed by the little
variation in the k1 values at different stirring rates. This model is normally used
when the adsorption operation is fast, attaining the equilibrium within 20–30 min.
3.2.2.2 Pseudo-Second-Order Model
Ho described a kinetic process of the adsorption of divalent metal ions onto peat
(Ho and McKay 2000), in which the chemical bonding among divalent ions and
functional groups on peat, were responsible for the ionic exchange. Therefore, the
peat-metal interaction can be presented as Eq. (3.35), which occurs in the adsorp-
tion of Cu2+ ions onto the adsorbent (Coleman et al. 1956):
2P þCu2þ $ CuP2 ð3:35Þ
where P represents the active sites on the peat surface. In the above reaction, the
main assumptions were that the adsorption followed a second-order behavior and
the interaction adsorbent adsorbate was chemical.
The adsorption rate described by Eq. (3.36) is dependent of divalent ion con-
centration on the surface of peat at time t and at equilibrium. Thus, the rate can be
expressed as
dðPÞt
2
¼ k2 ðPÞ0 ðPÞt ð3:36Þ
dt
where (P)0 is the amount of equilibrium sites available on the peat, (P)t is the
amount of active sites occupied on the peat at time, and k2 (g/(mg min)) is the
pseudo-second-order rate constant of adsorption.
Since the driving force (qe qt) is proportional to the available fraction of active
sites, then it can be written as
dqt
¼ k 2 ð qe qt Þ 2 ð3:37Þ
dt
and integrating Eq. (3.37) using the initial conditions of qt ¼ 0 at t ¼ 0 and qt ¼ qt at

t ¼ t, yields
1 1
¼ þ k2 t ð3:38Þ
ð qe qt Þ qe
This equation can be rewritten as follows:
t
qt ¼ ð3:39Þ
1
h0 þ t
qe
and
h0 ¼ k2 q2e ð3:40Þ
where h0 (mg/(g min)) is the initial adsorption rate.

The second-order rate equation has been successfully applied to the adsorption
of metal ions, dyes, and organic substances from aqueous solutions. Several studies
for adsorption of divalent metals reported that the majority of the sorption kinetics
follows pseudo-second-order mechanism (Ho 2006; Aydin and Aksoy 2009). For
instance, the adsorption of Cu (II) from copper mine water by chitosan films and the
matrix effects were studied, and the pseudo-second-order model showed better fit
than the other ones (Frantz et al. 2017).
3.2.2.3 Elovich Model
The Elovich equation was developed by Zeldowitsch (1934) and was used to
describe the adsorption rate of carbon monoxide on manganese dioxide, which
decreased exponentially with an increase of the gas adsorbed. Thus, Elovich
equation is applied to determine the kinetics of chemisorption of gases onto
heterogeneous surface (Rudzinski and Panczyk 2000) and was obtained from the
following differential equation:
dq
¼ aeβq ð3:41Þ
dt
where q represents the amount of gas adsorbed at time t, a is the desorption

constant, and β is the initial adsorption rate. With the assumption of aβt >> 1,
Eq. (3.41) was integrated with the initial conditions of q ¼ 0 at t ¼ 0 and q ¼ q at
t ¼ t resulting in (Chien and Clayton 1980)
qt ¼ β ln ðaβÞ þ β ln t ð3:42Þ
or

1
qt ¼ ln ð1 þ aβtÞ ð3:43Þ
a
This equation has been applied to describe the adsorption process of different
molecules from liquid medium. For example, Elovich model was the more suitable
to fit the kinetic data for the adsorption of FD&C red 2 onto chitosan film (Cadaval
et al. 2015) and carotenoids and chlorophylls in rice bran oil bleaching (Pohndorf
et al. 2016).
3.3 Fixed-Bed Adsorption
In operational level, a fixed-bed column presents a certain working time to adsorb

contaminants, such that the effluent outlet can comply with allowable levels of
concentration. This working time can be expressed by the so-called breakthrough
curve, and this behavior is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Considering a vertical upward flow, initially the adsorbent is completely free of
the solute, while the flow of liquid is initiated by the column. The solute is gradually
transferred to the adsorbent until at a point above the bed (point I in Fig. 3.2a).
As the process progresses, the initial portions of the adsorbent are completely
saturated (point III in Fig. 3.2a), and the zone where the solute is removed advances
toward the final part of the column. The portion of the column in which the solute
reduction occurs is called the mass transfer zone (point II in Fig. 3.2a).
a Outlet zone
II
Adsorbent bed length
II
I
I
II
III
III
III
III
II
a b c d e
Inlet zone
Effluent volume or time
b
e
l
C/Co or outlet concentration
Cb
a b c
Effluent volume or time tb t*
Fig. 3.2 (a) Progression of the mass transfer through fixed-bed column and (b) concentration
profile of solute concentration at adsorbent bed outlet during the adsorption process
When the mass transfer zone reaches the end of column, the concentration of
adsorbate in the liquid gradually increases (point c in Fig. 3.2b), since not all of the
solute can be removed. Then, the start of the mass transfer zone reaches the end of
the column (point e in Fig. 3.2b) and the whole column is saturated, not occurring
more solute removal.
The portion of the curve between the points c and e (Fig. 3.2b) of the column is
called the breakthrough curve, and the point at which the concentration of adsorbate
at the output of the column reaches the maximum limit is called the breakpoint.
In this way, the shape of the rupture curve provides information about the length
of the mass transfer zone (point II in Fig. 3.2a), and the smaller this zone, the greater
the efficiency of the column.
In general, the breakthrough curve can be affected by thermodynamic factors
related to the adsorption equilibrium or isotherms, kinetic factors related to the
mass transfer rate, and fluid dynamic factors related to the flow velocity (Cooney
1999).
Thus, in this session, the mass balance in fixed-bed systems will be described,
showing the analytical solutions that represent the kinetics of the column adsorption
and presenting the methods of analysis and scale-up for real systems.
3.3.1 Mass Balance and Modeling of the Breakthrough

Curves Based on Mass Transfer Mechanism
The differential mass balances for an elementary volume of a fixed-bed column,

including the fluid phase and the adsorbent within this elementary volume, are used
for the development of a mathematical model, which describes the kinetic behavior
of the system.
In the mathematical modeling of fixed-bed adsorption, the following consider-
ations must be made: (i) the system is isothermal; (ii) there is only one adsorbate
soluble in the liquid; (iii) the concentration of the solute in the liquid is so small
that, if the whole has been adsorbed, there will be no change in the flow rate of the
fluid; (iv) there is not radial velocity and; (v) from this latter consideration, it is also
considered that there is not variation in adsorbate concentration in both phases in
the radial directions (Cooney 1999).
For the differential mass balance in the column, a control volume with a height
Δz and a circular session identical to the column diameter (or area A) is considered.
A fluid stream containing the species to be adsorbed passes through the voids of the
bed (ε). Then, the volume of solid (Vs) in the volume of control is
V s ¼ ð1 εÞAΔz ð3:44Þ
Applying the mass conservation law, the mass balance of any solute i in the
control volume is given by
∂Ci ∂q
εAΔz ¼ εAN i j z εAN i j zþΔz ð1 εÞAΔz ð3:45Þ
∂t ∂t
where εAΔz ∂C ∂t
i
is the solute accumulation in the control volume, εANijz is the mass
rate of solute that enters the control volume in the z direction, εANijz þ Δz is the mass
rate of solute that leaves volume control in the z direction, and ð1 εÞAΔz ∂q ∂t
is the
mass rate of solute adsorbed, respectively.
Dividing Eq. (3.45) by εAΔz and applying the limit when Δz tends to zero yields
∂Ci ∂Ni ð1 εÞ ∂q
¼ ð3:46Þ
∂t ∂z ε ∂t
The mass flux of solute in the fluid phase in the z direction (Niz) is given by a
convective portion, due to fluid movement, and another diffusive, due to a gradient
of concentration caused by the adsorption along the column, according to the
following equation:
2
∂Ni ∂Ci ∂ Ci
¼ vz DL ð3:47Þ
∂z ∂z ∂z2
where vz is interstitial velocity of the fluid in the z-direction and DL is the coefficient
of axial dispersion or diffusion. Then, substituting in Eq. (3.46), and rearranging the
equation, the mass balance in the adsorption column can be described as
!
2
∂Ci ∂Ci ð1 εÞ ∂q ∂ Ci
vz þ þ ¼ DL ð3:48Þ
∂z ∂t Z ε ∂t Z ∂z2
t

∂q
The adsorption rate ∂t Z
is described by the mass transfer in the particle
(previous section), and then Eq. (3.48) can be solved numerically using the follow-
ing initial and boundary conditions:
t ¼ 0; C ¼ 0; q ¼ 0 ð3:49Þ
t > 0; Z ¼ 0; C ¼ C0 ð3:50Þ
∂Ci ∂q
t ! 1; ¼0¼ ¼0 ð3:51Þ
∂t ∂t
3.3.2 Empirical Models for Breakthrough Curves
The breakthrough curve behavior prediction is fundamental for the analysis and
design of fixed-bed adsorption systems. From this curve, parameters, such as the
breakthrough time and the saturation time of the column, are obtained, giving an
idea of the length of the mass transfer zone. For this reason, several models were
developed from analytical solutions of the differential mass balance in the fixed bed
or by empirical solutions.
3.3.2.1 Bohart-Adams Model
Bohart-Adams model was developed considering the surface reaction theory which
assumes that the equilibrium is not instantaneous, and the rate of adsorption is
proportional to the adsorption capacity and the concentration of solute (Bohart and
Adams 1920). This model is suitable for adsorption systems with high affinity
equilibrium behavior (or irreversible isotherm) and is expressed as (Cooney 1999)

Ct z
¼ exp kAB C0 t kAB q0 ð3:52Þ
C0 vz
where C0 and Ct are the input and output solute concentrations, respectively, kAB is
the Bohart-Adams model kinetic constant, q0 is the stoichiometric capacity of the
bed (related to the adsorption capacity predicted by the equilibrium isotherm for
Ce ¼ C0, in units of mass per volume of adsorbent), and z is the length of bed.
3.3.2.2 Thomas Model
Thomas (1944) solved the differential mass balance for a system with adsorption
isotherms of the Langmuir type, no axial dispersion, and kinetic described by
pseudo-second-order model. Thomas model is one of the widely used models,
and this model is based on the plug flow behavior in the bed, i.e., no axial
dispersion, expressed as
Ct 1
¼ ð3:53Þ
C0 1 þ exp kTh q0 m kTh C0 t
Q
where kTh is the Thomas kinetic constant, m is the mass of adsorbent, and Q is the
operating flow rate. In this equation, q0 is expressed in units of mass of solute per
mass of adsorbent.
3.3.2.3 Wolborska Model
Wolborska model (1989) was based on the general equation of diffusional mass
transfer for low concentration range; see Eq. (3.48). For an external diffusion with a
constant coefficient, it is possible to derive
∂q ∂q
¼ vm ¼ βa ðCb Ci Þ ð3:54Þ
∂t ∂z
where vm is the migration rate of the solute through the fixed bed, Ci is the interface
solid/liquid concentration, and βa is the kinetic coefficient of external diffusion.
Using Eq. (3.54), and assuming that Ci << Cb, vm << vz, and neglecting the
axial dispersion, the breakthrough curves can be described as

Ct β a C0 β z
ln ¼ t a ð3:55Þ
C0 q0 vz
3.3.2.4 Yoon-Nelson Model
Yoon-Nelson model (1984) was proposed to describe the nature of breakthrough

curves of adsorbate gases on activated charcoal. This model is based on the
assumption that the rate of adsorption degradation for each molecule is proportional
to the adsorption rate and the yield curve of the adsorbed material, represented as
Ct
¼ 1 þ expðτkYN kYN tÞ ð3:56Þ
C0
where kYN is the Yoon-Nelson kinetic constant and τ is the predict time to the
advance of 50% of adsorption front.
3.3.3 Design of Fixed-Bed Adsorption Systems
In fixed-bed adsorption tests (laboratory scale), the adsorption capacity of the bed is
related to the area above the rupture curve, as can be seen in Fig. 3.2b. Thus, the
adsorption capacity is described by
Ðt
QC0 1 CC0t dt
0
q¼ ð3:57Þ
m
The stoichiometric capacity of the bed (qeq) can be calculated by integrating

Eq. (3.57) to the point that the concentration of the effluent outlet (Ct) is identical to
the inlet concentration (C0). In this case, this adsorption capacity is associated with
complete bed saturation. Theoretically, the time stoichiometric tends to infinity, and
its precise location involves trial and error. The stoichiometric capacity of the
column can also be obtained from equilibrium isotherm, as described in Chap. 2.
Already the column useful capacity (qb) occurs when the concentration of
effluent outlet (Ct) reaches the concentration of break of the column (Cb). Then,
qb is obtained by integrating Eq. (3.57) to the breakthrough time (tb).
For the design of fixed-bed adsorption systems, the useful length of the bed (L)
can be calculated from a mass balance, considering a convex isotherm (i.e.,
Langmuir or Freundlich), using the mass of solute fed into the column with respect
to the adsorption capacity of the adsorbent (in units of mass per volume of
adsorbent, or q0/ρ), described by
QC0 ts
L¼ ð3:58Þ
S 0 ð 1 ε Þ q0 = ρ
In Eq. (3.58), the dividend represents the mass of solute fed in a service time (ts)
and the divisor the amount of accumulated mass per unit of bed length. Introducing
the concept of hydraulic load (H ), denoted by the ratio between the volumetric flow
rate (Q) and the cross-sectional area (S0) of the bed, or H ¼ εvz ¼ Q/S0, the equation
can be rewritten as
HC0 ts
L¼ ð3:59Þ
ð 1 ε Þ q0 = ρ
However, the useful length of the bed (L ) considers a sharp breakthrough curve.
As previously discussed, the shape of the breakthrough curve changes according to
the rates of mass transfer and reaction with the adsorption sites. Thus, in order for
the system to meet the design conditions, an extra length must be added to the bed.
For the calculation of the extra length of the bed, two methodologies will be
presented: the length of unused bed (LUB) and the bed depth service time (BDST).
These methods, performed on a laboratory scale, are intended to calculate the
fraction of the column required for the reduction of the initial concentration to
the acceptable design conditions and are related to the length of the mass
transfer zone.
Moreover, in the scale-up of bed from laboratory data (isotherms or break-
through curves), it is fundamental that the conditions like hydraulic load, pH,
temperature, and concentration are similar.
3.3.3.1 LUB Concept
In this way, the length of unused bed (LUB) is a relation between the stoichiometric
capacity (qeq) and the useful capacity of the column (qb). Associating the two
equations, it has the following:
!
qb tb
LUB ¼ 1 z¼ 1 ∗ z ð3:60Þ
qeq t
3.3.3.2 Bed Depth Service Time (BDST)
BDST model was used to describe the fixed-bed adsorption column operation
(Hutchins 1973). This approach becomes useful if the bed depth-breakthrough
time data determined from a set of curves with different bed sizes is analyzed using
the irreversible isotherm model. The BDST model is expressed as

C0 kq Dð1 εÞ
ln 1 ¼ 0 kC0 t 0 ð3:61Þ
Ct εvz
Note that q0(1ε) is the adsorption capacity of the bed per volumetric unit,
denoted by N0. Thus, rearranging the equation, the breakthrough time (tb) is

N0 ln C0
Cb 1
tb ¼ D ð3:62Þ
εvC0 kC0
where Cb is the breakthrough concentration. As can be seen, this equation suggests

that the rupture time (tb) has a linear relationship with the length of the column (D).
For this case, the critical situation for operation is tb ¼ 0. Thus, the critical bed
depth of the column (D0) can be calculated by

εv C0
D0 ¼ ln 1 ð3:63Þ
kN 0 Cb
or the service time (ts) of a bed with length D can be expressed by
N0
ts ¼ ðD D0 Þ ð3:64Þ
εvC0
3.4 Numerical Methods and Parameters Estimation
Numerical solution of diffusional mass transfer models requires the application of

the numerical method of lines to solve partial differential equations (Ocampo-Pérez
et al. 2010; Souza et al. 2017) which can be expressed as a system of simultaneous
ordinary differential equations. For batch systems, the boundary conditions can be
expressed as implicit single algebraic equations, and the Newton method can be
used to solve those (Souza et al. 2017). In this case, the mass transport parameters
can be either calculated, such as external mass transfer coefficient, molecular
diffusivity, effective pore volume diffusion coefficient, and tortuosity factor
(Leyva-Ramos et al. 2012; Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012), or estimated by nonlinear
least-square optimization, such as surface diffusion coefficient and external mass
transfer coefficient (Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2010; Souza et al. 2017). For fixed bed,
the mass transport parameters can also be either calculated, such as fluid interstitial
velocity and voids of the bed, or estimated by nonlinear least-square optimization,
such as axial dispersion or diffusion coefficient.
The prediction of adsorption reaction models and empirical models for

breakthrough curves depends on parameters whose values must be estimated
from available experimental (Largitte and Pasquier 2016).
3.4.1 Solving Diffusional Mass Transfer Models
The numerical method of lines utilizes ordinary differential equations for the time
derivative and finite differences on the spatial derivatives (Schiesser 1991). In finite
difference method, the derivatives in the partial differential equation are approxi-
mated by linear combinations of function values at the grid points. The derivatives
in the partial differential equation of diffusional transfer models are discretized into
N þ 1 points on the spatial derivatives (radius), where N is the number of grid
points.
Figure 3.3 shows the illustrative representation of discretization (grid points) of
the transport of adsorbate molecules from the bulk solution to the spherical particle.
In this way, it has Cr in different points i where i ¼ 0 is the grid point at r ¼ 0 and
i ¼ N þ 1 is the grid point at r ¼ R. The grid points are spaced equally with the step
size given by following equation:
External mass Intraparticle

transfer diffusion
Ds
KF q
C Cr
Dp
r=R r=0
i = N+1 0
Bulk solution
Fig. 3.3 Discretization of the transport of the adsorbate molecules from the bulk solution to the
spherical particle (illustrative representation)
Table 3.1 Finite approximation functions used to solve the partial differential equations
Difference First-order formula Second-order formula
f ðxiþ1 Þf ðxi Þ
Forward difference for first
dx f ðxi Þ
d
¼ Δx dx f ðxi Þ
d
¼ 3f ðxi Þþ4f2Δx
ðxiþ1 Þf ðxiþ2 Þ
derivative
Central difference for first
dx f ðxi Þ
d
¼ f ðxiþ12Δx
Þf ðxi1 Þ
derivative
Backward difference for
dx f ðxi Þ
d
¼ f ðxi Þf
Δx
ðxi1 Þ
dx f ðxi Þ
d
¼ 3f ðxi Þ4f ðx
2Δx
i1 Þþf ðxi2 Þ
first derivative
Forward difference for d2
dx2
f ðxi Þ ¼ f ðxi Þ2f ðxΔx
iþ1 Þþf ðxiþ2 Þ
2
d2
dx2
f ðxi Þ ¼ 2f ðxi Þ5f ðxiþ1 Þþ4f
Δx2
ðxiþ2 Þf ðxiþ3 Þ
second derivative
Central difference for sec- d2
dx2
f ðxi Þ ¼ f ðxiþ1 Þ2fΔx
ðxi1 Þþf ðxi1 Þ
2
ond derivative
Backward difference for d2
dx2
f ðxi Þ ¼ f ðxi Þ2f ðxΔx
i1 Þþf ðxi2 Þ
2
d2
dx2
f ðxi Þ ¼ 2f ðxi Þ5f ðxi1 Þþ4f
Δx2
ðxi2 Þf ðxi3 Þ
second derivative
R
H¼ ð3:65Þ
Nþ1
The partial differential equation of diffusional transfer models can be rewritten

using the second-order central difference approximations of the first and second
derivative. The second-order forward difference approximations of the first deriv-
ative can be used to solve the boundary condition at r ¼ 0, and the second-order
backward difference approximations of the first derivative can be used to solve the
boundary condition at r ¼ R (Souza et al. 2017). Useful finite approximations are
shown in Table 3.1.
Implicit single algebraic equations are resulting from solving the boundary
conditions with finite difference approximations. The most common method for
solving nonlinear algebraic equations is the Newton method (Edgar and
Himmelblau 2001). Trust-region modification of Newton method (Sorensen
1982) is the basis for the MATLAB built-in routine fsolve (Beers 2007).
Discretized partial differential equations yield ordinary differential equation
systems that are very stiff; therefore, to avoid a very small time step, an implicit
method can be used, as the backward difference formula (BDF) (Gear 1971). The
MATLAB built-in routine ode15s is a variable order solver based on the numerical
differentiation formulas (NDFs). Optionally, it uses the backward differentiation
formulas (BDF, also known as Gear method) that are usually less efficient
(Shampine and Reichelt 1997).
Nonlinear least-square optimization can be used to estimate the mass transport
parameters. The nonlinear least-square objective function to be minimized is
defined as the sum of the differences between the experimental data (C) and
model data (Cˆ) of adsorbate concentration, given as
NY h
NE X
X
minj f ðpÞj ¼ ^
Cði;jÞ C
2
ð3:66Þ
ði;jÞ
j¼1 i¼1
where NE is the number of experiments, NY is the number of experimental data

points, and p is the mass transport parameter.
The mass transport parameter ( p) can represent:
(a) Surface diffusion coefficient: using pore volume and surface diffusion model
(PVSDM), surface diffusion model (SDM), and homogeneous surface diffusion
model (HSDM) for batch systems
(b) External mass transfer coefficient: using the external mass transfer model
(EMTM) for batch systems
(c) Axial dispersion or diffusion: using the mass transfer model for fixed-bed
column
The MATLAB built-in routine lsqnonlin solves nonlinear least-square
(nonlinear data-fitting) problems with optional lower and upper bounds on the
parameters ( p). By default, lsqnonlin chooses the trust-region-reflective algorithm
that is a subspace trust-region method and is based on the interior-reflective Newton
method (Coleman and Yi 1994, 1996). Each iteration involves the approximate
solution of a large linear system using the method of preconditioned conjugate
gradients (PCG) (Barrett et al. 1994).
The mass transport parameter is estimated with intervals of 95% of confidence.
Simulations are performed using the diffusional transfer models with the estimated
parameter to compare to each set of experimental data and, hence, to check the fit
accuracy. The Student t-test can be performed to find out if the means of the
adsorbate concentration experimental curve and of the adsorbate concentration
curve predicted by the model are significantly different. Further, the χ2 and the
Fisher exact test are also useful to verify if variances of the experimental and model
concentration data differ in any interesting way (Schwaab and Pinto 2007).
3.4.2 Solving Adsorption Reaction Models and Empirical

Models for Breakthrough Curves
It is common to use linear regression (also known as linear least-square analyses) to

estimate the values of the parameters of an adsorption reaction model. However, the
sorption data are better simulated when the adsorption reaction models are fitted by
nonlinear regression (Largitte and Pasquier 2016).
Whereas an adsorption reaction model can be directly used in nonlinear regres-
sion, it must be linear with respect to the parameters to be used in linear regression.
Very often, a linear relationship is hypothesized between a log transformed of the
dependent variable and the model parameters.
The nonlinear least-square objective function to be minimized is defined as the

sum of the differences between the experimental data ( y) and model data (^y) of
adsorbate adsorbed at time t, given as below:
X NY h
NE X
minj f ðpÞj ¼ yði;jÞ ^yði;jÞ 2 ð3:67Þ
j¼1 i¼1
In case of adsorption reaction models, y is the adsorbate adsorbed at time t. Here,

p is the kinetic parameter that can represent:
(a) Adsorption rate constant: using pseudo-first-order model and pseudo-second-
order model
(b) Desorption rate constant and initial adsorption rate: using Elovich equation
In the case of empirical models for breakthrough curves, y is the ratio of concen-
tration of the effluent outlet (Ct) and the inlet concentration (C0). Here, p represents
the parameters set of the chosen empirical model for breakthrough curves.
The MATLAB built-in routine nlinfit solves nonlinear regression (nonlinear
data-fitting). For non-robust estimation, nlinfit uses the Levenberg-Marquardt
nonlinear least-square algorithm (Levenberg 1944; Marquardt 1963; Moré 1977).
The kinetic parameter can be estimated with intervals of 95% of confidence.
Simulations are performed using the adsorption kinetic models with the estimated
parameter to compare to each set of experimental data and, hence, to check the fit
accuracy. The coefficient of determination (R2) and Akaike information criterion
(AIC) are also calculated. The Student t-test is used to find out if the means of the
experimental data and of the predicted data by the model are significantly different.
Further, the χ2 and the Fisher exact test can be also performed to verify if variances
of the experimental and model data differ (Schwaab and Pinto 2007).
3.5 Conclusion
This chapter presented a general description of the adsorption kinetics in liquid

phase, considering batch and fixed-bed systems. For discontinuous batch adsorption
systems, it was verified that the kinetic curves can be represented by diffusional
mass transfer models and adsorption reaction models. Diffusional mass transfer
models are based on mass transfer steps, while adsorption reaction models consider
adsorption as a reaction. In this way, we believe that diffusional mass transfer
models are more suitable. For the breakthrough curves obtained in fixed-bed
systems, the same analogy can be made, being more useful the mass transfer-
based models. Furthermore, it was reviewed that LUB and BDST concepts are
adequate for design and scale-up of adsorption systems. Finally, several numerical
methods and parameter estimation techniques were presented and discussed in
order to better understand the treatment of the experimental adsorption data using
batch and fixed-bed columns.
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Chapter 4
Hydrothermal Carbonisation: An
Eco-Friendly Method for the Production
of Carbon Adsorbents
Carlos Javier Durán-Valle, Almudena B. Botet-Jiménez,

and Delia Omenat-Morán
Abstract The hydrothermal carbonisation process has attracted great interest in

recent years, as it is an eco-friendly method for obtaining carbonaceous materials.
This method consists of heating an organic material in the presence of water in a
closed vessel at temperatures above 100 C. The pressure generated by the water
vapour next to a heat supply gives rise to the reactions necessary to form hydro-
thermal carbon (HTC). This chapter describes the manufacture of these materials
and their application as adsorbents of contaminants in the aqueous phase. The
manufacturing method differs from the classic pyrolysis method because of its
lower power consumption, higher yield, and drastic reduction of pollutant emis-
sions. HTCs are chars with high oxygen content, a large number of functional
groups, and low porous development. They have been used to remove numerous
contaminants of all types, but they are especially suitable for the removal of heavy
metals.
Keywords Hydrothermal carbonization • Adsorbents • Water pollution • Heavy

metals
Contents
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 Hydrothermal Carbon Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.1 Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.2 Hydrothermal Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
C.J. Durán-Valle (*)

Departamento de Quı́mica Orgánica e Inorgánica, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de
Elvas, s/n, 06006, Badajoz, Spain
Instituto Universitario de Investigación del Agua, Cambio Climático y Sostenibilidad,
Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas, s/n, 06006, Badajoz, Spain
A.B. Botet-Jiménez • D. Omenat-Morán
Departamento de Quı́mica Orgánica e Inorgánica, Universidad de Extremadura, Avda. de
Elvas, s/n, 06006, Badajoz, Spain

78 C.J. Durán-Valle et al.
4.2.3 Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.4 Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2.5 Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2.6 Functionalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2.7 Hydrothermal Versus Pyrolytic Carbonisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3 Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.1 Dye Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.3.2 Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.3 Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.4 Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.5 Metal Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.6 Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.7 Phenols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3.8 Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3.9 Reusability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.1 Introduction
Carbonaceous materials have numerous applications that have been known for
some time. The two most important purposes (depending on the amount used) are
as fuel or as adsorbent. As an adsorbent, the employment of activated carbons is
important, which are usually obtained from charcoal (or biochar) that is obtained
from the biomass.
The traditional method of carbonisation is pyrolysis of the biomass. In general
terms, it consists of heating a lignocellulosic biomass at elevated temperatures
(400–1000 C) for several hours, or even days. This method poses some problems:
• The use of high temperatures requires a large amount of energy, in addition to
the hazardous process and the wear on the materials employed (by both high
temperatures and corrosive by-products).
• Biomass drying also requires energy, as the presence of liquid water consider-
ably increases energy consumption.
• An environmental problem is the production of high amounts of pyroligneous
acid, tar, and contaminating gases, which do not allow the process to be
classified as environmental friendly.
• Lastly, pyrolysis yield, though variable, is usually very low.
This is where hydrothermal carbonisation comes into play. Hydrothermal car-
bons (HTCs) can be obtained from a biomass and water at mild temperatures
(typically 200 C) under water-generated pressure. Their advantages are:
• The raw material does not need to be dried because of the fact that it will be
mixed with liquid water. Together with mild temperatures, both factors represent
significant savings on energy expenditure.
4 Hydrothermal Carbonisation. . . 79
• Consequently, a “wet” biomass, such as grass, leaves, or a glucose solution can

be used.
• No gases are released, no tar is produced, and the liquid obtained is not
particularly polluting and very easy to handle later.
• In addition, the yield is higher, about twice as high as in pyrolysis (Kumar et al.
2011).
Therefore, it is a method of carbonisation that will be used frequently in the
future. This process has been known, as the early 1900s (Bergius and Specht 1913),
for making synthetic coal at low temperatures and was recently rediscovered for the
preparation of chars.
The product obtained has only one property in which it is expected to be inferior
to the pyrolytic coal: its heat capacity, which will be somewhat less per unit mass.
But there are many applications (Hu et al. 2008; Titirici and Antonietti 2010;
Titirici 2012; Titirici et al. 2012) for which this carbonaceous material has been
successfully tested. In this chapter, we will focus on obtaining HTCs and their use
in the purification of contaminated water.
4.2 Hydrothermal Carbon Preparation
The properties of an HTC depend on factors such as the precursor selected, hydro-
thermal process conditions, and the use of templates or solids to coat. Subsequently,
HTCs can be activated or functionalized in several ways. Figure 4.1 shows a diagram
of the possible processes taken into account in the manufacture of HTCs.
4.2.1 Precursors
Several precursors have been employed as a source of carbon in the preparation of

these materials, as shown in Fig. 4.2. A typical option is to use pure compounds
from the biomass, such as glucose (Sevilla and Fuertes 2009; Chen et al. 2011; Yu
et al. 2014; Martı́n-Jimeno et al. 2015; Roldán et al. 2016), starch, sucrose (Sevilla
and Fuertes 2009), or fructose (Alatalo et al. 2016). The selection of these com-
pounds is because of the simplicity of the process, as the reactions involved can be
studied more easily. There are numerous bibliographical references that try to
understand the hydrothermal process (Titirici 2012), and they usually use a simple
compound, such as glucose. One advantage of these substances is that they are very
abundant and inexpensive. For example, glucose is the most abundant carbohydrate
unit in biomass. When using glucose, HTC is obtained in spherical forms, which
grow in size with increasing carbonisation time. Chen et al. (2011) tested several
compounds (glucose, sucrose, starch, and cellulose) as precursors, but glucose was
finally selected because the result has more carboxylic groups.
Fig. 4.1 Diagram of processes in hydrothermal carbons synthesis
Fig. 4.2 Main origins of hydrothermal carbons, with examples

An intermediate choice between the use of pure compounds and an unmodified

biomass is the use of biomass extracts. For example, bayberry tannin has also been
used (Li et al. 2014). Lignocellulosic materials are very common as raw materials
for charcoals or activated carbon manufacturing. They are composed of three main
components: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. As cited in Sect. 4.1, one advan-
tage of HTC is its ability to utilise biomass feedstock without drying before or
during the process. It has an edge in terms of energy savings over pyrolytic
carbonisation. Obviously, lignocellulosic materials have been widely used in
HTC preparation (Hu et al. 2008). Other materials that have been used include
switchgrass Panicum virgatum (Kumar et al. 2011; Regmi et al. 2012), pine needles
Salix psammophila K (Liu et al. 2013; Zhu et al. 2014), wood (Laube and Reza
2016), pinewood (Liu et al. 2010), pinewood sawdust, rice husks (Liu and Zhang
2009, 2011), walnut shells, sunflower stems, olive stones (Román et al. 2013), rice
straw (Dai et al. 2014), wheat straw, sawdust, corn stalks (Sun et al. 2015), and
peanut hulls (Xue et al. 2012). The effect of removing lignin (Liu and Guo 2015)
has also been studied, and it has been concluded that lignin, more stable than
cellulose and hemicellulose, protects the other two from heat treatment. A sample
of lignin-free wood carbonises faster than normal wood. It has been observed
(Hu et al. 2008) that soft plant tissues, without an extended crystalline cellulose
scaffold, yield globular carbonaceous nanoparticles; however, hard plant tissues
with structural crystalline cellulose scaffolds can preserve their outer shape.
A less common option is the use of microorganisms. An industrial microorgan-
ism (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) has been used to obtain HTC (Li et al. 2016).
Another source of carbonisable biomass is waste products. These can be industrial,
such as beer waste (Hao et al. 2014), or livestock waste, such as swine manure (Cao
et al. 2011). Another biomass residue of animal origin is prawn shells, which are a
source of chitin (poly-β-(1-4)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine). Chitin can be deacetylated
to give rise to chitosan (Zhang et al. 2014a; Shen et al. 2016), which can also be
carbonised. These cases have the advantages of eliminating and valuing wastes,
which are usually considered zero-cost raw materials, and of creating an extra
environmental profit. We can also work with compounds that do not come from a
biomass, such as glyoxal and acrylonitrile (Yang et al. 2014).
4.2.2 Hydrothermal Process
The hydrothermal process is characterised by moderate temperatures (<300 C)

and high pressure, as the water included in the reactor increases the pressure when it
exceeds 100 C (autogenous pressure). This reaction can also be performed by
raising the pressure externally, for instance, by using a pressurised gas. But if it is
done in equipment without a pressure measurement appliance, the temperature
must be monitored because of the fact that pressure increases very quickly.
Table 4.1 shows pressure data obtained autogenously as a function of temperature,
calculated according to the Clausius-Clapeyron Eq. (4.1).
Table 4.1 Autogenous Temperature ( C) Pressure (MPa)

pressure (vapour pressure)
100 0.10
of water
120 0.20
140 0.36
160 0.62
180 1.03
200 1.62
220 2.46
240 3.62
260 5.18
280 7.22
300 9.83
320 13.11
340 17.16
360 22.08
380 27.97
400 34.94

P1 ΔH vap 1 1
ln ¼ ð4:1Þ
P2 R T2 T1
where P1 and P2 are the water vapour pressures at temperatures T1 and T2,
respectively, ΔHvap is the water vaporisation enthalpy (40,650 J mol1), and R is
the gas constant (8.314 J K1 mol1).
If 374 C and 22.1 MPa are exceeded, water will behave as a supercritical fluid.
In this situation, mainly liquid and gaseous fuels are obtained, and it is denominated
by hydrothermal liquefaction or hydrothermal gasification. At very high tempera-
tures (Kruse et al. 2013), the formation of gases like H2 and CH4 is favoured. At
intermediate temperatures, hydrolysis of the biomass occurs, and medium mole-
cules, such as ketones, carboxylic acids, or phenols, are obtained, from which
bio-oil can be prepared. At lower temperatures, the hydrolysis reaction decreases
and dehydration is favoured, so the main product is a solid, HTC. As the solid
product (char) will be analysed in this chapter, we will limit ourselves to studying
the subcritical conditions of hydrothermal carbonisation below 300 C.
It should be kept in mind that if substances other than water are used that can reach
the vapour state (Yang et al. 2014), the partial pressures of each of these substances
will be added together to give rise to a greater pressure than expected. This fact must
be considered in order to avoid accidents and to compare different reagents under the
same conditions. One factor that can explain this water reactivity, besides the energy
supplied by the heating, is the increase of the water ionisation constant when
the temperature increases (Bandura and Lvov 2006), causing a higher concentration
of H+ and OH that can catalyse the dehydration reaction. This effect is slightly
amplified by the increase in pressure. In Table 4.2, some of the parameters of
hydrothermal carbonisation used in published works are shown.
Table 4.2 Main experimental parameters of hydrothermal carbonisation

Rate
Temp Heating rate Time Biomass (biomass/
( C) ( C/min) (h) (g) water) References
140–200 – 10 10 1/5 Shen et al. (2016)
160 – 18 1 1/40 Zhao et al. (2016)
180 – 24 2 1/7.5 Yu et al. (2014)
180 5 24 20 1/3.5 Chen et al. (2011)
180 1.5 12 5 1/6 Li et al. (2016)
180 2.5 48 16 1/4 Song et al. (2012)
180 – 16 2 1/7.5 Zhang et al. (2013), Zhou
et al. (2015)
180 1.5 24 20 1/3.75 Wang et al. (2012)
180 1.5 24 12.7 1/4.72 Yang et al. (2014)
180 1.5 24 20.8 1/2.40 Yang et al. (2014)
180 – 12 2 1/9 Zhang et al. (2014b)
190 – 16 – 1/10 Demir-Cakan et al. (2009)
200 – 16 3 1/10 Liu et al. (2013)
200 – 20 5 1/12 Sun et al. (2015)
200 – 16 2 1/9 Martı́n-Jimeno et al. (2015)
200 – 4–14 3 1/10a Dai et al. (2014)
220 – 20 5 1/20 Román et al. (2013)
230 2 6 1000 1/8 Laube and Reza (2016)
250 0.7 20 – 1/4 Cao et al. (2011)
250 – 20 11.6 1/4 Sun et al. (2011)
300 7 0.5 – 1/7 Regmi et al. (2012), Kumar
et al. (2011)
300 10 0.33 5 1/6 Liu and Zhang (2009, 2011),
Liu et al. (2010)
300 – 5 60 1/6.7 Xue et al. (2012)
300 – – – 1/12.5 Zhu et al. (2014)
a
Water solutions, but not pure water
As shown in Table 4.2, in most cases, temperatures of 180–200 C are reached,

with varying times between 10 and 24 h. When heating to higher temperatures (Liu
and Zhang 2009, 2011; Liu et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2011; Regmi et al. 2012), the
preparation time can be considerably reduced. Although this can be considered an
advantage, it must be taken into account that the autogenous pressure produced by
raising the temperature from 200 C to 300 C is multiplied several times
(Table 4.1) and that certain commonly used materials, such as Teflon, cannot be
used at that temperature. Higher temperatures mean more energy expenditure,
which can be compensated for by the brevity of the process. These issues should
be considered if HTC production is intended to reach an industrial scale, but are not
the most relevant for laboratory research. More important could be the influence of
temperature on the porous and chemical structures of the HTC.
The experiments shown in this study have been done on a scale of a few
grammes, except Laube and Reza (2016). Apparently, this kind of study is still in
the laboratory phase, and there does not seem to be any interest in obtaining
medium- to large-scale adsorbents.
A parameter with greater variation is the biomass/water ratio, which varies from
1:2.4 to 1:40. No exhaustive studies have been done on the influence of this
proportion, although there is one reference (Sevilla and Fuertes 2009) in which a
higher yield and larger size of the spheres obtained were observed by increasing the
concentration of glucose. But this result does not allow conclusions to be drawn
when using other materials, such as a ligand-cellulosic biomass. It should be
remembered that the presence of water is crucial to this synthesis method, as it
generates autogenous pressure and reacts with the parting material to produce
carbonisation.
One problem posed by HTCs at the end of the hydrothermal carbonisation
process is that they have very low porosity. Several strategies have been put into
place to introduce micro- and mesopores and thus increase the specific surface area.
The most common method and the one used with pyrolysed carbons is activation
(see Sect. 4.2.5), but templates have also been used to improve this property (see
Sect. 4.2.3).
Some authors add a small amount of acid, as it favours the dehydration processes
of some organic molecules, such as carbohydrates (Cao et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2013;
Zhang et al. 2014b). On the other hand, Dai et al. (2014) observed that increasing
the hydrothermal treatment time from 4 to 14 h hardly changed the composition of
the final product, although it must be considered that they used a solution of LaCl3
and KOH instead of distilled water. The presence of these compounds can catalyse
the hydrothermal process (Hu et al. 2008) in such a way that extended time does not
make a big difference. Slight carbon enrichment and a decrease in the content of
hydrogen and oxygen can be observed. There is a large difference (Dai et al. 2014)
when varying the composition of the raw material, but there are only small
differences between HTCs prepared at different temperatures from the same
precursor.
Sevilla and Fuertes (2009) carried out an extensive study on the effect of
preparation conditions (temperature, time, and concentration) on the properties of
HTC, using glucose, sucrose, and starch. The yield obtained in the hydrothermal
process increased with increased temperature (in the range of 170–240 C), with
longer treatment time (from 0.5 to 15 h), and with higher concentration of the
carbohydrate in water. Similarly, the average size of the HTC spheres obtained
varied. However, Shen et al. (2016) have reported a decrease in yield from 78.8% to
35.2% when increasing the temperature from 140 C to 220 C. The influence of
hydrothermal treatment conditions on the properties of the HTC is a complex
subject and seems to depend heavily on the raw material used.
Sevilla and Fuertes (2009) detected the existence of a large number of functional
groups, but they were unevenly distributed. The nucleus of the spheres is highly
aromatic with stable oxygen groups (ether, quinone, pyrone, etc.), while the shell
contains a high density of functional groups (hydroxyl, phenol, carboxylic, etc.).
Thus, the exterior would be hydrophilic, while the interior would be hydrophobic.
This hydrophilic outer surface favours the dispersion of the HTC particles in water.
At the end of the hydrothermal treatment, the product must be ovendried before
being used. Numerous authors have previously performed washing with acetone to
remove organic substances soluble in this solvent. The reason comes from the fact
that the hydrothermal treatment was initially used for gasification and liquefaction
of the organic matter, and the liquid produced when washing it with acetone is a
biofuel. Except for a decrease in the contribution of functional groups (Cao et al.
2011), no major structural changes in the HTCs thus treated have been described.
4.2.3 Templates
One of the main disadvantages of the use of HTCs in adsorption is that they present
both limited porosity and surface area. This is also true of pyrolytic carbons, and
activation is used to improve their properties. Activation can also be used in HTCs
and will be discussed in Sect. 4.2.5.
Another method to increase porosity is the use of templates in the hydrothermal
process. One of the templates employed (Martı́n-Jimeno et al. 2015) is graphene
oxide. It presents several interesting characteristics: good dispersibility in water and
organic solvents, greater reactivity than non-oxidized graphene, and a tendency to
form monolithic gels. Thus, a suspension of graphene oxide was prepared in which
glucose was dissolved. This mixture was heated in an autoclave at 200 C for 16 h,
yielding a carbonaceous hydrogel that was dried and subsequently activated. This
method allows to obtain a monolith instead of the usual powder formed by the
spheres characteristic of this process. The density of the monolith increases as the
glucose concentration increases, indicating that the carbonisation must be incorpo-
rated into the template structure. It could also be considered to be an example of
coating (see Sect. 4.2.4).
A reagent frequently dealt with in chemical activation is ZnCl2. Roldán et al.
(2016) introduced it into the mixture before the hydrothermal process, employing
the “salt-templating” methodology. The basic concept is that the hypersaline
conditions stabilise the surface of the first small nanoparticles, avoiding Ostwald
ripening or excessive particle growth. These particles turn collectively unstable at
sufficiently high concentrations, undergoing spinodal phase separation and cross-
linking towards the final porous carbon gels. The more salt is added, the smaller the
primary particles are and, hence, the higher the surface area is. The HTC prepared
with ZnCl2 presents a greater specific surface once the hydrothermal process is
finished. But when washing the carbon to remove the Zn and when performing the
pyrolysis of the HTC to activate it thermally, the specific surface increases consid-
erably, whether ZnCl2 has been used or not, but with narrower pores in this case.
There is a big difference when the HTC is not washed before the pyrolysis because,
in that case, a much higher specific surface is obtained because of the activation
process. Note that it has already been mentioned that ZnCl2 is usually used in the
chemical activation of pyrolytic carbons. This, in fact, does not imply an improve-
ment in the adsorption capacity of dyes, which are the pollutants with which they
have been tested, being more effective the introduction of N and S heteroatoms.
The same method of “salt templating” was exercised with a LiCl-ZnCl2 mixture
(Alatalo et al. 2016). Micro-/mesoporous HTCs were thus achieved with a specific
surface area greater than 400 m2/g obtained with BET method. Another common
template (Hu et al. 2008) for pyrolytic carbons that could be brought into play here
is silica. By modifying the polarity of the silica surface, porous structures of various
sizes and shapes could be synthesised.
4.2.4 Coating
One possibility offered by the HTC method, when employing water-soluble sub-
stances such as glucose, is the possibility of coating carbonaceous shells on a
structured surface. The coating process is dependent (Titirici 2012) on the surface
properties, hydrothermal carbonisation time, and concentration. It is mainly used to
coat nanostructures and in applications related to energy storage. This technique is
not usually applied to make adsorbent materials, although there are some examples.
Zhao et al. (2016) used polyacrylonitrile fibres as a template. First, they
reinforced the bond between the fibres with ethylenediamine and ethylene glycol.
Then, they added these fibres to a glucose solution and performed the hydrothermal
carbonisation of the carbohydrate, which was deposited on the fibre structure.
The opposite process can also be performed: depositing certain compounds on
the HTC, for which the existence of oxygenated functional groups is very helpful.
This process should not be confused with functionalisation, and sometimes it is
difficult to establish a limit between the two. We can consider the process to be
coating when it forms a species with its own crystallinity and functionalisation if a
molecule binds to the HTC by a covalent bond and acts as an organic functional
group of the corresponding graphene molecule. An example of coating is the
deposition of noble metal nanoparticles on carbonaceous nanofibers (Quian et al.
2007). These materials are often used in catalysis.
4.2.5 Activation
The activation process is added to improve the porous structure of the carbonaceous
materials, i.e., increase the volume of the pores and the specific surface. There are
two main types: chemical activation and physical activation. The main difference
between the two is the reactivity of the compounds used as activating agents. The
activation process is important when HTC adsorbents are prepared because their
capacity is often related to their specific surface and their porous structure. This
aspect is more important in adsorption than in other applications of HTCs.
4.2.5.1 Chemical Activation
One of the methods used is chemical activation. The compounds employed are
more reactive than those employed in physical activation, and the temperature
range is wide, ranging from room temperature to about 800 C. Activation time is
usually from 1 to 2 h. It must be taken into account that the use of high temperatures
(>400 C) can destroy existing functional groups, so in many applications, it is
necessary to evaluate if it is convenient to increase porosity and specific surface
area by modifying the surface chemistry.
One of the most common reagents is KOH. Thus, Martı́n-Jimeno et al. (2015)
activated an HTC obtained with templates of graphene oxide, treating it with KOH
at temperatures of 700 C and 800 C. Regmi et al. (2012) also performed a
treatment with a KOH solution at room temperature. Although the treatment entails
an improvement in the adsorption of Cu(II) and Cd(II), it hardly implies a change
when the concentration of the KOH solution oscillates between 0.5 and 2.0 N.
Activation under these conditions gives rise to very high yields (Sun et al. 2015)
with little loss of mass. But it does change the PZC of the HTCs obtained from
acidic to slightly basic. This implies a change in the electrical charge of the surface
as a function of pH, which is different from the usual behaviour of the HTCs. Also,
a NaOH 1 M solution can be used as an activating agent (Zhao et al. 2016).
On the other hand, Hao et al. (2014) used H3PO4 to activate an HTC obtained
from beer waste. In this case, they studied the influence of different variables of the
activation process on the product obtained. These variables were the activation
temperature (600–700 C), the activation time, the concentration of H3PO4, and the
flow rate of N2.
4.2.5.2 Physical and Thermal Activation
The other habitual method of activation is physical activation, which consists of

heating the sample in the presence of a gas, the most common gases being air,
carbon dioxide, and water vapour. The observed changes are those usually
described in the activation of pyrolytic carbons; however, lower performance
(greater burn-off) has been reported as compared to the activation of pyrolytic
carbons. This is not a surprise, as hydrothermal carbonisation results in a carbona-
ceous material richer in oxygen than pyrolytic carbon. This implies that it contains
more volatile matter and that a greater proportion is lost than the fixed carbon in the
activation treatment.
Thus, by activating an HTC with carbon dioxide at 800 C during a variable period
of time (Liu and Zhang 2011), there is an increase in the ash content and a decrease in
the yield as the activation time is increased. At the same time, there is an increase of
the specific surface. An increase in the proportion of wide pores (meso- and
macropores) also occurs (and this does not always happen with pyrolytic carbons).
When comparing the activation of HTCs from different materials with air and
carbon dioxide (Román et al. 2013), it is observed that the specific surface and
volume of micropores, which are two related parameters in activated carbon, are
always higher when using CO2. In contrast, different results are obtained in the
volume of meso- and macropores. In both activation processes, micropores are
created, and the specific surface area increases.
A variation of this method is thermal activation, which consists of heating the
HTC in the presence of an inert gas. In this case, the activation is produced by the
temperature and not by the reaction with the gas, as it only serves as a carrier of the
by-products formed. Although some authors (Zhu et al. 2014) use it as an activation
method (N2, from 300 C to 700 C), one should consider whether a second
pyrolysis-type carbonisation or an actual activation is actually being performed.
As mentioned above, HTCs differ from pyrolytic carbons because of their low
porous development. In the work of Zhu et al. (2014), the evolution of the
composition of the chars according to temperature is as expected: an increase of
the carbon content and a reduction of the hydrogen and (especially) oxygen content.
This variation is important when starting the heat treatment (up to 300 C) and also
between the temperatures of 400 C and 600 C. In the first step, it can be assumed
that changes in composition are mainly because of water loss (desorption or
dehydration). And between 400 C and 600 C, changes are because of the
pyrolysis process. A consequence of this variation in the oxygen ratio is that the
pH changes from slightly acidic in the HTC (5.2) to very alkaline in the sample
treated at 700 C (pH 11.8).
Table 4.3 summarises some of the activation methods found in the literature.
Chemical activation methods (with liquid or solid reagents) predominate over
physical activation methods (using gaseous reagents). The activation times are, in
general, shorter than those of hydrothermal carbonisation. There may be large
variations in the conditions under which the activation is carried out.
4.2.6 Functionalisation
There are many methods of changing the surface chemistry of a carbonaceous

material, and some of them have been used with HTC. Activation can modify the
functional groups of the carbonaceous material, but its main function is to improve
the porosity. For this reason, activation methods will not be dealt with in this
section.
Before modifying the surface chemistry of an HTC, its properties must be taken
into account. If it is obtained from a biomass, it must be assumed that the raw
material contains a large amount of oxygen in its composition. Most of the starting
materials (carbohydrates and lignocellulosic materials) have an oxygen content
approaching 50% by weight, excluding moisture. As high temperatures have not
been used, many of the original functional groups have not been destroyed. We
have, therefore, a carbonaceous material with a high number of functional groups.
Table 4.3 Main experimental parameters of activation of HTCs

Temp Heating rate Isotherm Activating Rate (agent/
( C) ( C/min) time (h) agent HTC) References
Room – 1 KOH 2M 250 mL/g Regmi et al. (2012),
Sun et al. (2015)
700–800 – 0.5 KOHa 1/1 and ¼ Martı́n-Jimeno et al.
weight (2015)
600–700 10 3 H3PO4 4 mL/g Hao et al. (2014)
45–80%
Room – 2 NaOH 1M 750 mL/g Zhao et al. (2016)
800 10 0.5–2 CO2 30 mL/min Liu and Zhang (2011)
850 – 0.5 CO2 40 mL/min Román et al. (2013)
250 – 0.5 air 100 mL/min Román et al. (2013)
300–700 4 4b N2 1 L/min Zhu et al. (2014)
a
A concentrated solution of KOH. Incipient wetness procedure
b
Total time
4.2.6.1 Functionalisation During the Hydrothermal Process (One Step)
Functionalisation can begin during the hydrothermal process. Thus, Roldán et al.
(2016) used glucose as a source of carbon and used either pyrrole-2-carboxaldehyde
to add nitrogen atoms or 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde atoms to add sulphur atoms.
Nitrogen atoms may be included in the HTC if they already exist in the raw
material, for example, in chitin (White et al. 2009). Functionalised HTC with
fructose and 2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde (Alatalo et al. 2016) has also been pre-
pared. Note that glucose has been mixed with phosphoric acid (Zhang et al. 2014a).
We can observe another example in the use of an alkaline solution of LaCl3 instead
of water to obtain a lanthanide-doped HTC (Dai et al. 2014). Demir-Cakan et al.
(2009) used acrylic acid mixed with glucose to obtain a high number of carboxyl
groups in the HTC.
Functionalisation can be carried out by choosing the appropriate starting mate-
rial. A work has been previously cited (Chen et al. 2011) comparing HTCs prepared
from glucose, sucrose, starch, and microcrystalline cellulose. HTCs with different
numbers of carboxyl groups were obtained, despite using the same conditions in the
hydrothermal process.
4.2.6.2 Post-functionalisation (Two Steps)
Chemical modification of the surface can be done after obtaining the HTC. The
methods followed are similar to those employed for activated carbons of pyrolytic
origin.
A simple method is oxidation or calcination under air. atmosphere It is usually

carried out at temperatures below 400 C (Chen et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2013; Yu
et al. 2014) because, at this temperature, most of the functional groups begin to be
destroyed. But the temperature must be higher than 200 C, as it is necessary for
sufficient oxygen chemisorption of the air to occur so that the functional groups can
be formed. The objective in this temperature range is to achieve a greater number of
oxygen functional groups, which in many cases improve the adsorption capacity of
the HTC. Zhou et al. (2015) have studied the effects of temperature (from 100 C to
300 C) and time (from 1 to 5 h) in detail. The oxygen content and the number of
carboxyl groups increase linearly with temperature and time, except in the change
from 250 C to 300 C where the number of carboxyl groups increases significantly.
Chen et al. (2011) studied the effect of temperature between 100 C and 400 C and
analysed the functional groups using the Boehm method. As the temperature
increased, the weaker acidic functional groups (type phenol) decreased from
100 C, while the strongly acidic ones (type carboxyl) increased with temperature.
The variation in both cases is especially important when the temperature exceeds
200 C. In contrast, the increase in oxidation time, although increasing the number
of carboxyl groups, does it very weakly. These results have been confirmed using
FTIR and XPS data.
Another method of oxidation (Li et al. 2016) is oxidation with potassium
permanganate in a strongly acidic medium, according to the well-known Hummers
method (Hummers and Offeman 1958), to obtain graphite oxide. Two other oxida-
tion methods frequently used with carbonaceous materials are the use of nitric acid
(Liu et al. 2013) and the use of hydrogen peroxide (Xue et al. 2012). In both cases,
the oxygen content increases, and at the same time, a decrease of PZC is verified.
As a general rule, mild oxidation methods give rise to the adsorption of oxygen
to create functional groups, increasing the mass of the carbon. Aggressive methods
produce carbon oxidation and the formation of carbon oxides, reducing the total
mass. It is not strange, therefore, that in the described conditions the mass yield
exceeds 100% in some cases.
Some uses of functionalisation are highly specific. One example is the use of o-
phosphoethanolamine and N,N0 -dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (Yu et al. 2014) with the aim
of improving the adsorption of (UO2)2+ by the phosphate groups, because the phosphate
group has strong tendencies to form complexes with uranyl ions.
Other functionalisations require several stages. For example, Song et al. (2012)
used 5-azacytosine to adsorb U(VI), as this multidentate ligand had demonstrated a
high affinity for dissolution towards the actinide metals. To bind the 5-azacytosine
to the carbon, they first performed calcination in air at 300 C. The product obtained
was reacted with ethane-1,2-diamine in the presence of N,N0 -
dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. And in the third step, amino groups grafted on the
HTC surface reacted with 5-azacytosine.
Another similar case is functionalisation with salicylideneimine (Wang et al.
2012). The first two steps are similar, but in the third step, salicylaldehyde reacts
with the amino groups previously formed to anchor to the surface of the HTC as
salicylideneimine, which is a good ligand of cations.
Functionalisation may sometimes depend on the raw material. Thus, Liu and
Zhang (2011) prepared two HTCs activated from pinewood dust and rice husks.
The last is known to have a lot of silicium that converts to silica. When phenol
adsorption was probed, there was a large difference in the amount adsorbed
between the two coals, which can be explained by the greater specific surface
area of the pinewood dust HTC. However, the difference in Cu(II) adsorption
was lower, which can be explained by the presence of silicon forming silanol
groups, which easily bind Cu, increasing the adsorption capacity.
A two-stage process whose functionalisation begins in the hydrothermal process
is HTC preparation (Yang et al. 2014) from glyoxal and acrylonitrile to obtain
cyano (-CN) functional groups. These react with hydroxylamine hydrochloride to
obtain amidoxime grafted to the HTC surface.
4.2.7 Hydrothermal Versus Pyrolytic Carbonisation
It is interesting to compare the two methods of carbonisation, although there are not
many papers dedicated to this question. The first differences we can find are in the
preparation conditions. The hydrothermal process is carried out at moderate tem-
peratures (180–300 C) and high pressure (1–10 MPa), while pyrolytic
carbonisation is carried out at a higher temperature (400–1000 C) and at atmo-
spheric pressure (0.10 MPa). In fact, out of these two factors, temperature seems to
be the one that most influences the final properties of the material obtained.
Some papers have been published comparing materials obtained by the two
methods of carbonisation. Liu et al. (2010) have studied the properties of HTC
obtained at 300 C and pyrolytic carbon obtained at 700 C in an atmosphere of N2
from pinewood. Cao et al. (2011) used dried swine manure as raw material. The
pyrolytic char was obtained at 620 C after 2 h, and the HTC was obtained at 250 C
after 20 h. Falco et al. (2011) prepared HTC at 180 C for 12 h and pyrolytic char in
an atmosphere of nitrogen at various temperatures. In this experiment, the HTCs
were later pyrolysed.
The composition obtained by elemental analysis is very different between the
two carbons used in the work of Liu et al. (2010). Pyrolytic carbon contains a large
amount of carbon while reducing the content of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.
This is because the higher the temperature, the degraded the heteroatom-containing
functional groups (i.e., the more labile groups). The composition obtained
suggested (Durán-Valle 2006) that the aromatisation process progressed more in
the pyrolytic carbon than in the HTC.
The proximate analysis is related to these data. A larger amount of heteroatoms is
related to functional groups less stable when heated, and therefore, the HTC contains a
greater amount of volatile matter and less fixed carbon. The amount of ash is also
lower in the HTC, but this can be mainly attributed to the higher yield of this
carbonisation, as it can be considered that the amount of ash in the raw material is
usually kept approximately stable during both processes of carbonisation. That is, the
variation observed is because of the decrease in the fixed carbon content and especially
in a volatile matter. Some authors also proposed (Liu et al. 2010) that the presence of
water in the hydrothermal method can dissolve part of the mineral matter.
Another difference found (Liu et al. 2010) is in the acidic/basic properties. As it
contains more oxygen, the HTC has more acidic functional groups, and its zero
point charge (PZC) is lower than in pyrolytic carbons.
As for the surface structure, both carbons have poor porosity development,
which is even lower in HTC. The specific surface obtained is low, mainly because
of the small volume of micropores formed. For many applications in adsorption of
these materials, it is necessary to develop porosity, especially when apolar pollut-
ants are removed. This can be done by using templates in the hydrothermal process
or by activating both types of carbons, as discussed above.
The degree of graphitisation is usually very low in HTCs. Demir-Cakan et al.
(2009) have measured this parameter using Raman spectroscopy. The data of the
proximate and ultimate analyses and of the physical structure support this
conclusion.
Sun et al. (2011) compared two pyrolytic carbons (obtained at 400 C) and two
HTCs (obtained at 250 C) from poultry litter and wheat straw. The differences
between the coals obtained are not as big as has been described in other works (Liu
et al. 2010). This can be explained by the low temperature and limited pyrolysis
time (2–4 h) in the work of Sun et al. (2011), suggesting that pyrolytic carbons are
on the limit of what can be considered a carbonaceous material and not a roasting
material. Thus, the elemental composition is similar, although the small differences
observed support what has been indicated in other works: higher carbon content and
lower nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen content in the pyrolytic carbon compared to
HTC. It is also observed that the specific surface is lower in the case of thermal
coals than in HTCs, which is not usually the case. However, the measure of
aromaticity by 13C-NMR indicates that it is more developed in pyrolytic carbons.
A similar result is observed when comparing an HTC obtained at 180 C with a
pyrolytic carbon prepared at 350 C; both are rich in oxygen and hydrogen when
compared to a pyrolytic carbon obtained at 750 C, which is most common (Falco
et al. 2011). The change in composition depends on temperature, and it is observed
that pyrolysis of the HTC increases the carbon content and decreases hydrogen and
oxygen content, obtaining an elemental analysis similar to that of a carbon obtained
by pyrolysis at the same temperature.
The yields depend on both the raw material and the carbonisation conditions and
can reach very different values. In general, it can be stated that the hydrothermal
method achieves a yield double that of the pyrolytic method.
4.3 Adsorption
Among the other applications cited in the introduction, HTCs have been employed
in adsorption processes, especially in the removal of contaminants from aqueous
solutions.
4.3.1 Dye Adsorption
As stated in Chap. 1, dyes are pollutants that are difficult to remove from waste-
water because they are non-biodegradable as well as toxic to plants, animals, and
humans. The greatest environmental problem with dyes is that their absorption of
sunlight entering the water interferes with the growth of bacteria, which dips to an
insufficient level for biologically degrading impurities in the water. Also, the
growth of algae decreases, as sunlight does not reach them; some algae even die,
affecting the food chain. The dye molecules are distinguished by their large size,
which is why adsorbents with a larger pore size, between the broad microporous
and the narrow mesoporous, are preferable.
Alatalo et al. (2016) used a ZnCl2-LiCl template, using fructose as the carbon
source organic material. When 2-thiophene carboxaldehyde was added, a solid with
a larger surface area and pore volume was obtained. Both materials were tested as
methylene blue adsorbents. The material without sulphur is more effective, prob-
ably because of higher oxygen content. In addition, it maintains its adsorption
capacity better when performing several consecutive cycles.
Martı́n-Jimeno et al. (2015) adsorbed three dyes (rhodamine B, fuchsin basic,
and methyl orange; see Fig. 4.3) on HTCs made on templates, some of them
activated with KOH. The best-absorbed dye was methyl orange, because it is the
narrowest of the three, and these basically prepared templates show mainly narrow
microporosity. Those HTCs activated with high KOH ratios developed broader
-
Cl -
N Cl
H3C CH3
+
H3C + CH3 H3C N O N CH3
N S N
CH3 CH3
COOH
Methylene blue
-
Cl Rhodamine B
CH3
+
H2N NH2
+
Na
-
N SO3
H3C
N N
H3C
NH2
Fuchsine Methyl orange
Fig. 4.3 Molecules of dyes cited in this section

porosity (broad micropores and narrow mesopores), so they adsorbed a greater

amount of rhodamine B and fuchsin basic than the other HTCs.
Roldán et al. (2016) prepared HTC using glucose, doping the HTC with N or S
by adding pyrrolecarboxaldehyde, thiopenecarboxaldehyde, or both. These change
the porosity before pyrolysis, with a higher percentage of mesopores. Also, the
sample contains ZnCl2. In this experiment, these authors did not wash the salts,
because ZnCl2 is an activation agent activated to develop microporosity. These
HTCs were used as adsorbents of methylene blue and rhodamine B. This dye is
adsorbed to a lesser extent, and the authors explain it as having a somewhat larger
size than methylene blue. It is interesting to note that non-pyrolysed HTCs, despite
their smaller surface, adsorb dyes better. This can be explained by the lower oxygen
content of the pyrolysed materials, which interact less well with the cationic dyes.
Hao et al. (2014) studied the adsorption of methylene blue dye from aqueous
solutions using activated carbons produced by chemical activation of hydrother-
mally carbonised (HTC) beer waste. By studying the adsorption isotherms, it was
concluded that activated carbon has a good adsorption capacity for the dye studied
(341 mg/g). The pH value affects the adsorption process, so at a low pH, the
adsorption is lower than at a high pH. This is attributed to the fact that at pH values
above the PZC, the surface of the adsorbent is negatively charged, which increases
the adsorption capacity of the positively charged methylene blue molecule.
4.3.2 Pesticides
One of the activities that produces a lot of water pollution is agriculture, for example,
with the discharge of pesticides by agricultural irrigation systems. There are few
published works about the adsorption of pesticides with HTCs. However, the removal
of paraquat (1,10 -dimethyl-4,40 -bipyridyl dichloride) from water has been studied
(Zhao et al. 2016). This herbicide is banned in several countries because of its high
toxicity but is still used in many regions of the world. To test the removal, they
prepared PAN fibres that were mixed with a solution of glucose to later submit them
to the hydrothermal process. An HTC in the form of fibres was thus obtained, which
was activated with 1M NaOH. The specific surface area obtained was low (<12 m2/g).
The hydrothermal treatment increases the tensile strength, and although it decreases
the elongation at break, it has good flexibility. Such enhanced mechanical strength
is beneficial for applications in wastewater treatment. The adsorbed amount is
practically zero, only with PAN fibres. It increases about 50 times after the hydro-
thermal treatment and is multiplied by three after activation with NaOH. This shows
that adsorbent capacity comes from the presence of a porous material and is
enhanced by the creation of oxygenated functional groups. As the pH decreases,
the adsorption capacity of paraquat decreases. This is because of electrostatic
interactions. Paraquat is a cation (Fig. 4.4) and is repelled by the positive charge
of the protonated HTC surface at a low pH. As the pH increases, this repulsion
decreases, and the effect disappears at a pH above 7. Also, the adjustment to kinetic
Fig. 4.4 Structure of - -

Cl Cl
paraquat (1,10 -dimethyl-
4,40 -bipyridyl dichloride) H3C N
+
N
+
CH3
Fig. 4.5 Molecular OH O OH O O

structure of tetracycline OH
NH2
H OH
H
H3C OH N
H3C CH3
models (pseudo second order) and isotherms (Langmuir) is in agreement with the
idea that the limiting step of adsorption occurs at the surface, which could be
explained by the electrostatic interactions.
4.3.3 Drugs
There are not any publications on the adsorption of drugs with HTCs. In particular,
tetracycline (Fig. 4.5) is an antibiotic that is widely used in aquaculture and
veterinary medicine to improve growth rates and feed efficiencies. It is excreted
as an unmetabolized compound, and the greatest known risk is the development of
multiresistant bacterial strains that will no longer be able to be treated with current
antibiotics. Zhu et al. (2014) have studied their adsorption with heat-activated HTC,
obtaining the best results for treated char at the highest temperatures (700 C). In
this case, it must be assumed that because functional groups are not abundant in
HTC, it is the specific surface that drives adsorption.
4.3.4 Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
These compounds, as drugs, have biological activity. They can mimic the activity of
natural hormones. They have been found in the effluents of municipal sewage
treatment plants. For example, Sun et al. (2011) have tested HTCs as adsorbents of
bisphenol A, 17α-ethinylestradiol, and phenanthrene. They deduced that compared to
pyrolytic carbons, more polar HTC favours adsorption of the more polar compounds.
4.3.5 Metal Ions
Water pollution caused by heavy metals is a serious worldwide environmental

problem with significant impacts on human health and on nature. One common
method of removing these contaminants is adsorption. Although HTCs have been
employed to adsorb many different contaminants, they have certain properties that
make them useful for the adsorption of metals. In fact, they can compete with
activated carbons with a specific surface area 10 times greater. Among these
properties are the following:
• They have a large number of oxygenated functional groups originating from the
raw material. These functional groups are polar and, therefore, more favourable
for ion adsorption.
• These functional groups in the HTC can be used to give rise to other distinct
functionalities, increasing or making the interaction with the metallic ions more
specific.
• They are acidic. This means that in most situations where there is a metal in a
solution, it is found as a cation, and the HTC has given protons to the solution
and is negatively charged. The negative charge on its surface attracts positively
charged metal ions (see Fig. 4.6).
• Some metals, especially in a high oxidation state, are dissolved as anions. The high
number of functional groups on the HTC makes it possible to easily change the
charge on its surface by modifying the pH of the medium. Thus, at a pH < PZC,
the surface will be positively charged and will prefer to adsorb anions.
As mentioned above, the pH of the solution may affect the adsorption capacity,
as it modifies the surface of the HTC. An example with a metal cation (Mn+) and a
surface with a determined PZC are shown in Fig. 4.6. When pH < PZC, the HTC
accepts protons, which positively charge its surface, repelling the cations. When
pH > PZC, the HTC yields protons from its functional groups, remaining nega-
tively charged and attracting the cations. The situation may be more complex than
shown in Fig. 4.6, as the metal may form other species, such as anions or precip-
itated solids.
Fig. 4.6 Effect of pH on cation adsorption

4.3.5.1 p-Block and d-Block Metals
Cr(VI) is considered to be one of the top priority toxic pollutants because of its
mutagenicity and carcinogenicity properties. Chromium mainly comes from pro-
cesses such as textile dyeing, leather tanning, and the chromic salt industry. Shen
et al. (2016) prepared HTC from chitosan obtaining better results than those
published with other adsorbent materials. Chitosan is a copolymer of
2-glucosamine and N-acetyl-2-glucosamine. Hydroxyl and amine groups are inter-
esting substances to adsorb metals, and chitosan is a good scavenger from Pb(II) or
Cd(II) at a high pH. Cr(VI) adsorption is favoured at low pH, but chitosan is not
stable in an acidic solution. In principle, chitosan cannot be used to remove Cr(VI).
But a chitosan carbonaceous adsorbent can exhibit good chemical stability. To
maintain amino and hydroxyl groups, carbonisation must be carried out at low
temperatures, which is possible with the HTC method. HTCs were prepared at
different temperatures (140–220 C). The HTC prepared at 140 C does not appear
to be completely charred, and those prepared at 200 C and 220 C had lower
adsorption capacity than those prepared at 160 C and 180 C. This may be because
of the destruction of functional groups, as lower N and O contents were observed
when raising the preparation temperature. As with other metallic cations, the
adsorption is fast, as equilibrium is reached in 30 min. The kinetic model that
best fits the experimental results is that of pseudo-first order.
Cr(VI) adsorption is strongly pH dependent. This is because this metal is in the
form of anions (CrO42, HCrO4, Cr2O72), which are attracted electrostatically to
the positive charges of the surface. These are more abundant as pH decreases in the
solution. In addition, the presence of amino groups favours this increase in positive
charge, as they protonate more easily than the oxygenated functional groups.
The maximum adsorption capacity obtained by Shen et al. (2016) at a pH of 4.0
was 343 mg/g and showed a saturation effect, which can be explained by the
existence of a limited number of active sites on the adsorbent. The adsorption
capacity of the non-carbonized chitosan is slightly higher, but, as stated above, it
cannot be used in highly acidic solutions. This also supports the idea that there is a
limited number of active sites, so the isotherm data are better fitted to the Langmuir
model than to Freundlich equation. The enthalpy and entropy values are negative,
as well as free energy, which indicates an exothermic and spontaneous process. The
adsorbent is easy to recycle: a centrifugation and a wash with NaOH is enough.
After five cycles, more than 92% of the initial adsorption capacity is still
maintained.
Copper and cadmium are heavy metals that are involved in several industrial
processes. Regmi et al. (2012) have studied their adsorption obtaining excellent
results in some experimental conditions. They observed, as with other cations in
solutions, that at an acidic pH level (less than 5), the adsorption is very low, as the
surface of the HTC is protonated and repels the positive charges of the cations (see
Fig. 4.6). The adsorption increases above a pH of 5 because the surface groups are
not protonated; therefore, the negative charge that attracts the cations predominates.
It also influences the precipitation of metals. Thus, copper precipitates at a pH of

7 and cadmium at a pH of 10. But both are removed at a pH of 5, which can be due
only to adsorption. There are big differences in the adsorption capacities whether
we use HTC activated with KOH, inactivated HTC, or the starting biomass
(switchgrass).
Liu and Zhang (2011) have also studied the adsorption of Cu(II) on activated
HTC. Likewise, they have observed that the adsorbed amount increases with
pH. This occurs for both pyrolytic carbons and HTCs, but with the difference that
in the latter, having a PZC in the study range (pH of 1–6), the influence of pH is
greater, rapidly increasing the adsorbed amount when pH > PZC, as in that
situation the predominant charge at the surface is negative (Liu et al. 2010). It
should be added that the HTCs present a greater number of functional groups, so the
number of charges of any type on the surface will be greater than in pyrolytic
carbons. A negative charge attracts the cation Cu(II).
Sun et al. (2015) studied the adsorption of Cd(II) with non-modified HTCs and
HTCs modified with KOH. The modified carbons showed a higher adsorption
capacity, as they reduced about 90% of the Cd(II) in the solution, while the
unmodified HTCs barely removed 10%. This is because of the greater number of
oxygen groups on the surface of the modified carbon. These isotherms are better
fitted to the Langmuir model than the Freundlich equation, which indicates homo-
geneity at the surface. As described in previous paragraphs (Regmi et al. 2012),
when the pH is lower than the PZC, the surface of the HTC is positively charged, as
is the cadmium cation, so adsorption is low. By using a pH higher than the PZC, the
surface charge is negative and the adsorption increases sharply.
Demir-Cakan et al. (2009) studied the adsorption of Cd(II) and Pb(II) in HTCs
prepared from glucose and acrylic acid to obtain a large number of carboxyl
functional groups. The greater the amount of acrylic acid used in the hydrothermal
carbonisation, the greater the adsorption of both metals. The capacity of the best
HTC is superior to that of other adsorbents commonly used for the adsorption of Pb
(II) and similar to them in the adsorption of Cd(II). The adsorption isotherm of both
metals is better fitted to the Freundlich model than Langmuir equation, which the
authors attribute to the heterogeneity of the surface. A similar work has been
published on the adsorption of Cd(II) and Pb(II), but the carboxyl groups were
obtained by oxidation of the HTC at 300 C (Chen et al. 2011). The adsorbed
amount is increased by releasing Pb(II) instead of Cd(II), and if oxidised HTC is
used, the adsorbed amount is multiplied several times. In addition, in this experi-
ment, the oxidised HTC was found to be superior to other common adsorbents when
Pb(II) is used and competitive with them when using Cd(II).
The adsorption of Pb(II) with HTCs has been studied by Liu and Zhang (2009).
The adsorbed amount is low at very acidic pH levels, but improves, reaching a
maximum near pH ¼ 5 and decreasing with a higher pH. Above pH ¼ 5, hydroxyl-
ated compounds of Pb(II) are formed in which the interaction with the negatively
charged surface weakens as the charge decreases. Pb(II) adsorption can be greatly
improved by oxidising the HTC with hydrogen peroxide (Xue et al. 2012). In
addition, the adsorption equilibrium is reached faster. Note that a change in
adsorption has been observed: the HTC isotherm fits better to the Freundlich model
and the modified HTC to the Langmuir model. The authors proposed that this is
because the oxidation decreases the heterogeneity of the surface. They also pointed
out that in previous work, they detected that Pb(II) is removed when a pyrolytic coal
is used, by the precipitation mechanism. Crystalline compounds are formed which
can be detected by XRD. But with the HTCs, these crystals are not observed. From
published studies on Pb(II) adsorption, it can be concluded that the predominant
interaction is that of the metal with oxygen atoms on the surface of the HTC.
4.3.5.2 f-Block Metals
A metallic element that is very interesting to adsorb is uranium. And it is probably

this element that is the most studied using HTCs as adsorbents. Interest is because
of two reasons. Uranium is used for the generation of electricity and is a
nonrenewable resource, so it is valuable and worth the time and effort to recover
it. But it is also an element that can affect the ecosystem because of the radiochem-
ical and toxic effects that it presents. Carbonaceous materials are suitable adsor-
bents, as they have a great stability against radiation, heat, acids, and bases.
Specifically, against radiation, the effect of gamma irradiation with doses from
1 to 100 kGy has been studied (Yang et al. 2014). The adsorption capacity decreases
slightly, and the selectivity towards the U(VI) is hardly affected, even at the highest
doses of radiation. The only problem it presents is that they usually have few
functional groups so that unmodified carbons exhibit relatively low selectivity
and poor adsorption capacity towards uranium. An advantage of HTCs is that,
although they have a lower specific surface area than other carbon materials, they
have a greater number of oxygenated surface groups, which is an advantage in the
case of adsorbates such as U(VI), as we will see below.
Several HTCs have been used to adsorb U(VI). It is soluble in moderate
concentrations only at acidic pH levels, up to pH ¼ 4.5. Under these conditions,
it is found as uranyl cation (UO22+).
With respect to synthesis of HTCs for uranium removal, Li et al. (2016) prepared
carbon microspheres from Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells by hydrothermal
methods, followed by chemical modification using the Hummers method to
increase the number of fungal groups. Li et al. (2014) used another approach.
Some of the compounds used as an antidote in cases of acute poisoning by uranyl
cations are polyphenols. As a result of this, they used a type of polyphenols
(bayberry tannins) with glyoxal introduced as a cross-linking agent, with the target
of obtaining a large amount of phenol groups on a stable material. They obtained
more than 10 mmol/g between phenol and carboxyl groups. In addition, they
achieved greater porous development when using glyoxal than when using only
tannins. Other authors have also used glyoxal (Yang et al. 2014), not as a cross-
linking agent but as a carbon source. They mixed glyoxal with acrylonitrile to have
-CN groups that could react with NH2OHHCl to obtain amidoxime groups at the
surface and avoid the formation of carboxyl groups. Amidoxime is known to be an
effective bidentate ligand of U(VI). Yu et al. (2014) tested another strategy (taking
advantage of the tendency of uranium to form complexes with phosphates) to
prepare HTCs with these functional groups. For this, they obtained HTC from
glucose and oxidised them in air at moderate (i.e., 300 C). They then reacted the
HTC with o-phosphoethanolamine and N,N0 -dicyclohexylcarbodiimide to
functionalize the surface. Even simpler was the method of Zhang et al. (2014a),
who prepared HTC with phosphate groups in a single step mixing glucose and
phosphoric acid. Song et al. (2012) followed a similar strategy opting for a
multidentate ligand that usually has good selectivity towards actinides in the
5-azacytosine column-actinide/lanthanide separation processes. After the hydro-
thermal process and calcination in air at a moderate temperature, the HTC was first
reacted with ethylenediamine and subsequently with 5-azacytosine. The oxidation
process increased the number of carboxyl groups, unlike for Li et al. (2014). Wang
et al. (2012) chose another ligand, the salicylideneimine, known for its ability to
coordinate with hexavalent cations. For this, they performed a synthesis similar to
that of Song et al. (2012). The difference is in using salicylaldehyde after the
reaction with ethylenediamine. Liu et al. (2013) opted for a two-stage synthesis,
in which after obtaining HTC from pine needles, this was oxidised with 2 M HNO3
to obtain a greater number of carboxyl groups. In this case, HTC porosity dramat-
ically decreases, but in spite of this, a considerably better adsorption of U(VI) is
obtained. Zhang et al. (2013) prepared HTC from glucose and performed oxidation
in air at temperatures between 150 C and 300 C, without further surface modi-
fication. The number of carboxyl groups obtained depended mainly on the oxida-
tion temperature and not on time. This amount of functional groups influences the
adsorption capacity. It is also possible to use simpler processes such as those
proposed by Kumar et al. (2011) that used lignocellulosic material (switchgrass,
Panicum virgatum) to obtain HTCs in a single stage without further chemical
modification. A synthesis was also performed with chitosan (Zhang et al. 2014b),
a material chosen for its abundance, low cost, and numerous amino groups in its
composition.
When adsorption of U(VI) was carried out, a great influence of pH (from 1 to
4.5) was observed, with a low adsorption at very acidic pH levels and higher
adsorption at a pH of 4. It was explained (Fig. 4.6) by the fact that at low pH
levels, functional groups are protonated, and so there is electronic repulsion with U
(VI) in its UO22+ form. But as the pH increases, the positive charge on the surface
decreases, as well as the repulsion. Some authors increased the range of study to
pH ¼ 8. It is possible that the uranyl cation is soluble if it forms a CO32
coordination compound (Kumar et al. 2011). In this case, the maximum amount
of adsorption is obtained at pH ¼ 6.0. It should be noted that above this pH, the U
predominant species in a solution have a negative charge, whereas at pH levels
<6.0, they have a positive charge. As for ionic strength, its effect is not clear, and
with some of the adsorbents cited, it does not produce an effect, while with some
others it does. Overall, the adsorption process of U(VI) is very fast. Some of the
published results are shown in Table 4.4. Two factors might be responsible: the
absence of developed porosity, which prevents the existence of a prolonged
Table 4.4 Some published Maximum capacity (%) Time (min) References
data about the adsorption rate
80 10 Li et al. (2016)
of U (VI)
88 1 Li et al. (2014)
90 5 Song et al. (2012)
80 1 Wang et al. (2012)
diffusion process, and the strong interaction between the cation and the HTC’s
active sites. This quickness in adsorption is habitual when metallic cations are used.
The kinetics conform to a pseudo-second-order model, which is based on the fact
that the limiting step of the reaction is because of a process of chemisorption on the
surface, which includes the formation of bonds. In addition, the intraparticle diffusion
model presents a poor fit, confirming that the slow step proceeds on the surface. This
adsorption mechanism also confirms the adsorption isotherm data, which are better
fitted to the Langmuir model than the Freundlich model. The Langmuir model
assumes monolayer adsorption, which would be closer to a chemisorption process.
It also supports the model that shows an increase of the quantity adsorbed with an
increase in temperature. Li et al. (2014) and Wang et al. (2012) adjusted the isotherm
data to the Dubinin-Radushkevich model and obtained a binding energy whose
positive value (þ12.54 kJ/mol) also suggesting chemisorption. This data is supported
by positive values of enthalpy and entropy and the negative value of the free energy.
The adsorption of U(VI), therefore, is spontaneous and endothermic. Liu et al. (2013)
prepared two materials with very different specific surfaces and found that the one
with a larger surface area saturated before the other material, demonstrating that the
number of active sites for U(VI) adsorption is limited and does not depend directly on
the value of the specific surface.
The results obtained for the adsorption of U(VI) in several adsorption works
about this metal cation are shown in Table 4.5. It can be seen that the amount
adsorbed strongly depends on the relative concentrations of HTC and U(VI),
presenting very different values. Better results are obtained when the pH level is
less than 5.0. It should be noted that when both data have been measured and
published, there is a close relationship between the capacity measured experimen-
tally and that indicated for the monolayer by the Langmuir model. This fact
indicates that adsorption, as indicated above, must be in a single layer and probably
as a chemisorption.
Another similar ion (actinide and presenting environmental problems resem-
bling U(VI)) is Th(IV). It appears in many minerals for industrial use (Syed 1999),
so it is frequently found in sewage. In addition, it is an element used as a nuclear
fuel and in alloys, so it is also interesting to recover. Zhou et al. (2015) used a
similar char that they had already used to adsorb U (VI) (Zhang et al. 2013), which
was oxidised in air at a moderate temperature to increase the number of oxygenated
functional groups. The maximum amount removed from Th (IV) is achieved at
pH ¼ 3.5, but the authors speculated that it may be because of two factors: higher
adsorption (because of the decrease in positive charge on the HTC) and the
beginning of precipitation as Th(OH)4. The effect of the treatment temperature in
102
Table 4.5 The adsorption capacity of U (VI) by HTCs

Adsorption (mg/g)
Sample name HTC conc. (mg/L) U(VI) conc. (mg/L) Exper.a Langmuirb Temperature ( C) pH Time (h) References
Oxy-HTCM 400 100 160.0 184.8 25 4.5 12 Li et al. (2016)
HTC-btg 400 400 307.3 332.2 25 4.5 2 Li et al. (2014)
HTC 200 – – 80.0 25 6.0 2 Yu et al. (2014)
HTC-PO4 200 – – 434.8 25 6.0 2 Yu et al. (2014)
HTC 5000 30 4.0 2.1 25 3.9 34 Kumar et al. (2011)
HTC 200 50 55.9 62.7 35 6.0 1 Liu et al. (2013)
HTC-COOH 200 50 176.0 205.8 35 6.0 1 Liu et al. (2013)
HCSs250 200 50 169.9 – – 7.0 25 min Zhang et al. (2013)
HCSs300 200 50 180.0 – – 7.0 25 min Zhang et al. (2013)
HCSs 200 110 64.9 80.0 25 6.0 1 Zhang et al. (2014b)
HCSs-PO43 200 110 261.8 285.7 25 5.0 1 Zhang et al. (2014a)
HTC-Sal 500 119 261.8 292.8 – 4.3 – Wang et al. (2012)
HTC-AO 50 300 1021.6 – 25 4.5 2 Yang et al. (2014)
HCC – – – 264.6 – – – Zhang et al. (2014b)
HTC-Acy 500 – 408.4 – 60 4.5 2 Song et al. (2012)
a
Experimental data of maximum adsorption
b
Capacity of the monolayer according to the Langmuir isotherm model
C.J. Durán-Valle et al.
air is clearer. As temperature rises, the HTCs have higher oxygen content, and this
increases the amount of adsorbed thorium. The data on the effects of contact time
(fast adsorption), application of mathematical models to kinetics (adjusted to the
pseudo-second-order model) and isotherms (where Langmuir model represents the
phenomenon better than the Freundlich model), and the effect of temperature
(increasing adsorption by raising the temperature) indicate that the adsorption
process, as with U(VI), is chemical adsorption.
4.3.5.3 Mixture of Metals
Few studies have been done on simultaneous metal adsorption with HTCs (Sun
et al. 2015). It has been observed that the smaller the radii of the hydrated cations
are, the greater the adsorption; this is also described with other adsorbents. Adsorp-
tion is greater when using HTCs with high oxygen content. In addition, it has been
measured that the adsorption of a metal is lower if it is adsorbed from a mixture than
if it is adsorbed from a pure solution. This is because of the competition between
several metals for active adsorption sites; in other words, the number of active
adsorption sites on the surface of the HTC is limited.
Xue et al. (2012) have studied the adsorption of a mixture of heavy metals in an
aqueous solution using HTC in columns. Conclusions are similar to work on batch
adsorption (Sun et al. 2015), which reinforces the idea that there are a limited
number of active sites in HTCs.
As general remark for metal adsorption, it can be deduced that this process is
governed by the existence of active sites, where a specific bond occurs. This fact is
supported by kinetic, adsorption isotherms and thermodynamics, in which the
Langmuir model, which supposes a limited number of active sites, is more adequate
than the Freundlich model. In several cases, the existence of chemisorption may be
assumed. It can also be generally deduced that the adsorption of metals depends
heavily on pH levels. This can influence the charge of the species containing the
metal and also the charge of the HTC surface. The priority mechanism seems to be
similar to ion exchange.
4.3.6 Phosphorus
Phosphorus-containing minerals are a limited resource, and they are essential for
agriculture as a nutrient. In addition, when phosphorus compounds enter an aquatic
environment, they may cause eutrophication problems. Therefore, there is a high
level of interest in removal (to reduce environmental problems) and recovery
(to use in agriculture) of phosphorus. HTCs doped with lanthanum have been
proposed as phosphorus adsorbents (Dai et al. 2014). Some authors have found
that efficiency of this HTC is higher than La(OH)3 and that HTC without lanthanum
showed no phosphorus removal activity. The lanthanum content and phosphorus
removal efficiency were increased with the hydrothermal carbonisation time. Lan-
thanum must be bonded to functional surface groups, because no lanthanum
compounds were detected with XRD. The pH levels of the solution and coexisting
anions have a limited effect on the activity of La-HTC, which can be used in a wide
range of situations. As is the case for other adsorbates that bind to specific surface
sites, the Langmuir model better describes the adsorption isotherm than the
Freundlich model.
4.3.7 Phenols
Liu and Zhang (2011) have studied the adsorption of phenol on activated HTC.
They have worked with different pH levels, and the adsorption has not deflected.
This result was attributed to the fact that the phenol is in molecular form in that
range of pH and is not affected by the positive charges on the surface of the HTC.
4.3.8 Wastewater
In general, adsorption studies have been performed in simple solutions. But it is

also possible to study the adsorption on HTCs in more complex mixtures. The
purification of water resulting from fermentation of lactic acid has been studied
(Laube and Reza 2016). In this work, several different adsorbents were used, and it
was concluded that HTCs prepared from willow and poplar are the most effective,
combining good adsorption capacity and high physical and chemical endurance.
4.3.9 Reusability
To reduce the overall cost of practical applications, adsorbent reusability is signif-

icant. Depending on the adsorbent and adsorbate, regeneration methods are diverse.
To date, some studies have analysed the reusability of HTCs.
For adsorption of U(VI: Li et al. 2016), the adsorbed amount was found to be
very low at pH ¼ 1.0 and higher when the pH level was raised to pH ¼ 4.5. A strong
acid treatment method was used to regenerate the HTC, and after five cycles no
significant loss of adsorbent capacity had been observed. The same method was
employed by Zhou et al. (2015) for the regeneration of HTC used to adsorb Th (IV).
The same technique was used to regenerate an HTC fibre on which paraquat had
been adsorbed. In this case, the manipulation produced the breakage of the external
HTC separating it from the internal fibre, which resulted in a loss of efficiency
(Zhou et al. 2015). Even so, it remained at 83% after five cycles. Yu et al. (2014)
compared this method with the use of EDTA to recover the adsorbed U (VI) and
concluded that the use of EDTA is preferable, even at concentrations lower than
those of the acid. Shen et al. (2016) studied the adsorption of an anion (CrO42) in
place of the cations studied by the previously cited authors so that their regeneration
method was the opposite: they used a 2 M NaOH solution. The loss of the
adsorption capacity was 7.7% after five cycles, indicating that it is a good method
for regeneration. This ease of regeneration is because of the operation of HTCs as
ion exchangers, thanks to a large number of functional groups on their surfaces.
4.4 Conclusions
The hydrothermal carbonisation method is an alternative to the classical pyrolysis

method. It has several advantages, among which are a lower production of pollut-
ants, better yield, and lower energy consumption, as a lower temperature is used and
wet raw material can be used. These characteristics allow for the inclusion of this
procedure within Green Chemistry.
The product obtained is characterised by low porous development, high oxygen
content, and a large number of functional groups on its surface. It can be activated
or prepared by using templates to increase its porosity. It can also be functionalized
in very different ways, which is favoured by the abundance of preexisting func-
tional groups, as well as being used to coat other materials.
It has been used in several applications, for instance, the adsorption of contam-
inants in water. In this field, it can be said that research is just beginning, as the
number of bibliographical references found in the preparation of this document
(year: 2016) is low.
HTCs have been used as adsorbents for many different substances, with good
results. But to date, they appear to be especially useful for the adsorption of ions in a
solution, whether organic or inorganic. This is because the existence of a large
number of functional groups also allows for a large number of positive or negative
charges as a function of the pH of the solution. These charges attract the ions with
the opposite charge. Functional groups also facilitate the regeneration of the
adsorbent by using acids or alkalis.
In summary, HTCs are materials with a wide range of possibilities for employ-
ment, and they are expected to be investigated and used frequently in the future.
Acknowledgements Authors acknowledge the support provided by Universidad de Extremadura

and Junta de Extremadura/FEDER ref. GRU15123.
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Chapter 5
Removal of Heavy Metals, Lead,
Cadmium, and Zinc, Using Adsorption
Processes by Cost-Effective Adsorbents
Meng Xu and Gordon McKay
Abstract Heavy metals have been utilized by human beings for thousands of
years, and they pervade nearly all aspects in modern economic activities. However,
heavy metal ions such as cadmium, lead, zinc, nickel, and copper are detected in
waste streams from mining operations, battery manufacturing, electroplating, and
smelting industries due to their extensive use. The adverse effects of heavy metals
on human health have been studied by international organizations including the
WHO. Although the emissions have declined in most developed countries, in some
parts of the developing world, human exposure to heavy metals is still a severe
problem. Various technologies of heavy metal removal from effluent have been
investigated and reported in literature including precipitation, membrane filtration,
coagulation, adsorption/ion exchange, and electrochemical treatment. In this chap-
ter, adsorption studies of cadmium, lead, and zinc onto various low-cost adsorbent
materials will be reviewed. The equilibrium isotherm, batch kinetic studies, the
effect of variables including contact time, initial pH, adsorbate concentrations,
dosage, and the application of adsorption models will be discussed.
Keywords Heavy metals • Water treatment • Low-cost adsorbents
Contents
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.2 Adsorption Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2.1 Equilibrium Adsorption Isotherm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.2.2 Kinetic Studies and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3 Low-Cost Adsorbent Materials and Metal Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.1 Agricultural Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.2 Industrial By-Products and Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
M. Xu
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong
G. McKay (*)
Division of Sustainability, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa
University, Education City, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar

110 M. Xu and G. McKay
5.3.3 Marine Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

5.3.4 Zeolite and Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.1 Introduction
Heavy metals presented in source and treated water are a severe problem to public
health (Hua et al. 2012). Due to the extensive use of various heavy metals in mining
operations, battery manufacturing, electroplating, and other industries, the surround-
ing underground and surface water are subjected to the risk of metal contamination
(Srivastava and Majumder 2008; Wang et al. 2012). Metals associated with these
industrial activities such as cadmium, lead, zinc, and nickel are not biodegradable and
have the tendency to accumulate in living organisms, leading to diseases and
disorders to human health (Khan et al. 2008; Joseph 2009; Li et al. 2015).
During the past decades of development, to treat heavy metal-contaminated
wastewater, several technologies have been developed and applied, among which
adsorption/ion exchange has been recognized as a promising way to treat industrial
waste effluents with the advantage of easy operation (Fu and Wang 2011). Tradi-
tional treatment processes such as chemical precipitation (Feng et al. 2000) and
electrochemical treatment (Sadrzadeh et al. 2009) are effective when dealing with
high metal concentrated wastewater. However, they fail in certain cases when the
metal concentration is relatively low (Gautam et al. 2014). Membrane filtration
(Bl€ocher et al. 2003) and adsorption can be applied to low concentration metal-
contaminated wastewater, but membrane filtration is extremely expensive when
treating large amounts of industrial effluent and thus can hardly be applied on an
industrial scale (Fu and Wang 2011).
However, an adsorption process can make full use of certain types of adsorbent
materials even when the metal concentration is quite low (Fu and Wang 2011). By
choosing from various types of adsorbent materials, heavy metals can be removed
together or selectively (Da̧browski et al. 2004). Three types of adsorbent materials
have been commercially available in water treatment: activated carbons (Paul Chen
and Lin 2001), zeolites (Hui et al. 2005), and synthetic polymeric adsorbents
(Kennedy 1973). Most activated carbons have a wide range of pore sizes that can
accommodate large organic molecules; zeolite which refers to aluminosilicate
materials with varying ratios of Al to Si tends to have very small pores; synthetic
polymeric adsorbents usually have only micropores. Activated carbons, zeolite, and
synthetic polymeric resins have already been applied successfully in several water
treatment applications, among which activated carbon is the most commonly used
adsorbent material.
Activated carbon can be manufactured from natural or carbonaceous materials
such as coal (Ahmadpour and Do 1996; Chingombe et al. 2005), peat (Ho and
McKay 1999a), coconuts (Sekar et al. 2004), and others by high-temperature steam
activation or other processes. But the temperature needed in carbonization/
5 Removal of Heavy Metals, Lead, Cadmium, and Zinc, Using Adsorption. . . 111
activation process is extremely high at around 600–1200 C which means high

energy consumption, whereas the yield of activated carbon from biomass is quite
low, usually below 20%, resulting in the relatively high expense to treat large
quantities. Thus cost-effective adsorbent materials are needed to replace traditional
activated carbons.
The adsorption capacities vary a lot depending on the nature of the raw material
as well as the modification process. Apart from the adsorption capability, cost is
also an important parameter in comparing and choosing various adsorbent materials
(Bailey et al. 1999; Júnior et al. 2009). The cost of an individual adsorbent material
varies depending on several aspects such as local availability and the degree of
required activation or modification process. In general, “low-cost” adsorbents
should meet the requirements as abundant in nature; need as simple processing as
possible are waste materials or by-products from another industrial process (Bailey
et al. 1999).
Agricultural wastes are usually available in large quantities with cheap price
which meets the requirement as “low-cost” materials (Demirbas 2008). The major
constituents of these materials are lignin and cellulose which may also include other
functional groups of lignin such as alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, phenolic, carbox-
ylic, and ether groups (Júnior et al. 2009). To some extent, these groups have the
ability to donate a lone pair of electrons to bind with heavy metals and form
coordination complexes which makes these waste materials potential adsorbents
for heavy metal uptake. Commonly used agricultural wastes include rice husks
(Ajmal et al. 2003; Krishnani et al. 2008), peanut hull (Periasamy and
Namasivayam 1996; Brown et al. 2000; Witek-Krowiak et al. 2011), sawdust
(Yu et al. 2000; Argun et al. 2007), pinus bark and different bark samples (Vázquez
et al. 1994; Al-Asheh et al. 2000), tea leaves (Ahluwalia and Goyal 2005), banana
and orange peels (Annadurai et al. 2003), palm kernel husk (Onundi et al. 2010),
coconut husk (Amuda et al. 2007), modified cotton, modified cellulose (O’Connell
et al. 2008), modified corncob (Vaughan et al. 2001), wool fibers (Balk€ose and
Baltacioǧlu 1992), and other agricultural by-products.
In addition to agricultural wastes, industrial waste by-products have also been
considered and researched for the application of heavy metal adsorption. Nowa-
days, industrial activities also generate enormous amounts of by-products and solid
waste materials, some of which can be reused while the others will be sent for
disposal in landfills. Therefore, recycle and reuse of these industrial waste materials
to reduce the quantity of waste have become a hot topic. The most attractive aspect
of these types of materials is that they are usually provided free or at very low price.
During the past decades, many industrial wastes have been investigated with or
without treatment processes, and they have been applied to metal adsorption
systems such as fly ash from the energy combustion industry (Cho et al. 2005;
Hui et al. 2005), bark and sawdust from the timber industry (Yu et al. 2001; Bulut
and Tez 2007), black liquor from the paper industry (Srivastava et al. 1994), red
mud from the aluminum industry (Gupta et al. 2001), and others.
Chitin is another kind of material that has been reported to have the ability to
adsorb heavy metals (Wu et al. 2000). It is plentiful in nature and can also be
produced from shrimp, prawn, and crab meat canning industries. Moreover, chitin’s
deacetylated derivative chitosan has a higher adsorption capacity than that of chitin.
Chitosan can be produced from chitin using chemical methods or can also be found
naturally in some fungal cell walls (Wu et al. 2001).
Finally, naturally abundant clay (Celis et al. 2000) and minerals with the
potential to be used as adsorbents have gained attention. Clay has a large surface
area which infers it has potential to be an adsorbent material; zeolites are naturally
occurring silicate minerals and possess ion-exchange ability (Ok et al. 2007). In
particular, zeolite presents a strong affinity toward lead and other heavy metals
which makes it an effective adsorbent material.
5.2 Adsorption Process
Adsorption is a surface-based process in which the dissolved species are transported

to the porous solid adsorbent by diffusion and are then adhered onto the extensive
inner surface of the adsorbent. An adsorbate refers to the constituent that is attracted
onto a surface, and adsorbent refers to the solid onto which the constituent is
adsorbed. Adsorbent solids bind dissolved molecules by physical forces
(physisorption), ion exchange, or chemical binding (chemisorption).
As stated in Chaps. 2 and 3, solid-liquid adsorption systems usually involve two
types of experimental investigations: equilibrium isotherm adsorption testes and
batch kinetic rate studies. Equilibrium isotherm model equations such as the
Langmuir model and the Freundlich model are commonly used to describe exper-
imental adsorption data, while the most widely used kinetic models are the pseudo-
first-order model and the pseudo-second-order model. It is important to determine
the best-fit isotherm and kinetic model in order to evaluate the material and to
further develop suitable industrial adsorption system designs (Gerente et al. 2007).
5.2.1 Equilibrium Adsorption Isotherm
Establishing the most appropriate correlation for equilibrium curves is very impor-
tant in the purpose of optimizing the condition of an adsorption system for metal ion
uptake. The maximum capacity of the adsorbent can be predicted under a given set
of conditions, whereby the adsorption capacity is dependent only on the equilibrium
curve established between the adsorbed sites and metal solution concentrations.
These equilibrium adsorption capacity curves can be obtained by measuring the
adsorption isotherm of the metal ions onto the sorbents with fixed pH, dosage, and
temperature. Thus it is necessary to develop isotherm models to fit the experimental
data points in order to obtain the correlations of solid-phase concentration to the
fluid-phase solute concentration. In this section, we recall some of the most used
isotherm models for heavy metal adsorption.
5.2.1.1 The Langmuir Model
The Langmuir model calculates the amount of molecules adsorbed onto a solid
surface and is often used to describe the solute adsorption (Langmuir 1918). This
model assumes a monolayer adsorption onto a complete homogeneous surface with
a negligible interaction between adjacent adsorbed molecules. The equilibrium
equation is stated as:
K L Ce
qe ¼ ð5:1Þ
1 þ aL C e
where qe is the solid-phase adsorbate equilibrium concentration (mmol/g), Ce is the

aqueous-phase adsorbate equilibrium concentration (mmol/L), KL (L/g) and aL
(L/mmol) are Langmuir isotherm constants, and the monolayer capacity
qmax ¼ KL/aL.
The Langmuir equation is apposite to homogeneous adsorption systems where
the adsorption of each adsorbate molecule has equal activation adsorption energy.
When the concentration is very low, aLCe is far smaller than unity; it implies
qe KLCe which obeys the Henry’s law. Therefore, a linear expression of the
Langmuir equation is:
Ce 1 aL
¼ þ Ce ð5:2Þ
qe K L K L
where a plot of Ce/qe versus Ce gives a straight line where the slope is aL/KL and the
intercept is 1/KL. The Langmuir equation gives the theoretical monolayer saturation
capacity, qmax as KL/aL.
5.2.1.2 The Freundlich Model
The Freundlich equation is an empirical equation proposed by Freundlich. It is

commonly used to describe organic components in solution; it assumes that the
adsorption sites are not identical. It usually applies to heterogenous surfaces and
multilayer adsorption on the adsorbate. The equation is:
qe ¼ aF Cbe F ð5:3Þ
where aF is the Freundlich constant, while bF is the heterogeneity factor. When bF

equals unity, this model reduces to Henry’s law. The smaller this term is, the more
nonlinear the adsorption isotherm becomes. It is notable that when the value of bF
gets smaller than 0.1, the shape of the isotherm approaches a rectangular isotherm.
But it is often criticized for not reducing to Henry’s law at very dilute concentra-
tions. Also, there is no finite limit for the adsorption uptake when the concentration
is sufficiently increased which is contrary to the plateau observed in most real
systems. Therefore this model is generally only valid in a narrow range of concen-
trations. A linear expression of the Freundlich equation can be obtained by taking
logarithms of Eq. (5.3):
ln qe ¼ ln aF þ bF ln Ce ð5:4Þ
where a plot of ln qe versus ln Ce can determine the constant aF and exponent bF.
The Freundlich isotherm is derived by assuming and inserting an exponential decay
energy distribution function in to the Langmuir equation. It is commonly used in the
description of reversible adsorption having heterogeneous surfaces.
5.2.1.3 The Redlich-Peterson Model
The Redlich-Peterson isotherm (Redlich and Peterson 1959) is also an empirical

equation which was proposed by Redlich and Peterson to represent equilibrium
data; it combines elements from both Langmuir and Freundlich equations together
to incorporate three parameters into the equation. It is applied to both homogeneous
and heterogeneous systems.
This equation is widely used as a compromise between the Langmuir and
Freundlich systems. The equation is expressed as follows:
kRP ce
qe ¼ ð5:5Þ
1 þ aRP ce bRP
where kPR, aPR, and bRP are Redlich-Peterson isotherm constants. bRP is between
0 and 1, and when bRP equals to 1, it reduces to Langmuir. It approximates to
Henry’s law at low concentration and to the Freundlich at high concentration.
5.2.1.4 The Sips (Langmuir-Freundlich) Model
The Sips model (Sips 1948) is also known as the Langmuir-Freundlich isotherm. It
considers the case of a molecule occupying two sites. The Sips equation takes the
following form:
K LF aLF ce nLF
qe ¼ ð5:6Þ
1 þ aLF ce nLF
where KLF is the Sips isotherm equilibrium constant (L/g), aLF is Sips isotherm
constant ðL=mmolÞ1=nLF , and nLF is the Sips isotherm exponent, dimensionless. This
equation is a combination of the Langmuir and Freundlich models, it will effec-
tively reduce to a Freundlich isotherm at low adsorbate concentrations, and thus it
does not follow Henry’s law, while it predicts a monolayer adsorption capacity of
the Langmuir isotherm at high adsorbate concentrations.
5.2.2 Kinetic Studies and Models
Kinetic experiments are carried out to evaluate the potential of the material for
commercial applications. An ideal adsorbent shows properties such as high adsorp-
tion capacity as well as fast removal rate. Kinetic models are used to evaluate the
mechanisms of heavy metal adsorption and its potential rate-controlling steps that
include mass transport and chemical reaction processes (Aksu 2001). Another
purpose for conducting batch kinetic studies is to optimize the operation conditions
for large-scale processes. Various factors such as initial metal concentration, initial
pH of the solution, adsorbent dosage, temperature, particle size, and other process
parameters will affect the adsorption capacity. Kinetic models only concern the
effects of observable parameters on the overall rate of the system. Predicting the
overall rate in the given adsorption system is the most important since the system’s
kinetics determines adsorbate time and the reactor dimensions.
In order to understand the kinetics and the rate-controlling steps, several adsorp-
tion kinetic models have been established: the pseudo-first-order model, the
pseudo-second-order model, the Elovich model, the first-order equation of
Bhattacharya and Venkobachar, the Weber and Morris adsorption kinetic model,
the Weber and Morris adsorption kinetic model, and the Ritchie equation. The two
most widely used models are the pseudo-first-order and the pseudo-second-order
model which can study the heavy metal adsorption kinetics and quantify the extent
of uptake in adsorption kinetics. Some details of the common kinetic models
applied in heavy metal adsorption are given below. Note that this discussion
complements the information provided in Chaps. 2 and 3.
5.2.2.1 The Pseudo-First-Order Model
The pseudo-first-order rate equation is generally expressed as follows:
qt ¼ qe ½1 expðk1 tÞ ð5:7Þ
where qt and qe are amounts adsorbed onto the adsorbent material (mmol/g) at
time t (min) and equilibrium, respectively. k1 is the pseudo-first-order rate constant
(min1).
The linear expression of this equation can be rearranged as follows:
ln ðqe qt Þ ¼ ln qe k1 t ð5:8Þ
From this form of this equation, it is clear that qe should be known in order to fit the
equation to the experimental data in the linear form. However, in many cases qe is
unknown after the batch kinetic experimental contact time unless the equilibrium
isotherm has been determined. The amount of adsorbed metal ions is significantly
smaller than the equilibrium amount when the adsorption process tends to be very slow.
Therefore in most reported literatures, the pseudo-first-order equation does not fit
well with the experimental data for the whole range of contact time but is generally
applicable for the initial 20–30 min of the adsorption process (Gerente et al. 2007).
Apart from the linear method of fitting, some groups use the sum of squared
errors (SSE) method by minimizing the difference of calculated data with the
experimental data:
X 2
SSE ¼ qexp qcal ð5:9Þ
Excel built-in function solver can be used to obtain the unknown qe and k1 at the
same time. However, some literature results show that the calculated qe is still
smaller than that from the isotherm experiments; thus this model equation may still
underestimate the equilibrium capacity. To sum up, the pseudo-first-order model
has been extensively used to describe metal uptake process. However, this model
has the problem of predicting the equilibrium capacity; the calculated qe from this
model equation frequently does not agree with the experimental data. It only gives a
good fit with the experimental data for the first 30 min. After that, the prediction of
the model usually goes below the experimental data. It has been suggested that the
time lag results in the difference in the qe values. The time to overcome the
boundary layer and external resistance controls the process at the beginning, and
this time lag is difficult to quantify. This model equation has been applied to metal
adsorption systems like cadmium, lead, and zinc, but most of the fits are moderate
to poor.
5.2.2.2 The Pseudo-Second-Order Model
The pseudo-second-order model was developed by Ho and McKay (1999b) and is

expressed by the following equation:
k2 q2e t
qt ¼ ð5:10Þ
1 þ k 2 qe t
where qe and qt are the amount of metal ions adsorbed (mmol/g) at equilibrium and
at time t, respectively; k2 is the pseudo-second-order rate constant of adsorption
(g mmol1 min1).
The pseudo-second-order rate constant can be determined by plotting the exper-
imental data t/q versus t, and then qe and k2 can be calculated from the slope and
intercept. In studies on the adsorption of cadmium by chitosan, the pseudo-second-
order kinetic model was much more successful than the pseudo-first order. It has
been suggested that in chemisorption processes, the pseudo-second-order model is
superior to the pseudo-first-order model due to the consideration of adsorbent-
adsorbate interaction in the pseudo-second-order model. The pseudo-second-order
model has been recognized as the most widely fitted model for the metal adsorption
from effluent.
Theoretically, the rate of an adsorption system should remain constant at a
certain specified temperature; it only changes with the change of the temperature.
However, the literatures show that the rate contact is quite different when the
variables such as initial concentration, pH, or dosage are changed. This might be
a problem for this useful model, and therefore it is important to develop a correla-
tion between the pseudo-first and the pseudo-second-order rate constant with each
variable.
5.3 Low-Cost Adsorbent Materials and Metal Adsorption
In order to reduce the cost of adsorption process, waste materials were taken into
consideration to be recycled and reused as well as cheap raw materials. This section
is mainly focused on four parts: agricultural wastes, industrial wastes, marine
materials, and mineral materials.
5.3.1 Agricultural Waste
Agricultural waste materials are usually abundant and have been proven to be eco-
friendly and economic sources of precursors or adsorbent materials. It has been
reported that various agricultural wastes can be easily converted to value-added
products. Agricultural wastes have been recycled and used in the removal of
different types of pollutants from effluent. The basic components of agricultural
waste materials include hemicelluloses, lignin, lipids, simple sugars, proteins,
hydrocarbons, and starch which contains functional groups that are potential to
become adsorbent materials for heavy metal adsorption. Agricultural waste prod-
ucts can be used directly or after modification. The agricultural wastes can be
directly used for adsorption tests after recycling, washing, and making into the
desired particle size. Another way to reuse the agricultural wastes is to use certain
methods to pretreat the material before use. The pretreatment methods have been
extensively studied in order to enhance the functional groups and therefore increase
the number of active sites for adsorption purposes. The application to remove lead,
cadmium, and zinc by agricultural waste with their experimental conditions and
adsorption capacities has been listed in Table 5.1.
Sugarcane bagasse is a kind of lignocellulosic material which has a complex
configuration with a variety of activated sites; modified sugarcane bagasse has been
reported to be effective in terms of heavy metal removal (Orlando et al. 2002;
Karnitz et al. 2007). After pretreatment with succinic anhydride, carboxylic func-
tions are introduced to succinic anhydride, and the amide functions are formed by
chemical introduction of polyamine. Due to the chelating properties of polyamines
Table 5.1 Agriculture waste applied for the removal of lead, cadmium, and zinc and their adsorption capacities
118
Metal Initial metal Adsorbent Contact Temperature Adsorption

Adsorbent material ion concentration pH dosage (g/L) time ( C) capacity (qe) References
Agave bagasse (raw) Pb(II) 60 mg/L 5 2 – 25 35.60 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
Agave bagasse (HCl) Pb(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 42.31 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
Agave bagasse (HNO3) Pb(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 54.29 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
Agave bagasse (NaOH) Pb(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 50.12 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
Banana peel Pb(II) 30–80 mg/L 5 40 20 min 25 2.18 mg/g Anwar et al. (2010)
KCl-modified orange peel Pb(II) 10–300 mg/L 5–5.5 5 120 min 25 141.84 mg/g Guo et al. (2011)
Sulfured orange peel Pb(II) 25–800 mg/L 5 5 – 30 164.00 mg/g Liang et al. (2011)
Orange peel xanthate Pb(II) 100 mg/L – 5 1.5 h 25 218.34 mg/g Liang et al. (2010)
(XOP)
Mercerized garlic peel Pb(II) 1–200 mg/L 5 0.5 30 min 25 109.05 mg/g Liu et al. (2014)
Native garlic peel Pb(II) 1–200 mg/L 5 0.5 30 min 25 51.73 mg/g Liu et al. (2014)
Lentil husk Pb(II) 50 mg/L 5 2 24 h 30 81.43 mg/g Basu et al. (2015)
Ca(OH)2-modified musk- Pb(II) 1–5 mmol/L 4.5 5 120 min 25 0.81 mmol/g Huang and Zhu
melon peel (2013)
Ponkan peel Pb(II) 15 mmol/L 5 2 60 min 25 112.10 mg/g Pavan et al. (2008)
ZnCl2-activated grapefruit Pb(II) 100 mg/L 5.3–6.5 10 90 min 30 12.73 mg/g Pei and Liu (2012)
peel
Rice husk Pb(II) 1.17 mg/L – 0.06 – 25 87.18% Hegazi (2013)
Olive pomace Pb(II) – 3–5 10 60 min – 0.074 mmol/g Pagnanelli et al.
(2003)
Agave bagasse (raw) Cd(II) 60 mg/L 5 2 – 25 13.27 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
M. Xu and G. McKay
Agave bagasse (HCl) Cd(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 12.50 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
Agave bagasse (HNO3) Cd(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 13.50 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
Agave bagasse (NaOH) Cd(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 18.32 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
Banana peel Cd(II) 30–80 mg/L 3 30 20 min 25 5.71 mg/L Anwar et al. (2010)
Sugarcane bagasse Cd(II) 50 mg/L 6 20 60 min 25 99.5% Garg et al. (2008)
Maize corncob Cd(II) 50 mg/L 6 20 60 min 25 99% Garg et al. (2008)
Jatropha oil cake Cd(II) 50 mg/L 6 20 60 min 25 85% Garg et al. (2008)
Citric acid-modified orange Cd(II) 0.001–0.005 mol/ 6 4.3 120 min – 0.90 mmol/g Li et al. (2007)
peel L
KCl-modified orange peel Cd(II) 10–300 mg/L 5–5.5 5 120 min 25 125.63 mg/g Guo et al. (2011)
Orange peel xanthate Cd(II) 50 mg/L – 5 1.5 h 25 76.57 mg/g Liang et al. (2010)
(XOP)
HCl-modified Cucumis Cd(II) 5–150 mg/L 5 1 60 min 25 58.14 mg/g Pandey et al. (2014)
sativus peel
Grapefruit peel Cd(II) 10–200 mg/L 5 4 60 min – 42.09 mg/g Torab-Mostaedi
et al. (2013)
Unmodified rice straw Cd(II) 25–350 mg/mL 2–6 – 180 min 25 13.90 mg/g Ding et al. (2012)
Wheat stem Cd(II) 0.1–1.2 mmol/L 5 – 60 min – 0.10 mmol/g Tan and Xiao (2009)
Rice husk Cd(II) 0.48 mg/L – 0.06 – 25 67.92% Hegazi (2013)
Olive pomace Cd(II) – 3–5 10 60 min – 0.062 mmol/g Pagnanelli et al.
(2003)
5 Removal of Heavy Metals, Lead, Cadmium, and Zinc, Using Adsorption. . .
Agave bagasse (raw) Zn(II) 60 mg/L 5 2 – 25 7.84 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez

et al. (2013)
Agave bagasse (HCl) Zn(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 12.40 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
(continued)
119
Table 5.1 (continued)
120

Agave bagasse (HNO3) Zn(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 14.43 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
Agave bagasse (NaOH) Zn(II) 60 mg/L 5 1 – 25 20.54 mg/g Velazquez-Jimenez
et al. (2013)
KCl-modified orange peel Zn(II) 10–300 mg/L 5–5.5 5 120 min 25 45.29 mg/g Guo et al. (2011)
Sulfured orange peel Zn(II) 25–800 mg/L 5 5 – 30 80.0 mg/g Liang et al. (2011)
Orange peel xanthate Zn(II) 50 mg/L – 5 1.5 h 25 49.85 mg/g Liang et al. (2010)
(XOP)
Mango peel Zn(II) 10–500 mg/L 5–6 5 120 min 25 28.21 mg/g Iqbal et al. (2009)
Nano-porous-activated Zn(II) 200 mg/L – 1.2 2 days 35 11.90 mg/g Maheshwari et al.
neem bark (2015)
Rice husk ash Zn(II) 10–100 mg/L 6 10 100 h 25 7.15 mg/g El-Said et al. (2011)
Raw Eucalyptus sheathiana Zn(II) 20–70 mg/L 5 0.25 2h 30 128.21 mg/g Afroze et al. (2016)
bark
NaOH-treated Eucalyptus Zn(II) 20–70 mg/L 5 0.25 2h 30 250.00 mg/g Afroze et al. (2016)
sheathiana bark
M. Xu and G. McKay
toward metals such as zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper, the modified succinic
anhydride becomes suitable for the treatment of metal-contaminated wastewater
(Bianchi et al. 1991).
Velazquez-Jimenez et al. (2013) tested the raw and modified Agave salmiana
bagasse for metal adsorption. HCl, HNO3, NaOH, tartaric, citric, and oxalic acids
were used to modify bagasse, respectively, to determine if its concentration of
active groups could be improved. These materials were then tested for the removal
of Cd(II), Pb(II), and Zn(II) ions from effluent at pH 5, and desorption studies were
performed at pH 2 and 4 at 25 C. The characterization techniques are used mainly
to identify carboxyl-, hydroxyl-, sulfur-, and nitrogen-containing groups in bagasse.
The carboxylic groups were mainly responsible for metal uptake. The results show
that the adsorption capacity of raw bagasse is about 8, 14, and 36 mg/g for zinc,
cadmium, and lead, respectively. The adsorption capacity was improved around
27–62% after modification with HNO3 and NaOH. However, citric, oxalic, and
tartaric acid did not have significant effects on improving adsorption capacity.
Recently, Demiral and Güng€or (2016) used grape bagasse as raw material and
phosphoric acid to activate the material to activated carbon. The obtained activated
carbon has a highest surface area of 1455 m2/g and total pore volume of 0.88 cm3/g
at 500 C carbonization temperature with an impregnation ratio of 5/1. Then the
activated carbon was used to remove copper with maximum capacity of 43.47 mg/g
at 45 C. The Langmuir and Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm equations showed
better fits, while the rate of adsorption was found to conform to the pseudo-second-
order kinetic model. Gurgel and Gil (2009) have introduced two different methods
to prepare two new chelating materials, MMSCB 3 and MMSCB 5, using
succinylated twice-mercerized sugarcane bagasse (MMSCB 1). MMSCB 1 was
activated with 1,3-diisopropyl-carbodiimide and acetic anhydride, respectively, and
later both intermediate were reacted with triethylenetetramine to obtain MMSCB
3 and MMSCB 5. The capacities of MMSCB 3 and MMSCB 5 for copper,
cadmium, and lead uptake from single-component solutions were evaluated at
different contact times, pH, and initial metal ion concentrations. The adsorption
isotherm results show good fit with the Langmuir model, and the maximum
adsorption capacities of MMSCB 3 and MMSCB 5 for copper, cadmium, and
lead were found to be 59.5 and 69.4, 86.2 and 106.4, and 158.7 and 222.2 mg/g,
respectively. Feng et al. (2011) studied the adsorption of cadmium, lead, and nickel
using the grafted copolymerization-modified orange peel (OPAA). The Langmuir
model correlated with the experimental data better than the Freundlich model. From
the Langmuir equation, the maximum uptake capacities for lead and cadmium were
476.1 and 293.3 mg/g, respectively. The adsorption capacity of the modified
material has increased 4.2- and 4.6-fold for lead and cadmium, respectively, in
comparison with the original orange peel. Moreover, the kinetics for lead and
cadmium adsorption followed the pseudo-second-order model.
Afroze et al. (2016) recently studied the adsorption of zinc ions from effluent
using raw and base-modified Eucalyptus sheathiana bark. Bark is a common
by-product from the timber industry; Eucalyptus trees are evergreen and fast-
growing trees which are abundantly available worldwide. The equilibrium
adsorption studies showed that both the Freundlich and Langmuir models can be
capable of describing the systems for zinc uptake using raw or base-modified
eucalyptus bark. Also, the pseudo-second-order rate equation is found to well
describe the adsorption of zinc for both raw and modified bark. The maximum
adsorption capacity of modified eucalyptus bark for zinc removal at 30 C was
250.0 mg/g which was quite competitive to other adsorbent materials.
Lentil husk was also recognized as a promising low-cost adsorbent with a
maximum removal capacity of 81.43 mg/g for lead under the optimized condition
of pH (5.0) and temperature (30 C) with an initial metal ion concentration of
250 mg/L by Basu et al. (2015). The functional groups of lentil husk were modified
by treating with different chemicals to investigate their role in adsorption; chemical
modification of functional groups revealed both hydroxyl and carboxyl groups
played crucial role in the binding process.
Rice husk is another category of agricultural waste; since rice is the most popular
food in Asia, large quantities of rice husk were produced every year. Nowadays,
rice husk is used as energy source for power plants; however, 18% of the total
amount of husk remains as rice husk ash (RHA). It has been investigated that the
major component of RHA is silica, while it also contains some alumina content,
both of which are typically used in zeolite synthesis (Gupta et al. 2011).
Santasnachok et al. (2015) synthesized zeolite from agriculture waste by-product
rice husk ash (RHA). The synthesized material was applied in cadmium-
contaminated wastewater in the initial concentration range of 50–500 mg/L. The
maximum removal capacity of synthesized zeolite Na-A and Na-X for cadmium
was found to be 736.38 and 684.46 mg/g, respectively, at dosage of 0.25 g/L.
5.3.2 Industrial By-Products and Wastes
Industrial by-products are usually considered as useless waste materials and cause
major disposal problems. Fly ash is a waste material generated from combustion
processes. Previously, fly ash is mainly used for road construction or formation of
bricks and cement. However, fly ash contains high percentage of silica and alumina
which makes it possible to be used as precursor of zeolite-type adsorbent material
(Bhatnagar and Sillanpää 2010). The reuse of fly ash to develop low-cost and
efficient adsorbents for wastewater treatment follows the concept of using waste
to treat waste (Shawabkeh et al. 2004; Belviso et al. 2010). Many studies have been
reported on fly ash, raw fly ash, modified fly ash, or on dispersed TiO2-fly ash and
have been tested as adsorbents for heavy metals removal from wastewater (Gupta
and Ali 2004; Harja et al. 2012; Shyam et al. 2013).
Aluminum industry waste has also been studied under the concept of recycle
waste for water treatment. Red mud is a waste material from the aluminum industry
and has been widely investigated. It is formed during the production of alumina
when bauxite ore is subjected to caustic leaching (Bhatnagar et al. 2011); sodium
hydroxide solution is used in the refining process. And thus this material is highly
alkaline with a pH as high as 10–13. So it needs to be neutralized before being used

as an adsorbent material. Red mud is mainly composed of fine particles containing
aluminum, iron, silicon, hydroxides, and titanium oxides. Zhu et al. (2007) evalu-
ated the potential of granular red mud (GRM) to remove cadmium from aqueous
solution. The pseudo-second-order model can describe the experimental kinetic
data at initial pH 6.0 and 3.0. The maximum adsorption capacities for GRM were
38.2 mg/g at 20 C, 43.4 mg/g at 30 C, and 52.1 mg/g at 40 C. Gupta et al. (2001)
converted red mud into an inexpensive and efficient adsorbent and used it for the
removal of lead and chromium from aqueous solutions which exhibits good adsorp-
tion capacities. The equilibrium data fits well with both the Freundlich and the
Langmuir model. Red mud was treated with hydrogen peroxide at room tempera-
ture for 24 h in order to oxidize the adhering organic impurities and was then
washed repeatedly with distilled water, followed by an activation process in a
muffle furnace at 500 C for 3 h. The adsorption results showed that the maximum
uptake for lead took place at pH 4.0.
The steel industry also produces a large quantity of by-products which create
serious disposal problems. Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag is a kind of by-product
from steel-making process which is mainly applied for construction applications
including road engineering (Miraoui et al. 2012) and cement production (Han et al.
2015) due to the hydration activity of BOFs. Some authors have investigated the
adsorption of cadmium, lead, zinc, and copper from effluent by BOFs (Xue et al.
2009, 2013). The sieve size of BOFs was controlled under 0.6 mm first and then
treated by acid (0.1 M HCl) and washed by deionized water. The equilibrium
isotherms showed that copper, cadmium, and zinc had similar but relatively higher
adsorption capacity compared to lead in single-element system. The adsorption
affinity is found to follow the sequence Zn > Cu > Pb > Cd in single-element
systems, while the uptake order in the multielement system was Pb > Cu > Zn > Cd.
The paper industry produces a large amount of black liquor, from which lignin
can be extracted. The extracted lignin was characterized and used for lead and zinc
removal (Srivastava et al. 1994). The uptake amount of lead was more than that of
zinc, while the adsorption capacity increases with the increase of pH value.
The waste from the leather-processing industry has also been investigated by
researchers in the application of metal adsorption. Fathima et al. (2005) utilized
animal skins which are high in protein content to complex with iron and then used it
for the removal of chromium(VI). The effect of pH and the initial concentration of
chromium(VI) by iron treated fleshing is studied. The adsorption capacity by iron-
treated material is shown to be greatly improved to 51 mg of chromium(VI) per
gram of treated fleshing, while it is only flesh 9 mg/g for the untreated fleshing.
However, this study has not been applied to other metals to date.
Recently, a newly developed industrial waste material is introduced. The mate-
rial is recycled from waste printed circuit board recycling industry. With the rapid
development of the electronic devices, the lifetime of such devices has become
shorter and shorter resulting in the massive waste electronic devices. Printed circuit
boards (PCBs) are the major component of the abandoned electronic devices.
Recent commercial recycling of PCBs is based on using a mechanical-physical
technique to separate the PCBs into metallic and nonmetallic fractions which is
quite environmentally friendly compared to the traditional treatment methods. The
metallic fraction is mainly copper which is of high value and can be marketed
easily, while the nonmetallic fraction (NMF) which accounts for 70% of the total
PCB weight has always been considered as a low-value by-product. Hadi et al.
(2013) recycled the nonmetallic part and investigated the activation of this material
for the application of heavy metal adsorption. The optimum condition to activate
the material is to impregnate the raw material with activating agent KOH at weight
ratio of 2 (KOH/NMF ¼ 2) under continuous stirring for 3 h at room temperature.
The resulting slurry was heated to 250 C for 3 h in a muffle furnace under a
nitrogen atmosphere. The product was then washed with DI water and subsequently
dried at 110 C. Xu et al. (2014) performed a detailed equilibrium study of this
activated nonmetallic fraction for the adsorption of cadmium. The adsorption
results show that the maximum uptake capacity of this material for cadmium
removal reached to 2.1 mmol/g (initial pH ¼ 4) which shows that this material
can effectively remove cadmium ions from effluent and is highly competitive with
the commercial resins. The Redlich-Peterson model is the best-fit model. Lead
adsorption has also been studied with a maximum capacity of 3.2 mmol/g at initial
pH of 4. Lead also shows higher affinity than cadmium in the binary-component
system (Xu et al. 2015).
Finally, other adsorbent materials derived from industrial waste and their
adsorption capacities for lead, cadmium, and zinc have been listed in Table 5.2.
5.3.3 Marine Materials
Adsorbents have been derived from waste seafood because of the abundant amount
of chitin found the in the exoskeletons of crabs and other arthropods (Rinaudo
2006). Seafood processing produces large quantities of by-products. Chitin is
second to cellulose in terms of polysaccharide quantities in nature. It is also easily
found as waste product from the crab meat canning industry. It has been reported
that chitin or modified chitin can remove metal ions from effluent (Benaissa and
Benguella 2004; Karthik and Meenakshi 2015). Chitosan is a partially acetylated
glucosamine biopolymer that can be found in the cell wall of some fungi such as
Mucorales strain. However, it is mainly derived from deacetylation of chitin and
has been known as the most important derivative of chitin due to the useful features
such as hydrophilicity, biodegradability, and antibacterial property (Rinaudo 2006).
Chitosan can be made by treating the chitin in the shells of shrimp and other
crustaceans with an alkaline substance such as sodium hydroxide, and it is reported
that chitosan chelates six times amounts of metals compared to chitin due to the
exposed free amino groups during deacetylation process. Chitosan has potential for
commercial biomedical applications and has been applied in the treatment of heavy
metal-contaminated wastewaters (Pandey and Tiwari 2015; Chen et al. 2017).
Table 5.2 Industrial waste and their adsorption capacities for lead, cadmium and zinc removal
Fly ash Pb(II) 1.17 mg/L – 0.06 – 25 76.06% Hegazi (2013)
Cancrinite-type zeolite Pb(II) 0.5–4 mmol/L 6 0.5 72 h 25 2.53 mmol/g Qiu and Zheng
from fly ash (2009)
Red mud Pb(II) 2.41–4.83 mM 4 10 24 h 30 64.79 mg/g López et al. (1998)
Black liquor Pb(II) 0.097–0.97 mM 4–6 2–6 24 h 30 18.65 mg/g Srivastava et al.
(1994)
Blast furnace sludge Pb(II) 4000 mg/L – 50 5h 20 64.17–79.87 mg/g López-Delgado
et al. (1998)
Activated NMF Pb(II) 0.5–7 mmol/L 4 1 4 days 20 3.2 mmol/g Xu et al. (2015)
Fly ash Cd(II) 0.48 mg/L – 0.06 – 25 73.54% Hegazi (2013)
Bagasse fly ash Cd(II) 14 mg/L 6 10 – 30 1.24 mg/g Gupta et al. (2003)
Red mud Cd(II) 0.1–0.75 g/L 4.7–6.2 1 48 h – 10.57 mg/g López et al. (1998)
Blast furnace slag Cd(II) 0.889 mM 5 10 – 30 18.72 mg/g Gupta et al. (1997)
Blast furnace sludge Cd(II) 1500 mg/L – 50 5h 20 6.74–10.15 mg/g López-Delgado
et al. (1998)
Activated NMF Cd(II) 0.2–7.5 mmol/L 4 1 4 days 20 2.1 mmol/g Xu et al. (2014)
Sawdust Cd(II) 10 mg/L 5 10 4h 30 94.5% Naiya et al. (2009)
Cancrinite-type zeolite Zn(II) 0.5–4 mmol/L 6 0.5 72 h 25 1.532 mmol/g Qiu and Zheng
from fly ash (2009)
Red mud Zn(II) 0.2–0.7 g/L 6.9–7.8 1 48 h – 12.59 mg/g López et al. (1998)
Black liquor Zn(II) 0.01–0.1 mM 5–7 2–6 24 h 30 95.0 mg/g Srivastava et al.
(1994)
Blast furnace slag Zn(II) 1.52 mM 6 20 – 30 17.66 mg/g Gupta et al. (1997)
Blast furnace sludge Zn(II) 1500 mg/L – 50 5h 20 4.25–9.25 mg/g López-Delgado
et al. (1998)
125
Activated NMF Zn(II) 5 mmol/L 4 1 – 20 2.0 mmol/g Hadi et al. (2014)

The high adsorption capacity by chitosan and its derivatives for the removal of
heavy metal ions from aquatic systems is due to the presence of multifunctional
groups; the high hydrophilicity is because a large number of hydroxyl groups on the
glucose units with high chemical reactivity as well as flexible structure of the
polymer chain (Bhatnagar and Sillanpää 2009).
Compared to chitin, chitosan has superior adsorption ability for heavy metals
due to its higher content of amino groups. Chemical modifications of chitosan such
as carboxyalkyl substitution, aldehyde cross-linking, ligand cross-linking, and
polyamination are accessible to prevent it from dissolution in acidic media
(pH < 2) or to enhance adsorption ability. Sargın and Arslan (2015) prepared
chitosan microcapsules via cross-linking and evaluated their capability for the
removal of copper, cadmium, zinc ions, and other metallic ions. Different pH
values, metal concentrations, temperature, amount of adsorbent, and adsorption
time have been studied. The adsorption equilibrium followed the Langmuir iso-
therm model, and the adsorption capacity of the chitosan/sporopollenin microcap-
sules was found to be 0.15 mmol/g for cadmium and 0.25 mmol/g for zinc.
Seaweed (marine algae) is another kind of abundantly available adsorbent
material. Seaweed does not only grow in saltwater but also in freshwater. Usually,
seaweed materials, especially brown algae, possess a relatively high surface area
and present high binding affinity toward metals due to the functional groups such as
amino, hydroxyl, carboxyl, and sulfate as binding sites in the cell wall structure
(Özer et al. 2006). Metals can be attracted by an electrostatic force or can form
complexes with the material (Hamdy 2000; Jalali et al. 2002).
The adsorption capacity for metal ions was significantly improved after modifi-
cation. Typical modification methods include acid and acid-base treatment (Suzuki
et al. 2005). The surface chemistry was changed dramatically after the treatment
resulting in different adsorption preferences. Suzuki et al. (2005) used 0.1 M HCl and
0.1 M NaOH to treat Ulva seaweed, respectively. The adsorption isotherm of the
acid-pretreated material was similar to that of the non-treated one, while the adsorp-
tion capacity of the alkali-pretreated material increased a lot. The isotherm model was
well fitted by the Langmuir model with an adsorption capacity of 90 mg/g for the
alkali-pretreated material. The uptake capacities of typical marine material-derived
adsorbents for heavy metal removal have been listed in Table 5.3.
5.3.4 Zeolite and Clay
Zeolites, clays, sediment, and soil are readily available, inexpensive materials, and
thus are good candidates as low-cost adsorbent materials or precursors. Sediment
and soil are mostly used for the removal of organic pollutants such as glyphosate
(Morillo et al. 2000) and herbicides (Kibe et al. 2000) from water, while zeolite and
clay present good adsorption capabilities for metal removal. The removal capacities
for cadmium, lead, and zinc using zeolite and clay as adsorbent materials are listed
in Table 5.4.
Table 5.3 The uptake capacities of various marine material-derived adsorbents for lead, cadmium, and zinc removal
Metal Initial metal adsorbent Contact Temperature Adsorption
Cross-linked chitosan with Pb(II) 0–15 ppm 6 0.1 4h 25 34.13 mg/g Chen et al. (2008)
epichlorohydrin
Chitosan Pb(II) 5–100 mg/L 4–7 1 24 h 25 0.036 mmol/g Rangel-Mendez et al.
(2009)
Seaweed Pb(II) – 5.5 – – 22–24 1.78 mmol/g Ahmady-Asbchin
et al. (2009)
Sargassum hystrix (brown Pb(II) 200 mg/L 4.5 2 3h 30 265 mg/g Jalali et al. (2002)
algae)
S. natans (brown algae) Pb(II) 200 mg/L 4.5 2 3h 30 224 mg/g Jalali et al. (2002)
Padina pavonica (brown Pb(II) 200 mg/L 4.5 2 3h 30 210 mg/g Jalali et al. (2002)
algae)
Sargassum sp. Pb(II) – 5 1 6h 22 1.16 mg/g Sheng et al. (2007)
Chemically modified Cd(II) 100 mg/L 8 5 16 h 25 357.14 mg/g Sankararamakrishnan
chitosan et al. (2007)
Chitosan Cd(II) 100 mg/L 8 5 16 h 25 85.47 mg/g Sankararamakrishnan
et al. (2007)
Chitosan Cd(II) 5–100 mg/L 4–7 1 24 h 25 0.016 mmol/g Rangel-Mendez et al.
(2009)
Chitin Cd(II) 10–300 mg/L 5.7–6.02 2 24 h 25 13 mg/g Benguella and
Benaissa (2002)
Seaweed Cd(II) – 5.5 – – 22–24 0.85 mmol/g Ahmady-Asbchin
et al. (2009)
Ceramium virgatum (red Cd(II) 10–400 mg/L 5 10 120 min 20–50 39.7 mmol/g Sarı and Tuzen (2008)
algae)
Alkali-pretreated Ulva Cd(II) 10–500 mg/L 7.8 1 12 h 20 90.70 mg/g Suzuki et al. (2005)
onoi (green algae)
(continued)
127
128
Metal Initial metal adsorbent Contact Temperature Adsorption

Ulva onoi (green algae) Cd(II) 10–500 mg/L 7.8 1 12 h 20 61.90 mg/g Suzuki et al. (2005)
Sargassum sp. Cd(II) – 5 1 6h 22 0.76 mg/g Sheng et al. (2007)
Laminaria japonica Cd(II) – 5 1 180 min 25 1.85 mmol/g Liu et al. (2009)
(brown algae)
Cross-linked chitosan with Zn(II) 0–15 ppm 6 0.1 4h 25 10.21 mg/g Chen et al. (2008)
epichlorohydrin
Seaweed Zn(II) – 5.5 – – 22–24 0.71 mmol/g Ahmady-Asbchin
et al. (2009)
Ulva fasciata sp. (green Zn(II) 20–100 mg/L 5 3.33–16.67 20 min 30 13.5 mg/g Prasanna Kumar et al.
algae) (2007)
Laminaria japonica Zn(II) – 5 1 180 min 25 1.42 mmol/g Liu et al. (2009)
(brown algae)
Bifurcaria bifurcate Zn(II) 75–100 mg/L 5 – – 25 30.3 mg/g Freitas et al. (2008)
(brown algae)
Fucus spiralis (brown Zn(II) 75–100 mg/L 5 – – 25 34.3 mg/g Freitas et al. (2008)
algae)
M. Xu and G. McKay
Table 5.4 The uptake capacities of zeolite and clay materials for lead, cadmium, and zinc removal
Metal Initial metal Adsorbent Contact Adsorption capacity (qe)
Adsorbent material ion concentration pH dosage (g/L) time Temperature or removal % References
Kaolinite Pb(II) 50 mg/L 5.7 2 180 min 30 5.3 mg/g Gupta and
Bhattacharyya
(2008)
Montmorillonite Pb(II) 50 mg/L 5.7 2 180 min 30 21.7 mg/g Gupta and
Bhattacharyya
(2008)
Natural zeolite Pb(II) 4.9 mg/L 2.2 20 – – 99.5% Wingenfelder et al.
(2005)
Natural zeolite Pb(II) 9.7 mg/L 5.6 20 – – 99.9% Wingenfelder et al.
(2005)
Natural zeolite Pb(II) 8.94 mmol/L 5.2 10 3 days 23 1.71 mmol/g Perić et al. (2004)
Clinoptilolite Pb(II) 10–800 mg/L – 2.5 48 h – 27.7 mg/g Sprynskyy et al.
(2006)
Raw clinoptilolite Pb(II) 400 mg/L 4.5 2.5 4h 22 80.933 mg/g Günay et al. (2007)
NaCl-treated Pb(II) 400 mg/L 4.5 2.5 4h 22 122.400 mg/g Günay et al. (2007)
clinoptilolite
Illite Cd(II) 0–250 mg/L 2.5–8 5 – 25 350 mmol/kg Echeverrı́a et al.
(2002)
Kaolinite Cd(II) 50 mg/L 5.5 2 240 min 30 4.0 mg/g Gupta and
Bhattacharyya
(2008)
Montmorillonite Cd(II) 50 mg/L 5.5 2 240 min 30 21.6 mg/g Gupta and
Bhattacharyya
(2008)
ZrO-derivative Cd(II) 10–50 mg/L 5.5 2 240 min 30 5.27 mg/g Gupta and
kaolinite Bhattacharyya
(2006)
129
(continued)
130
Metal Initial metal Adsorbent Contact Adsorption capacity (qe)

Adsorbent material ion concentration pH dosage (g/L) time Temperature or removal % References
ZrO-derivative Cd(II) 10–50 mg/L 5.5 2 240 min 30 36.63 mg/g Gupta and
montmorillonite Bhattacharyya
(2006)
TBA-derivative Cd(II) 10–50 mg/L 5.5 2 240 min 30 6.31 mg/g Gupta and
kaolinite Bhattacharyya
(2006)
TBA-derivative Cd(II) 10–50 mg/L 5.5 2 240 min 30 43.47 mg/g Gupta and
montmorillonite Bhattacharyya
(2006)
Natural zeolite Cd(II) 5.3 mg/L 2.2 20 – – 21.0% Wingenfelder et al.
(2005)
Natural zeolite Cd(II) 5.3 mg/L 5.6 20 – – 85.8% Wingenfelder et al.
(2005)
Clinoptilolite Cd(II) 80 mg/L – 2.5 48 h – 4.22 mg/L Sprynskyy et al.
(2006)
Bentonite Cd(II) 25–100 mg/L 6.5 2.5 90 min 30 0.084 mmol/g Purna Chandra Rao
et al. (2006)
Natural zeolite Zn(II) 49.1 mg/L 2.2 20 – – 23.4% Wingenfelder et al.
(2005)
Natural zeolite Zn(II) 41 mg/L 5.6 20 – – 93.6% Wingenfelder et al.
(2005)
Natural zeolite Zn(II) 10.08 mmol/L 5.3 10 3 days 23 0.812 mmol/g Perić et al. (2004)
Bentonite Zn(II) 25–100 mg/L 6.5 2.5 90 min 30 0.141 mmol/g Purna Chandra Rao
et al. (2006)
M. Xu and G. McKay
Zeolites are naturally occurring, highly porous aluminosilicate minerals with

different cavity structures, which can also be produced commercially. The porous
structure of zeolite can accommodate various cations including sodium, potassium,
calcium, magnesium ions, and others. These positive-charged ions are loosely held
in the structure and can be easily exchanged with other metal ions in solution and
therefore possess ion-exchange abilities. Zeolites consist of more than 40 natural
species, among which clinoptilolite is the most abundant and frequently studied
one. Sprynskyy et al. (2006) studied the adsorption behavior on raw and pretreated
clinoptilolite for lead and cadmium removal. The maximum adsorption capacity is
4.22 mg/g and 27.7 mg/g for Cd2+ and Pb2+, respectively, at an initial concentration
of 80 mg/L. The experimental data is well fitted with both the Langmuir and the
Freundlich models; the Freundlich model exhibits better fitting at high metal
concentrations. Wingenfelder et al. (2005) investigated the removal of lead, cad-
mium, and zinc from synthetic mine waters by a natural zeolite. Lead can be
efficiently removed from neutral as well as from acidic solutions, whereas the
uptake of zinc and cadmium decreased when the pH is low and the iron concentra-
tions are high.
Clay usually possesses large surface area and negative charge on the structure of
fine-grain silicate minerals. The negative charge can be neutralized by the adsorp-
tion of positive-charged cations which might be the reason that it presents good
adsorption capacities for metal removal (Ali et al. 2012). Various types of clay have
been investigated and modified to enhance their efficiency for heavy metal removal.
Kaolinite and montmorillonite are two of the most important and commonly used
clay minerals that have been reported in heavy metal removal applications.
Gupta and Bhattacharyya (2008) used kaolinite and montmorillonite for cad-
mium and lead removal from water. The uptake capacities increase with the
increase of pH values until the formation of insoluble metal hydroxides. The
adsorption reaction is rapid with maximum uptake amount being observed within
180 min for lead and 240 min for cadmium. Both kaolinite and montmorillonite
follow the Langmuir monolayer model with respect to lead and cadmium; the
removal capacity values are in the range of 6.8–11.5 mg/g (kaolinite) and
21.1–31.1 mg/g (montmorillonite). Different modification methods have also
been developed in order to improve the quality and characteristics of the clay.
Two commonly used techniques are intercalation/pillaring and acid activation.
Intercalation is the insertion of a guest species in the interlayer region of a clay
mineral with preservation of the layered structure (Liu and Wu 2001), while acid
treatments of clay minerals control mineral weathering and genesis (Panda et al.
2010). These treatments can replace exchangeable cations with H+ ions, Al3+, and
other cations. The attached ions can escape out from both tetrahedral and octahedral
sites leaving SiO4 groups largely intact (Theocharis et al. 1988). Gupta and
Bhattacharyya (2006) use kaolinite, montmorillonite, and their poly(oxo zirco-
nium) and tetrabutylammonium derivatives to remove cadmium from aqueous
solution. The uptake of cadmium was very fast at the beginning of contact
and slowed down gradually indicating diffusion into the inner surface of the
adsorbent. The pseudo-second order can describe the experimental data better
than the pseudo-first order. And the equilibrium isotherm data was fitted well by
both the Langmuir model and the Freundlich model. The adsorption behavior was
poor in strongly acidic solution but improved in an alkaline medium, and the uptake
amount continuously increased with the increase of pH values.
5.4 Conclusion
Adsorption plays an important role in removing heavy metals from effluent.

Activated carbon is the most popular adsorbent material and has been used widely
in wastewater treatment for decades. However, commercial activated carbons have
drawbacks in terms of heavy metal removal efficiency and cost problems. So the
overall idea is to find suitable cost-effective alternatives to replace traditional
activated carbon. Under these circumstances, new adsorbent materials, especially
cost-effective adsorbent materials, need to be developed. The low-cost adsorbent
materials usually have the problem of low adsorption capacity; thus cheap and
effective modification methods should be introduced to improve the adsorption
capacity while controlling the cost of activation at the same time.
In this chapter, a wide range of low-cost adsorbent materials have been reviewed
and discussed. Low-cost materials have been divided into four categories based on
the nature of the materials. The common characteristics of these materials are
abundance either naturally occurring or low-value by-products. By analyzing the
composition and developing low-cost treatment methods, they become value-added
materials with good adsorbent properties.
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Chapter 6
Removal of Antibiotics from Water by
Adsorption/Biosorption on Adsorbents
from Different Raw Materials
José Rivera-Utrilla, Manuel Sánchez-Polo, and Raúl Ocampo-Pérez
Abstract The present chapter aimed to analyze and compare the behavior of
carbon materials, both commercial (activated carbons) and prepared in our labora-
tories (sludge-derived materials and activated carbons from petroleum coke) with
different chemical and textural characteristics in the adsorption of tetracyclines and
nitroimidazoles from water. This behavior was analyzed in both static and dynamic
regimes and using ultrapure water, surface water, groundwater, and urban waste-
water. We also assessed the influence of the solution chemical nature (pH and ionic
strength) on the adsorption of these pharmaceutical contaminants analyzing the
adsorbent-adsorbate interaction types and evaluating the effectiveness of the com-
bined use of microorganisms and activated carbon (bioadsorption) in these adsorp-
tion processes. Additionally, the mass transport mechanisms controlling the overall
adsorption rate of these adsorbate-adsorbent systems were investigated in depth,
and relationships between textural and chemical characteristics of these adsorbent
materials with kinetic and diffusion parameters were reported.
Keywords Adsorption • Carbon materials • Tetracyclines • Nitroimidazoles
Contents
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.2 Adsorbent Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2.1 Commercial Activated Carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2.2 Sludge-Derived Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.2.3 Activated Carbons from Petroleum Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.3 Kinetic Study of the Adsorption of Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles
on Sludge-Derived Materials and Activated Carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.3.1 Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
J. Rivera-Utrilla (*) • M. Sánchez-Polo

Inorganic Chemistry Department, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
R. Ocampo-Pérez
Center of Research and Postgraduate Studies, Faculty of Chemical Science, Autonomous
University of San Luis Potosı́, Av. Dr. M. Nava No. 6, San Luis Potosı́, SLP 78210, Mexico

140 J. Rivera-Utrilla et al.
6.3.2 Kinetic and Diffusional Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

6.3.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.4 Adsorption/Biosorption Equilibrium Isotherms of Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles
on Sludge-Derived Materials and Activated Carbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.4.1 Nitroimidazole Adsorption Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.4.2 Tetracyclines Adsorption Isotherms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.4.3 Influence of Operational Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.5 Adsorption of Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles on Sludge-Derived Materials
and Activated Carbons in Dynamic Regime. Determination of the Breakthrough
Curves and Characteristics of the Adsorbent Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.1 Introduction
A constant flow of new products is generating novel contaminants with unknown

short-, medium-, or long-term effects on the environment and human health that are
not governed by regulations on the maximum allowable concentrations in the
environment (Halling-Sørensen et al. 1998; Calamari 2002; Adler et al. 2008;
Cooper et al. 2008; Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013b). They include chemical compounds
in cosmetics (creams, perfumes, makeup), domestic products (degreasants, glass
cleaners, detergents), and pharmaceuticals, which are causing the greatest concern
due to their very wide variety and elevated consumption (Adler et al. 2008; Cooper
et al. 2008; Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013b). For example, over 3000 different pharma-
ceutical substances are used in the UK (Ayscough et al. 2000), and the annual
production for human consumption in the European Union is estimated to exceed
100 tons per member country (Kümmerer 2008). Antibiotics are the most heavily
used medical drugs in the European Union, with an estimated annual consumption
of around 10,000 tons (Kümmerer 2008). It should also be noted that these
consumption figures are considerably increased by the use of many of these
products in veterinary medicine. After administration, large amounts of antibiotics
and their byproducts are discharged into municipal wastewater that high concen-
trations of antibiotics are now detected in waters intended for human consumption,
reducing their quality. They generally have a low biodegradability (Al-Ahmad et al.
1999; Kümmerer et al. 2000) and high toxicity (Kümmerer 2001), and some are
reported to have mutagenic and carcinogenic characteristics (Bendesky et al. 2002).
Some of the most important antibiotic groups, tetracyclines (TCs) and
nitroimidazoles, have been detected in waters (Halling-Sørensen et al. 1998; Cal-
amari 2002; Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013b). The TCs are bacteriostatic agents that act
by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. They show activity against a wide variety
of microorganisms and are used as antibiotics in humans and animals (Mathers et al.
2011; Gao et al. 2012b). Due to their low cost, TCs are also used as a food additive
to enhance the growth rate of animals, adding a further pathway for their entry into
the environment alongside emissions from the manufacture and formulation of the
compounds and the disposal of unused or expired products. In surface waters, TCs
6 Removal of Antibiotics from Water by Adsorption/Biosorption on Adsorbents. . . 141
were detected at concentrations ranging from 0.11 to 4.20 μg/L (Lin et al. 2009),
while concentrations in an effluent of a wastewater treatment plant ranged from
46 to 1300 ng/L for tetracycline, 270 to 970 ng/L for chlortetracycline, and 240 ng/
L for oxytetracycline (Ternes et al. 2002; Yang et al. 2005; Batt et al. 2007;
Stackelberg et al. 2007; Lin et al. 2009; Gao et al. 2012b). On the other hand,
nitroimidazole antibiotics are widely used to treat infections caused by anaerobic
and protozoan bacteria (e.g., Trichomonas vaginalis and Giardia lamblia) in
humans and animals and are added to chow for fish and fowl (Tally et al. 1981;
Lau et al. 1992; Lindberg et al. 2004), leading to their accumulation in animals, fish
farm waters, and, especially, meat industry effluents (Kümmerer 2001).
Nitroimidazoles have also been detected in waters at concentrations of
0.1–90.2 μg/L (Lindberg et al. 2004). Importantly, the presence of traces of TCs
and nitroimidazoles in the environment can lead to the appearance of microorgan-
isms that are resistant to these antibiotics and to which humans may be exposed via
drinking water (Stackelberg et al. 2007).
Nowadays, studies have demonstrated that conventional treatment plants,
mainly based on the use of microorganisms, have proven inadequate to effectively
remove antibiotics from water, largely due to their complex molecular structure
(Kümmerer et al. 2000; Carballa et al. 2004; Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013b). Thus, the
US Environmental Protection Agency recommended the adsorption on activated
carbon as the best available technology for removing nonbiodegradable toxic
organic compounds from drinking water and industrial wastewater (USEPA 1991).
Both granular (GAC) and powdered (PAC) activated carbons have been widely
used for the adsorption of organic micropollutants in solution due to their chemical
and textural properties (Radovic et al. 2001; Moreno-Castilla 2004; Dias et al.
2007; Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2011; Beita-Sandı́ et al. 2016). The capacity of activated
carbon to adsorb pharmaceutical-related pollutants has attracted research interest
(Snyder et al. 2007; Choi et al. 2008; Simazaki et al. 2008; Yu et al. 2008; Calisto
et al. 2015; Zhu et al. 2015; Vidal et al. 2015). Besides, an important advantage of
using activated carbon to remove pharmaceuticals is that toxic or pharmacologi-
cally active products are not generated.
Snyder et al. (2007) assessed the mechanisms underlying the adsorption of
various pharmaceuticals and hormones on GAC and PAC and obtained removal
percentages of around 90% for most of the pharmaceuticals studied. Optimal
performances were obtained for acetaminophen (73–84%), carbamazepine
(74–86%), triclosan (90–96%), and fluoxetine (91%), but the removal percentage
did not exceed 50% for naproxen, diclofenac, gemfibrozil, sulfamethoxazole, and
ibuprofen, among other drugs. They observed that the effectiveness of activated
carbon was markedly reduced in the presence of natural organic matter (NOM),
which competes for the active sites on the carbon, blocking its porosity.
Various authors have studied the adsorption of tetracyclines using adsorbents
other than carbon, including apatites (Misra 1991), clays, and soils (Figueroa et al.
2004; Kulshrestha et al. 2004; Jones et al. 2005; Başakçilardan-Kabakci et al. 2007;
Turku et al. 2007; Gu and Karthikeyan 2008; Parolo et al. 2008; Chang et al. 2012).
Thus, Jones et al. (2005) evidenced that the iron oxide content, cation exchange
capacity, and soil texture have high influence on the sorption of TCs on soils with
organic carbon content between 0% and 4%. Parolo et al. (2008) investigated the
removal of tetracycline on montmorillonite as a function of pH and ionic strength.
The results revealed that tetracycline can intercalate into the interlayer space of
montmorillonite. Additionally, at pH 4, the highest tetracycline removal is obtained
because, at this pH, tetracycline is in cationic form favoring the cation exchange.
Finally, the presence of sodium ions reduces the adsorption capacity of
montmorillonite.
TCs can be also removed from aqueous solutions by adsorption on different
carbon materials such as MnFe2O4/activated carbon composites (Shao et al. 2012),
graphene oxide (Gao et al. 2012a), and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (Zhang et al.
2011). However, fewer data are available on activated carbon as TC adsorbent.
Choi et al. (2008) found activated carbon columns to be highly effective for the
adsorption of seven TCs in aqueous medium, obtaining percentage removal values
of around 90% that varied according to the type of TC and characteristics of the
water, especially the concentration of NOM. They reported a higher adsorption
capacity of activated carbon for TCs than for sulfonamide, despite the greater
hydrophobicity of the latter.
In reference to nitroimidazole adsorption, Carrales-Alvarado et al. (2014) inves-
tigated the removal of MNZ on novel carbon materials with different chemical and
textural characteristics. It was found that the chemical and textural characteristics
of carbon adsorbents play a key role in the adsorption of MNZ in aqueous solution.
Carbon materials with a large surface area and low content of carboxylic groups are
preferable for the removal of nitroimidazoles from aqueous solution. Carbon
materials can be effectively applied to remove MNZ from wastewater, because
the adsorption of electrolytes in the water cooperates rather than competes with its
adsorption. Additionally, the adsorption of MNZ on carbon materials is reversible,
allowing the exhausted adsorbents to be regenerated by contacting them with water.
Adsorption kinetic data published by Ahmed and Theydan (2013) showed that the
adsorption rate of metronidazole (MNZ) on activated carbon from an agricultural
waste follows a pseudo-second-order model, and estimation of the heat of adsorp-
tion revealed that the adsorption of MNZ was endothermic.
In order to further deepen in the interactions established in the adsorption of
tetracyclines and nitroimidazole drugs on different adsorbent materials, the present
chapter aimed to outline results obtained during the development of a wider project
to analyze and compare the behavior of carbon materials, both commercial (acti-
vated carbons) and prepared in our laboratories (sludge-derived materials and
activated carbons from petroleum coke) with different chemical and textural
natures in the adsorption of tetracyclines and nitroimidazoles from water. This
behavior was analyzed in both static and dynamic regime and using ultrapure water,
surface water, groundwater, and urban wastewater. We also assessed the influence
of solution chemical nature (pH and ionic strength) on the adsorption of these
compounds analyzing the adsorbent-adsorbate interaction types and evaluated the
combined use of microorganisms and activated carbon (biosorption) in these
adsorption processes. Besides, the design of an adsorption system to treat
wastewater also requires data on the adsorbate concentration decay curves of the
adsorbate/adsorbent system and on the mechanisms controlling the adsorption
kinetics. Therefore, other objectives of this project were (i) to apply diffusional
and kinetic models to explain the overall adsorption rate of both tetracyclines and
nitroimidazoles on the adsorbents selected, (ii) to investigate the mass transport
mechanism controlling the overall adsorption rate, and (iii) to analyze the relation-
ship of textural and chemical characteristics of these adsorbent materials with
kinetic and diffusion parameters.
The first part of this chapter is concerned with the chemical and textural
characterization of the adsorbents to remove TCs and nitroimidazoles from water.
The preparation methods of both sludge-derived materials and activated carbons
from petroleum coke will be also analyzed. The particular objective of this part was
to optimize adsorbent material preparation by means of a statistical experimental
planning method, obtaining materials derived from sludge and petroleum coke by
chemical activation with NaOH and KOH, respectively, at high temperatures and
establishing the properties required for the removal of contaminants from water.
Special attention was paid to the effect of binders on the surface and adsorbent
characteristics of these new materials. Some of the results obtained in this wider
project have already been published (Sánchez-Polo and Rivera-Utrilla 2006;
Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2009; Méndez-Dı́az et al. 2010; Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012;
Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012; Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2013; Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013a;
Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2015). This chapter summarizes these findings.
6.2 Adsorbent Materials
The adsorbents used in this study were commercial activated carbons, sludge-
derived materials, and activated carbons from petroleum coke. All adsorbents
were characterized by determining their surface area, pore volume accessible to
water, pore size distribution, oxygen surface groups, and pH of the point of zero
charge (pHPZC). Sludge-derived materials were also characterized by X-ray fluo-
rescence and chemical and elemental analyses.
6.2.1 Commercial Activated Carbons
Sorbo (S) and Merck (M) commercial activated carbons, with a particle diameter
ranging between 0.6 and 1 mm were used in this study. The experimental methods
followed to characterize the adsorbents were described in detail elsewhere
(Sánchez-Polo and Rivera-Utrilla 2003; Rivera-Utrilla and Sánchez-Polo 2004;
Bautista-Toledo et al. 2008; Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012). Table 6.1 depicts the
textural characteristics of activated carbons used in this study: both of them have a
large surface area (>1200 m2/g) and a highly developed microporosity. Micropore
Table 6.1 Textural characteristics of commercial activated carbons

Activated SBETa Wo(N2)b Wo(CO2)c Lo(N2)d Lo(CO2)e Sextf V2g V3h
carbon (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g) (nm) (nm) (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g)
S 1225 0.39 0.29 1.02 0.70 46.90 0.04 0.48
M 1301 0.42 0.29 1.69 0.70 41.90 0.10 0.28
a
Surface area determined from N2 adsorption isotherms at 77 K
b,c
Volumes of micropores determined by N2 and CO2 adsorption, respectively
d,e
Mean widths of micropores determined with the Dubinin equation
f
External surface area determined by mercury porosimetry
g
Volume of pores with diameter of 6.6–50 nm determined by mercury porosimetry
h
Volume of pores with diameter >50 nm determined by mercury porosimetry
Table 6.2 Chemical characteristics of the commercial activated carbons

Carboxylic Carbonyl Acidic Basic
Activated groups groups groups groups
carbon (meq/g) (meq/g) (meq/g) (meq/g) pHPZC
S 0.00 0.15 0.45 1.08 9.0
M 0.04 0.84 0.40 0.44 7.7
volumes, deduced from N2 adsorption, were considerably higher than those from
CO2 adsorption (Table 6.1), indicating a very heterogeneous micropore distribution
in the activated carbon. Because CO2 is only adsorbed in smaller size micropores
(ultramicropores), whereas N2 is adsorbed on the surface of all micropores (Garrido
et al. 1987; Rodriguez-Reinoso and Linares-Solano 1989), N2 adsorption data yield
the total micropore volume, W0(N2). Thus, the mean micropore size (L0) was
higher when determined by N2 versus CO2 adsorption (Table 6.1).
Table 6.2 lists the chemical characteristics of both activated carbons, showing
that they are predominantly basic, with pH of point of zero charge values of 7.7
(carbon M) and 9.0 (carbon S).
6.2.2 Sludge-Derived Materials
Environmental concerns have been raised about the management of the sludge
remaining after the primary and secondary treatment of urban wastewaters
(Werther and Ogada 1999). It is a semisolid slurry with a content of little economic
value and can have a major impact on the environment. Sludge, which is a
subproduct of most wastewater treatment processes, is considered dangerous
toxic waste and is generally used as fertilizer (Campbell 2000; Oleszkiewicz and
Mavinic 2001). Sludge has conventionally been removed to monofills or sanitary
landfills, but alternative options have been proposed. One of these is to incorporate
sludge into the soil after its stabilization, e.g., by composting techniques; taking
advantage of its high content in organic matter, phosphorus, nitrogen, and
potassium, among others; and enabling its utilization in the recovery of eroded land
(Passuello et al. 2012). In this investigation, treatment plant sludge was used to
prepare materials with the appropriate chemical and textural properties for the
adsorption of organic and inorganic compounds.
6.2.2.1 Preparation of Adsorbent Materials from Sludge
The adsorbent materials were obtained from treatment plant sludge supplied by
Aguas y Servicios de la Costa Tropical de Granada (Spain). Sludge was
transformed into adsorbent materials by thermal pyrolysis and chemical activation.
It was chemically activated with sodium hydroxide by sludge impregnation, mixing
the precursor with a solution of NaOH and binding agent (humic matter, phenolic
resins, or clayey soil). After impregnation, the sample was left to dry under infrared
lamps for approximately 12 h. The proportion of NaOH ranged from 5 to 100 g/
100 g of sample and the proportion of binder from 0 to 20 g/100 g. After drying, the
sample underwent pyrolysis in a model RO 10/100 Heraeus tubular oven equipped
with Jumo-Digimat temperature programmer under controlled N2 atmosphere
(99.998%) with flow of 5 L/min, from 300 C to 700 C (ramps of 10 C/min),
maintaining the maximum temperature for periods ranging from 30 min to 3 h. The
yield obtained in the preparation of these adsorbent materials was around 30%.
The binders or agglutinants selected were humic acid (Sigma Aldrich), clayey
soil, and phenolic resins (both Ismael Quesada Chemical products). Humic acid was
selected for its high carbon content and its utilization in briquetting processes,
clayey soil for its binding capacity and low cost, and phenolic resins due to reports
on their ability to bind different types of particles (Cavdar et al. 2008; Benk 2010;
Correa et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2011). Table 6.3 lists the designations of the
prepared samples.
6.2.2.2 Optimization of Sludge Activation Process
Optimization of Sludge Activation Process Without Binder (Linear Model)
Multivariate analyses were performed to optimize the sludge activation process,

using a mathematical and statistical methodology that permits optimal planning of
the experiment sequence, minimizing the cost of the experiment and the influence
of experimental error (Hunter and Hunter 1978). The MODDE 7.0 statistical
program was used for the experimental design and to optimize the preparation of
adsorbent materials from treatment plant sludge.
The experimental conditions were varied in order to determine the optimal
NaOH dose, pyrolysis temperature, and pyrolysis time for obtaining adsorbent
materials with maximum tetracycline adsorption capacity. This effect was visual-
ized by using a linear scanning model to study the response surface, conducting
11 experiments and varying the following factors: (A) amount of NaOH (from 5 to
Table 6.3 Designations assigned to the adsorbent samples prepared from biological treatment
plant sludge (Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012)
Experimental conditions
Response
T Binder NaOH Pyrolysis time qe
Sample name ( C) Type of binder (g) (g) (h) (mg/L)
CL 700 – – – 3.0 –
C10 300 – – 5.0 0.5 –
C20 300 – – 100.0 0.5 –
C30 700 – – 5.0 0.5 100
C40 700 – – 100.0 0.5 300
C50 300 – – 5.0 3.0 –
C60 300 – – 100.0 3.0 10
C70 700 – – 5.0 3.0 400
C80 700 – – 100.0 3.0 560
C90 500 – – 52.5 1.8 200
C100 500 – – 52.5 1.8 210
C110 500 – – 52.5 1.8 205
C2 700 – – 50.0 3.0 –
C3 700 Humic ac. 10.0 25.0 3.0 418.3
C4 700 Humic ac. 10.0 50.0 3.0 466.6
C5 700 Humic ac. 20.0 25.0 3.0 406.8
C6 700 Humic ac. 0.0 25.0 3.0 407.5
C8 550 Humic ac. 10.5 30.0 2.0 352.4
C9 700 Humic ac. 20.0 50.0 3.0 415.9
C10 400 Humic ac. 20.0 50.0 3.0 –
C11 400 Humic ac. 20.0 50.0 1.0 –
C12 700 Humic ac. 20.0 10.0 3.0 242.9
C13 700 Humic ac. 1.0 10.0 1.0 278.4
C15 700 Humic ac. 20.0 10.0 1.0 219.7
C16 700 Humic ac. 20.0 50.0 1.0 380.5
C19 700 Humic ac. 1.0 50.0 1.0 460.2
C20 400 Humic ac. 1.0 10.0 1.0 –
C21 400 Humic ac. 20.0 10.0 1.0 –
C22 700 Humic ac. 1.0 10.0 3.0 278.8
C23 550 Humic ac. 10.5 30.0 2.0 349.0
C24 550 Humic ac. 6.5 30.0 2.0 360.0
C25 700 Humic ac. 1.0 50.0 3.0 512.9
CR1 700 Resin 1 20.0 25.0 3.0 –
CR2 700 Resin 2 20.0 25.0 3.0 –
CAR 700 Clay 20.0 25.0 3.0 –
CH 700 Humic ac. 20.0 25.0 3.0 –
a b c
3.0 3.0 3.0 560
20 270 510
2.5 40 2.5 250 2.5 460
60 230 410
2.0 2.0 2.0 360
80
t(h)
t(h)
t(h)
210
310
1.5 100 1.5 1.5
190 260
120
1.0 140 1.0 1.0 210
170
160 160
0.5 0.5 150 0.5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
NaOH (g) NaOH (g) NaOH (g)
Fig. 6.1 Response surface values obtained using linear planning at pyrolysis temperatures of (a)
300 C, (b) 500 C, and (c) 700 C (Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012)
100 g), (B) pyrolysis temperature (from 300 C to 700 C), and (C) pyrolysis time
(from 30 min to 3 h). The response considered was the capacity of the carbon to
adsorb tetracycline (qe). The adsorption capacity was obtained by using a tetracy-
cline initial concentration of 700 mg/L, 0.1 g of adsorbent and 0.1 L of solution
volume.
For the study of factor A (amount of NaOH added), experiments were conducted
with fixed values of B (300 C) and C (0.5 h) but two different values of A (5 and
100 g), allowing any variations in the response to be attributed to factor A (Samples
C10 and C20 in Table 6.3). The same procedure was carried out for the other two
factors. Figure 6.1 depicts the response surface obtained using linear planning to
prepare the adsorbents from sludge. The maximum adsorption capacity of these
adsorbents (in red) was obtained with pyrolysis for 3 h at a constant temperature of
700 C, reaching a tetracycline adsorption capacity of 560 mg/g. As shown in
Fig. 6.1a, a low adsorption capacity was found in samples pyrolyzed at a temper-
ature of 300 C, observing a decrease in adsorption capacity with longer pyrolysis
time or higher NaOH concentration; the opposite behaviors to those observed at a
pyrolysis temperature of 500 C or 700 C.
Optimization of Sludge Activation Process with Binder (Orthogonal Model)
Preparation of adsorbent materials by sludge chemical activation requires the

addition of a binder to facilitate inter-particle union and obtain materials with
suitable mechanical properties for application in water treatments. We investigated
the effect of the binder on the adsorption capacity of these materials using orthog-
onal planning (MODDE 7.0 program) to study response surface values (Hunter and
Hunter 1978). Figure 6.2 shows the response surface obtained to prepare these
materials, maintaining a constant amount of NaOH (25 g) for different pyrolysis
times (1, 2, and 3 h, respectively).
Figure 6.2 shows that the optimal values (in red) for the adsorption capacity of
the activated carbon were 500 C and 20 g of binder or 700 C and 2 g of binder,
achieving a tetracycline adsorption capacity of 470 mg/g. The results depicted in
Fig. 6.2b show that the adsorption capacity of these materials increases with higher
Fig. 6.2 Response surface by orthogonal planning, maintaining a constant amount of NaOH
(25 g): (a) 1 h of pyrolysis, (b) 2 h of pyrolysis, (c) 3 h of pyrolysis. V ¼ 100 mL, CA0 ¼ 700 mg/L,
m ¼ 0.1 g (Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012)
pyrolysis temperatures and lower amounts of binder, reaching values close to

500 mg/g. The absence of binder in the sample may increase the external surface
area available for the adsorbate.
The results in Fig. 6.2c show that the optimal surface increases with higher
pyrolysis temperature, and the model predicts that a good adsorption is even
maintained with larger amounts of binder. These findings indicate that samples
pyrolyzed at high temperatures for 3 h have good adsorbent properties, reaching
values above 400 mg/g, even with a large amount of binder.
6.2.2.3 Characterization of Sludge-Derived Adsorbent Materials
Table 6.4 lists the results of the chemical analysis of the baseline sludge; it had a
high content of organic matter (64.0%) and total nitrogen (7.8%) and metals,
mainly zinc, copper, lead, and nickel. The textural and chemical properties of the
sludge depend of the urban sludge considered. Sludge characterization is usually
linked to the municipal and industrial activity of the city.
Textural Characterization of Adsorbents with Humic Acid as Binding Agent
Table 6.5 lists the values for surface area (SBET) and mean micropore width (L0)
determined by N2 adsorption at 77 K of the sludge-derived adsorbent materials
containing humic acid as binder. The general behaviors shown in Table 6.5 are in
agreement with previous reports (Méndez et al. 2005; Kang et al. 2006; Ros et al.
2006) on the use of chemical activation to prepare adsorbents from different raw
materials:
Table 6.4 Chemical analysis Component % (by weight) Component μg/g

of the dehydrated sludge
Dry matter 27.0 Cadmium 1.0
(Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012)
Organic matter 64.0 Chrome 2.7
pH 7.7 Copper 270.0
Total nitrogen 7.8 Lead 75.0
Phosphorus 3.8 Zinc 544.0
Calcium 0.3 Nickel 16.5
Mercury 1.0
Table 6.5 Surface area and mean micropore width of the adsorbent materials prepared with
humic acid as binder (Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012)
Temperature Activation time Binder NaOH SBET L0(N2)
Sample ( C) (h) (g) (g) (m2/g) (nm)
C25 700 3 1.0 50 105 1.76
C3 700 3 10.0 25 175 2.25
C22 700 3 1.0 10 94 1.74
C9 700 3 20.0 50 124 1.90
C5 700 3 20.0 25 164 1.13
C12 700 3 20.0 10 104 1.28
C8 550 2 10.5 30 59 2.29
C23 550 2 10.5 30 61 2.20
C24 550 2 6.5 30 97 2.15
C16 700 1 20.0 50 87 1.75
C15 700 1 20.0 10 85 1.83
C19 700 1 1.0 50 87 1.79
C13 700 1 1.0 10 103 1.28
(i) The surface area of these materials was very low, with values ranging from
164 to 59 m2/g, indicating the low effectiveness of the chemical activation of
sludge in comparison to that of other adsorbent materials from sludge, with
surface areas of 1000 m2/g (Ros et al. 2006) or 380 m2/g (Wang et al. 2008b).
(ii) Regardless of the sample in question, the surface area was enlarged with
higher temperature or longer activation time.
(iii) Regardless of the amount of binder added, the surface area value was always
higher for samples prepared with 25 g NaOH (sludge: NaOH ratio of 100:25
by weight).
Results in Table 6.5 show the optimal values for activating and binding agents to
prepare adsorbent materials from sludge, considering the surface area value as
response. As an example, Fig. 6.3 depicts the results obtained by applying the
statistical optimization model at a pyrolysis temperature of 700 C and a residence
time of 3 h. As can be observed, the surface area of the materials increases with the
amount of NaOH and, especially, with the amount of binder. The optimal experi-
mental conditions are 3 h of pyrolysis at 700 C with 30 g NaOH and 20 g of binder.
As observed in Fig. 6.3, the surface area of these materials is not strongly influenced
by the amount of NaOH and is most influenced by the amount of binder.
NaOH (g)
Binder (g)
40 45
10 15 20 25 30 35
145
140
135
130
SN2 (m2/g)
125
SN2 (m2/g)
120
115
110
105
100
95
20
18
16
14
12 )
10 (g
Bi
nd 8 OH
er 6
4
Na
(g)
2
Fig. 6.3 Surface obtained with pyrolysis at 700 C for 3 h, applying the statistical model to
optimize adsorbent material preparation (Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012)
Table 6.6 Textural characteristics of sludge-derived adsorbents with humic acid as binder
W0(N2) W0(CO2) L0(N2) L0(CO2)
Sample (cm3/g) (cm3/g) (nm) (nm) W0(N2)/W0(CO2)
C2 0.06 0.05 1.97 0.50 1.20
C3 0.06 0.02 2.25 1.25 3.00
C5 0.06 0.05 1.13 0.47 1.20
C8 0.03 0.04 2.29 0.50 0.75
C9 0.05 0.06 1.90 0.48 0.83
C12 0.04 0.06 1.28 0.50 0.67
C13 0.04 0.05 1.24 0.49 0.80
C15 0.04 0.06 1.83 0.52 0.67
C16 0.03 0.04 1.75 0.48 0.75
C19 0.04 0.03 1.79 0.49 1.33
C22 0.04 0.05 1.74 0.49 0.80
C23 0.03 0.04 2.20 0.48 0.75
C24 0.03 0.04 2.15 0.49 0.75
C25 0.05 0.03 1.76 0.52 1.66
Table 6.6 lists the results of the textural analysis from N2 and CO2 adsorption
isotherms, showing that the mean micropore width determined with CO2
(all ~0.5 nm except for sample C3) is lower than that determined with N2 (>
1.13 mm for all samples). This is due to the fact that CO2 is only adsorbed in smaller
size micropores (ultramicropores), whereas N2 is adsorbed on the surface of greater
size micropores (Garrido et al. 1987; Rodriguez-Reinoso and Linares-Solano
1989). In the majority of samples, the CO2-determined micropore volume was
larger than the N2-determined micropore volume, indicating a very narrow micro-
porosity that is not totally accessible to N2 molecules under these experimental
adsorption conditions.
Influence of Binding Agent on Properties of the Adsorbent Materials
After optimizing the preparation of these materials from sludge for their tetracy-
cline adsorption capacity and surface area (response variables), we studied the
influence of binder type on their properties. Samples were prepared using humic
acid (CH), clayey soil (CAR), or phenolic resins (CR1 or CR2) as binder. Table 6.7
shows the textural characteristics of these samples and of a sample prepared without
NaOH or binder (CL) and one prepared without binder (C2).
The results in Table 6.7 show that the surface area was increased by the
activation, as discussed above. They reveal that the textural properties of these
materials were not substantially affected by the addition of phenolic resins as
binding agents, with samples C2 (reference), CH, CR1 and CR2 having similar
textural features. However, we highlight the similar surface areas of sample CAR
Table 6.7 Textural characteristics of adsorbent materials prepared with different binders
SBET W0(N2) W0(CO2) L0(N2) L0(CO2)
Samples (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g) (nm) (nm) W0(N2)/ W0(CO2)
CL 47 0.02 0.03 1.18 0.99 0.67
C2 139 0.06 0.05 1.97 0.50 1.20
CH 163 0.06 0.05 1.13 0.47 1.20
CAR 62 0.03 0.02 1.24 1.35 1.50
CR1 147 0.06 0.03 1.13 0.83 2.00
CR2 152 0.07 0.03 1.16 0.95 2.33
Table 6.8 Adsorbent Sext V2a V3b ρac

characteristics obtained by Sample (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g) (g/cm3)
mercury porosimetry
CL 31.39 0.07 0.19 0.16
C2 134.02 0.29 1.54 0.09
CH 44.65 0.12 0.24 0.18
CAR 106.77 0.20 0.78 0.13
CR1 163.21 0.38 0.45 0.10
CR2 102.98 0.27 0.66 0.10
a
V2 Volume of pores with diameter of 6.6–50 nm determined by
mercury porosimetry
b
V3 Volume of pores with diameter >50 nm determined by
mercury porosimetry
c
ρa Apparent density determined by mercury porosimetry
and the sample CL, which was not NaOH-activated, indicating that the surface area
was reduced by the presence of clayey soil in the sample. In general, samples had a
larger micropore volume by N2 than by CO2 determination, reflecting a heteroge-
neous distribution of microporosity in these materials.
Table 6.8 exhibits the pore volumes of the adsorbent materials obtained by
mercury porosimetry. Except for the development of mesoporosity in sample
CR1, the mesoporosity (V2) and macroporosity (V3) of all samples decreased
with the presence of the binder, especially with humic acid (sample CH).
Table 6.9 shows the elemental analysis of the samples; all had a low C content
that was higher with the presence of binders; it was only 5.76% in the sample
without binder and around 18% in the samples with binder, with the exception of
CAR. X-ray fluorescence results in Table 6.10 show SiO2 and CaO to be the
predominant inorganic compounds in these samples. The following components
were identified in the X-ray diffraction diagrams: calcium pyrophosphate, β–
Ca2P2O7(peak at 30.8 2θ); calcium hydroxyapatite, Ca5(PO4)3OH (peak at 31.6
2θ); goethite, α-FeOOH (peak at 21 2θ); and hematites, α-Fe2O3 (peak at 33 2θ).
The remaining oxides in Table 6.10 were not observed in the diagrams, possibly
due to their lack of crystallinity. Table 6.9 compiles some chemical characteristics
of the adsorbent material samples, which were predominantly of basic nature, with
pHPZC values ranging from 8.7 (CAR) to 10.3 (C2).
Table 6.9 Elemental analysis of the samples (dry basis) (Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012)
C H N (O þ remaining elements)dif
Sample (%) (%) (%) (%) pHPZC
CL 23.09 1.05 1.87 73.99 9.6
C2 5.76 0.70 0.41 93.13 10.3
CH 18.25 1.06 1.29 79.40 9.4
CAR 5.13 1.05 0.00 93.82 8.7
CR1 17.75 1.11 0.62 80.52 8.9
CR2 17.80 1.11 1.06 80.03 8.9
6.2.3 Activated Carbons from Petroleum Coke
Petroleum coke is a dark solid composed mainly of carbon, produced by the thermal
decomposition and polymerization of heavy liquid hydrocarbon derived from crude
oil. The coke produced from distillation residues tends to form the sponge coke,
while coke produced from a cracking residue forms the premium coke. The sponge
type, due to its practically amorphous structure, has little commercial value and
may be an economical and environmental problem. Petroleum coke is a residue of
the petrochemical industry, which generates around 4 tons of carbon for every
100 tons of crude oil refined. Because of its high concentration of heavy metals
(Ni, V, Fe), this residue cannot be used in any productive process. However, due to
its high carbon content, it is an excellent raw material for the production of
activated carbon.
6.2.3.1 Preparation of Activated Carbons by Chemical Activation

of Coke
A series of activated carbons were prepared from calcinated petroleum coke

supplied by REPSOL-YPF (Alicante, Spain). This coke will be designated as C,
and its particle size ranged from 0.5 to 0.8 mm.
KOH was used as activating agent for the petroleum coke activation. Different
activated cokes were prepared, with a KOH/coke mass ratio ranging from 1 to
4. The samples will be designated with the letter C followed by the KOH/coke mass
ratio used in the activation process.
The procedure described by Otowa et al. (1993) was used for the coke activation.
Briefly, 25 g of petroleum coke was mixed with 100 mL of a KOH solution at the
appropriate concentration for each sample. This mixture was first heated at 60 C
for 48 h and was then treated in N2 atmosphere (flow 300 mL/min) at 400 C for 2 h.
Finally, it was carbonized by heating the mixture at 700 C for 1 h under an N2 flow
of 300 mL/min. In all heat treatments, the oven heating rate was 10 C/min. Finally,
the samples were washed with deionized water to constant conductivity.
154
Table 6.10 Adsorbent characteristics obtained by X-ray fluorescence (Gómez-Pacheco et al. 2012)
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 LOI
Sample (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
C2 23.75 11.65 9.64 0.06 4.13 21.81 3.42 0.15 1.00 11.29 12.41
CH 21.24 10.47 11.22 0.06 3.54 18.10 5.96 0.11 0.94 9.78 17.68
CAR 27.15 13.39 11.00 0.10 5.35 11.46 4.37 0.25 1.03 11.53 13.61
CR2 23.44 9.55 11.26 0.08 4.53 16.59 2.00 0.16 0.97 8.24 22.74
LOI loss on ignition
J. Rivera-Utrilla et al.
6.2.3.2 Characterization of Activated Carbons from Coke
Elemental analysis of the petroleum coke used was done with a Fisons Instruments
1108 CHNS analyzer and showed a composition of C ¼ 87.7 0.1%,
H ¼ 4.2 0.1%, N ¼ 0.4 0.1%, S ¼ 6.4 0.1%, and O ¼ 1.3 0.1%.
Table 6.11 shows the results of the textural characterization of the activated
carbons prepared with different KOH/coke mass ratios and of both original and
demineralized cokes. These results indicate that the activation process considerably
developed the porosity in all of the samples studied, increasing the volume of
micro-, meso- (V2), and macropores (V3). Thus, the surface area of the original
coke markedly increased after the activation, with sample C-1 showing the highest
value. Moreover, it was observed that the micropore volume reduced with an
increase in the amount of KOH added to the coke; the K2O and K generated during
the activation blocked the entrance to the pores, hampering the diffusion of CO2
into a fraction of the micropores, as discussed below.
The value of SBET was always higher than the value of micropore surface area
(Smic) regardless of the activated coke sample considered (Table 6.11). According
to these results, a large fraction of the surface of these four samples corresponded to
meso- and macropores, which are determined by N2 at 196 C but not by CO2 at
0 C (Garrido et al. 1987; Rodriguez-Reinoso and Linares-Solano 1989). Thus, the
proportion of this fraction ranged from 41% in sample C-4 to 5% in sample C-1. It
was also observed that the volume of macropores (V3) was slightly larger when the
amount of KOH in the samples was increased, whereas the volume of micro- and
mesopores reduced with increases in the amount of KOH.
Several authors have studied the mechanism by which KOH activates carbona-
ceous materials (Marsh et al. 1984; Otowa et al. 1997). Thus, Marsh et al. (1984)
showed that the oxygen of the alkali can remove cross-linking and stabilizing
carbon atoms in crystallites. K metal obtained at the reaction temperatures may
intercalate and force apart the separate lamellae of the crystallites. The micropo-
rosity of activated carbon in the new structure is created by the removal of
potassium salts by washing and the removal of carbon atoms from the internal
volume of the carbon by activation reaction. The results presented in Table 6.11
indicate that W0 and SBET values decreased with an increase in the KOH/coke
Table 6.11 Textural characterization of the original and activated cokes (Sánchez-Polo and
Rivera-Utrilla 2006)
KOH/ SBET Smica W0(N2) V2 V3
Sample coke (m2/g) (m2/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g) (cm3/g)
C 0 <30 <30 0.02 0.01 Nil 0.011 0.003
C-1 1 1619 30 1539 30 0.55 0.01 0.063 0.003 0.132 0.003
C-2 2 1261 30 1165 30 0.41 0.01 0.061 0.003 0.154 0.003
C-3 3 1021 30 716 30 0.25 0.01 0.058 0.003 0.176 0.003
C-4 4 970 30 569 30 0.20 0.01 0.051 0.003 0.263 0.003
a
Micropore surface area obtained from CO2 adsorption isotherm at 273.15 K
ratios, which may be due to a blockage of the pores by remains of the K and K2O
that were generated during the activation process and not completely removed by
the washing treatment. As reported above, the macroporosity of the coke increases
with a higher KOH/coke ratio in the activation process. According to Otowa et al.
(1993), elevated temperatures and high KOH/coke ratios produce large pores in the
carbon structure due to the presence of KOH-derived K2O, which expands the
carbon atomic layers. K2O also acts as catalyst of the carbon gasification process, so
that its generation during petroleum coke activation potentiates the development of
meso- and macroporosity on the carbon surface. Moreover, at temperatures above
700 C, a considerable amount of K is formed by the reduction of K2O with carbon
(Otowa et al. 1993). As a result of the consumption of the inner carbon atoms, pores
are formed in the structure.
Regarding the surface chemistry of the samples, it was observed that activation
of the coke modified their chemical nature (Table 6.12). Thus, whereas the original
coke was a mildly acid material (pHPZC ¼ 6.5), the pHPZC of the KOH-activated
coke ranged from 8.4 for sample C-1 to 9.7 for sample C-4. This change is largely
due to the generation of surface basic groups during the activation process which
increases with the KOH/coke ratio (Table 6.12). Nevertheless, the pHPZC values, as
with the above textural characteristics, might be slightly influenced by the presence
of K and K2O in the activated coke samples. In order to know it, the ash content of
the activated coke samples was determined. The results obtained, 0.40%, 0.42%,
0.46%, and 0.52% for the samples C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4, respectively, indicated a
slight increase in the ash content as the KOH/coke ratio was increased. Therefore,
as mentioned above, the presence of these species of K can influence, in part, on the
basicity of the activated coke samples.
The functional groups generated on the carbon surface during activation were
studied by means of X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (Table 6.13). The results
Table 6.12 pHPZC of the Sample pHPZC

activated cokes (Sánchez-
C 6.5 0.1
Polo and Rivera-Utrilla 2006)
C-1 8.4 0.1
C-2 8.8 0.1
C-3 9.3 0.1
C-4 9.7 0.1
Table 6.13 Results of the deconvolution of the XPS O1s spectrum of the activated coke samples
(Sánchez-Polo and Rivera-Utrilla 2006)
(- C ¼ O) (C - OH, C – O - C) (- COOH) H2O and/or O2
(%) (%) (%) (%)
Sample 530.7 0.2 eV 532.1 0.2 eV 533.3 0.2 eV 535.3 0.2 eV
C-1 76 1 14 1 61 41
C-2 80 1 81 81 41
C-3 84 1 81 31 51
C-4 90 1 41 21 41
showed a percentage of surface oxygen of around 10% in all the activated coke
samples, much higher value than the percentage detected by elemental analysis in
the original coke (% O ¼ 1.3), which would confirm the creation of oxygen groups
on the coke during its KOH activation.
In order to determine the surface functional groups generated by the activation
process, the spectrum of the O1s region was studied in the activated coke samples
following the method described elsewhere (Moreno-Castilla et al. 2003b). The
results obtained are shown in Table 6.13. In the four samples, the oxygen percent-
age corresponding to the –COOH group, which is the main responsible group of the
surface acidity, is very low. This fact may be due to the low thermal stability of this
group (242–367 C), which may be desorbed in the form of CO, CO2, and H2O
during the activation process (Zielke et al. 1996); these results justify the pHPZC
values found for the activated coke samples. As the KOH/coke ratio increased, the
concentration of –C ¼ O on the activated coke sample also increased. These results
explain, in part, the enhancement in the surface basicity as the KOH/coke used in
the activation process increased.
6.3 Kinetic Study of the Adsorption of Tetracyclines

and Nitroimidazoles on Sludge-Derived Materials
and Activated Carbons
6.3.1 Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles Characterization

6.3.1.1 Tetracyclines
The tetracyclines (TCs) studied in this chapter were tetracycline (TC), oxytetracy-
cline (OTC), and chlortetracycline (CTC). The chemical structures of the TCs are
depicted in Fig. 6.4a, and their physicochemical properties are summarized in
Table 6.14. Additionally, the speciation diagram of TC as a function of solution
pH is shown in Fig. 6.4b, as an example.
6.3.1.2 Nitroimidazoles
Nitroimidazoles used in the present study were dimetridazole (DMZ), metronida-

zole (MNZ), ronidazole (RNZ), and tinidazole (TNZ). Figure 6.5 depicts the
molecular structure and speciation diagrams of these compounds. Dimensions of
the nitroimidazole molecules were determined with the computer software
Advanced Chemistry Development (ACD/Labs) Software v8.14. Octanol-water
partition coefficients (KOW) were obtained from ChemIDplus Advanced database.
Table 6.15 lists the main physicochemical properties of nitroimidazoles.
pKa,2/pKa,3
Tetracycline (TC)
a C22H24N2O8
H3C CH3
N R1: H
R1 HO CH3 R2 R2: H
H H
OH Oxytetracycline (OTC)
C22H24N2O9
R1: H
R2: OH
NH2 Chlorotetracycline
(CTC)
OH C22H23ClN2O8
OH O OH O O R1: Cl
R2: H
pKa,3/pKa,2 pKa,1
b 1.0
TC2-
0.9 TCH3+ TCH2
TCH-
0.8
0.7
Molar fraction
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Solution pH
Fig. 6.4 Molecular structure (a) and speciation diagram (b) of tetracyclines in aqueous solution
6.3.2 Kinetic and Diffusional Models
In kinetic models, it is usually assumed that the overall adsorption rate is exclu-
sively controlled by the adsorption rate of the solute on the adsorbent surface, and
the intraparticle diffusion and external mass transport can be ignored. It is also
considered that the adsorption rate of a solute on the surface can be represented in
the same manner as the rate of a chemical reaction. As stated in Chap. 3, adsorption
kinetics are commonly interpreted with first- and second-order kinetic models. On
the other hand, diffusional models assume the adsorption process to occur by means
Table 6.14 Physicochemical properties of TCs

Molecular volumea Cross-sectional areaa Water solubilityb
TCs (A3) (A2) (mg/L) Log Kowb pKab
TC 403.72 396.90 22 1.30 3.32
7.78
9.58
OTC 413.13 407.49 17 0.90 3.22
7.46
8.94
CTC 416.90 410.50 4.2 0.62 3.33
7.55
9.33
a
Determined by applying a Monte Carlo algorithm with the Spartan08 program
b
Determined by means of the Advanced Chemistry Development (ACD/Labs) Software v8.14
program. pKa corresponding to the successive deprotonation reactions
Fig. 6.5 Chemical structure and speciation diagram of nitroimidazoles
of three well-differentiated steps: (i) external mass transfer, where the adsorbate is
transferred from the bulk of the solution to the adsorbent external surface;
(ii) intraparticle diffusion, where the adsorbate molecule diffuses through the
pores from the external surface of the adsorbent particle to the adsorption sites;
and iii) adsorption rate of the compound on an active site (Leyva-Ramos and
Geankoplis 1985). In this last step, the adsorption equilibrium between solute in
160
Table 6.15 Properties of nitroimidazoles

Transversal section DAB 106 Solubility in water
Nitroimidazole Molecular weight (g/mol) (A2) (cm2/s) Volume (A3) (mol/L) pKow pKa1 pKa2
MNZ 171.15 101 9.63 186 0.041 0.02 2.58 14.44
DMZ 141.13 88 8.48 157 0.062 0.31 2.81 –
TNZ 247.27 138 8.25 258 0.008 0.35 2.30 –
RNZ 200.15 113 6.72 206 0.015 0.38 1.32 12.99
solution and solute on adsorbent is considered to be instantaneous (Ocampo-Perez

et al. 2010); therefore the amount of solute adsorbed on the pore surface is at
equilibrium with the solute concentration in the solution. Under these conditions,
external transfer and/or intraparticle diffusion will be largely responsible for the
global adsorption rate. In the following sections, the most important kinetic models
and diffusional models used to predict the concentration decay curves for several
adsorbate-adsorbent systems will be discussed in detail. Note that details of adsorp-
tion kinetic models have been also covered in Chap. 3 of this book.
6.3.2.1 Pseudo First-Order Kinetic Model
Lagergren advanced the first-order kinetic model to predict the adsorption rate of
oxalic and malonic acids onto charcoal (Ho and Mckay 1998). The pseudo first-
order kinetic model has been extensively applied to interpret the adsorption rate of
solutes on different adsorbents (Srivastava et al. 2006). The pseudo first-order
kinetic model can be mathematically represented by the following equation:
dqt
¼ k 1 ð qe qt Þ ð6:1Þ
dt
where k1 is the rate constant of the pseudo first-order kinetic model (1/h), t is the
time (min), and qe and qt are the mass of adsorbate adsorbed at the equilibrium and
at time t (mg/g), respectively.
This equation can be integrated using the initial condition qt ¼ 0 when t ¼ 0, and
the resulting equation is:

qt ¼ qe 1 ek1 t ð6:2Þ
The above equation can also be expressed in terms of CA and CAe by using the
mass balance equation at time t and equilibrium as follows:
V ðCA0 CA Þ
qt ¼ ð6:3Þ
m
V ðCA0 CAe Þ
qe ¼ ð6:4Þ
m
where V is the volume of the solution (L); CA0, CA, and CAe are the initial, at a time
t and the equilibrium concentration of adsorbate in aqueous solution (mg/L); and
m is the mass of adsorbent (g). These mathematical relationships can be substituted
into Eq. (6.2), and the following equation can be obtained:
m
CA ¼ CA0 qe 1 ek1 t ð6:5Þ
V
6.3.2.2 Pseudo Second-Order Kinetic Model
The pseudo-second-order kinetic model can be represented by the following dif-

ferential equation (Blanchard et al. 1984):
dqt
¼ k 2 ð qe qt Þ 2 ð6:6Þ
dt
where k2 is the rate constant of the pseudo-second-order kinetic model (g/mg/h).

Integrating Eq. (6.6) and using the initial condition qt ¼ 0 when t ¼ 0, the
following equation can be obtained:
q2e k2 t
q¼ ð6:7Þ
1 þ qe k 2 t
This equation can be also formulated in terms of CA and CA0, yielding the
following equation:
m q2 k t
e 2
CA ¼ CA0 ð6:8Þ
V 1 þ qe k 2 t
6.3.2.3 Intraparticle Diffusion Model
A functional relationship common to most treatments of intraparticle diffusion is

that uptake varies almost proportionately with the half-power of time (t0.5), rather
than t. Good linearization of the data is observed for the initial phase of the reaction
in accordance with expected behavior if intraparticle diffusion is the rate-limiting
step (Ho and Mckay 1998; Ip et al. 2010). The intraparticle diffusion equation is the
following:
qt ¼ ki t0:5 ð6:9Þ
where ki is the intraparticle diffusion rate constant (mg/g1h0.5).

The ki values are calculated from the slope of the straight line of the respective
plots. The plot of qt versus t0.5 may present multi-linearity, which indicates that two
or more rate controlling steps occur in the adsorption process.
6.3.2.4 Surface and Pore Volume Diffusion Model
The diffusional model is based on the following assumptions: (i) the intraparticle
diffusion occurs by pore volume diffusion (Fick diffusion) and surface diffusion,
(ii) the rate of adsorption on an active site is instantaneous, and (iii) the adsorbent
particles are spherical. The model equations and initial and boundary conditions are
the following (Leyva-Ramos and Geankoplis 1994; Ocampo-Perez et al. 2011):
dCA
V ¼ mSkL CA CAr jr¼Rp ð6:10Þ
dt
t¼0 CA ¼ CA0 ð6:11Þ

∂CAr ∂q 1 ∂ 2 ∂CAr ∂q
εp þ ρp ¼ r Dep þ D s ρp ð6:12Þ
∂t ∂t r 2 ∂r ∂r ∂r
CAr ¼ 0 t¼0 0 r Rp ð6:13Þ

∂CAr
¼0 ð6:14Þ
∂r
r¼0

∂CAr
∂q
Dep þ D ρ ¼ k C C j ð6:15Þ
∂r
r¼R
s L A Ar
p
∂r r¼R p
where S is the external surface area determined from S ¼ 3/(Rp ρp), Rp is the
radius of the particle (cm), kL is the external mass transfer coefficient in liquid phase
(cm/s), R is the distance in radial direction of the particle (cm), CAr |r¼R is the
concentration of adsorbate at the external surface of the particle at r ¼ R (mg/L), εp
is void fraction of particles, CAr is the concentration of adsorbate within the particle
at distance r (mg/L), ρp the density of adsorbent particles (g/mL), Dep is the
effective pore volume diffusion coefficient (cm2/s), Ds is the surface diffusion
coefficient (cm2/s), and q is the adsorption capacity (mg/g).
The Eqs. (6.10), (6.11), (6.12), (6.13), (6.14), and (6.15) represent the pore
volume and surface diffusional model (PVSDM). The parameters kL, DS, and Dep
correspond to external mass transport, surface diffusion, and pore volume diffusion
mechanisms, respectively. The PVSDM model can be simplified by considering
that the intraparticle diffusion mechanism may be exclusively due to either pore
volume diffusion (PVDM) (Dep 6¼ 0, DS ¼ 0) or surface diffusion (SDM) (Dep ¼ 0,
DS 6¼ 0).
If the adsorption rate on an active site is considered to be instantaneous, there is
local equilibrium between the adsorbate concentration in the solution within the
pore of the adsorbent and the mass of adsorbate adsorbed on the surface of the pore.
This equilibrium relationship between CAr and qm is represented by the adsorption
isotherm:
qm ¼ f ðCAr Þ ð6:16Þ
6.3.3 Results and Discussion
6.3.3.1 Kinetic Study of Tetracycline Adsorption on Sludge-Derived

Adsorbents
Adsorption kinetics were obtained by adding 0.1 g adsorbent material in Erlen-

meyer flasks that contained 100 mL of a 700 mg/L TC solution. The flasks were
maintained in thermostatic bath at 298 K and under agitation for 10 days, and
samples were periodically extracted to determine the amount of TC adsorbed as a
function of time. Solution pH ranged between 7 and 8 in all cases. Figure 6.6 depicts
the adsorption kinetics of TC on selected sludge-derived adsorbents.
In order to quantify the rate of TC adsorption on the adsorbents and to identify
the chemical and textural properties involved in this process, adsorption rate
constants (k1, k2) were determined by fitting the experimental adsorption kinetics
data to pseudo first-order and second-order kinetic models, respectively. Table 6.16
shows the results obtained and also the values of the amounts of TC adsorbed at
equilibrium and the corresponding determination coefficients. A comparison
between qe values (theoretically calculated) and the corresponding qe values
(experimental) shows that the pseudo-first-order model fits the experimental data
for all TC-adsorbents systems better than does the pseudo-second-order model.
The adsorption rate constants (k1) (Table 6.16) were related to some of the
characteristics of the corresponding adsorbents (Tables 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9). In
general, no clear relationship was observed between the k1 values and most of the
textural parameters of the adsorbents, except for a tendency to higher k1 values
with increased pore volume, V2, and macropore volume, V3 (see Fig. 6.7a, b,
respectively).
Fig. 6.6 TC adsorption 1.0

kinetics on the adsorbents.
pH 7, [TC]o ¼ 700 mg/L,
T ¼ 298 K. The lines 0.8
represent the predictions of
the first-order kinetic model
(Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012)
0.6
CA/CA0
0.4
CH
CR2
CAR
0.2 CR1
C2
CL
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Time, h
Table 6.16 Adsorption rate constants, determination coefficients, and amounts of TC adsorbed at equilibrium obtained experimentally and according to
pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion models (Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012)
Pseudo-first order Pseudo-second order Intraparticle diffusion
qe qe
(exp.) k1 102 (predicted) k2 105 qe ki
2
Adsorbent (mg/g) (1/h) R (mg/g) (L (mg/h) R2 (predicted) (mg/g) (mg/(g h0.5)) R2
CL 210 0.68 0.24 0.978 278 55 1.11 0.79 0.978 424 110 10.82 0.952
C2 532 2.60 0.079 0.955 565 43 12.1 3.8 0.977 537 31 45.33 0.992
CH 497 1.04 0.095 0.997 565 23 2.16 0.51 0.993 638 42 31.12 0.977
CAR 434 1.42 0.022 0.988 450 26 2.81 0.76 0.991 555 40 31.50 0.982
CR1 469 1.08 0.012 0.995 521 27 3.89 1.25 0.986 518 40 29.93 0.980
CR2 476 1.73 0.026 0.988 472 23 4.37 1.03 0.992 543 29 37.50 0.991
6 Removal of Antibiotics from Water by Adsorption/Biosorption on Adsorbents. . .
165
TC adsorption rate constants also increased with lower carboxylic group content
of the adsorbents (Fig. 6.7c), but no relationship was observed with the other
chemical parameters of the adsorbents, such as the pHPZC or basic group content.
According to these findings, carboxylic groups in these materials reduce the
adsorption rate because, at the working pH of 7–8, repulsive interactions are
established between the negative charge of these groups and TC molecules,
which are negatively charged as a consequence of deprotonation (see Fig. 6.4b).
The mechanism of adsorption is generally considered to involve (i) mass transfer
of adsorbate from the bulk phase to particle surface, (ii) adsorption on surface site,
and (iii) intraparticle diffusion of the adsorbate molecules to an adsorption site by a
pore diffusion and/or surface diffusion mechanism. Step (ii) is often assumed to be
extremely rapid; therefore the adsorption of large molecules, with long contact
times to equilibrium, is always considered to be via diffusion controlled by external
film resistance and/or internal diffusion mass transport or intraparticle diffusion.
2.8 2.8
C2
C2 R2=0.865 R2=0.930
2.4 2.4
2.0
2.0
k1×102 , 1/h
k1×102, 1/h
CR2
1.6 CR2
1.6
CAR
1.2 CH CAR
CL CR1 1.2 CH CR1

0.8
0.4 0.8 CL
0.0 0.4
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
3
V2, cm /g V3, cm3/g
(a) (b)
2.8
C2
R2=0.70
2.4
2.0
k1×102 , 1/h
CR2
1.6
CAR
1.2 CH CR1
0.8 CL
0.4
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Carboxilic groups, meq/g
(c)
Fig. 6.7 Variation of k1 with textural and chemical parameters of adsorbents (Ocampo-Pérez et al.
2012)
Fig. 6.8 Root time plot for 200

CH
the adsorption of CR2
tetracycline on the CAR
adsorbents. pH 7, 150
CR1
C2
[TC]o ¼ 700 mg/L, CL
T ¼ 298 K (Ocampo-Pérez
q, mg/g
et al. 2012)
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4
t0.5, h0.5
A classical approach to analyze whether an adsorption process is controlled by

intraparticle diffusion is to plot the amount adsorbed versus the square root of time,
t0.5 for a short contact time, i.e., q/qe < 0.3. If the plot is linear and passes through
the origin, it indicates that intraparticle diffusion is controlling the rate of adsorp-
tion. Thus, Fig. 6.8 shows the amount of tetracycline adsorbed as a function of t0.5
for the sludge-derived adsorbents. It can be seen that intraparticle diffusion model
satisfactorily fitted the experimental data, obtaining a linear section that passes
through the origin in a short time, indicating that tetracycline adsorption on these
adsorbents is governed by intraparticle diffusion. The values of the intraparticle
diffusion rate constant (ki) are given in Table 6.16 together with determination
coefficient values (R2). The ki values ranged from 10.82 mg/(g h0.5) for sample CL
to 45.33 mg/(g h0.5) for sample C2.
Surface diffusion, i.e., the movement of the adsorbate through the solid surface,
is influenced by the distribution of the solid and fluid phases, and the surface
concentration gradients are the main driving force. The surface diffusion model
(SDM) is the most widely used to interpret concentration decay curves of aromatic
compounds on adsorbents (Traegner and Suidan 1989; Ganguly and Goswami
1996); it assumes that the intraparticle diffusion is exclusively due to surface
diffusion and that there is no pore volume diffusion. For its part, pore volume
diffusion refers to the movement of the adsorbate due to concentration gradients in
the fluid phase (i.e., molecular mechanisms) and is affected by the geometry of
pore. Hence, the pore volume diffusion model (PVDM) ignores surface diffusion
and assumes that pore volume diffusion is the sole mechanism of intraparticle
diffusion (Traegner and Suidan 1989).
The TC concentration decay curves were predicted with SDM and PVDM
models. Values of the external mass transfer coefficient (kL) and the effective
diffusion coefficients (Ds and Dep) were required to resolve both models. Experi-
mental kL values were estimated from Eq. (6.17), while Ds and Dep were obtained
by matching the numerical solution of the models to the experimental data. The
optimal values of Ds and Dep were the values that best fitted the experimental data
by minimizing the objective function given by Eq. (6.18).
2 3
d CA mSkL
4 CA0 5 ¼ ð6:17Þ
dt V
t¼0
N
X 2
ϕexp ϕpred ¼ Minimum ð6:18Þ
1
where ϕexp and ϕpred are the experimental dimensionless concentration of adsorbate
in the solution and predicted with the diffusion models, respectively, and N is
number of experimental data.
Figure 6.9 depicts the TC concentration decay curves on all adsorbents and the
predictions of SDM (Fig. 6.9a) and PVDM (Fig. 6.9b) models. It can be observed
that both models satisfactorily fitted the experimental data, which were better
interpreted by the PVDM model than by the SDM model. It should be noted that
the Ds values ranged from 2.43 1010 to 9.7 1010 cm2/s, whereas the Dep
values ranged from 0.85 107 to 2.91 107 cm2/s. On average, Dep values were
around 300-fold higher than Ds values, which suggests that TC diffuses within the
pores by pore volume diffusion rather than by surface diffusion.
In order to elucidate the mechanism of intraparticle diffusion that governs the
diffusion of tetracycline on these adsorbent materials, the experimental data were
interpreted with the PVSDM model. This model considers that surface diffusion
and pore volume diffusion are both important in the overall adsorption rate.
Fig. 6.10a depicts, as an example, the experimental data of TC adsorption rate on
sample CR2 and the prediction of the PVSDM model, showing a satisfactory fit of
the experimental data. The optimal values of Dep and Ds were 1.73 107 and
9.7 1011 cm2/s, respectively. The Dep value obtained with the PVDSM model is
very similar to that obtained with the PVDM model (Dep ¼ 1.94 107 cm2/s),
whereas the Ds value is lower than that obtained with the SDM model.
The relative contribution of pore volume diffusion to the overall intraparticle
diffusion was estimated from these results by using the following equation:
N AP Dep ∂C
∂r
Ar
¼ ð6:19Þ
N AS þ N AP Ds ρp ∂q þ Dep ∂CAr
∂r ∂r
where NAP and NAS are the mass transport due to the pore volume diffusion and
surface diffusion, respectively.
Figure 6.10b shows the relative contribution of pore volume diffusion as a
function of time at different dimensionless radial positions ξ(r/R) in sample CR2,
as an example; the pore volume contribution always represented more than 84% of
the total intraparticle diffusion regardless of the radial position and time. Similar
results were obtained for the other adsorbents. These results confirm that
a
1.0
0.8
0.6
CA/CA0
0.4
0.2
CH, Ds = 4.37×10-10 cm2 /s; CR2, Ds = 3.88×10-10 cm2 /s
CAR, Ds = 3.40×10-10 cm2 /s; CR1, Ds = 4.37×10-10 cm2 /s
C2, Ds = 9.7×10-10 cm2 /s; CL, Ds = 2.43×10-10 cm2 /s
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Time, h
b
1.0
0.8
0.6
CA/CA0
0.4
0.2 CH, Dep = 1.65×10-7 cm2 /s; CR2, Dep = 1.94×10-7 cm2 /s
CAR, Dep = 1.97×10-7 cm2 /s; CR1, Dep = 2.41×10-7 cm2 /s
C2, Dep = 2.91×10-7 cm2 /s; CL, Dep = 0.85×10-7 cm2 /s
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Time, h
Fig. 6.9 TC adsorption kinetics on the adsorbents. The lines represent the prediction of (a) SDM
model and (b) PVDM model. pH ¼ 7, [TC]o ¼ 700 mg/L, T ¼ 298 K (Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012)
tetracycline diffusion on adsorbents derived from sewage sludge is governed by

pore volume diffusion.
TC molecular diffusion within the adsorbent pores can be drastically affected by
the physical properties of the adsorbent, such as the porosity and tortuosity. The
porosity of a material is directly related to the total pore volume, while the tortuosity
is a function of the pore shape and size distribution. In Fig. 6.11, the Dep values are
a
1.0
0.8
0.6
φΑ
0.4
0.2
CR2
PVSDM, D ep = 1.73×10-7 cm2/s, Ds = 9.7×10-11 cm2/s
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Time, h
b
1.00
NAs, ξ = 1
0.98 NAP, ξ = 0.75
NAP, ξ = 0.5
0.96 NAP, ξ = 0.25
NAP, ξ = 0
N AP/(NAs + N Ap )
0.94
0.92
0.90
0.88
0.86
0.84
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time, h
Fig. 6.10 (a) TC adsorption kinetics on sample CR2. (b) Contribution of pore volume diffusion to
the total intraparticle diffusion at different radial positions during TC adsorption on sample CR2
(Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012)
plotted against the main textural characteristics of the adsorbents (V2, V3, W0(N2),
and Sext). This figure shows a tendency for Dep values to increase with higher V2, V3,
W0(N2), and Sext values. These results indicate that the TC diffusion is directly
related to its accessibility to the interior pores. Thus, higher effective pore volume
a b 3.2
4.8 C2
2
4.4 R =0.70
2.8
4.0
CR1 R2=0.65
3.6 2.4
Dep ×107 , cm2 /s
Dep ×107 , cm2 /s

3.2 C2
CR2CAR
2.8 2.0
2.4 CH
CAR CR2
2.0 CR1 1.6
CH
1.6 CL 1.2
1.2 CL
0.8 0.8
0.4
0.0 0.4
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
V2, cm3 g-1 V3, cm3 g-1
c 3.6
d 4.0
R2=0.76
3.2 3.6 R2=0.40
C2
2.8 3.2 C2
CR1 2.8
Dep ×107 , cm2 /s
Dep ×107 , cm2 /s
2.4 CR1
CR2 2.4
2.0 CAR CR2
CH 2.0
CAR
1.6
1.6
1.2 CH
CL 1.2
CL
0.8 0.8
0.4 0.4
0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Sext , m2 g-1 W(N2), cm3/g
Fig. 6.11 Variation in effective pore volume diffusion coefficients for TC adsorption as a function
of textural characteristics of the adsorbents (Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2012)
diffusion coefficients were obtained in the materials with greater macropore and
mesopore volumes and, therefore, larger external surface areas.
6.3.3.2 Diffusion of Tetracyclines on Activated Carbon
Activated carbons have unique chemical and textural characteristics which are
greatly different to those of adsorbents derived from sewage sludges. For example,
CH sample, with the highest SBET value of these adsorbents, has a surface area of
163 m2/g, which is nearly eight times smaller than that of activated carbon
M. Therefore, the diffusion mechanism of tetracyclines on activated carbons
could be governed by another kind of driving force different to that corresponding
to adsorbents derived from sewage sludges. To analyze this aspect, the TC concen-
tration decay curves for adsorption on S and M activated carbons were predicted
Table 6.17 Mass transfer DAB 106 kL 107 Ds 109

parameters for the adsorption TCs (cm2/s) ACs (cm/s) (cm2/s)
of TCs on ACs at T ¼ 25 C,
TC 4.87 S 3.0 1.16
V ¼ 0.1 L and m ¼ 0.1 g
(Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2015) M 2.7 26.0
OTC 4.85 S 3.2 2.60
M 2.0 2.16
CTC 4.83 S 1.9 0.13
M 2.4 1.82
with the numerical solution of the PVDM model. The values of Dep were estimated
by the tortuosity factor equation as follows:
DAB εp
Dep ¼ ð6:20Þ
τp
where DAB is the molecular diffusion coefficient at infinite dilution (cm2/s) and τp is
the tortuosity factor.
As suggested by Leyva-Ramos and Geankoplis (1994), the tortuosity factors for
carbons M and S were assumed to be 3.5. The molecular diffusivities of the TCs
were calculated using the correlation proposed by Wilke and Chang (1955), and the
values are recorded in Table 6.17. From Eq. (6.20), the values of Dep estimated for
TC, OTC, and CTC were 6.92 107, 6.85 107, and 6.72 107 cm2/s,
respectively. The values of kL estimated by applying Eq. (6.17) were also included
in Table 6.17.
As an example, the rate of adsorption of TC on carbon M was predicted with the
PVDM model and using the Dep value estimated by Eq. (6.20). The experimental
and the predicted concentration decay curves are depicted in Fig. 6.12. The PVDM
considerably overpredicted the concentration decay of TC. This result implies that
the rate of adsorption of TC is faster than that predicted with the PVDM. Similar
results were observed for the adsorption rates of OTC and CTC on both ACs. These
findings suggest that pore volume diffusion is not the only intraparticle diffusion
mechanism occurring in the adsorption rate of TCs on activated carbons.
In the PVSDM model, the intraparticle diffusion is assumed to be due to both the
pore volume diffusion and surface diffusion. The values of Dep and kL were
estimated as argued earlier. Hence, the surface diffusion coefficient (DS) was the
sole unknown mass transfer parameter and can be calculated by fitting the numer-
ical solution of the PVSDM model to the experimental concentration decay curve
data. In this case, the optimal value of Ds was obtained by minimizing the
Eq. (6.18).
The concentration decay curve predicted with the PVSDM is plotted in Fig. 6.12
for the adsorption of TC on carbon M. As it can be noted, the PVSDM model
satisfactorily fitted the experimental concentration decay data. Similar results were
observed for the adsorption rate of the OTC and CTC on both activated carbons. The
optimal values of Ds are given in Table 6.17 and increased in the following order:
1.0
0.8
0.6
CA/CA0
0.4
0.2 Experimental data

PVDM, Dep = 6.92×10-7 cm2/s, τ = 3.5
PVSDM, Dep = 6.92×10-7 cm2/s, Ds = 2.6×10-8 cm2/s
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Time, h
Fig. 6.12 Concentration decay curves of TC for adsorption on carbon M. The lines represent the
prediction of PVDM and PVSDM models. Initial concentration of TC ¼ 700 mg/L, pH ¼ 4, and
T ¼ 298 K (Ocampo-Pérez et al. 2015)
Ds,OTC > Ds,TC > Ds,CTC for carbon S and Ds,TC > Ds,OTC > Ds,CTC for carbon
M. The Ds values for carbon M were almost one order of magnitude higher than those
for carbon S, except in the case of OTC.
The contribution of each diffusion mechanism to the intraparticle mass transfer
of the TCs was estimated by computing the mass flux due to the pore volume
diffusion (NAP) and surface diffusion (NAS) using the Eq. (6.19).
Percentage contribution of surface diffusion to the total intraparticle diffusion at
various adsorption times and particle radius during TC adsorption on carbon S is
depicted in Fig. 6.13. As shown in this figure, the contribution of surface diffusion
was markedly dependent on the time and the radial position in the particle. For
example, at a time of 33 h, the pore volume diffusion of TC is the main intraparticle
diffusion mechanism at the entrance of the pore (750 < particle radius < 800 μm);
however, the surface diffusion of TC was almost the only mechanism for particle
radius less than 600 μm.
The contribution of pore volume diffusion for carbon S was greater than for
carbon M. This result can be explained considering that carbon M has a larger mean
micropore size and mesopore, avoiding the influence of restrictive effects at the
entrance of pores on the diffusion of TCs.
6.3.3.3 Adsorption Kinetics of Nitroimidazoles on Activated Carbons
The concentration decay curves during the adsorption of DMZ, MNZ, RNZ, and
TNZ on commercial activated carbons M, S, and on the sample C-2 from chemical
Fig. 6.13 Percentage 100

contribution of surface
diffusion to the total
intraparticle diffusion at 80
[NAs/(NAs + NAp)]×100 %
various times and radius
during TC adsorption on
carbon S (Ocampo-Pérez 60
et al. 2015)
40
33 hours
66 hours
20 99 hours
132 hours
165 hours
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Particle radius, μm
activation of petroleum coke are depicted in Fig. 6.14a–d, respectively. Indepen-

dently of the nitroimidazole type, the adsorption equilibrium in carbon C-2 was not
approached in less than 150 h, and the adsorption equilibrium in carbon M was
attained in lesser times than in the other carbons. Hence, the adsorption rate in
carbon M was faster than in the other carbons, whereas carbon C-2 presented the
slowest adsorption rate.
Independently of the carbon, the MNZ molecule presented the shorter times to
reach equilibrium. For example, the approximate times to approach equilibrium in
carbon S were 55, 74, 76, and 195 h for MNZ, DMZ, RNZ, and TNZ, respectively.
This result indicated that the adsorption rate of MNZ was faster than those of other
molecules; however, accordingly to the molecular diffusivities of the
nitroimidazoles, the expected decreasing order of the adsorption rate was
DMZ > MNZ > RNZ > TNZ.
The values of the rate constants (k1 and k2) and the calculated uptake of the
nitroimidazoles at equilibrium, qe(calc), for the four nitroimidazoles, were evalu-
ated by fitting the pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models to the
adsorption kinetic data, q vs. t. The value for the experimental uptake, qe(exp),
corresponds to the amount of nitroimidazole adsorbed at equilibrium has been
obtained from Fig. 6.14a–d.
In general, regardless of the model used and the activated carbon, the rate of
adsorption on the activated carbons decreases in the order:
MNZ > DMZ > RNZ > TNZ. As an example, this behavior is shown in
Fig. 6.15. These results may indicate that textural properties of activated carbons
are not solely responsible for the adsorption rate of these compounds, since
compounds like MNZ are adsorbed faster than smaller compounds, such as DMZ.
The dependence of the rate constants k1 and k2 with respect to the chemical and
textural properties of the activated carbons was analyzed. In general, no clear
a 160 b 160
120 120
MNZ (mg/L)
DMZ (mg/L)
80 80
40 40
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
t (h) t (h)
c 160 d 160
120 RNZ (mg/L) 120

TNZ (mg/L)
80 80
40 40
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
t (h) t (h)
Fig. 6.14 Adsorption kinetics of nitroimidazoles on activated carbons. pH ¼ 7, T ¼ 298 K,

[activated carbon] ¼ 0.2 g/L. (◇) S, (Δ) M, (□) C-2. (a) [DMZ]0 ¼ 150 mg/L, (b)
[MNZ]0 ¼ 150 mg/L, (c) [RNZ]0 ¼ 150 mg/L, (d) [TNZ]0 ¼ 150 mg/L. The lines represent the
predictions of the pseudo-first-order kinetic model (Méndez-Dı́az et al. 2010)
relationship was observed between the pseudo-first- or pseudo-second-order rate

constants and the textural properties of the carbons, except that the rate constants
k1 or k2 are augmented, increasing the micropore volume (W0(N2)) and mean
micropore size (L0(N2)) of the activated carbon. The relationships between k1 and
W0(N2) or L0(N2) are depicted in Fig. 6.16a, b for the four nitroimidazoles.
The results plotted in these figures appear to indicate that the adsorption rate k1 is
largely dependent upon the volume and mean micropore size. Nevertheless, meso-
and macroporosity do not appear to have a major effect on the adsorption rate in
these systems. It is expected that the porous structure does not affect the rate
constants of the kinetic models since in these models the diffusion through the
pores (intraparticle diffusion) has been neglected, and the surface adsorption in the
micropores is the controlling step (Poling et al. 2001; Leyva-Ramos et al. 2009).
The nitroimidazole adsorption rate constant k1 was also related to surface
chemical characteristics of the activated carbons. The kinetic constants (k1)
increased, reducing the oxygen percentage of the activated carbon (Fig. 6.17) and
diminishing the content of carbonylic (Fig. 6.18) and phenolic groups (Fig. 6.19).
However, the rate constants appeared to be independent upon the other chemical
properties of carbon such as the pHPZC or concentration of basic sites. Thus, the
2.5
2.0
qexp (mmol/g)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 50 100 150 200
t (h)
Fig. 6.15 Adsorption kinetics of DMZ, MNZ, RNZ, and TNZ on activated carbon S. pH ¼ 7,
[nitroimidazole]0 ¼ 150 mg/L, T ¼ 298 K, [activated carbon] ¼ 0.2 g/L. (□), DMZ; (Δ), MNZ;
(◇), RNZ; (○), TNZ. (- - -) The lines represent the predictions with the pseudo-first-order- (DMZ,
MNZ, and RNZ) and pseudo-second-order (TNZ) kinetic models (Méndez-Dı́az et al. 2010)
a b
20 20 M
M
16 16 S
S
K1ⴛ10 (1/h)
K1ⴛ10 (1/h)
12 12
C
2
2
C
8 8
4 4
0 0
0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Wo (N2) (cm3/g) Lo (N2) (nm)
Fig. 6.16 Adsorption rate constants of (◇), MNZ; (□), DMZ; (○), RNZ; (△), TNZ as a function
of (a) W0(N2) and (b) L0(N2). pH ¼ 7, [NMZ]0 ¼ 150 mg/L, T ¼ 298 K, [activated car-
bon] ¼ 0.2 g/L (Méndez-Dı́az et al. 2010)
adsorption rate constants increased by lessening the oxygen content and carbonylic
and phenolic sites in the carbons. This behavior was common to all nitroimidazoles.
The relationships presented in Figs. 6.17, 6.18, and 6.19 indicate that the
adsorption rate k1 is directly related to the carbon hydrophobicity. The carbon
hydrophobicity increased, diminishing the oxygen content, and there is a decrease
in the competition between water and nitroimidazole molecules for the active
adsorption sites of the carbon surface, increasing the adsorption rate of
nitroimidazole. Thus, the nitroimidazole adsorption rate constant k1 can be related
Fig. 6.17 Effect of the 20 M

activated carbon oxygen
content on the
16
nitroimidazole adsorption
S
rate constant. pH ¼ 7,
K1ⴛ10 (1/h)
[nitroimidazole]0 ¼ 12
150 mg/L, T ¼ 298 K,
2
[activated carbon] ¼ 0.2 g/L.
8 C
(○), DMZ; (Δ), MNZ;
(◇), RNZ; (□), TNZ
(Méndez-Dı́az et al. 2010) 4
0
6 8 10 12 14
Oxygen (% weight)

carbonylic group content of
activated carbons on the
16
rate constant. pH ¼ 7, S
K1ⴛ10 (1/h)
2
150 mg/L, T 298 K,

[activated carbon] ¼ 0.2 g/L. 8 C
(○), DMZ; (Δ), MNZ; (◇),
RNZ; (□), TNZ (Méndez-
Dı́az et al. 2010) 4
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Carbonylic groups (meq/g)
to the relative carbon hydrophobicity as illustrated in Fig. 6.20, and the rate
constant k1 increases with the carbon hydrophobicity.
The adsorption kinetics of nitroimidazoles on activated carbons was also studied
by interpreting the experimental kinetic data with the PVDM model. An initial
guess of the Dep was calculated using Eq. (6.20) and, assuming a tortuosity factor of
τp ¼ 3.50, recommended for activated carbons (Leyva-Ramos and Geankoplis
1994; Ocampo-Perez et al. 2011).
The concentration decay data predicted with the diffusional model, as well as the
experimental data for the adsorption of DMZ on activated carbon S, are depicted in
Fig. 6.21. It can be seen that the diffusional model interpreted satisfactorily well the
experimental concentration decay, and the value of τp was 3.74 which was very
close to τp ¼ 3.50, recommended by Leyva-Ramos and Geankoplis (1994).

phenolic group content of
activated carbons on the
16 S
rate constant. pH ¼ 7,
K1ⴛ10 (1/h)
150 mg/L, T ¼ 298 K,
2
8 C
(○), DMZ; (Δ), MNZ; (◇),
RNZ; (□), TNZ (Méndez-
Dı́az et al. 2010) 4
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Phenolic groups (meq/g)
Fig. 6.20 Effect of the 20

activated carbon M
hydrophobicity on the
nitroimidazole adsorption 16
rate constant. pH ¼ 7, S
K1ⴛ10 (1/h)
150 mg/L, T ¼ 298 K,
2

(○), DMZ; (Δ), MNZ; (◇), 8
RNZ; (□), TNZ (Méndez- C
Dı́az et al. 2010)
4
0
0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70
Relative hydrophobicity
The values of τp for RNZ and TNZ varied from 3.84 to 4.91, and these values are
within the range of values reported for activated carbons (Leyva-Ramos and
Geankoplis 1994; Ocampo-Perez et al. 2011). In general, the diffusional model
interpreted well the experimental concentration decay data for the adsorption of
RNZ and TNZ on the three carbons. To illustrate the satisfactory fitting obtained
with the diffusional model, the predicted and experimental concentration decay
data for the adsorption of RNZ on carbon S are plotted in Fig. 6.22. As illustrated in
this figure, the diffusional model with τp ¼ 4.33 predicted reasonably well the
experimental concentration decay curve. In this case the diffusional model with
τp ¼ 3.50 overpredicted the experimental concentration decay data.
Fig. 6.21 Adsorption 1.0

kinetics of DMZ on
activated carbon S. pH ¼ 7, 0.8
[DMZ]0 ¼ 150 mg/L,
T ¼ 298 K, [activated 0.6
CA/CA0
carbon] ¼ 1 g/L. (◇),
experimental data; (—),
0.4
PVDM model prediction
(Méndez-Dı́az et al. 2010)
0.2
0.0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
t (min)

kinetics of RNZ on
activated carbon S. pH ¼ 7, 0.8 Experimental data
[RNZ]0 ¼ 150 mg/L,
Tortuosity = 3.50
T ¼ 298 K, [activated 0.6
CA/CA0
carbon] ¼ 1 g/L. (◇), Tortuosity = 4.33

0.4
PVDM model prediction for
τp ¼ 3.5; (- -), model
prediction for τp ¼ 4.33 0.2
0.0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
t (min)
The diffusional model predicted reasonably well the experimental concentration

decay data of MNZ during adsorption on the three carbons. As an example, the
concentration decay predicted with the diffusional model and the experimental
concentration decay for the adsorption of MNZ on carbon S are displayed in
Fig. 6.23.
However, the values of τp for MNZ range from 1.47 to 2.17. These values are
rather smaller than those for the other nitroimidazoles. The concentration decay
curve predicted with the diffusional model and τp ¼ 3.50 is also graphed in
Fig. 6.23, and it can be noticed that the diffusional model with τp ¼ 3.50
underpredicted the experimental concentration decay data. This behavior clearly
indicates that the tortuosity factor for the adsorption rate of MNZ on carbon S is
smaller than τp ¼ 3.50.
The low values of τp for MNZ can be explained considering that surface
diffusion is possibly taking place in the case of the intraparticle diffusion of
MNZ. In other words, intraparticle diffusion of MNZ is due to pore volume
diffusion as well as surface diffusion. The intraparticle diffusion would be faster
when surface diffusion was occurring simultaneously with pore volume diffusion.
If surface diffusion was not included in the model such as in this case, this would
result in greater values of Dep and smaller values of τp.

kinetics of MNZ on
Experimental data
activated carbon S. pH ¼ 7, 0.8
[MNZ]0 ¼ 150 mg/L, Tortuosity = 3.50
T ¼ 298 K, [activated
CA/CA0
0.6
carbon] ¼ 1 g/L. (◇), Tortuosity = 2.17
PVDM model prediction for 0.4
τp ¼ 3.5; (- -), model
prediction for τp ¼ 2.17 0.2
0.0
0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500
t (min)
6.4 Adsorption/Biosorption Equilibrium Isotherms

of Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles on Sludge-
Derived Materials and Activated Carbons
6.4.1 Nitroimidazole Adsorption Processes
Both the mechanisms involved in the process of nitroimidazole adsorption and the
adsorption capacity of activated carbons were determined by obtaining the
corresponding adsorption isotherms. Figure 6.24 depicts, as an example, the nor-
malized adsorption isotherms of the four nitroimidazoles for activated carbon S. It
shows the millimoles of nitroimidazole adsorbed per gram of carbon (qe) versus the
equilibrium concentrations normalized for the solubility of each nitroimidazole in
water at 298 K (Ceq/SBET). Isotherms show the L form of the Giles classification
(Giles et al. 1974a, b; Moreno-Castilla 2004), suggesting that the aromatic rings of
nitroimidazole molecules are adsorbed in parallel to the carbon surface and that
there is no major competition between nitroimidazoles and water molecules for the
active adsorption centers on the carbon.
Langmuir (Eq. (6.21)) and Freundlich (Eq. (6.22)) models were applied to the
experimental adsorption isotherm data. As stated in Chap. 2, they are the most
widely used models for describing this type of process and are represented math-
ematically as:
Kqm Ceq
qe ¼ ð6:21Þ
1 þ KCeq
qe ¼ K f C1=n
eq ð6:22Þ
where qm is the adsorption capacity (mg/g), Ceq is the concentration of adsorbate at

equilibrium (mg/L), K is the Langmuir constant, Kf is the Freundlich’s affinity
parameter, and n is the exponential Freundlich’s coefficient.

isotherms of
nitroimidazoles on carbon
S. (e), MNZ; (△), DMZ; 2.0
(○), TNZ; (□), RNZ.
pH ¼ 7, T ¼ 298 K (Rivera-
Utrilla et al. 2009)
qe (mmol/g)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Ceq/S
The determination coefficients obtained were >0.99 for all systems with the
Langmuir equation (Table 6.18) but ranged from 0.842 for the TNZ-carbon S
system to 0.987 for DMZ-carbon M when the Freundlich equation was applied
(Table 6.19). Although both models served to explain our results, the Langmuir
model fitted better the experimental data.
The adsorption capacity was very elevated for all carbons and nitroimidazoles
(Table 6.18), with qm values ranging from 1.04 mmol/g for TNZ-carbon C-2 to
2.04 mmol/g for DMZ-carbon C-2. In general, relative affinity values, Kqm, were
also higher than those usually reported in aromatic compound adsorption (Radovic
et al. 2001), indicating the high chemical affinity of nitroimidazoles for carbon.
Interestingly, the constant K value in Langmuir’s equation (related to adsorption
energy) increased in the order DMZ < MNZ < RNZ < TNZ, which may be related
to the solubility of these nitroimidazoles in water, with an increase in their adsorp-
tion energy as solubility decreases (Table 6.15). The corresponding values of the
Freundlich exponential coefficient, 1/n, were low, ranging from 0.214 to 0.295
(Table 6.19), which also indicates strong adsorbent-adsorbate interactions
(Freundlich 1926).
The adsorption capacity of carbon for the different nitroimidazoles was
expressed per unit of carbon surface area (q0 m) to enable comparisons among
them (Table 6.18). Except in the case of TNZ, the adsorption capacity of carbon
increased in the order M < S < C-2, which may be related to the oxygen content of
carbon, which increased in the same direction. Thus, in the case of carbon C-2
and S, this oxygen is mainly forming phenolic groups, which are electronic
activators of the aromatic rings of carbon graphene planes; this favors the adsorp-
tion of aromatic compounds like nitroimidazoles, which can be adsorbed by
dispersion interactions of π electrons of their aromatic rings with π electrons of
182
Table 6.18 Parameters obtained by applying Langmuir’s equation to the adsorption isotherms of nitroimidazoles on activated carbons S, M, and C-2 (Rivera-
Utrilla et al. 2009)
qm (mmol/g) q0 m 103 (mmol/m2) K (L/mmol) Kqm (L/g)
Nitroimidazole S M C-2 S M C-2 S M C-2 S M C-2
MNZ 1.92 1.25 1.68 1.56 0.96 1.98 52.11 9.44 23.50 100.00 11.82 39.37
DMZ 1.99 1.32 2.04 1.62 1.01 2.40 43.84 9.38 23.29 87.24 12.39 47.62
TNZ 1.37 1.56 1.04 1.12 1.20 1.23 75.79 94.24 56.45 104.17 147.06 58.82
RNZ 1.97 1.82 1.89 1.61 1.40 2.23 52.85 25.49 24.57 104.11 46.51 46.51
Table 6.19 Parameters obtained by applying Freundlich’s equation to the adsorption isotherms of
nitroimidazoles on activated carbons S, M, and C-2 (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2009)
S M C-2
Kf Kf Kf
Nitroimidazole 1/n (L/g) R2 1/n (L/g) R2 1/n (L/g) R2
MNZ 0.247 403.27 0.925 0.268 171.67 0.968 0.282 248.42 0.932
DMZ 0.235 408.97 0.901 0.261 191.20 0.987 0.260 345.46 0.893
TNZ 0.295 268.47 0.842 0.214 439.44 0.915 0.280 200.26 0.885
RNZ 0.223 479.40 0.935 0.262 317.03 0.967 0.240 361.80 0.928
the carbon graphene planes (Radovic et al. 2001; Moreno-Castilla 2004). Further-
more, the presence of oxygen in the carbon favors the establishment of hydrogen
bonds between nitroimidazoles and the carbon surface. These bonds may be
responsible for the strong adsorbent-adsorbate interactions detected in these sys-
tems and commented above.
Comparison of the adsorption capacity of carbon for each nitroimidazole (q0 m)
shows that, with the exception of carbon M, q0 m decreased in the order
DMZ > RNZ > MNZ > TNZ. These results show some relationship with the
size of the nitroimidazole molecules and hence with their accessibility to the carbon
porosity. Thus, TNZ has the largest molecule size and was the least adsorbed,
whereas DMZ has the smallest molecule size and therefore highest accessibility to
the carbon surface and showed the highest adsorption. Besides the accessibility of
nitroimidazoles to the carbon surface, the electronic density of their aromatic ring
also increases their adsorption, since it enhances the abovementioned π-π
adsorbate-adsorbent dispersion interactions. Based on the chemical composition
of these nitroimidazoles and the electronic activating/deactivating power of the
groups they contain, the electronic density of aromatic rings decreases in the order
DMZ > RNZ MNZ > TNZ, the same order found for the increase in adsorption
capacity of these nitroimidazoles. These results demonstrate that the adsorption
process is mainly determined by the adsorbent-adsorbate dispersion interactions
described above.
6.4.2 Tetracyclines Adsorption Isotherms
Table 6.20 exhibits the data obtained by applying Langmuir and Freundlich equa-
tions to the adsorption isotherms of TCs on activated carbons M and S. In all
systems, they yielded determination coefficients close to unity. Although both
models could be used to explain the results, in general, the Langmuir model best
fits the experimental data.
The results in Table 6.20 indicate that, regardless of the carbon and TC consid-
ered, the adsorption capacity of the activated carbons was very high, with qm values
ranging from 471.1 mg/g for the TC-carbon M system to 65.1 mg/g for the CTC-S
system. In general, the values of relative affinity (Kqm) were relatively high,
indicating the high chemical affinity of the TCs for the carbons. The corresponding
values of Freundlich’s exponential coefficient (1/n) were low, ranging from 0.10 to
0.52, indicating strong adsorbent-adsorbate interactions. All of these results dem-
onstrate the high effectiveness of these commercial activated carbons for TC
removal from water.
As shown in Table 6.20, the capacity of carbon M to adsorb the three TCs was
higher than that of carbon S, and its relative affinity with these adsorbates was also
considerably superior. For both carbons, the capacity to adsorb these TCs increased
in the order CTC < OTC < TC.
Radovic et al. (2001) in their extensive review of the literature on organic
compound adsorption on carbons concluded that the adsorption mechanism of
these processes remains controversial. They reported that both electrostatic and
dispersive adsorbent-adsorbate interactions are involved in the adsorption of aro-
matic compounds. Coughlin and Ezra (1968) suggested that the adsorption of
aromatic compounds on activated carbon is based on the establishment of disper-
sion interactions between π electrons of the organic compound aromatic ring and π
electrons of the activated carbon graphene planes (π-π interactions). Furthermore,
Leon and Leon et al. (1992) found that basic carbons (pHPZC > 7) with a low
oxygen percentage are characterized by a high content of electron-rich sites in their
graphene planes and a low concentration of surface electron-attracting oxygen
groups, which could enhance the adsorption of aromatic compounds according to
the mechanism proposed by Coughlin and Ezra (1968).
Given that TC molecules have neutral charge at the study pH (4–5), Figure 6.4b,
electrostatic interactions between positively charged activated carbon surface and
TC molecules are weak, and the adsorption mechanism must be largely governed
by dispersive adsorbent-adsorbate interactions (Rivera-Utrilla and Sánchez-Polo
2002). Consequently, the greater adsorption capacity of carbon M is partly due to its
lower oxygen content and hence higher hydrophobicity. The chemical composition
of the TCs and the electron activating/deactivating power of their functional groups
means that the electron density of the aromatic ring decreases in the order
TC > OTC > CTC, the same order as found for their capacity for adsorption.
These results demonstrate that the adsorption process is mainly governed by
Table 6.20 Results obtained from applying Langmuir and Freundlich equations to the TC
adsorption isotherms (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013a)
Langmuir Freundlich
TCs Carbon R2 qm (mg/g) Kqm (L/g) R2 1/n K (mg/g) (L/mg)
TC S 0.9998 375.4 52.0 0.9939 0.17 178
M 0.9999 471.1 142.0 0.9851 0.10 263
OTC S 0.9911 252.6 6.1 0.9912 0.45 19
M 0.9991 413.2 15.0 0.9782 0.23 100
CTC S 0.9535 65.1 4.2 0.9939 0.52 3
M 0.9984 309.9 10.0 0.9893 0.21 86
dispersive interactions. In addition, the establishment of hydrogen bonds between

the phenolic groups of TCs and the oxygenated groups of carbon would also
contribute to the high adsorption of these pollutants.
A further aspect to be considered in adsorption is the accessibility of the
adsorbate to the activated carbon surface, which is determined by the adsorbate
molecule size and carbon pore dimensions. Thus, the higher adsorption capacity of
carbon M is partly due to its larger mean micropore size and mesopore volume
(Table 6.1), giving TCs greater access to its pores and presenting a larger surface
fraction that is effective in adsorption in comparison to carbon S. As stated above,
the adsorption capacity of carbons for these TCs shows that it decreases in the order
TC > OTC > CTC. These results are in part related to the size of TC molecules
(Table 6.14) and their consequent accessibility to the carbon porosity. Thus, the
tetracycline with largest molecule size (CTC) shows the lowest adsorption and the
one with the smallest size (TC) the highest.
Table 6.21 shows that sludge-derived adsorbents had a higher capacity to adsorb
TC in comparison to the commercial activated carbons used in the present study
(Table 6.20) and other adsorbent reported in the literature (Pils and Laird
2007; Wang et al. 2010; Zou et al. 2012; Chang et al. 2012; Zhou et al. 2012; Liu
et al. 2012, 2013; Huang et al. 2013; Li et al. 2013; Liao et al. 2013; Lin et al. 2013),
reaching a value of 672.0 mg/g for the C2 sample. Taking into account the small
surface area and low C content of these materials, their high TC adsorption capacity
can only be explained by the formation of complexes between TC and the metal
elements present in these samples. The formation of chelate-type coordination
compounds between TC and metal elements has been extensively studied in the
literature (Figueroa et al. 2004; Jones et al. 2005; Başakçilardan-Kabakci et al.
2007). Thus, a characteristic chemical property of TCs is their capacity to form
insoluble chelates at neutral pH with certain metal ions, such as Fe2+, Al3+, Ca2+,
and Mg2+ (Van der Bijl and Pitigoi-Aron 1995; Carson and Breslyn 1996;
Chakrawarti 2001; Wang et al. 2008a). Therefore, the presence of these metal
cations in our adsorbents (Table 6.10) would explain their high adsorption capacity.
6.4.3 Influence of Operational Variables
6.4.3.1 Influence of Solution pH
Figure 6.25 depicts, as an example, the influence of solution pH on TC adsorption

on activated carbon M, showing a pH range from 2 to 7 at which the amount
adsorbed remains constant, with a reduction in adsorption at higher pH values. This
behavior was observed for all three TCs studied, maintaining the adsorption
order TC > OTC > CTC observed for the adsorption isotherms. A similar behavior
was detected for carbon S, except that adsorption was reduced from pH values of
around 9.
Table 6.21 Results of applying Langmuir equation to tetracycline adsorption isotherms of

adsorbents obtained from sludge and others from literature (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013a)
Langmuir
qm Kqm
Adsorbent R2 (mg/g) (L/g) References
C2 0.9988 672.0 10.96 In this work
CR2 0.9898 593.4 7.64 In this work
CH 0.9966 553.3 6.23 In this work
CAR 0.9979 512.1 4.70 In this work
HCl-modified 0.9998 20.4 7.29 Zou et al. (2012)
Zeolite
Magnetic 0.9292 429.7 13.42 Zhou et al.
resin (Q100)a (2012)
Alkali biochar 0.9570 58.82 0.882 Liu et al. (2012)
MCM-41 impregnated with zeoliteb 0.9811 419.3 3.04 Liu et al. (2013)
Graphene oxide functionalized magnetic 0.9920 39.1 17.6 Lin et al. (2013)
particles
Anaerobic granular sludgea 0.9910 4.61 – Li et al. (2013)
Bamboo charcoal 0.9211 22.7 0.454 Liao et al. (2013)
Activated carbon fiber modified by 0.9818 312 13.54 Huang et al.
microwave (2013)
Illite 0.988 32 – Chang et al.
(2012)
Clays, humic substances, and clay-humic – 12 – Pils and Laird
complexesa (2007)
The red soil (RS, UdicFerrosols) – 12 – Wang et al.
(2010)
T ¼ 45 C
a
T ¼ 50 C
b
The behavior depicted in Fig. 6.25 is due to the progressive ionization of the
surface oxygenated groups of the activated carbon with higher solution pH, which
produces an increase in its negative surface charge density and a consequent
reduction in adsorption. This is because repulsive electrostatic interactions are
established between the carbon surface, negatively charged at pH values above its
pHPZC, and the TC molecules, negatively charged at pH values above their pKa2
values. These results indicate that, depending on the solution pH, electrostatic
adsorbent-adsorbate interactions also play an important role in these adsorption
processes.
Regarding nitroimidazoles, Fig. 6.26 shows, as an example, the influence of
solution pH on nitroimidazole adsorption of activated carbon M. The solution pH
did not significantly affect the process of adsorption of nitroimidazoles on carbon M
between pH 4 and 11, but all four nitroimidazoles showed a slight decrease at pH 2.
According to their pKa1 values (Table 6.15 and Fig. 6.5), this is because of the
protonation of nitroimidazoles at pH values close to 2. As a result, repulsive
electrostatic interactions are established between the carbon surface, positively
Fig. 6.25 Amount of TCs 100

adsorbed on M carbon, at
equilibrium-8 days, as a
function of solution 80
pH. (◊), TC; (□), OTC;
Adsorption (%)
(△), CTC. T ¼ 298 K.
[M] ¼ 1 g/L. 60
[TCs]0 ¼ 700 mg/L
(Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013a)
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
pH
Fig. 6.26 Influence of pH 2.5

in nitroimidazole adsorption
process on carbon M. (e),
MNZ; (△), DMZ; (○), 2.0
TNZ; (□), RNZ. T ¼ 298 K.
[M] ¼ 1 g/L.
qe (mmol/g)
1.5
[nitroimidazole]o ¼
600 mg/L (Rivera-Utrilla
et al. 2009) 1.0
0.5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
pH
charged at pH 2 (pHsolution < pHPZC) and the nitroimidazoles, positively charged at

pH values close to 2. Similar results were observed for the other carbon samples.
Results depicted in Fig. 6.26 verify that electrostatic interactions do not play a
major role in the adsorption of nitroimidazoles on activated carbon surface between
pH 4 and 11, since nitroimidazole molecules are neutral under these conditions, and
surface oxygenated groups of the activated carbon progressively ionize with higher
solution pH. Therefore, the increase in negative surface charge does not produce a
reduction in the adsorption of the contaminants. These data confirm that
non-electrostatic interactions are largely responsible for the adsorption of these
compounds on activated carbon, as reported in the above section.
6.4.3.2 Influence of Solution Ionic Strength
Figure 6.27 depicts, as an example, the results for TC adsorption on carbon M in the
presence of increasing NaCl concentrations. Ionic strength can affect the adsorption
process on activated carbons. According to the results obtained by López-Ramón
et al. (2003), the presence of electrolytes in solution can modify the strength of
adsorbate-adsorbent electrostatic interactions. These interactions, either attractive
or repulsive, can be increased or reduced by varying the solution ion strength.
Figure 6.27 shows that, with an increase in NaCl concentration, in the medium
from 0.0 to 0.1 molar, the adsorption percentage is reduced by around 20%, which
remains constant at higher NaCl concentrations. These results can be explained by
considering that electrostatic interactions between the carbon surface and adsorbate
are attractive at the study pH (7), because the carbon surface is positively charged
but the TC molecules are partially ionized (Figure 6.4b). Therefore, adsorption
capacity is decreased with greater ion strength due to a possible screening effect of
the carbon surface charge produced by the added NaCl, i.e., by placing Cl and Na+
ions between carbon surface and TC molecules, reducing attractive electrostatic
interactions between carbon surface and the fraction of ionized TC. A similar
behavior was found for the rest of tetracyclines (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013a). In
the case of nitroimidazole adsorption, the effect of solution ionic strength was less
marked (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2009).
6.4.3.3 Influence of the Presence of Microorganisms
The presence of microorganisms in natural water and wastewater may exert a

considerable influence on the effectiveness of activated carbon because microor-
ganisms can be adsorbed on the carbon during water treatment, giving rise to the
Fig. 6.27 Adsorption of 100

TC on carbon M as a
function of solution ionic
strength. pH ¼ 7, 80
T ¼ 298 K. [M] ¼ 1 g/L.
Adsorption (%)
[TC]0 ¼ 700 mg/L (Rivera-

Utrilla et al. 2013a) 60
40
20
0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
NaCl (M)
formation of bacteria colonies and the consequent modification of the chemical and
textural characteristics of the carbon surface (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2001,
2003; Moreno-Castilla et al. 2003a; Bautista-Toledo et al. 2008).
This aspect was analyzed by obtaining TC and CTC adsorption isotherms on
carbon M in the presence of bacteria from secondary effluents of a wastewater
treatment plant. Figure 6.28 depicts the adsorption/biosorption isotherms of TC and
CTC on carbon M in the presence and the absence of these bacteria. Table 6.22
shows the results of applying Langmuir’s equation to these isotherms.
The effect of the adsorption of bacteria on the chemical and textural properties of
activated carbon was previously reported by our research group (Rivera-Utrilla
et al. 2001, 2003), finding (i) a decrease in the surface area due to pore blocking and
(ii) a reduction in the pHPZC, which increases the negative surface charge density of
the activated carbon. Moreover, given that the external walls of bacteria are formed
by phospholipids (Nikaido and Vaara 1985), their adsorption on activated carbon
(Fig. 6.29) increases the hydrophobicity of the carbon surface.
The results obtained (Table 6.22) show that the presence of microorganisms
during the adsorption of both TCs decreases the adsorption capacity of the activated
carbon and reduces the adsorbate-adsorbent relative affinity values (Kqm) by around
80% and 30% for TC and CTC, respectively. This behavior may be due to two
factors: (i) an increase in electrostatic repulsions between the ionized TC fraction
and the activated carbon surface, which are both negatively charged at the study pH,
and (ii) the appearance of exopolymers released by bacteria outside the cell in the
presence of the TC (Fig. 6.29c). These exopolymers are mainly formed by lipids
and carbohydrates (Beech et al. 1999; Sheng et al. 2005) which form a biofilm (see
Fig. 6.29) that reduces the activated carbon surface area accessible to the TC
molecules and hence the amount adsorbed.
In the case of nitroimidazoles, Fig. 6.30 depicts the adsorption/biosorption iso-
therms of DMZ and RNZ on carbon S in the presence and absence of microorgan-
isms. Application of Langmuir’s equation to these isotherms (Table 6.23) showed,
unlike what was found in the case of TCs, that the presence of microorganisms
during the adsorption of these nitroimidazoles increases the adsorption capacity of
carbon S by 22% and decreased the adsorbate-adsorbent relative affinity values
(Kqm) by around 60%. These results suggest that the presence of bacteria produces a
change in the main interactions responsible for the adsorption and may therefore
affect the adsorption mechanism. Nitroimidazole biodegradation kinetics by the
bacteria under study were investigated before obtaining the biosorption isotherms,
observing no biodegradation of these compounds under the experimental conditions
used. Thus, results shown in Fig. 6.30 and Table 6.23 may be explained by the
increase in the hydrophobicity of the activated carbon surface, which is known to
considerably favor the adsorption process. All these results indicate that the effect
of the presence of microorganisms on the adsorption process depends on the
adsorbate-adsorbent system.
Fig. 6.28 Adsorption (a)

isotherms of TC (a) and
500
CTC (b) on carbon M in the
presence (♦, ~) and absence
(e, △) of bacteria. pH ¼ 7, 400
T ¼ 298 K. [M] ¼ 1 g/L
qe (mg/g)
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Ceq (mg/L)
(b)
350
300
250
qe (mg/g)
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400
Ceq (mg/L)
Table 6.22 Results of applying Langmuir’s equation on TC and CTC adsorption isotherms of M
carbon in the presence and absence of microorganisms (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013a)
With bacteria Without bacteria
qm Kqm qm Kqm
Tetracycline (mg/g) (L/g) (mg/g) (L/g)
TC 353.33 24.36 471.18 142.17
OTC 261.42 6.15 309.99 10.22
Fig. 6.29 SEM images of

carbon M before and after
TC biosorption.
(a) Carbon M, (b) carbon
M þ bacteria, (c) carbon
M þ bacteria þ TC (Rivera-
Utrilla et al. 2013a)
Fig. 6.30 Adsorption (a)

isotherms of DMZ (a) and 2.5
RNZ (b) in the presence (□)
and absence (△) of
microorganisms on carbon 2.0
S. pH ¼ 7, T ¼ 298 K
(Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2009)
qe (mmol/g)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5
Ceq (mmol/L)
(b)
2.5
2.0
qe (mmol/g)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Ceq (mmol/L)
Table 6.23 Results obtained by applying Langmuir’s equation to the adsorption isotherms of
DMZ and RNZ on carbon S in the presence and absence of microorganisms (Rivera-Utrilla et al.
2009)
DMZ RNZ
With bacteria Without bacteria With bacteria Without bacteria
qm Kqm qm Kqm qm Kqm qm Kqm
(mmol/g) (L/g) (mmol/g) (L/g) (mmol/g) (L/g) (mmol/g) (L/g)
2.44 31.06 1.99 87.24 2.42 44.25 1.97 104.11
6.5 Adsorption of Tetracyclines and Nitroimidazoles

on Sludge-Derived Materials and Activated Carbons
in Dynamic Regime. Determination
of the Breakthrough Curves and Characteristics
of the Adsorbent Columns
TC and TNZ adsorption was also studied in dynamic regime, constantly passing a
TC (20 mg/L) or TNZ (100 mg/L) solution through adsorbent columns (2 g, height
7 cm, diameter 1 cm, packing density 0.36 g/cm3) at a flow of 1.5 mL/min and
obtaining both the bed breakthrough curves up to 0.9 breakthrough and the bed
characteristics. Fig. 6.31 shows the column breakthrough curves for TC adsorption
on CR2, CH, CAR, and M samples. The adsorbent sample obtained from sludge in
the presence of a phenolic resin (CR2) allows a larger volume of TC-contaminated
water to be treated in comparison to the samples obtained in the presence of humic
acid (CH) or clayey soil (CAR). Nevertheless, the water volume treated by the
commercial activated carbon M sample is around threefold higher than the volume
treated by sample CR2.
Based on the column breakthrough curves, a previously reported method
(Zogorski and Faust 1977; Ferro-Garcı́a et al. 1990) was used to determine the
column characteristics listed in Table 6.24, showing that the TC amount adsorbed at
the breakthrough point (q0.02) was very low, especially in sludge-derived samples.
Regardless of the adsorbent sample considered, the amount adsorbed at column
breakthrough point (q0.02) was lower than the adsorption capacity observed in static
regime (Tables 6.20 and 6.21). These results indicate that adsorption is much less
effective in dynamic than static regime due to problems of TC diffusion into the
adsorbent pores and the shorter contact time between adsorbate and adsorbent.
Fig. 6.31 Breakthrough 1.0

curves for TC adsorption on
sludge-derived adsorbents
and activated carbon M. (♦), 0.8
M; (◊), CR2; (Δ), CAR;
(□), CH. T ¼ 25 C,
[TC]/[TC]0
pH ¼ 7, [TC]0 ¼ 20 mg/L 0.6

0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Volume (L)
Table 6.24 Characteristics q0.02 q0.80 V0.02 HMTZ Gu

of the TC adsorption columns Adsorbent (mg/g) (mg/g) (L) Φ (cm) (%)
CH 0.7 21 0.07 0.32 18.59 19.93
CR2 7.5 28 0.75 0.54 8.01 39.24
CAR 2.0 29 0.21 0.43 12.80 20.55
M 21.0 60 2.10 0.65 6.53 44.97
X0.02 is the amount of TC adsorbed at column breakthrough point.
X0.80 is the amount adsorbed on the column when TC concentra-
tion in the effluent is 80% of the initial concentration. V0.02 is the
volume treated at column breakthrough point. Φ is the fractional
capacity of the mass transference zone. HMTZ is the height of the
mass transference zone. Gu is the grade of utility of the column
Table 6.25 Characteristics of carbon M columns in TC adsorption as a function of the type of

water used (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2013a)
q0.02 q0.80 V0.02 HMTZ Gu
Water (mg/g) (mg/g) (L) Φ (cm) (%)
Ultrapure 21 60 2.10 0.65 6.53 44.97
Surface 5 49 0.50 0.45 10.87 22.03
Groundwater 15 51 1.50 0.50 8.26 37.46
Wastewater 2 26 0.20 0.41 11.91 19.43
The amount of TC adsorbed at the column breakthrough point was higher for the
adsorbent bound with phenolic resin than for the other samples obtained with
different binding agents. Moreover, the height of the mass transference zone of
this CR2 column was smaller and its utility grade (Gu) higher, indicating that it is
the most effective sludge sample column to remove TC from water. Nevertheless,
these sludge-derived materials are not appropriate for column adsorption processes,
mainly because of their low compaction capacity. Hence, according to these results,
these materials can mainly be used for adsorption in static regime (conventional
batch technique).
TC adsorption in dynamic regime was also studied using columns of activated
carbon M and water with different chemical compositions, in an attempt to repro-
duce as far as possible the real hypothetic situation by using surface water,
groundwater, and wastewater. Table 6.25 shows the column characteristics
obtained from the corresponding breakthrough curves. We highlight the differences
in column characteristics as a function of the type of water used. As shown in
Table 6.25, V0.02, q0.02, and the Gu values were lower in surface water and,
especially, wastewater than in ultrapure water, and the height of the mass transfer-
ence zone was greater. This is because the adsorbent porosity is partially blocked by
adsorption of the organic matter present in natural waters, reducing the surface area
available for TC molecule adsorption and markedly decreasing the treatment
effectiveness. This reduction in effectiveness is accentuated by competition
between the organic matter and the TC molecules for adsorbent surface adsorption
sites, in agreement with previous reports (Carter et al. 1992; Kilduff and Wigton
1999).
Figure 6.32 depicts the breakthrough curves for TNZ adsorption on columns of
activated carbon M in different types of water. In all types of water, the amount
adsorbed at the breakthrough point of the column (q0.02) was lower than the amount
adsorbed in static regime. As mentioned above, this less effective adsorption in
dynamic versus static regime can be attributed to problems of TNZ diffusion to the
interior of carbon pores. The differences in the values of the column characteristics
as a function of the chemical composition of the different waters were analyzed.
Unlike the results obtained for tetracycline, V0.02 and q0.02 values and the degree of
utility of the column (Gu) were higher in surface water and especially in ground-
water than in ultrapure water (Table 6.26), and the height of the mass transference
zone was lower in the former waters, indicating an increase in the effectiveness of
the treatment. Two effects may explain these findings: (i) lower solubility of
nitroimidazoles in surface and groundwater as a consequence of their higher
alkalinity and salinity, since nonpolar organic compounds are known to markedly
decrease their solubility in the presence of salts (West and Harwell 1992; Flaming
et al. 2003), explaining the increase in V0.02, q0.02, and Gu, and (ii) the presence of
Ca2+ ions may modify the adsorption of organic molecules on activated carbon,
1.0
0.8
0.10
[TNZ]/[TNZ]o
0.6
0.08
0.06
0.4
0.04
0.02
0.2
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000
0.0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Effluent volume (mL)
Fig. 6.32 Breakthrough curves of TNZ on carbon M as a function of the type of water used. (e),
ultrapure water; (□), surface; (△), groundwater; (○), wastewater. T ¼ 298 K. [nitroimidazole]o ¼
100 mg/L (Rivera-Utrilla et al. 2009)
Table 6.26 Characteristics q0.02 V0.02 HMTZ Gu

of carbon M columns in the Water (mmol/g) (mL) Φ (cm) (%)
adsorption of TNZ as a
Ultrapure 0.35 1377 0.636 6.044 41.14
function of the type of water
used (Rivera-Utrilla et al. Surface 0.64 2693 0.660 4.341 56.13
2009) Groundwater 0.73 2870 0.591 4.697 57.50
Waste 0.17 700 0.694 7.670 15.77
since this ion can react as a co-adsorbate by creating a bridge between the structure
of activated carbon and adsorbed molecules (Lafrance and Mazet 1989; Cannon
et al. 1994).
Markedly lower V0.02, q0.02, and Gu values and a higher HMTZ value were
obtained for TNZ adsorption in wastewaters, because adsorption of dissolved
organic matter on carbon surface would reduce the surface area available for the
adsorption of TNZ molecules. The effectiveness of treatment would be reduced by
the competition between dissolved organic matter and TNZ molecules for active
sites on the activated carbon, as previously reported (Carter et al. 1992; Kilduff and
Wigton 1999). Similar values for the fractional capacity of the mass transference
zone (Φ) were observed in all water samples studied (Table 6.26).
The results presented in Table 6.26 and Fig. 6.32 are very interesting from an
application point of view. Thus, according to the results obtained, nitroimidazoles
could be efficiently removed from surface and groundwater by adsorption on
activated carbon; however, due to the high concentration of organic carbon
dissolved in wastewater, activated carbon adsorption would not be the best tech-
nological alternative to remove nitroimidazoles from wastewater.
6.6 Conclusions
Sludge chemical activation considerably increases the adsorption capacity of

sludge for tetracyclines. The addition of a binding agent (humic acid, phenolic
resin, or clayey soil) before chemical activation of the material slightly reduces this
adsorption capacity but improves its granulometry and allows the production of
large granules, enhancing their technological applicability and, therefore, their
commercialization. The capacity of all sludge adsorbents to adsorb tetracyclines
is much higher than that of a commercial activated carbon (Merck) widely used in
water treatment.
Petroleum coke was chemically activated with KOH. The activation process
considerably develops the micro-, meso-, and macroporosity of the raw material.
The surface chemical nature of the original coke was also modified by the activation
process, increasing its surface basicity.
Experimental data for TC concentration decay curves on the treatment sludge-
derived adsorbents are adequately interpreted by the kinetic and diffusion models
applied. The pseudo first-order kinetic model provides the best interpretation of TC
adsorption kinetics on all adsorbents under study, and their rate constants vary in a
linear manner with their macro- and mesopore volumes and decrease with the
carboxylic group content. The intraparticle diffusion model demonstrated that the
TC adsorption rate on all adsorbents is controlled by intraparticle diffusion. Pore
volume diffusion represents more than 80% of the total intraparticle diffusion,
indicating that surface diffusion does not play a major role in TC diffusion on
these adsorbents.
The concentration decay data of the TCs during the adsorption was interpreted
quite well using the PVSDM model, and it was demonstrated that the pore volume
diffusion and surface diffusion are important in the adsorption rate of the TCS. The
contribution of surface diffusion is directly related to the adsorption capacity of the
activated carbons. In general, the higher the adsorption capacity, the greater is the
contribution of surface diffusion.
The adsorption rates of the nitroimidazoles DMZ, MNZ, RNZ, or TNZ on
activated carbons were better interpreted by a pseudo-first-order model or a pseudo-
second-order model depending on the adsorbate-adsorbent system studied. The
adsorption rate of the nitroimidazoles decreases in the order
MNZ > DMZ > RNZ > TNZ. Therefore, in the case of MNZ, molecular size
does not appear to be a determining factor in the adsorption rate. The adsorption
rate of nitroimidazoles is related to the decrease in oxygen percentage of activated
carbons and, therefore, their increase in hydrophobicity. Thus, hydrophobic inter-
actions appear to favor the kinetics of the adsorption process. A diffusional model
was applied that combines external mass transfer and intraparticle diffusion,
achieving an adequate fit to the experimental data in the majority of the systems
studied.
The TC adsorption capacity of the sludge-derived materials is very high
(512–672 mg/g) and greater than that of the commercial activated carbons studied,
attributable to the strong tendency of TCs to form complex ions with some of the
metal ions in these materials.
The commercial activated carbons studied have a high TC adsorption capacity
(65–471 mg/g). At the study pH (pH 4–5), the capacity of carbons to adsorb TCs is
directly related to the density of delocalized π electrons in both the graphene layers
of the carbon and the TC aromatic ring.
The solution pH and the presence of electrolytes had a major influence on TC
adsorption on the commercial activated carbons, indicating that electrostatic
adsorbent-adsorbate interactions also play an important role in TC adsorption at
pH values that produce TC deprotonation. However, in the case of nitroimidazoles,
the pH of the medium and the concentration of the electrolyte present do not have a
major effect on the adsorption of these compounds on activated carbon, indicating
that adsorbent-adsorbate electrostatic interactions do not play an important role in
these adsorption processes.
The presence of bacteria in solution reduced TC adsorption/biosorption on the
commercial activated carbons, weakening interactions between the adsorbate and
the biofilm formed on the carbon surface. These results are explained by the
formation of exopolymers released by bacteria in the presence of
TC. Nitroimidazoles are not degraded by the microorganisms used in the biological
treatment stage of a wastewater treatment plant. However, the presence of these
microorganisms during the adsorption of these compounds increases their adsorp-
tion/biosorption on the activated carbon, although interactions between adsorbate
and carbon surface are weakened.
TC adsorption on both sludge-derived materials and activated carbons was
markedly lower in dynamic versus static regime, attributable to problems of TC
diffusion into the adsorbent pores and the shorter contact time between adsorbent
and adsorbate in the case of dynamic regime. The extend of TC adsorption was
markedly lower in natural waters (surface water, groundwater, and wastewater)
than in ultrapure water, which may be explained by the reduced adsorbent surface
area available for TC adsorption due to the adsorption of dissolved organic matter
in these type of water. Nevertheless, in the case of nitroimidazoles, results obtained
in dynamic regime show that the adsorption capacity of the activated carbon was
markedly higher in surface and groundwater than in ultrapure water and urban
wastewaters.
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Chapter 7
Biosorption of Copper by Saccharomyces
cerevisiae: From Biomass Characterization
to Process Development
Pietro Altimari, Fabrizio Di Caprio, and Francesca Pagnanelli
Abstract Biosorption offers a competitive technological solution to the removal of

heavy metals from wastewaters. Nevertheless, large-scale application of
biosorption is still hindered by the absence of systematic methodologies for product
and process design. Crucial role is played by the development of models that can
describe the effect of operating conditions on biosorption equilibrium and kinetics
and thus drive the rational process design. In this contribution, biosorption of
copper onto a wild-type strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is analyzed. The
analysis is structured in a way that allows reviewing and discussing the main stages
of process development. Type and concentration of the biomass active sites were
determined by fitting mechanistic equilibrium models accounting for the distribu-
tion of the site protonation constants to potentiometric titration data. Equilibrium
biosorption tests were performed to determine the dependence of the biosorption
capacity on pH (3 and 5) and metal liquid concentration (0–120 ppm). The
immobilization of biomass by calcium alginate was performed to produce compos-
ite sorbent beads with different biomass contents. An experimental analysis was
performed to characterize the kinetics and the equilibrium of copper biosorption
onto the produced beads. These data were exploited to identify kinetic and equi-
librium models describing the competitive biosorption of protons and copper ions
onto the beads. A mathematical model was derived to describe the transport of
copper and protons in a biosorption column packed by the produced beads. The
column mathematical model was validated by recourse to the experimental data
derived by the operation of lab-scale packed column (length 15 cm, diameter
1.7 cm).
Keywords Biosorption • Copper • Biomass
P. Altimari (*) • F. Di Caprio • F. Pagnanelli

Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected];
[email protected]

206 P. Altimari et al.
Contents
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.2 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.1 Yeast Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.2 Potentiometric Titration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.3 Immobilization into Calcium Alginate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.4 Batch Biosorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.2.5 Fixed-Bed Biosorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.3.1 Identification of the Biomass Active Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.3.2 Biosorption by Calcium Alginate Beads Under Batch Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.3.3 Biosorption Under Fixed-Bed Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.1 Introduction
The release to the environment of heavy metals by anthropogenic activities poses a

severe environmental concern to the health and development of living organisms.
Numerous industrial activities are accompanied by the release to the environment
of heavy metals that accumulate in groundwater and surface water. The methodol-
ogies commonly implemented to remove heavy metals from water include chem-
ical precipitation, reverse osmosis, evaporation, and ion exchange by resins. The
extended application of these methodologies is frequently hindered by economic
and technical limits. Economic limits can be determined by elevated energy
consumption and/or by the elevated costs of employed materials and equipment,
while technical limits are frequently determined by the impossibility to lower the
heavy metal concentration below the threshold imposed by current regulation. For
example, most of the aforementioned methodologies cannot allow achieving heavy
metal concentration values around 10–100 ppm, which is frequently required by
environmental regulation.
In this framework, a competitive technological solution is represented by
biosorption (Wang and Chen 2009). This technique relies on the property of certain
biomolecules (or types of biomass) to bind and concentrate selected ions or other
molecules from aqueous solutions. Examples of biomasses employed in the
removal of heavy metals from water include bacteria, algae, fungi, and yeasts
(Davis et al. 2003; Volesky 2007; Ahluwalia and Goyal 2007; Wang and Chen
2009). The main advantages of biosorption are the application of an inexpensive
and biodegradable adsorbing material and the achievement of elevated removal
efficiency at low metal concentrations (0–100 ppm) (Ahluwalia and Goyal 2007;
Wang and Chen 2009).
Numerous reviews have been reported over the past two decades that have
thoroughly discussed the potential of different biomasses to bind and thus remove
heavy metals from wastewaters. Despite the considerable interest raised by the
scientific community toward biosorption, the industrial application of this
7 Biosorption of Copper by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. . . 207
technology is still hindered by the absence of a systematic and unified framework

for process design and development. Crucial role is played by the development of
mathematical models that can describe the effect of operating conditions on
biosorption equilibrium and kinetics and thus drive the rational process design.
The challenging task is represented by the development of mathematical models
that can effectively describe the biosorption mechanisms enabled by the complex
biochemistry of employed matrices and, at the same time, retaining the simplicity
required to smoothly driving process development from lab-scale research to plant
design and operation. Nevertheless, the study of biosorption has frequently
included the recourse to mathematical representations developed through the anal-
ysis of adsorption by ion exchange resins or activated carbons (Wang and Chen
2006; Goldberg et al. 2007; Ghorbani et al. 2008; Padmavathy 2008; Cojocaru et al.
2009). This approach cannot account for biosorption mechanisms that are made
possible by the complex chemistry of biomasses and are absent in synthetic
adsorbing materials. For example, the central role played by protons in biosorption
is neglected by the most popular mathematical description of the biosorption
equilibrium data, the Langmuir model (Schiewer and Volesky 1995). A more
effective mathematical representation of biosorption can be derived through anal-
ysis of the interaction between biomass functional groups and ions in solution
(Schiewer and Volesky 1995; Schiewer and Wong 2000; Pagnanelli 2011).
Additional obstacles hindering the large-scale application of biosorption are
imposed by the small particle size and low mechanical strength of employed
biomasses. The application of freely suspended biomasses may cause clogging
and make impractical biomass-effluent separation following heavy metal
biosorption. Immobilization of biomasses into polymeric beads with controlled
size and enhanced mechanical stability can overcome this difficulty (Veglio and
Beolchini 1997). The immobilization matrix does not only determine the mechan-
ical stability of the produced biosorbent but can also participate into the biosorption
process by binding targeted heavy metal ions. Further, the immobilization process
must be performed in a way that can reduce the transport resistance to the
immobilized biomass and minimize the amount of polymeric material employed
to attain satisfactory stability. The latter requirement is imposed by the need to
minimize the cost of polymeric material employed in the immobilization.
In this contribution, we analyze the biosorption of copper ion by a wild-type
strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The analysis is structured in a way that allows
discussing the main stages of process development. Type and concentration of the
biomass active sites were determined by fitting mechanistic equilibrium models
accounting for the distribution of the site protonation constants to potentiometric
titration data. Equilibrium biosorption tests were performed to determine the
dependence of the biosorption capacity on pH (3 and 5) and metal liquid concen-
tration (0–120 ppm). The immobilization of biomass by calcium alginate was
performed to produce composite sorbent beads with different biomass contents.
An experimental analysis was performed to characterize the kinetics and the
equilibrium of copper biosorption onto the produced beads. These data were
exploited to identify kinetic and equilibrium models describing the competitive
biosorption of protons and copper ions onto the beads. A mathematical model was
derived to describe the transport of copper and protons in a biosorption column
packed by the produced beads. The column mathematical model was validated by
recourse to the experimental data derived by the operation of lab-scale packed
column (length 15 cm, diameter 1.7 cm). Numerical simulations were performed
providing guidelines for the optimal column design and operation.
7.2 Materials and Methods
7.2.1 Yeast Strain
The following S. cerevisiae strains, referred in the following to as wild type, were
used in this study: BY4741 (MATa, met15Δ0, his3Δ0, leu2Δ0, ura3Δ0). The cells
were grown on YPD (1% peptone, 1% yeast extract, 2% glucose, DIFCO) at 28 C
until reaching late exponential phase. Following growth, cells were centrifuged and
rinsed twice with distilled water to remove residual traces of the culture medium.
The obtained pellet was incubated at 65 C for drying.
7.2.2 Potentiometric Titration
In potentiometric titrations, 1 g of dry biomass was suspended in 50 mL of NaNO3

solution. Experiments were performed at NaNO3 concentrations equal to 0.1 M and
1 M. In any performed test, the initial pH of the suspension was corrected to a value
around 2–2.5 by using HCl 0.1 N. pH was measured by a Eutech pH 700. NaOH
0.1 M was used as titrant solution and was added to the suspension through a
burette. After the addition of any titrant solution volume, pH was measured.
Titration was ended when reaching pH ¼ 10.
7.2.3 Immobilization into Calcium Alginate
Beads of calcium alginate with immobilized biomass (hereafter referred to as

composite beads) were obtained by dropping a biomass suspension (biomass
concentration 0.1 g/mL) with sodium alginate (3% w/v) into a solution of CaCl2
(20% w/w). The sodium alginate suspension with suspended biomass was with-
drawn and pumped through a flexible plastic tube (0.3 mm diameter) at flow rate
1.56 mL/min. For this purpose, a peristaltic pump was employed. The same
methodology was implemented to prepare the beads of calcium alginate without
biomass. In this latter case, a sodium alginate solution (3% w/v) was dropped into
CaCl2 (20% w/w) solution.
7.2.4 Batch Biosorption
Any batch test was performed under magnetic stirring with 0.35 g of beads
suspended in 80 mL of copper solution. To characterize the kinetics of biosorption,
an initial copper concentration of 50 mg/L was selected. The initial pH was 4. In
these experiments, suspension samples were withdrawn at prescribed time intervals
and were analyzed to determine the liquid copper concentration. The copper
concentration in the beads is, by virtue of mass balance, equal to
qM ¼ (C0 CM)V/m, where C0 and CM are the initial and the current liquid
concentrations of copper, respectively, V is the solution volume, and m is the
weight of suspended beads.
Biosorption isotherms were determined by performing batch tests with initial
copper concentration ranging between 10 and 120 mg/L at pH 3 and 5. For this
purpose, the pH was periodically corrected during the test by addition of NaOH or
HCl. The evolution of liquid copper concentration during biosorption was moni-
tored in preliminary experiments indicating that a time interval equal to 6 h was
largely sufficient to reach equilibrium. Samples were therefore withdrawn at about
7 and 8 h and were analyzed to determine the equilibrium liquid copper concen-
tration CM and, thus, derive by mass balance the concentration of copper in the
beads.
To determine the liquid copper concentration, withdrawn suspension samples
were centrifuged, and the supernatant was analyzed by atomic adsorption (analytic
Jena contra 300).
7.2.5 Fixed-Bed Biosorption
The produced beads were stacked into a glass column (17 mm diameter). The
copper solution was pumped upward through the column to ensure the uniform
filling of the void volume fraction. Copper concentration and pH of the pumped
solution were 40 mg/L and 3, respectively. Before any experiment, beads were
maintained about 1 h in a magnetically stirred water solution of HCl at pH ¼ 4. This
pH value was selected greater than the pH of the solution fed to the column to
enhance the variation of the pH at the outlet of the column. Contacting beads
previously suspended in a solution at pH ¼ 4 with a solution at pH ¼ 3 can enhance
the transfer of protons from liquid to solid and thus enable the formation of a proton
concentration front travelling through the column. This is essential to estimate
reliably the parameters that govern the transport of protons through the column
(interphase mass transport coefficient, dispersion coefficient).
Experiments were performed at flow rate ranging between 4 and 18 mL/min and
bed height of 15 cm. The temperature of the pumped copper solution was 25 C.
The void fraction (ε) of the bed was estimated as ε ¼ VF/VB, VF, and VB demoting
the volume required to fill the bed and the apparent volume of the bed, respectively.
7.3 Results
7.3.1 Identification of the Biomass Active Sites
Electric charges can form at the cell wall by dissociation or protonation of weakly
acidic and basic groups. This allows the biomass to bind heavy metal ions present in
solution (Wang 2002; Kordialik-Bogacka 2011). Titration experiments were
performed to determine the evolution of the net superficial charge QH with pH.
The following expression, derived by imposing electroneutrality, was employed to
determine QH from the evolution of pH observed during titration:

½Naþ þ ½Hþ ½OH ½Cl NO V
QH ¼ 3
ð7:1Þ
m
where m is the mass of suspended biomass and V is the suspension volume.

The evolution of the QH with pH is displayed in Fig. 7.1a. QH is positive at low
pH values and monotonically decreases as the pH is increased. Particularly, nega-
tive QH values are found at pH values lower than 6.3. This evolution can be
explained by the high concentration of protonated groups at low pH values and
by the progressive deprotonation of such groups induced by the increase in pH.
Analysis of variance with α ¼ 0.05 was conducted to evaluate the influence of
different NaNO3 concentrations in the potentiometric titration tests. No statistically
significant difference was found as the NaNO3 concentration was varied in the
examined range.
Titration data displayed in Fig. 7.1a can be analyzed to identify the biomass
active sites that can bind the heavy metals and thus enable biosorption. This
analysis relies on the formulation of mechanistic equilibrium models that can
describe the evolution of QH with pH. Any of such models is completely deter-
mined by the protonation reactions of the active sites that contribute to biosorption.
The identification of the active sites can thus be performed as follows:
Fig. 7.1 Evolution of the net charge QH (a) and of the derivative dQH/dpH (b) with pH (empty
circles and solid lines describe experimental values and model predictions, respectively)
– Identifying candidate reaction schemes that can justify the recorded evolution of
QH with pH
– For any identified reaction scheme, formulating a mechanistic model to describe
the evolution of QH with pH
– Comparing the abilities of the different formulated models to reproduce exper-
imental titration data
The identification of the candidate reaction schemes requires preliminarily
analyzing the biochemistry of the cell wall. The main groups present on the outer
yeast surface are carboxylic, phosphoric, phosphodiesteric, hydroxyl, amine, and
sulfide groups (Lesage and Bussey 2006; Di Caprio et al. 2014). Additional
information about the candidate reaction schemes can be derived by analyzing
the evolution of the derivative dQH/dpH with pH. Any peak appearing in the
diagram dQH/dpH versus pH identifies a local maximum of buffering capacity
and occurs when the pH equals the pKa of an active site. Accordingly, the peaks
allow identifying the protonation constants Ka of the active sites involved in
biosorption (Pagnanelli 2011; Di Caprio et al. 2014, 2016). The evolution of
dQH/dpH with pH is displayed in Fig. 7.1b. Two distinct peaks are found which
correspond to pKa values around 3.5 and 10. Reaction schemes including two
protonation reactions can therefore be considered to reproduce titration data.
In accordance with the illustrated characterization of the cell wall biochemistry,
carboxylic, phosphoric, phosphodiesteric, hydroxyl, and amine groups were con-
sidered as candidate functional groups determining acid-base properties. Two
different reaction schemes were considered in our study, each of them including,
in accordance with the analysis of dQH/dpH versus pH, two protonation reactions.
The two reaction schemes are described in Table 7.1. For each scheme, the sites that
can be involved in any protonation reaction are indicated. In reaction scheme A,
variations in the net superficial charge QH with pH are attributed to the dissociation
of carboxylic, phosphoric, and phosphodiesteric groups in the range pH < 4 and to
the dissociation of amine groups in the range pH > 8. Dissociations of the hydroxyl
Table 7.1 Candidate reaction schemes and corresponding mathematical models describing the
dependence of net superficial charge QH on pH. For each reaction, the expected range of pKa
values derived from literature data is reported
Reaction
Model scheme Site chemistry pKa QH(pH)
A S þ
1 þH $ S1 H S1: carboxylic, phospho- 0.2–6 S1 tot
m þ
ric or phosphodiesteric 1 þ ðKH1 ½Hþ Þ 1
S2 tot ðKH2 ½Hþ Þ 2
m
S2+H+ $ S2H+ S2: amine 8–11
þ þ m2
1 þ ðKH2 ½H Þ
S1+H+ $ S1H+ <1 S1 tot ðKH1 ½Hþ Þ 1
m
B S1: hydroxyla
S þ >11 þ m1 þ
2 þH $ S2 H S2: hydroxylb 1 þ ðKH1 ½H Þ
S2 tot

1 þ ðKH2 ½Hþ Þ 2
m
Reaction: R-OH + H + $ R-OH2+

a
Reaction: R-O- + H + $ R-OH

b
group are considered responsible for the variation of QH at both pH < 4 and pH > 8
in the formulation of the reaction scheme B. This latter possibility was considered
because of the large concentration of hydroxyl group found in cell wall (Lesage and
Bussey 2006). A range of possible pKa values can thus be associated to any reaction
based on literature data (Ahluwalia and Goyal 2007; Di Caprio et al. 2014, 2016).
We note that reactions are formulated in Table 7.1 as site protonation reactions and
not dissociation of protonated sites. Accordingly, for any reaction, pKa equals
logKH, KH being the reaction equilibrium constant, also referred to as affinity
constant for protons.
The second step of the illustrated procedure is to derive a mathematical model
describing the evolution of QH with pH for any selected reaction scheme. This
entails solving for any scheme the algebraic system including reaction equilibrium
and site balance equations. The models derived by this approach were modified in
the present study to describe surface heterogeneity. Surface heterogeneity imposes
that identical functional groups can exhibit different affinity values for ionic species
in solution depending on their chemical and physical surroundings. A range of
affinity constants, rather than a fixed affinity constant value, is therefore found for
any functional group. This was taken into account by implementation of the
methodology illustrated in (Pagnanelli 2011). The expressions of the dependence
of the net charge QH on [H+] obtained by this approach with the two reaction
schemes are reported in Table 7.1. Heterogeneity is described by the introduction of
the coefficients mi (0 < mi < 1, i ¼ 1, 2). A value mi ¼ 1 corresponds to the case that
all the functional groups of type i exhibit identical affinity constant and, hence,
dissociate around the same pH value. As mi is decreased, a broader range of affinity
constants for the group is found, and acid dissociation takes place over a larger pH
range.
The third step of the procedure is to compare the abilities of the formulated
models to describe titration data. For this purpose, the two derived models were
fitted to titration data displayed in Fig. 7.1. The estimated model parameters were
the total concentrations Si,tot, the affinity constants, and the heterogeneity factors mi
of the active sites. Satisfactory fitting of titration data was achieved with both
models A and B. The residuals (squared differences between experimental and
predicted QH values) attained with the optimal parameter values were, however,
much greater in the application of model B than in the application of model
A. Further, no reliable estimation could be attained for the protonation constants
of the site S2 in case of application of model B. This statistical analysis indicates
that the model A should be implemented to describe proton binding by the biomass.
Accordingly, it can be concluded that biosorption is determined by the dissociation/
protonation of carboxylic, phosphoric, and phosphodiesteric groups in the range
pH < 4 by the dissociation/protonation of amine groups in the range pH > 8.
The optimal parameters estimated by nonlinear regression of titration data with
model A are reported in Table 7.2. The evolutions of QH and dQH/dpH with pH
predicted by the model with the optimal parameters are displayed in Fig. 7.1a, b,
respectively, along with experimental titration data.
Table 7.2 Optimal Average Δ

parameter values and relative
S1,tot (mol/g) 0.0022 0.0001
confidence intervals
determined for the model A S2,tot (mol/g) 0.0019 0.0001
(Table 7.1) logKH1 3.6 0.1
logKH2 10.2 0.1
m1 0.35 0.03
m2 0.59 0.03
8e-1 3e-1
(a) (b)
6e-1
2e-1
qM (mmol/g)
qM (mmol/g)
4e-1
1e-1
2e-1
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
CM (mmol/L) CM (mmol/L)
Fig. 7.2 Equilibrium isotherms found with calcium alginate (a) and composite beads (b) at
different pH values. Empty circles and squares describe experimental values found at pH ¼ 3
and pH ¼ 5, respectively. Solid and dashed lines describe the predictions of Eqs. (7.4) and (7.5)
with optimal parameter values reported in Table 7.3
7.3.2 Biosorption by Calcium Alginate Beads Under Batch

Operation
7.3.2.1 Biosorption Isotherms
Biosorption experiments were performed with the produced beads under batch
operation. Our analysis was aimed at developing a model that describes the
uptake/release of protons and metal ions by the beads. For this purpose, equilibrium
isotherms were derived at pH values 3 and 5.
Equilibrium data are displayed in Fig. 7.2a, b for calcium alginate beads and
composite beads, respectively. The copper concentration in the composite beads is
in Fig. 7.2b defined as the mass of copper divided by the mass of beads, which is the
sum of the masses of calcium alginate and of biomass. In accordance with Fig. 7.2,
the bead biosorption capacity increases with pH at any copper liquid concentration
CM. This can be explained by the increase in the concentration of negatively
charged active sites with pH. Further, reported data indicate that the biosorption
capacity of calcium alginate beads (Fig. 7.2a) is at any CM and pH larger than the
biosorption capacity of composite beads (Fig. 7.2b). This result, which is deter-
mined by the reduced biosorption capacity of the yeast compared to calcium
alginate, may discourage the application of composite beads and suggest the
application of beads composed of only calcium alginate. This analysis would
neglect, however, that the application of calcium alginate alone increases
processing costs. Unlike calcium alginate, the yeast can be obtained at zero or
even at negative cost (in case it is would be wasted). This latter advantage becomes
evident if the biosorption capacity of composite beads is computed by dividing the
mass of copper contained in the beads by the amount of calcium alginate that
composes the beads and not by the mass of the beads as in Fig. 7.1b. With this
evaluation, the biosorption capacity of the composite beads becomes larger than the
biosorption capacity of beads composed of only calcium alginate at any pH and
concentration CM. To verify it, it can be noted that beads with immobilized biomass
contain about 18% w/w of calcium alginate (dry basis). This implies that, for
composite beads, the mass of copper divided by the mass of calcium alginate is
about five times larger than the mass of copper divided by the mass of beads. In
industrial practice, a trade-off must be found between the reduction in the
biosorbent cost and the increased biosorption capacity that can be attained by
increasing biomass and calcium alginate fractions, respectively.
In accordance with the analysis illustrated in Sect. 7.3.1, two active sites S1 and
S2 are responsible for biosorption by the selected yeast. The pKa of the active site
S2, which is representative of amine group, is equal to 10.3, implying that the site S2
cannot appreciably contribute to biosorption within the selected pH range 3–5. The
only active site S1 that can contribute to biosorption by the yeast within this latter
pH range is representative of carboxylic, phosphoric, and phosphodiesteric groups.
On the other hand, carboxylic groups also determine biosorption by calcium
alginate. A one-site model can therefore be elaborated to describe the dependence
of the equilibrium copper concentration qM and proton concentration qH in the
beads on the copper liquid concentration CM and solution pH, irrespective of
whether beads composed of only calcium alginate or composite beads are
employed. The model is completely defined by the reaction scheme that describes
the competitive binding of metal ions and protons to the site S1. Different reaction
schemes were analyzed in the present study by modifying the stoichiometry of the
site-metal-binding reaction. For any reaction scheme, analytical expressions were
determined for qM and qH and fitted to equilibrium biosorption data displayed in
Fig. 7.2 to determine equilibrium constant and biosorption capacity (equivalently,
site concentration). The only reaction scheme that could ensure satisfactory fitting
with physically admissible parameters was:
S
1 þCu
2þ
$ S1 Cuþ ð7:2Þ
S
1 þH
þ
$ S1 H ð7:3Þ
By solving the algebraic system including equilibrium and site balance equa-
tions, the following expressions were found for qM and qH:
qmax KM CM
qM ¼ ½S1 Cuþ ¼ ð7:4Þ
1 þ KM CM þKH CH
qmax KH CH
qH ¼ ½S1 H ¼ ð7:5Þ
1 þ KM CM þKH CH
where KM is the equilibrium constant of reaction Eq. (7.2) (affinity of the metal to
site S1) and qmax ¼ S1tot is the maximum biosorption capacity. It must be noted that
the overall concentration S1tot and the affinity constant KH refer to the beads and
thus take, owing to the presence of calcium alginate, values different from those
estimated for freely suspended yeast (Table 7.2). Further, it must be taken into
account that concentration of sites available to metal binding may be different from
the concentration of sites that can bind protons (Di Caprio et al. 2014). This may be
caused by the different mobility of protons and copper ions, which can be enhanced
by the formation of copper complexes, and may lead to a maximum biosorption
capacity of the metal by the yeast lower than that site concentration determined by
analysis of potentiometric titration data.
It is must be remarked that Eq. (7.2) does not fulfil electroneutrality. The
biosorption of the bivalent copper ion by the monovalent group (carboxylic,
phosphodiesteric) may be enabled by the interaction of the bivalent copper with
different groups with delocalized negative charge. Alternatively, Eq. (7.2) could be
explained by the formation of monovalent copper complexes, including, for exam-
ple, CuOH+, which can likely form around pH ¼ 5.
It is important to note that Eq. (7.2) was introduced following the analysis of
alternative metal-binding reactions fulfilling electroneutrality. However, these lat-
ter reactions led to expressions for qM and qH that could not ensure satisfactory
fitting of equilibrium biosorption data.
Fitting Eqs. (7.2) and (7.3) to equilibrium biosorption data allows computing
optimal values for KM, KH, and qmax reported in Table 7.3. Biosorption isotherms
generated by the model with optimal parameter values are compared with experi-
mental equilibrium data in Fig. 7.2. Satisfactory fitting was attained demonstrating
the ability of the developed model to reproduce biosorption equilibrium data.
7.3.2.2 Biosorption Under Batch Operation
Batch experiments were performed with initial pH ¼ 4 and liquid copper concen-
tration C0 ¼ 50 ppm to characterize the kinetics of biosorption by calcium alginate
Table 7.3 Optimal parameter values estimated by fitting Eqs. (7.4) and (7.5) to biosorption
equilibrium data displayed in Fig. 7.2
Composite beads Δ Calcium alginate beads Δ
qmax (mmol/g) 2.2669e01 7.4035e02 1.2015e+00 1.3040e01
KM (L/mmol) 4.7563e+00 4.6473e+00 1.5258e+00 2.9933e01
KH (L/mmol) 2.5624 2.1531 1.2627e+00 1.4141e01
1.00
0.95
0.90
CM/C0
0.85
0.80
0.75
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
t (min)
Fig. 7.3 Biosorption kinetics found under batch operation with calcium alginate and composite
beads. Empty circles and squares describe experimental values found with calcium alginate and
composite beads, respectively. Solid and dashed lines describe the predictions of Eqs. (7.6), (7.7),
(7.8), (7.9), (7.10), (7.11), (7.12), and (7.13) with optimal parameter values reported in Table 7.4
and composite beads. Figure 7.3 displays the evolutions of the ratio CM/C0 recorded
in the experiments performed. The characteristic times required to approach the
equilibrium are around 100 and 300 min for calcium alginate beads and beads with
immobilized biomass, respectively.
Differences between the evolutions of the liquid copper concentration are
determined by differences between the microstructures of the produced beads.
These ultimately influence the transport of copper ions through the beads. Crucial
role is in this framework played by the identification of mathematical models that
can describe the transport of copper ions through the beads. Fitting these models to
biosorption kinetics data can be performed to identify the transport mechanisms
governing metal uptake and thus derive estimates for the main transport parameters.
In the present study, a heterogeneous mathematical model was found to describe
the evolution of metal uptake displayed in Fig. 7.3. Model formulation includes
separate mass balances for copper and protons in the liquid and solid phases that
compose the beads. The following assumptions are adopted in the formulation of
the model:
Beads have spherical geometry, and the concentrations of copper and protons in
the beads are uniform at any radial coordinate r.
The resistance to the transport of copper ions and protons from the bulk of the
liquid to the bead surface can be neglected. The latter assumption can be fulfilled by
ensuring sufficiently vigorous mixing of the bead suspension. In the present study,
we verified that the evolution of the copper concentration does not vary within a
wide range of the agitation rate around the value selected.
– At any time t and radial coordinate r, copper and proton concentrations in the
beads are in equilibrium with the copper and proton concentrations in the liquid.
– The liquid phase is perfectly mixed.
In accordance with these assumptions, mass balance equations for metal ions
and protons can be written as follows:

∂CM ∂qM ðCM Þ 1 ∂ 2 ∂CM
ε þρB ¼ DM 2 r ð7:6Þ
∂t ∂t r ∂r ∂r

∂CH ∂q ðCH Þ 1 ∂ 2 ∂CH
ε þρB H ¼ DM 2 r ð7:7Þ
∂t ∂t r ∂r ∂r

dCMB N4πR DM ∂CM
2
¼ ð7:8Þ
dt V ∂r r¼R

dCHB N4πR2 DH ∂CH
¼ ð7:9Þ
dt V ∂r r¼R
where R is the bead radius, ρB is the bead density, qM and qH are described by
Eqs. (7.4) and (7.5) with CM ¼ CM(r, t), CMB and CHB are the copper and proton
concentrations in the bulk of the liquid, and N is the number of beads in the solution.
Equations (7.6), (7.7), (7.8), and (7.9) must be solved with the following boundary
and initial conditions:

∂CM ∂CH
¼ ¼ 0, t > 0 ð7:10Þ
∂r r¼0 ∂r r¼0
CM ðR; tÞ¼ CMB ðtÞ, CH ðR; tÞ¼ CHB ðtÞ, t>0 ð7:11Þ
pH0
CMB ð0Þ¼ C0 , CH0 ¼ 10 ð7:12Þ
pH1
CM ðr; 0Þ¼ 0, CH ðr; 0Þ¼ 10 ð7:13Þ
where pH 0 is the initial pH of the liquid and pH 1 is the pH of the solution

employed to store the beads prior starting the test. By application of finite differ-
ence techniques, the mathematical model (Eqs. 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12,
and 7.13) was reduced to a set of ordinary differential equations which was
numerically integrated by the software Matlab. The numerical solution was fitted
to transient concentration data displayed in Fig. 7.3 to estimate the diffusion
coefficients DM and DH. The other model parameters were fixed to the following
values: N ¼ 25, ρB ¼ 1.7 kg/L, V ¼ 0.08 L, R ¼ 0.6 mm, pH 0 ¼ 3, pH 1 ¼ 4,
C0 ¼ 0.8 mmol/L, and ε ¼ 0.01. Diffusion coefficient values determined by
nonlinear fitting are reported in Table 7.4.
The evolution of the liquid copper concentration predicted by the model is
included in Fig. 7.3 along with experimental concentration data. Comparison
Table 7.4 Diffusion coefficients estimated by fitting Eqs. (7.6), (7.7), (7.8), (7.9), and (7.10) to
transient concentration data displayed in Fig. 7.3
Composite beads Calcium alginate beads
DM (m2/s) 1.7072e09 +/ 5.3887e10 6.3245e09 +/ 1.9963e09
DH (m2/s) 2.1229e10 +/ 6.6201e10 5.7226e09 +/ 1.1983e09
between predicted and experimental patterns confirms the ability of Eqs. (7.6),
(7.7), (7.8), (7.9), and (7.10) to correctly describe the proton and metal uptake under
batch operation.
7.3.3 Biosorption Under Fixed-Bed Operation
Fixed-bed experiments were performed with the produced beads at different feed-
ing flow rates. The flow rates were selected to evaluate the effect of the liquid
through the column. For this purpose, the column void fraction was preliminarily
evaluated in any experiment by the procedure illustrated in Sect. 2.5, and the liquid
flow rate was imposed equal to vzεbA, with vz, εb, and A denoting the selected
velocity, the column void fraction, and the column section, respectively.
Void fraction and liquid velocity values imposed in any test are reported in
Table 7.5. The velocity was varied from about 18 to 5 cm/min, while the column
void fraction was fixed around 0.3. The evolutions of the dimensionless outlet metal
concentration CM/C0 versus the dimensionless time t/τ, C0 and τ denoting the metal
concentration in the feed (~40 mg/L) and the column residence time, recorded
during the different tests, are displayed in Fig. 7.4. The evolution of outlet metal
concentration and pH recorded in test C was not included in Fig. 7.4 to avoid
multiple overlapping of the displayed curves and thus ensure sufficient clarity.
Increasing the liquid velocity causes the outlet metal concentration to increase
progressively faster. This effect can be attributed to the increase in the ratio
between the characteristic time of interphase mass transport and the residence
time with liquid velocity. In the liquid velocity range 8–18 cm/min, differences
between the evolutions of the dimensionless outlet metal concentration are signif-
icant in the very early stage of the experiment and are progressively reduced as
larger volume liquids are processed by the column. This can be verified by
comparing the evolutions of outlet concentrations found for tests A and B
(Fig. 7.4). The differences between the outlet metal concentrations recorded at
different liquid velocity values become significantly larger when velocity values
below 8 cm/min are selected.
Data displayed in Fig. 7.4 show that the column filled with composite bead
exhibits lower performances compared with the column filled with calcium alginate
beads. This can be verified by comparing the evolutions of the outlet metal
concentration found in tests B and E, which correspond to the application of
calcium alginate and composite beads, respectively, with liquid velocity around
Table 7.5 Column operating conditions and parameter value coefficients estimated by fitting Eqs. (7.6), (7.7), (7.8), (7.9), and (7.10) to transient
concentration and pH data
kM105 kH105 DzM107 DzH106
Test vz (cm/min) εβ (m/s) Δ (m/s) Δ (m2/s) Δ (m2/s) Δ
Calcium alginate beads A 18.1 0.22 7.0 0.6 11.6 4.5 5.2 2.3 1.3 0.4
B 7.8 0.26 5.0 1.0 5.2 1.3 39.4 12 2.7 –
C 6.2 0.32 3.7 2.3 3.6 2.1 1.38 – 0.84 –
7 Biosorption of Copper by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. . .
D 5.3 0.25 – – – – – –
Composite beads E 6.7 0.3 4.7 0.1 17 3.7 2.7 – 1.21 –
219
1.0 (a) 1.0 (b)
0.8
pH/pH0
CM /C0
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.0 0.6
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
t/τ t/τ
Fig. 7.4 Evolution of the outlet metal concentration (a) and pH (b) in fixed-bed experiments.
Empty squares, circles, and triangles correspond to tests A, B, and D detailed in Table 7.5. Filled
circles correspond to test E
7 cm/min. The dimensionless outlet concentration is at any t/τ (equivalently, at any

processed volume of liquid) with calcium alginate greater than with composite
beads.
In order to estimate how the characteristic times of the convection, interphase
mass transport, and dispersion are affected by liquid velocity and by the selected
beads, transient concentration and pH data were fitted to the numerical solution a
heterogeneous column model. The main assumptions behind model formulation
can described as follows:
1. Metal concentration and pH in the liquid and solid phases are at any prescribed
time uniform over the column section and exclusively depend on the axial
coordinate.
2. Concentration profiles within the beads are not described, meaning that an
average concentration is adopted for protons and metal in the beads.
The mass balances that govern the temporal evolution of the spatial concentra-
tion profiles of metal and protons in the liquid and solid phases can thus be written
as follows:
2
∂CM ∂CM ∂ CM ð1 εb ÞρB ∂qM
þvz DzM þ ¼0 ð7:14Þ
∂t ∂z ∂z2 εb ∂t
2
∂CH ∂CH ∂ qM ð1 εb ÞρB ∂qH
þvz DzH þ ¼0 ð7:15Þ
∂t ∂z ∂z2 εb ∂t
∂qM
¼ kM qM qM, e ð7:16Þ
∂t
∂qH
¼ kH qH qH, e ð7:17Þ
∂t
where z is the axial coordinate, DzM and DzH are the dispersion coefficients of metal
and protons, respectively, and qMe and qHe are the solid concentrations of metal and
protons, respectively, in equilibrium with the liquid phase. Equations (7.4) and (7.5)
are employed to compute the dependence of qMe and qHe on CM and CH. Equations
(7.14), (7.15), (7.16), and (7.17) were coupled to the following boundary and initial
conditions:
∂CM ∂CH
vz C0 ¼ vz CM ð0; tÞ DzM ; vz C0 ¼ vz Cð0; tÞ DzH ð7:18Þ
∂z ∂z
∂CM ∂CH
ðL; tÞ ¼ 0; ðL; tÞ ¼ 0 ð7:19Þ
∂z ∂z
∂qM ∂qH
ð0; tÞ ¼ 0; ð0; tÞ ¼ 0 ð7:20Þ
∂z ∂z
∂qM ∂qH
ðL; tÞ ¼ 0; ðL; tÞ ¼ 0 ð7:21Þ
∂z ∂z
CM ðz; 0Þ¼ 0; CH ðz; 0Þ¼ 10pH1 ð7:22Þ
pH1

qM ðz; 0Þ¼ 0; qH ðz; 0Þ¼ qH, e 0, 10 ð7:23Þ
The formulated mathematical model was reduced by finite difference techniques

to a set of ordinary differential equations, which was successively integrated by
Matlab. Fitting CM(L, t) and CH(L, t) numerical solution of the formulated model to
the evolutions of outlet metal and proton concentrations allowed estimating kM, kH,
DzM, and DzH for any experiment. The optimal parameter values estimated for any
experiment in Table 7.4. For the sake of clarity, the evolutions of CM/C0 and pH/
pH0 recorded in the performed experiments and predicted with the estimated
parameter values by the model are not included in Fig. 7.4 and separately displayed
in Fig. 7.5.
Satisfactory fitting was achieved for any performed test with the exception of
test E, which was performed with the lowest value of the selected liquid velocity
range. In accordance with data reported in Table 7.4, comparable kM and kH values
were estimated at any liquid velocity for calcium alginate beads. A kH significantly
larger than kM was estimated in case of application of composite beads. Mass
transport coefficients slightly increase with the liquid velocity. It is important to
remark that no significant difference is found between the mass transfer coefficient
values found with calcium alginate and composite beads. This implies that the
difference observed in Fig. 7.4 between the evolutions of outlet metal concentra-
tions for calcium alginate and composite beads cannot be imputed to different
transport parameters but must rather be attributed to the differences in the equilib-
rium properties of two different beads (Table 7.3).
Dispersion values in agreement with literature values could be determined by
fitting (Papageorgiou et al. 2008). However, no reliable confidence intervals could
be derived for dispersion coefficients. To clarify it, the sensitivity of the model
solution around the estimated parameter values was investigated. This analysis
1.0 (a) (b) (c)

0.8
CM /C0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 (d) (e) (f)

pH/pH0
0.8
0.6
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
t/τ t/τ t/τ
Fig. 7.5 Comparison between the evolutions of outlet concentration (a, b, c) and pH (d, e, f)
predicted by the model (solid line) and recorded in the performed tests (empty circles); (a), (d) test
A; (b), (e) test B; (c), (f) test E
revealed that model predictions are scarcely sensitive to variations in the dispersion
coefficients. Particularly, varying the dispersion coefficients by about two orders of
magnitude did not produce significant variations in the predicted outlet concentra-
tions of metal and protons. This result can be explained by the large Peclet numbers
Pei ¼ vzL/Dz,i (i ¼ M, H) found with the estimated parameter values. Based on the
estimated parameter values reported in Table 7.4, PeM values equal to about 1107
and 620 are found in tests C and E, respectively. Accordingly, the liquid velocity
can be decreased below the selected range maintaining at the same time Peclet
values Pei >> 1. This can enhance biosorption performance by increasing the ratio
between the characteristic times of interphase mass transport and convection.
Obviously, biosorption performances would deteriorate if Peclet values close to
unity were attained. This would smooth the concentration fronts travelling through
the front and would thus reduce the time needed for the outlet metal concentration
to achieve any prescribed value.
7.4 Conclusions
Biosorption of copper by a wild-type strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was

analyzed. The analysis was aimed at discussing the main stages of process devel-
opment. A mechanistic equilibrium model accounting for the distribution of the site
protonation constants was developed to describe proton binding and was identified
by fitting to experimental titration data. Model development was driven by the
preliminary analysis of the yeast wall biochemistry and allowed identifying type
and concentration of the active sites responsible for biosorption. These results were
successively exploited to develop a simplified equilibrium model describing the
competitive binding of copper and protons to calcium alginate and composite
beads. A one-site model could effectively reproduce the dependence of the
biosorption capacity on pH (3 and 5) and metal liquid concentration (0–120 ppm).
A mathematical model describing the transport of metal ions and protons
through the beads was numerically solved and fitted to transient concentration
data recorded under batch operation. This allowed estimating the diffusion coeffi-
cients of metal and proton through the beads. The estimated metal diffusion
coefficient was significantly greater with calcium alginate beads than with com-
posite beads. This difference can be attributed to structural differences induced by
the immobilization of the yeast in composite beads. Future studies should address
the dependence of diffusion coefficient on the yeast fraction employed in the
preparation of composite beads.
The analysis of biosorption under fixed-bed operation allowed evaluating the
influence of liquid velocity on the mass transfer dispersion coefficients. For this
purpose, the numerical solution of a one-dimensional heterogeneous model was
fitted to the evolutions of the outlet metal concentration and pH recorded in the
performed experiments. It was shown that the main factor limiting column perfor-
mance in the selected liquid velocity range is represented by the ratio between the
characteristic times of interphase mass transfer and convection. Accordingly,
performances could be enhanced by decreasing the liquid velocity below the
range selected in the present study.
References
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from wastewater. Bioresour Technol 98:2243–2257
Cojocaru C, Diaconu M, Cretescu I, Savi J, Vasic V (2009) Biosorption of copper (II) ions from
aqua solutions using dried yeast biomass. Colloid Surface A 335:181–188
Davis TA, Volesky B, Mucci A (2003) A review of the biochemistry of heavy metal biosorption by
brown algae. Water Res 37:4311–4330
Di Caprio F, Altimari P, Uccelletti D, Pagnanelli F (2014) Mechanistic modelling of copper
biosorption by wild type and engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae biomasses. Chem Eng J
244:561–568
Di Caprio F, Altimari P, Zanni E, Uccelletti D, Toro L, Pagnanelli F (2016) Lanthanum
biosorption by different Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. Chem Eng Trans 49:415–420
Ghorbani F, Younesi H, Ghasempouri SM, Zinatizadeh AA, Aminia M, Daneshi A (2008)
Application of response surface methodology for optimization of cadmium biosorption in an
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in subsurface reactive transport modeling. Vadose Zone J 6:407–435
Kordialik-Bogacka E (2011) Surface properties of yeast cells during heavy metal biosorption. Cent
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Padmavathy V (2008) Biosorption of nickel (II) ions by baker’s yeast: kinetic, thermodynamic and
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Kotrba P, Mackova M, Macek T (eds) Microbial biosorption of metals. Springer, Dordrecht, pp
59–120
Papageorgiou SK, Kouvelo EP, Katsaros FK (2008) Calcium alginate beads from Laminaria
digitata for the removal of Cu+2 and Cd+2 from dilute aqueous metal solutions. Desalination
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Schiewer S, Volesky B (1995) Modeling of the proton–metal ion exchange in biosorption. Environ
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Schiewer S, Wong MH (2000) Ionic strength effects in biosorption of metals by marine algae.
Veglio F, Beolchini F (1997) Removal of metals by biosorption: a review. Hydrometallurgy
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Volesky B (2007) Biosorption and me. Water Res 41:4017–4029
Wang J (2002) Biosorption of copper (II) by chemically modified biomass of Saccharomyces
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Wang J, Chen C (2006) Biosorption of heavy metals by Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a review.
Biotechnol Adv 24:427–451
Wang J, Chen C (2009) Biosorbents for heavy metals removal and their future. Biotechnol Adv
27:195–226
Chapter 8
Transition Metal-Substituted Magnetite as an
Innovative Adsorbent and Heterogeneous
Catalyst for Wastewater Treatment
Shima Rahim Pouran, Mohammad Saleh Shafeeyan,

Abdul Aziz Abdul Raman, Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud,
and Abolfazl Bayrami
Abstract Iron oxides are conventionally used as adsorbent and/or heterogeneous

catalyst because of their abundance, easy magnetically separation, affordability,
and applicability in broad pH range. This is especially reported for magnetite due to
the presence of Fe2+ cations in its structure. However, the pure magnetite has lower
adsorption capacity and degradation rate in Fenton reaction, which led to the
introduction of transition metal-substituted magnetite (TMSM). This section
gives an overview on the adsorption potential and Fenton catalysis performance
of various transition metal-substituted magnetite samples. This recently introduced
group is produced with incorporation of appropriately identified transition metal/
metals into the naturally available magnetite with simple synthesis method. TMSM
has showed a great capacity for treating polluted water bodies using physical and
chemical processes. A combination of factors affects the activity: the increased
S. Rahim Pouran (*)

Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Research Laboratory of Advanced Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes, Department of
Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, 51666-16471, Tabriz, Iran
M.S. Shafeeyan
School of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, 11155/4563,
Tehran, Iran
A.A. Abdul Raman • W.M.A. Wan Daud
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
A. Bayrami
Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili,
Ardabil, Iran

226 S. Rahim Pouran et al.
adsorption capacity of the samples evidenced by larger surface area, the participa-
tion of thermodynamically favorable redox pairs in regeneration of Fe2+ and •OH
radical generation, and the presence of oxygen vacancies serving as active sites on
the surface of TMSM. Nevertheless, there is a need for further understanding and
expansion of this class of adsorbents and heterogeneous catalysts.
Keywords Heterogeneous catalyst • Magnetite adsorbents • Oxidation processes •

Transition metal-substituted magnetite
Contents
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.2 Transition Metal-Substituted Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
8.3 Physicochemical Changes in Modified Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.4 Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.5 Oxidation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.1 Introduction
Water is a key element on earth for survival of living beings, which plays a crucial
role for the appropriate functioning of the terrain and aquatic ecosystems. However,
water resources are contaminating continuously due to the discharge of various
pollutants such as heavy metal ions, anions, dyes, organics, and microbes into the
environment (Herney-Ramirez et al. 2010). Several factors including the growth in
the world population, civilization, industrialization, agricultural functioning, and
other geological and universal changes have contributed to the water crisis and
environmental pollution (Ali and Gupta 2007). Literature reveals an increasing rate
in the generation of wastewaters with refractory properties from the many of
industrial activities (Shukla et al. 2010; Rahim Pouran et al. 2015b). The strategies
for augmenting freshwater resources had better involved not only the prevention
and minimization of water pollution but treating polluted water bodies to the degree
that can be reused in another sector. In light of this, developing advanced systems
for efficient water treatment and recycling have attracted considerable attention
worldwide, especially in countries with a growing scarcity of water resources
(Munoz et al. 2015).
Over the last decades, different approaches have been proposed and employed
for water treatment, including physical methods (screening, filtration and
centrifugal separation, micro- and ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, crystallization,
sedimentation and gravity separation, flotation, and adsorption), chemical methods
(precipitation, coagulation, oxidation, ion exchange, and solvent extraction),
electrical approaches (electrodialysis and electrolysis), thermal technologies (evap-
oration and distillation), and biological processes (aerobic and anaerobic processes)
(Ali and Jain 2005; Diya’uddeen et al. 2015a). Out of these, adsorption is
8 Transition Metal-Substituted Magnetite as an Innovative Adsorbent. . . 227
considered as one of the practical options because of its ease of operation, low cost,
and applicability for the separation of soluble and insoluble organic, inorganic, and
biological contaminants (Ali 2012). Adsorption process is especially promising at
nanoscale where the specific surface area of the adsorbent is relatively high. Iron
oxide nanoparticles have especially attracted a wide interest due to their great
magnetic characteristics that make the separation process much easier. Literature
is replete with studies signifying the efficiency of iron nanomaterials as adsorbent
for decontamination of heavy metal polluted aqueous solutions (Hua et al. 2012).
Nevertheless, in the most industries, the treatment methods are not able to
produce effluents that comply with the effluent discharge standards (Shestakova
et al. 2015). In several cases, the purification strategies basically relocate the
contaminants from one phase to another (Shukla et al. 2010; Nitoi et al. 2013).
Therefore, the use of such approaches is often limited due to the development of
secondary wastes. For example, adsorption processes generate spent adsorbents that
can be either hardly regenerated – by environmentally incompatible ex situ oper-
ating conditions – or it becomes a solid waste, commonly for industrial wastewater,
that needs to be disposed (Delmas et al. 2009). The disposal of the wastes, after the
water treatment process, has become a serious environmental issue that should be
addressed (Diya’uddeen et al. 2015b; Shestakova et al. 2015). Consequently,
advanced treatment methods are being standardized and several processes for the
recovery of the spent adsorbents are being developed.
Recently, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have attracted a great deal of
attention due to their potential for degrading numerous organic pollutants and
complete mineralization of them to CO2, H2O, and environmentally harmless
inorganic compounds, without production of secondary wastes (Comninellis et al.
2008; Wang and Xu 2011; Nichela et al. 2013). Fenton chemistry has been
extensively described in recently published reviews (Pignatello et al. 2006; Malato
et al. 2009). The main Fenton equations are given as Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2):
Fe2þ þ H2 O2 ! Fe3þ þ OH1 þ OH • ð8:1Þ

þ
Fe 3þ
þ H2 O2 ! Fe 2þ
þ HO2• þH ð8:2Þ
This process presents some advantages over the conventional approaches includ-
ing simple equipment, efficient removal within a short reaction time, and potential
for complete oxidation and mineralization of contaminants to benign end products
under appropriate operational conditions. The Fenton reaction initiated by hetero-
geneous Fe2+ or Fe3+ compounds or some other transition metals at low oxidation
states such as Co2+ and Cu2+ is referred as Fenton-like reaction (Nichela et al.
2013). Fenton-like reaction (Eq. 8.2) has a lower rate compared to Fenton reaction
(Eq. 8.1) (0.01–0.002 vs. 42–79 L/mol S) due to the unbound transfer of the
reactants in the homogeneous reaction site. The relative abundance and low cost
of iron minerals as well as their simple magnetic separation render them as suitable
candidates as adsorbents and for heterogeneous Fenton treatment of recalcitrant
wastewaters. Accordingly, several researchers have focused on improving the
efficiency of iron oxides and enhancing the breakdown rate of contaminant mole-
cules through structural modifications.
One of the recently studied alterations is to substitute the structural iron species
of iron minerals with other active transition metals. The effectiveness of transition
metal-substituted magnetite (TMSM) as an innovative adsorbent and heteroge-
neous catalyst for water treatment is presented in the following sections.
8.2 Transition Metal-Substituted Magnetite
Magnetite is the most dominant iron mineral that has been employed for TMSIO
synthesis. Iron in the magnetite structure can be substituted isomorphically by other
transition metals, wherein the integrated transition metal/metals should have similar
ionic radius to Fe2+/Fe3+ cations and the same or with one or two unit differences in
the oxidation states to the exchanged iron species. For instance, magnetite octahedral
Fe3+ is replaced by Cr3+ in Fe3xCrxO4 with the similar ionic radii (64.5 vs. 61.5 pm)
(Magalh~aes et al. 2007) and Fe3+ is replaced by Nb5+ with the same ionic radius
(64 pm) (Oliveira et al. 2008; Rahim Pouran et al. 2015a). Concerning the replace-
ments with differing charges, the same amount of Fe3+ is reduced to Fe2+ based on the
electrovalence equilibrium (Pearce et al. 2015). On the other hand, the structural
dislocations could be adjusted by prompting oxygen vacancies for the substitutions in
the absence of reduction (Moura et al. 2006). These oxygen vacancies are believed
that perform as active sites for generation of hydroxyl radicals in Fenton process.
The most widely used preparation approach is the coprecipitation of highly pure
ferrous and ferric salts (Fe2+/Fe3+ in the molar ratio of 1:2) plus a predetermined
amount of the selected transition metal salt under an inert gas environment and a
few drops of hydrazine to prevent the oxidation of ferrous cations (Fig. 8.1) (Yang
et al. 2009a; Liang et al. 2012b). This process can be continued by thermal
treatment at 400–430 C (Costa et al. 2003, 2006; Lelis et al. 2004).
Fig. 8.1 Coprecipitation of Fe2+, Fe3+, and Mn+ and/or Nm+ as a TMSM
Yang et al. (2009a) represented the following set of reactions (Eqs. (8.4), (8.5),
(8.6), and (8.7)) involved in synthesis of Fe3xTixO4 that were considered by
Sugimoto and Matijević (1980):
ð3 xÞFe2þ þ xTi4þ þ ð6 þ 2xÞOH ! Fe3x Tix ðOHÞ6þ2x ð8:3Þ

Fe3x Tix ðOHÞ6þ2x þ ð1 xÞNO
3 ! Fe3x Tix O4
ð8:4Þ
þð1 xÞNO2 þ ð3 þ xÞH2 O
Fe3x Tix ðOHÞ6þ2x þ ð2 2xÞNO
2 ! Fe3x Tix O4 þ ð2 2xÞNO
ð8:5Þ
þð2 þ 2xÞH2O þ ð2 2xÞOH1
5Fe3x Tix ðOHÞ6þ2x þ ð2 2xÞNO ! 5Fe3x Tix O4 þ ð2 2xÞNH3
ð8:6Þ
þð8x þ 12ÞH2 O
TMSIOs of other iron oxides are often prepared under air atmosphere (dos
Santos et al. 2001; Alvarez et al. 2006; Guimaraes et al. 2009) because they only
contain FeIII species. Meanwhile, the preparation procedure, type and quantity of
the loaded transition metal, and the temperature range influence the properties of
the developed TMSIO. The preparation of different catalysts through the impreg-
nation of magnetite with transition metal/metals has been extensively reported in
the literature. Most of the studies have explored the incorporation of the period
4 transition metals such as Ti (Yang et al. 2009a, b; Liang et al. 2012a, b; Zhong
et al. 2012), V (Liang et al. 2010, 2012b), Cr (Magalh~aes et al. 2007), Mn (Oliveira
et al. 2000; Costa et al. 2003, 2006; Coker et al. 2008), Co (Costa et al. 2003, 2006;
Lelis et al. 2004; Coker et al. 2008), Ni (Costa et al. 2003, 2006; Coker et al. 2008),
Cu (Lee and Joe 2010), Zn (Coker et al. 2008), and other metals like Al (Jentzsch
et al. 2007) into the magnetite structure. The schematic presentation of the prepa-
ration set up is shown in Fig. 8.2.
The investigation on the recent studies indicates that this group of chemicals can
be proposed as a novel promising adsorbent and heterogeneous Fenton catalyst in
the degradation of organic pollutants.
8.3 Physicochemical Changes in Modified Magnetite
The incorporated transition metal may give rise to significant changes in magnetite
physicochemical properties (Magalh~aes et al. 2007; Zhong et al. 2012). The main
structural changes in magnetite structure through the incorporation of various
transition metals are given in Table 8.1. The degree of advancement in physico-
chemical properties is mainly dependent on the synthesis method, type and per-
centage of the host metal/metals, and nature of the occupied site (Oliveira et al.
2000; Ramankutty and Sugunan 2002; Costa et al. 2003; Magalh~aes et al. 2007; Lee
et al. 2008; Zhong et al. 2012; Liang et al. 2013). Nonetheless, the spinel structure
of magnetite is often kept unchanged after the incorporation.
Fig. 8.2 The schematic presentation of the TMSM preparation set up (Rahim Pouran et al. 2015c)
Several literature on the characteristics of TMSM samples using Brunauer-

Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area analysis reported a major growth in the surface
area, primarily caused by a decrease in the particle size and/or pore diameter (Silva
et al. 2009; de Souza et al. 2010; Liang et al. 2012b; Zhong et al. 2012). For
example, in the Fe2.93Cr0.07O4 sample, the pore diameter decreased from meso- to
micro-size via the substitution of Fe3+ by Cr3+ in which the surface area was
significantly increased (Magalh~aes et al. 2007). On the other hand, there was
indistinct variation in the surface area and porosity of magnetite after the incorpo-
ration of Al, as reported by Jentzsch et al. (2007). It is worth mentioning that the
magnetic property of magnetite should be preserved after the modification, as it is
required for facile recovery of the sample from the treated water (Liang et al.
2012b). This characteristic can be affected by the cationic arrangement in the
tetrahedral and octahedral sites, production condition, and the size of magnetite
(Lelis et al. 2004). For instance, a decrease in the particle size to a few nanometers
can intensify the magnetic order on the surface of the magnetite particles (Haneda
and Morrish 1988).
8.4 Adsorption
Surface characteristics of a hetero-catalyst define its activity in a solution. The

electrostatic interaction between the probe molecule and the catalyst surface is a
major controlling parameter, so that the probe molecule removal from the target
Table 8.1 Preparation method and characteristics of transition metal-substituted iron oxide catalysts (Rahim Pouran et al. 2014)
Heterogeneous
catalyst Characteristics Preparation method References
Fe3xCrxO4 Spinel crystalline, replacing Cr3+ by Fe3þ oct and for higher
Conventional coprecipitation method Magalh~aes et al. (2007)
(x ¼ 0.00, 0.07, 0.26, 3þ 3+
Cr contents by Fe2þoct and Fetet , substitution by Cr
0.42, and 0.51) decreased the pore diameter from meso- to micropore
Fe3 O4 with a significant increase on the BET surface area
Fe2.93Cr0.07O4
Fe2.74Cr0.26O4
Fe2.58Cr0.42O4
Fe2.49Cr0.51O4
Fe3xTixO4 Well-crystallized spinel structure, contains Ti4+ in octa- Precipitation-oxidation method Zhong et al. (2012)
(x ¼ 0.00, 0.20, 0.46, hedral sites, hydrophilic surface, decrease in particle size
0.71, and 0.98) (82 nm) and pore diameter plus significant increase in
Fe3 O4 surface area along with the increase in Ti content
Fe2.80Ti0.20O4
Fe2.54Ti0.46O4
Fe2.29Ti0.71O4
Fe2.02Ti0.98O4
Fe3xMnxO4 Existence of the spinel phase, Mn2+ replacing mainly Fe2+ Coprecipitation of the precursor ferric Costa et al. (2003, 2006),
(x ¼ 0.21, 0.26, and in
the octahedralsite, i.e., [Fe3+]tetrahedral hydroxyl-acetate containing the metal Mn Oliveira et al. (2000)
0.53) 3þ 2þ
Fe Fe1x M2þ x octahedral O4 , phase transformation of
Fe3 O4 magnetite to maghemite and hematite due to the presence
Fe2.79Mn0.21O4 of Mn
8 Transition Metal-Substituted Magnetite as an Innovative Adsorbent. . .
Fe2.74Mn0.26O4
Fe2.47Mn0.53O4
Fe3xCoxO4 Existence of the spinel phase, Co2+ replacing mainly Fe2+ Coprecipitation of the precursor ferric Costa et al. (2003, 2006),
(x ¼ 0; 0.19; 0.38 and in
the octahedral site, i.e., [Fe3+]tetrahedral hydroxyl-acetate containing the metal Co Lelis et al. (2004)
0.75) 3þ 2þ
Fe Fe1x M2þ x octahedral O4 , the increase in hyperfine
Fe3 O4 magnetic field for the octahedral iron with the increase in
Fe2.81Co0.19O4 structural Co
Fe2.62Co0.38O4
231
Fe2.25Co0.75O4
(continued)
232
Heterogeneous
catalyst Characteristics Preparation method References
Fe3xNixO4 Existence of the spinel phase, Ni2+ replacing mainly Fe Coprecipitation of the precursor ferric Costa et al. (2003, 2006)
2+ 3+
(x ¼ 0; 0.10; 0.28 and octahedral
in3þthe2þ site, i.e., [Fe ] tetrahedral hydroxyl-acetate containing the metal Ni
0.54) Fe Fe1x M2þ O
x octahedral 4
Fe3 O4
Fe2.90Ni0.10O4
Fe2.72Ni0.28O4
Fe2.46Ni0.54O4
Fe3xx0 TixVx0 O4 Well-crystallized spinel structure, occupancy of mainly Coprecipitation method Liang et al. (2012b)
(x ¼ 0.00, 0.40, 0.42, octahedral sites by Ti4+ and V3+, no apparent effect of
0.54,
0
and 0.69) Ti-V on the magnetite structure, size: less than 100 nm,
(x ¼ 0.00, 0.03, 0.08, magnetic, higher adsorption activity of Ti-V magnetite
0.13, and 0.32) catalysts than pure magnetite (more dependent on Ti
Fe3 O4 than V), increase in specific surface area compared to
Fe2.31Ti0.69O4 Fe3O4
Fe2.43Ti0.54V0.03O4
Fe2.50Ti0.42V0.08O4
Fe2.47Ti0.40V0.13O4
Fe2.68V0.32O4
Fe3xTixO4 Spinel structure, bigger lattice parameter than magnetite, New soft chemical method Yang et al. (2009a, b)
(x ¼ 0.00, 0.17, 0.23, average diameters of 120 nm, Ti4+ replacing mainly Fe3+
0.37, 0.50, 0.78) in the octahedral site. Simultaneous increase in oxida-
Fe3O4 tion and transition temperature by increase in Ti content,
Fe2.83Ti0.17O4 increase in surface area from 6.65 m2 g1 of pure mag-
Fe2.77Ti0.23O4 netite to 20.7 m2 g1 in titanomagnetite
Fe2.63Ti0.37O4
Fe2.50Ti0.50O4
Fe2.22Ti0.78O4
S. Rahim Pouran et al.
Fe3xVxO4 V3+ mainly occupies the octahedral site (chiefly replaced Precipitation-oxidation method Liang et al. (2010)
(x ¼ 0.00, 0.16, 0.26, Fe3+), the increase in vanadium content causes
0.34) a decrease in the total Fe and Fe3+ content, no apparent
3þ change in the average crystal size and surface area,
Fe2þ
0:61 Fe2:39 O4
2þ increase in the superficial hydroxyl groups, and a
2:39 V0:16 O4
Fe0:45 Fe3þ
3þ decrease in the temperature of maghemite-hematite
Fe2þ
0:70 Fe2:04 V0:26 O4
2þ phase transformation
Fe0:73 Fe3þ
1:93 V0:34 O4
Fe3xAlxO4 Al3+ replacing mainly Fe3+, the increase in aluminum Coprecipitation method Jentzsch et al. (2007)
(x ¼ 0.00, 1.48, 2.14, content causes a decrease in the particle size, no obvious
5.49, 8.07 mol %) change in porosity of the particles and their surface area,
Fe3O4 samples containing greater amounts of aluminum were
Fe2.83Al0.17O4 overall less reactive than undoped samples
Fe2.77Al0.23O4
Fe2.63Al0.37O4
Fe2.50Al0.50O4
CuxFe3xO4 A single-phase cubic spinel structure of Cu0.2Fe2.8O4 in Mechanical alloying Lee and Joe (2010)
(x ¼ 0.00, 0.2, 0.3) magnetite and Cu0.3Fe2.7O4, consists of a cubic spinel
Fe3O4 structure in magnetite and a hexagonal structure in
Cu0.2Fe2.8O4 hematite
Cu0.3Fe2.7O4
233
solution is largely determined by its adsorption on the catalyst surface (Yang et al.
2009b). Several factors such as contact time, pH, chemical properties, and initial
concentration of contaminant affect the adsorption capacity of the catalyst (Hanna
et al. 2008; Yang et al. 2009b; Ai et al. 2011a; Yuan et al. 2011; Liang et al. 2012a).
Among surface properties, basicity is an important factor that arises from the
hydroxyl groups on the surface of the catalyst. The ligand shell accomplishment
of the surface Fe atoms leads to the formation of Fe-OH groups on surface of the
catalysts in which the surface adsorption is largely controlled by these groups (Sun
et al. 1998). Accordingly, pH plays a dominant functional role in the catalytic
action of the iron oxides. The pH of point of zero charge (PZC) is a key parameter
that is defined as the pH in which the charge of the surface of the iron oxide is zero
or the total number of the FeOH2+ and FeO groups on the catalyst surface is the
same. Conventionally, the determination of the pHpzc is crucial for identifying the
solution pH influence on the catalyst surface charge and consequent interaction
with probe molecule.
In magnetite, protonation and deprotonation are the main reactions that occur on
the surface, which are given by Eqs. (8.7), (8.8), and (8.9):
FeðII IIIÞ OH þ Hþ $ FeðII IIIÞ OHþ

2 pH < pHpzc ð8:7Þ
FeðII IIIÞ OH $ FeðII IIIÞ O þ Hþ pH > pHPZC ð8:8Þ

Fe OH þ OH ! Fe O þ H2 O pH > pHpzc ð8:9Þ
At higher pH values than pHpzc, the magnetite surface is negatively charged, and
at lower pH values, it is positive (Petrova et al. 2011). The pHpzc of magnetite at
room temperature changes between 6.0 and 6.8 in an aqueous medium wherein the
surface charge is of about neutral at this range (Sun et al. 1998; Cornell and
Schwertmann 2003). Accordingly, the surface of the magnetite samples is nega-
tively charged at pH higher than pHpzc. Hence, it is favored for the adsorption of
cationic probe molecules such as methylene blue (MB), based on the electrostatic
interaction, and vice versa. For example, Liang et al. (2012a) observed that MB
removal through Fenton reaction catalyzed by Cr-substituted magnetite was signif-
icantly influenced by its adsorption on the sample surface at neutral pH value,
whereas the samples indicated no adsorption to acid orange II (anionic dye) and the
degradation of the investigated dyes demonstrated different removal mechanisms.
Table 8.2 gives a number of examples on the modified magnetite adsorbents for
eliminating various contaminants from the aqueous medium. The data shows that
the adsorption is highly affected by the pH of the solution.
In the heterogeneous catalysis, the iron catalyst and the organic pollutant are
stirred together for a period of time to achieve the adsorption equilibrium (Hanna
et al. 2008). The maximum adsorption is normally attained in the first hour and it
continues at a decreased rate to reach the equilibrium state. It can be ascribed to the
progressive filling of the most active adsorption sites on the catalyst surface. Then,
the adsorption rate decreases as a result of the decreased vacant sites and
subsequent repulsion force between the catalyst surface and adsorbed molecules.
Table 8.2 Iron oxide-based adsorbents for contaminant removal through adsorption
Operational condition Optimal performance References
Contact Shaking
Compound/initial time Solution speed
amount (mg/L) Adsorbent (min) pHpzc pH T ( C) (rpm)
Methylene blue (M-MWCNTs)1 120 6.5 2–10 25 1 150 The adsorption capacity of MB increases Ai et al.
(MB)/20 0.02 g/50 ml with increasing solution pH from 2.0 to 7.0 (2011a)
and changes slightly when solution pH is
above 7.0. Adsorption kinetics follows the
pseudo-second-order model. Maximum
monolayer adsorption capacity: 48.06 mg g1
Methyl orange Mg-Al LDH2 50 5.0 25 > 420 The adsorption capacity of the Mg-Al LDH Ai et al.
(MO)/4.8 toward MO was 0.453 mol/kg. The adsorp- (2011b)
tion kinetics and equilibrium adsorption
data were well-described by the pseudo
second order model and fitted well to both
the Langmuir and Freundlich models,
respectively
Cd 2+/100 P (MB-IA)-g- 240 6.1 8.0 30 200 The maximum adsorption capacity of P Anirudhan
MNCC3 (MB-IA)-g-MNCC was found to be and Shainy
2 g/L 262.27 mg/g. Kinetic and isotherm data (2015)
were described using pseudo-second-order
kinetic model and Sips isotherm model,
respectively
P/40 Magnetic iron 120 5.8 > 5.0 35 NA The maximum adsorption capacity of MIO Choi et al.
oxide (MIO) 1 g/ was 15.2 mg P/g MIO. The adsorbed phos- (2016)
50 ml phorous was effectively detached from MIO
within 30 min using 20 wt% NaOH solution.
The adsorption kinetic of the phosphate
adsorption on MIO fitted well on the
pseudo-second-order and Elovich models
235
(continued)
236
Operational condition Optimal performance References

Contact Shaking
Compound/initial time Solution speed
amount (mg/L) Adsorbent (min) pHpzc pH T ( C) (rpm)
Cd2+/44.6 MT-MN 240 NA 3.5 20 120 The maximum adsorption capacity of the Guyo et al.
0.53 g MN-MT for Cd2+ was 52.05 mg g1. Kinetic (2015)
studies revealed that the adsorption process
followed the pseudo-second-order model
Cu2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, NMag-CS 120 NA 5.5 25 200 96% Cu2+ and 94.6 Cr6+, Pb2+, Cd2+, and Ni2+ Lasheen
Cr6+, Ni2+, 20 each 2 g/L removal percentage on film surface. The et al. (2016)
adsorption data were well fitted by both the
Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms and the
pseudo-second-order kinetics
Pb2+ Mn-magnetite 60 7.1 4.5 25 600 The adsorption capacity of magnetite sam- Liang et al.
1 g/L ples toward Pb (II) gradually increased with (2014)
the increase in Mn content. The adsorption
capacity qm for the samples with CMn 20 Wt
% was 36.27 mg g1
Cr6+ and Pb2+/50 Fe3O4 NP Up to 7.4 2 and 5 45 NA The Sips and Langmuir models best Rajput et al.
each 24 h described Cr6+ and Pb2+ adsorption on (2016)
magnetite nanoparticles, respectively. The
maximum Langmuir adsorption capacities
were 34.87 (Cr6+) and 53.11 (Pb2+)
mg/g. The pseudo-second-order model fits
the adsorption kinetics
Cr6+/50 MMT-Mag NP 120 8.3 2–2.5 25 2 160 Kinetics of the adsorption followed the Yuan et al.
0.5 g/100 ml pseudo-second-order model. Adsorption (2009)
data fit well with the Langmuir and
Freundlich isotherm equations. Adsorption
capacity per unit mass of magnetite:
15.3 mg/g
M-MWCNTs are magnetite-loaded multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Mg-Al LDH is layered double hydroxide. P (MB-IA)-g-MNCC is 2-mercaptobenzamide
modified itaconic acid-grafted-magnetite nanocellulose composite. MT-MN is maize tassel-magnetite nanohybrid. NMag-CS is nano-magnetite chitosan film.
MMT-Mag NP is montmorillonite-supported magnetite nanoparticles
237
In a study conducted by Liang et al. (2012b), the substitution of Ti4+ and V3+
improved the adsorption activity of magnetite such that all the Fe3xx0 TixVx0 O4
samples had greater saturated adsorbed content than Fe3O4 with much higher
dependence on the amount of Ti4+ than V3+. Similarly, Fe3xyNbxMoyO4 samples
showed a significantly higher adsorption capacity of 80% more than the pure
magnetite in which the effects of Nb incorporation were prominent (Rahim Pouran
et al. 2015c). This clearly indicates that the incorporation of transition metals
positively affected the magnetite adsorption capacity, primarily resulting from the
enlarged specific surface area and, accordingly, the amount of magnetite surface
hydroxyl (Liang et al. 2014).
On the other hand, the adsorption kinetics provides valuable understanding of
the reaction pathways and the adsorption mechanism and describes the solute
uptake rate. A number of models can be employed to express the mechanism of
solute adsorption onto a sorbent. To explore the adsorption mechanism, a pseudo-
first-order equation of Lagergren (1898) based on solid capacity, a first-order
equation of Bhattacharya et al. (1984) based on solution concentration, and a
pseudo-second-order equation based on solid phase adsorption rate are used to
determine the characteristic constants of adsorption. Details of both models are
provided in Chap. 3.
The pseudo-first-order model proposes that the experimental data is only well
fitted to an initial period of the first reaction step. However, the pseudo-second-
order model provides the best correlation of the experimental data over a long
period in the studied systems (Ho and McKay 1999). Consequently, in the most
adsorption studies using modified magnetite samples, the adsorption kinetics were
well described by pseudo-second-order model in kinetics (Table 8.2). For instance,
in a study on the MB adsorption on co-substituted Nb-Mo-magnetite samples, the
pseudo-second-order model presented the best fit to the kinetic data at 25, 50,
100, and 200 mg L1 MB concentrations (Rahim Pouran et al. 2015c). However, it
should be borne in mind that the kinetic models are not adequate to describe the
adsorption process. Indeed, adsorption is a complex multistep process, and the
kinetic studies provide valuable insights of the adsorption mechanisms which
involve mass transfer, diffusion, and surface reaction phenomenon. In addition to
the kinetic studies, it is recommended to investigate the adsorption data using
various isotherm models and thermodynamic evaluations. Lastly, the merits accom-
panied the adsorption process, such as easy operation, low cost, and huge sludge-
handling processes could be completed with a more efficient method that helps for
effective contaminant removal. Heterogeneous Fenton process is an excellent
candidate for this purpose.
8.5 Oxidation Process
Transition metal-substituted magnetite (TMSM) has received growing interest for

treatment of wastewaters using Fenton reaction, due to their higher adsorption
capacity and reactivity in the degradation reaction compared to pure magnetite
(Rahim Pouran et al. 2014). The degradation process is started by adsorption of

contaminant molecules on the catalyst surface before H2O2 addition and starting
Fenton reaction.
From the reports, the enhancement in the catalytic activity of the modified
magnetite samples has been resulted from the existence of the thermodynamically
favorable redox pairs of the imported cations on the surface of the catalysts. These
redox pairs enhance the Fenton degradation of probe molecule via (i) direct involve-
ment in Fenton oxidation cycle and generation of •OH radicals through Haber-Weiss
mechanism, (ii) regeneration of Fe+2 cations, and (iii) acceleration of the electron
transfer during the oxidation reaction in the magnetite structure (Costa et al. 2003).
Generation of oxygen vacancies from the adjustments for unequal charge
replacements or cationic deficiency in the structure of modified iron oxide was
proposed by Costa et al. (2006) as another possible reason for enhanced activities.
These vacancies act as active sites in which they directly get involved in the
degradation of probe molecules or indirectly in decomposition of H2O2 (Magalh~aes
et al. 2007).
In photocatalysis process, the incorporated transition metals prevent the recom-
bination of the photo-excited holes (h+) and electrons (e) on the catalyst surface
(Büchler et al. 1998) and extend the existence time of the charge carriers. For
illustration, Fig. 8.3 shows the action of substituted Nb and Mo in magnetite
samples for oxidation of MB (Rahim Pouran et al. 2015c). Other parameters
including enlarged surface area and, accordingly, higher concentrations of OH
groups on the surface of the catalysts are also reported in a number of studies
(Liang et al. 2012a). However, the type and the quantity of probe molecule, Fenton
reagent concentration, reaction duration and condition, and more importantly the
elemental ratio of the imported transition metal play influential role in the
Fig. 8.3 Action of substituted Nb and Mo in magnetite samples for oxidation of MB through
Fenton reaction (Rahim Pouran et al. 2015c)
degradation efficacy. For example, Costa et al. (2006) reported that although MB
(50 ppm) removal was achieved within 10 min, the higher H2O2 concentrations
(0.3 M) and Co (x ¼ 0.75) and Mn (x ¼ 0.53) loads were the major causes of the
short reaction time. Liang et al. (2012a) observed that 59.3% of MB (64 mg L1)
was oxidized using the Fe2.82Cr0.18O4/H2O2 (0.08 M) within 4 h, whereas
Fe2.33Cr0.67O4/H2O2 resulted in 95% color removal within the same reaction
time. Furthermore, a long time of reaction (11 h) was utilized to degrade more
than 90% of MB (70 mg g1 of Fe2.66V0.34O4 at pH 10 (Liang et al. 2013). On the
contrary, the Fe2.79Nb0.171Mo0.023O4 catalyzed Fenton reaction could remove
100 mg/L of MB within 150 min (Rahim Pouran et al. 2015c), whereas the
degradation was about 80% using Fe2.73Nb0.19O4 sample (Rahim Pouran et al.
2015a).
The optimum portion of the integrated active cation to iron species drives higher
activities and a concentration above this value may not improve the activity. For
instance, Yuan et al. (2011) reported that the highest degradation percentage of
dimethyl phthalate (DMP) by Si ¼ FeOOH was detected at Si/Fe ratio of 0.2;
however, this percentage decreased at lower and higher values than 0.2. It can be
ascribed to the generation of suspended indigent catalyst at lower ratios and
subsequent decrease in UV transmission into the solution. At higher values, the
active sites are masked with high SiO2 concentrations and lead to the formation of
lower hydroxyl radical from H2O2 breakdown. Nevertheless, the increment in the
content of the integrated Co and Mn leads to a remarkable increase in the catalyst
activity where Fe3O4 demonstrated lower activity in comparison with the
Fe3xCoxO4 and Fe3xMnxO4 catalysts. In this study, the Fe2.25Co0.75O4 and
Fe2.47Mn0.53O4 had the highest activities in the aforementioned reactions (Costa
et al. 2003).
A combination of iron oxides and natural niobia (Nb2O5) led to the generation of
a composite catalyst, of which maghemite (γFe2O3) and goethite (αFeOOH) were
the chief constituents in its structure (Oliveira et al. 2007). The niobia load of the
composite significantly influenced the discoloration rate, of which the niobia/iron
oxide ratio of 1:5 only removed the half of the MB in solution, whereas in ratio of
1:1, the removal percentage was approximately 90%. Table 8.3 summarizes the
data on the degradation of recalcitrant organic compounds using transition metal-
substituted magnetite catalysts in Fenton reactions.
8.6 Conclusions
The research on magnetite as an adsorbent has been increasing due to its applica-
bility in a wide range of pH, easy separation, and reusability. However, the
adsorption capacity of magnetite can be improved via modification in its structure
by enhancing its specific surface area and surface properties. One of the most
promising methods that enhances its adsorption characteristic is the isomorphic
substitution of the structural iron of magnetite with other transition metal/metals.
Table 8.3 Oxidation of various organic pollutants through Fenton reactions catalyzed by transition metal-substituted iron oxide (Rahim Pouran et al. 2014)
Catalyst Operational condition Optimal performance
T λ
Compound [H2O2] pH ( C) (nm) References
Methylene blue [MB], 50 mg/L Cr-magnetite 0.3 mg/L 6.0 25 – Higher degradation rate at lower Cr Magalh~aes
Fe3xCrxO4 content, decrease in discoloration et al. (2007)
(15 mg) rate, and TOC removal by increase in
Cr content mainly due to the decrease
in Fe2+
Tetrabromobis-phenol A Titanomagnetite 10 mmol/L 6.5 25 – >97% TBBPA degradation in Zhong et al.
[TBBPA], 20 mg/L Fe2.02Ti0.98O4 UV/Fe2.02Ti0.98O4/H2O2 system, (2012)
0.125 g L1 75% in UV/H2O2tr system within
240 min of UV irradiation
Methylene blue [MB], 100 mg/L Fe2.46Ni0.54O4 2.5 mol/L – 25 633 10% color removal within 50 min Costa et al.
Fe2.47Mn0.53O4 using Fe2.46Ni0.54O4, complete dis- (2003)
Fe2.25Co0.75O4 coloration of the solution in 5 and
(30 mg) 10 min using Fe2.47Mn0.53O4 and
Fe2.25Co0.75O4, respectively
Chlorobenzene [CBZ], 30 mg/L Mn-magnetite 2.5 mol/L – 25 – 14, 7, 5, and <1% chlorobenzene Oliveira et al.
Fe3xMnxO4 degradation for the reactions using (2000), Costa
(30 mg) Fe2.47Mn0.53O4, Fe2.74Mn0.26O4, et al. (2003)
Fe2.79Mn0.21O4, and Fe3O4,
respectively
Methylene blue [MB], 100 mg/L 0.3 mol/L 5–6.5 25 – Not remarkable discoloration with Costa et al.
γ-Fe2O3
α- Fe2O3 (10 mL) Fe2O3 oxides, complete color (2006)
Fe3xMxO4 removal, and higher oxidation by
(M ¼ Co and Mn) Fe3xMxO4 within 5–10 min
(30 mg)
Chlorobenzene [CBZ], 20 mg/L Mn-magnetite 0.3 mol/L – 25 – 1, 5, 7, and 14% CBZ removal using Costa et al.
Fe3xMnxO4 Fe3O4, Fe2.79Mn0.21O4, (2006)
(30 mg) Fe2.74Mn0.26O4, and Fe2.47Mn0.53O4,
241
respectively, within 30 min

(continued)
242
Catalyst Operational condition Optimal performance

T λ
Compound [H2O2] pH ( C) (nm) References
Methylene blue UV [MB], Ti-V-magnetite 10 mmol/L 7.0 25 365 Increase in MB discoloration from Liang et al.
0.2 mmol/L (500 mL) Fe3xx0 TixVx0 O4 48% to 96% by increase in Ti content (2012b)
(1.0 g/L) from x ¼ 0.0 to x ¼ 0.69 after
120 min
Methylene blue [MB], 100 mg/L Titanomagnetite 0.30 mol/L 6.8 30 – Higher activity for Ti-magnetite than Yang et al.
(400 mL) Fe3xTixO4 pure magnetite, decrease in residual (2009a, b)
(1.0 g/L) MB with the increase in Ti content
Methylene blue [MB], 100 mg L1 Nb-magnetite 0.2 mol/L 7.0 25 – Higher activity for modified magne- Rahim Pouran
(150 mL) Mo-magnetite tite than pure magnetite; et al. (2015a, c)
Nb-Mo-magne- co-substituted Nb-Mo-magnetite had
tite the highest activity compared to sin-
(1.0 g/L) gle metal-substituted samples.
Decrease in residual MB with the
increase in Nb content compared to
Mo
Methylene blue [MB], 0.2 mmol/L V-magnetite 100 mmol/L 10.0 25 – Color removal of 41, 60, 81, and 93% Liang et al.
(200 mL) Fe3xVxO4 of MB within 11 h using Fe3O4, (2010)
0 x 0.34 Fe2.84V0.16O4, Fe2.74V0.26O4, and
(1.0 g/L) Fe2.66V0.34O4, respectively
Methylene blue [MB], 50 mg/L Nb-hematite 0.3 mol/L 6.0 25 – Low discoloration with pure hematite Silva et al.
(10 mL) Fe2xNbxO3 and Hm-Nb2, 70% color removal, and (2009)
(10 g/L) 25% TOC removal after 60 min with
Hm-Nb10
Methylene blue [MB], 50 mg/L Nb-hematite- 8.0 mM 6.0 25 – 73% MB removal using treated cata- Silva et al.
(10 mL) maghemite 30% v/v lyst compared to 30% MB removal (2011)
treated by H2O2 by non-treated samples within 60 min
(1 g/L)
Bromophenol blue, Chicago sky FeO-Fe2O3 100 mmol/L 6.6 30 – 90% color removal within 24 h, the Baldrian et al.
blue, Evans blue and Naphthol (25 mg/mL) fast decomposition rate at first hour (2006)
blue black [dye] 50 mg/
Naphthol blue black [NBB] MO-Fe2O3 100 mmol/L 6.0–6.6 30 – COD removal of 97%, 92%, 88%, Baldrian et al.
500 mg/L, COD0 1.80 (M: Mn, Co, Cu, and 75% and color removal of 85%, (2006)
Fe) 25 mg/mL 67%, 53%, and 58% using the cata-
lysts of Cu, Co, Fe, and Mn,
respectively
Dimethyl phthalate [DMP] 7.7 mg/ Si-FeOOH 2 mmol/L 5.0 25 365 97% DMP degradation within 30 min Yuan et al.
L (100 mL) 0.5 g L1 (2011)
Methylene blue [MB] 50 mg/L Nb-FeOOH 0.3 mol/L 6.0 25 – 15% discoloration after 120 min by Oliveira et al.
(11% Nb) pure goethite, 85% color removal (2008)
1 g/L using Nb11-FeOOH within 120 min
Quinoline [Q] 10 mg/L Ni-FeOOH 0.1 mL 6.0 25 – 28% Q removal after 5 h by pure de Souza et al.
1 g/L 5% v/v goethite, 70% Q removal within 5 h (2010)
243
The optimum transition metal content generally decreases the crystal size signifi-
cantly, with concomitant increased specific surface area, leading to the higher
capacities for the adsorption in the samples. Despite the good adsorption efficien-
cies of the modified magnetite, it incapacitates in contaminant degradation. Con-
sequently, hydrogen peroxide was introduced to the system that in turn hydroxyl
radicals were generated through catalytic action of iron/imported transition metals
in the magnetite. These generated hydroxyl radicals are highly energetic to attack
the pollutant molecules and oxidize them to water and carbon dioxide.
Finally, for further discovery and understanding this class of catalysts, exploring
the best combinations for higher degradation efficiencies and investigation of the
effects of various factors such as wastewater composition on the stability, lixivia-
tion, and aging of the catalytic sites for longer and efficient use in Fenton treatment
of recalcitrant wastewaters are recommended.
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Index
A equilibrium, 234 (see also Equilibrium

Acid activation method, 131 adsorption isotherm)
Adequate adsorption system, 21 equilibrium isotherm model equations, 112
Adsorbate–adsorbent systems factors, 234
BET isotherm, 38, 39 heavy metal ions, 4
Freundlich model, 38 hetero-catalyst surface characteristics, 230
Henry’s law, 35 iron oxide-based adsorbents, 234, 235, 237
interaction types, 142, 183 isotherms (see Equilibrium adsorption
isotherm parameters, 35–37 isotherm)
Langmuir model, 38 kinetics, 238 (see also Kinetics)
monolayer adsorption capacity, 38 metal ions (see Metal ions)
Redlich–Peterson model, 39 multicomponent, 4
reduction, 39 nitroimidazole, 180, 181
vanadium adsorption, 39 operational variables
Adsorbent materials microorganisms presence, 188, 189
characterized, 143 solution ionic strength, 188
commercial activated carbons, 143, 144 solution pH, 185–187
Adsorption pesticides, 94–95
activated carbon, 2 pH, 234
advantages, 21 phenol, 104
anthropogenic and geogenic pollutants, 2, 3 phosphorus, 103–104
aquatic pollutants, 2 pHpzc determination, 234
basicity, 234 physical forces, ion exchange/chemical
batch and continuous adsorption systems, 2 binding, 112
best-fit isotherm and kinetic model, 112 pollutants in water purification, 4–8
capacity, 67 process intensification, 8–13
cationic probe molecules, 234 pseudo-first-order model, 238
characteristics, 21 rate constant, 73
classification, 20, 21 rate modeling, 24
cost-effective technology, reusability, 104–105
water treatment, 2–4 simultaneous, 4
dye (see Dye adsorption) solution pH, 186
dynamic, 2 surface-based, 112
economic and technical feasibility, 2 TCs, 183–186
endocrine disrupting chemicals, 95 tetracycline (antibiotic), 95

and Purification, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-58136-1
250 Index
Adsorption (cont.) Biomass active sites

thermodynamics, 45–47 dQH/dpH with pH, 211
wastewater, 104 heterogeneity, 212
water purification, 2, 3 identification, 210, 211
water sanitation, 2 mathematical model, 212
Adsorption reaction models, 54 titration data and experiments, 210, 212
breakthrough curves, 72–73 Biomass drying, 78
Elovich model, 62 Biosorption
pseudo-first-order model, 60 advantages, 206
pseudo-second-order model, 60–61 application, 207
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), 227 batch operation, 215–217
Agricultural waste materials batch test, 209
adsorption tests, 117 calcium alginate, 208, 213–215, 221
carboxylic groups, 121 copper, 207, 209
components of, 117 dispersion values, 221
eco-friendly and economic sources, 117 equilibrium isotherms, 213
Langmuir equation, 121 fixed-bed, 209, 218, 220, 221
lead, cadmium and zinc removal, 118–120 heavy metals removal, 206
lentil husk, 122 immobilization process, 207
MMSCB 3 and 5, 121 mathematical model, 207, 221
obtained activated carbons, 121 potentiometric titrations, 208
OPAA, 121 S. cerevisiae strains, 208
pretreatment methods, 117 Boehm method, 90
rice husk, 122 BOF. See Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag
sugarcane bagasse, 117 Bohart-Adams model, 66
zinc ions adsorption, 121 Boltzmann constant, 34
Akaike’s information criterion (AIC), Breakthrough curves
42, 73 adsorption reaction models, 72–73
American Society for Testing and Materials Bohart-Adams model, 66
(ASTM), 25, 26 empirical models, 72–73
Antibiotics and mass balance, 64
consumption, 140 Thomas model, 66
GAC and PAC, 141 Wolborska model, 66, 67
MNZ, 142 Yoon-Nelson model, 67
nitroimidazole, 141, 142
TCs, 140, 142
AOPs. See Advanced oxidation C
processes (AOPs) Carbon materials
Aquatic pollutants, 2, 4, 5, 7–10, 13 GAC and PAC, 141
Arsenic, 7 nitroimidazoles, 142
Artificial neural networks, 10 C curves/constant partition isotherm, 28, 29
ASTM D-3860, 25 Chemical activation method
ASTM D-4706, 25 beer waste, 87
Axial dispersion/diffusion, 72 Cu(II) and Cd(II) adsorption, 87
description, 87
KOH reagents, 87
B Chemical adsorption, 20
Backward difference formula (BDF), 71 Chemisorption, 20, 45, 47
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, 123 Clays, 129–131
Batch adsorption system, 2 Coating process
Bed depth service time (BDST), 68–69 crystallinity and functionalisation, 86
BET isotherm and multilayer adsorption, 32, description, 86
38, 39 noble metal nanoparticles, 86
Index 251
polyacrylonitrile fibres, 86 operational parameters, 22

Commercial activated carbons quantification, 22
adsorbent materials, 143, 144 Dubinin–Radushkevich (D-R) isotherm
sludge (see Sludge-derived materials) model, 33
TC adsorption, 197 Dye adsorption
Computationally intelligent data processing activated carbons, 94
algorithms, 10 high KOH ratios, 93
Continuous adsorption system, 2 molecules, 93
Continuous stirred-tank reactor (CSTR), 21 porosity before pyrolysis, 94
Copper ZnCl2-LiCl template, 93
mass, 214 Dyes, 5
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 222 Dynamic adsorption equilibrium, 31
D E
Desorption rate constant, 73 Effective pore volume diffusion, 55
Diffusional mass transfer models Electron transfer, 20
batch systems, 69 Elovich model, 62, 73
breakthrough curves, 72–73 Emerging pollutants, 7–8
discontinuous batch adsorption operation, Empirical models, breakthrough curves, 72–73
55, 56 Equilibrium adsorption isotherm
discretization of transport, 70 capacity curves, 112
effective pore volume diffusion, 55 Freundlich model, 113–114
EMTM, 58 Langmuir model, 113
external mass transfer mechanism, 55 Redlich-Peterson model, 114
finite approximation functions, 71 Sips model, 114
finite difference method, 70 solid and liquid phase concentration, 112
HSDM, 59 Equilibrium isotherm model
intraparticle diffusion mechanism, 55 ASTM, 25, 26
MATLAB, 71, 72 ASTM D-3860, 25
NDFs, 71 ASTM D-4706, 25
nonlinear algebraic equations, 71 C curves/constant partition isotherm, 28, 29
nonlinear least-square optimization, 71 chemisorption, 20
numerical solution, 69 classification, 27
parameter, 72 concentration, 26
PVDM, 58 D-R isotherm model, 33
PVSDM, 56–58 electron transfer, 20
SDM model, 58, 59 equations, 112
second-order central difference fresh surface, 29
approximations, 71 Freundlich isotherm, 32–33
second-order forward difference H curves/high affinity isotherms, 28
approximations, 71 Henry’s law, 30
student t-test, 72 intermolecular interaction, 29
surface diffusion, 55 Langmuir model, 25
Diffusion model L curves/normal/Langmuir isotherms, 28
intraparticle, 162 methylene blue dye, 25
surface and pore volume, 163 monolayer adsorption and Langmuir
Discontinuous batch adsorption, 21 isotherm, 30–31
adsorption reaction models, 60–62 multilayer adsorption and BET
diffusional mass transfer models, 55–59 isotherm, 32
global mass balance, 22 mx subclass, 29
kinetic profile, 55 parameters, adsorbate–adsorbent systems,
mathematic treatment, 22 35–39
252 Index
Equilibrium isotherm model (cont.) G

physical adsorption/physisorption, 20 Gauss–Newton algorithm, 41
regression methods and error analysis, Gear method, 71
40–45 Generalized reduced gradient algorithm, 41
R-P model, 33–34 Global mass balance, 22
S curves/vertical orientation isotherm,
27–28
short plateau, 29 H
solid phase, 20 H curves/high affinity isotherms, 28
statistical physics models, 34–35 Heavy metals
subclasses, 29 activated carbons, zeolite and synthetic
Temkin isotherm, 32 polymeric resins, 110
thermodynamics, 45–47 adsorbent materials, types of, 110
Error function, isotherm model regression, 41 adsorption capacities, 111
Expanded bed adsorption, 21 adsorption of mixture, 103
External mass transfer coefficient, 72 agricultural wastes, 111
External mass transfer model (EMTM), 58, 72 chitin, 111
clay and minerals, 112
copper and cadmium, 97
F industrial activities, 111 (see also Low-cost
f-block metals, 99–101, 103 adsorbents)
Finite approximation functions, 71 membrane filtration and adsorption, 110
Finite difference method, 70 toxicity, 5
First-order kinetic model, 161 traditional treatment process, 110
Fixed-bed adsorption use of, 110
adsorption capacity, 67 water pollution, 96
breakpoint, 63 Henry constant (KH), 30
breakthrough curve, 62, 63 Henry’s law, 30, 35
breakthrough time (tb), 23 Heterogeneity, 212
data analysis, 22, 23 Heterogeneous catalyst
empirical models, breakthrough curves, preparation method and characteristics,
65–67 231–233
exhaustion time (te), 23 and TMSM, 228
LUB concept, 68–69 Homogeneous surface diffusion model
mass balance, 64–65 (HSDM), 59
mass transfer zone, 63 Hummers method, 90
metric length of zone, 23 Hydrothermal carbon (HTC)
operational conditions, 24 adsorption capacity of dyes, 86 (see also
operational level, 62 Adsorption)
progression, mass transfer, 62, 63 advantages, 78, 79
stoichiometric capacity, 67 bayberry tannin, 81
Fixed-bed experiments, 218, 220, 221 biomass pyrolysis, 78
Fluidized bed adsorption, 21 carbonaceous materials, 78
Fluoride, 6–7 characteristics, 85
Freundlich isotherm, 32–33 charcoal/biochar, 78
Freundlich model, 38, 44, 113–114 char preparation, 79
Functionalisation process chemical activation, 87
carboxyl groups, 89 chitin, 81
hydrothermal process, 89 coating process (see Coating process)
lanthanide-doped HTC, 89 experimental parameters, 89
nitrogen atoms, 89 functionalisation (see Functionalisation
post-functionalisation, 89–91 process)
Index 253
hydrothermal process, 81–85 K

lignocellulosic materials, 81 Kinetics
micro-/mesoporous, 86 adsorption reaction models, 54
monolith density, 85 commercial applications, 115
origins of HTC, 79, 80 diffusional models, 54
physical and thermal activation, 87–88 discontinuous batch systems (see
processes diagram, 80 Discontinuous batch adsorption)
vs. pyrolytic carbonisation, 91–92 first-order kinetic model, 115–116, 161
pyrolytic carbons and activation, 85 fixed-bed adsorption (see Fixed-bed
“salt-templating” methodology, 85 adsorption)
waste products, 81 fluid phase to adsorbent, 54
Hydrothermal process heavy metal adsorption mechanisms, 115
autogenous pressure, 81, 82 mass transfer, 54
biomass/water ratio, 84 numerical methods and parameters
experimental parameters, 82, 83 estimation, 69–73
functional, oxygen and functional observable parameters effects, 115
groups, 84 second-order kinetic model, 116–117, 162
gasification and liquefaction, 85
ligand-cellulosic biomass, 84
liquefaction/gasification, 82 L
medium- to large-scale adsorbents, 84 Langmuir isotherm and monolayer adsorption,
moderate temperatures, 81 30–31
organic molecules, 84 Langmuir isotherm model, 25, 26, 32, 38, 113
preparation conditions, 84 L curves/normal/Langmuir isotherms, 28
pyrolysed carbons, 84 Length of unused bed (LUB) concept, 68
water ionisation, 82 Levenberg–Marquardt nonlinear least-square
algorithm, 41, 73
Linear and nonlinear regressions, 40
I Linear least-square analyses, 72
Industrial by-products Linear vs. nonlinear regression methods, 42–45
adsorption affinity, 123 Liquid phase
and adsorption capacities, 125 adsorption isotherms, 24, 26 (see also
aluminum wastes, 122 Equilibrium isotherm model)
BOF slag, 123 kinetics (see Kinetics)
disposal problems, 122 Low-cost adsorbents
equilibrium isotherms, 123 acid activation, 131
fly ash, 122 agricultural waste materials, 117–122
lead adsorption, 124 clays, 131
leather-processing industry, 123 industrial by-products, 122, 123, 125
paper industry, 123 intercalation/pillaring methods, 131
PCBs, 123 marine materials, 124–126
red mud, 123 pseudo-second order, 131
Redlich-Peterson model, 124 uptake capacities, 127, 128, 131
steel industry, 123 zeolites, 126–132
useless waste materials, 122 Lsqnonlin, 72
Initial adsorption rate, 73
Intercalation/pillaring method, 131
Intraparticle diffusion, 55, 167, 168 M
Isotherm Magnetite adsorbents
equilibrium (see Equilibrium isotherm iron oxide-based adsorbents, 235, 237
model) physicochemical changes, 229–230
parameters, 24 protonation and deprotonation, 234
regression, 41 TMSM (see Transition metal-substituted
shape, 24 magnetite (TMSM) synthesis)
254 Index
Marine materials Nonlinear least-square optimization, 69, 71

acid and acid-base treatment, 126 Nonlinear regression, 73
adsorbents, 124 Numerical differentiation formulas (NDFs), 71
chitin and chitosan, 124, 126
seafood processing, 124
seaweed (marine algae), 126 O
Mass balance Oxidation process, 238–240
and breakthrough curves, 64
mass conservation law, 64
Thomas model, 66 P
Mass flux, 65 P- and d-block metals, 97–99
Mass transfer PCBs. See Printed circuit boards (PCBs)
breakthrough curves, 64–65 Pesticides, 94, 95
diffusional models, 55–59 Petroleum coke
mass balance, 64–65 activated carbons
progression, 63 characterization, 155, 156
zone, 63 chemical activation, 153
MATLAB, 72, 73 pHPZC, 156
Metal ions XPS O1s spectrum, 156
f-block metals, 99–103 Pharmaceuticals, 6
metals mixtures, 103 Physical activation method, 87, 88
p- and d-block metals, 97–99 Physical adsorption, 20
pH effect, cation adsorption, 96 Physisorption, 20, 45, 47
properties, 96 Planck constant, 35
Methylene blue dye, 25 Pore volume and surface diffusion model
Metronidazole (MNZ), 142 (PVSDM), 56–58
MODDE 7.0 statistical program, 145 Pore volume diffusion model (PVDM), 58, 167
Monolayer adsorption and Langmuir isotherm, Post-functionalisation
30–31 activated carbons, pyrolytic origin, 89
Monolayer adsorption capacity, 38 Boehm method, 90
Multilayer adsorption and BET isotherm, 32 Cu(II) adsorption, 91
cyano (-CN) functional groups, 91
Hummers method, 90
N mild oxidation and aggressive
Natural organic matter (NOM), 141 methods, 90
Newton method, 69, 71 oxygen functional groups, 90
Nitroimidazoles, 141, 142, 157, 160 phosphate groups, 90
activated carbons stages, 90
chemical properties, 174 Preconditioned conjugate gradients (PCG), 72
diffusional model, 178 Printed circuit boards (PCBs), 123
DMZ, 179 Process intensification
hydrophobicity, 176, 178 life cycle analysis, 12–13
MNZ, 180 modeling, adsorption processes, 10–11
phenolic group, 178 optimization and design, 9–10
RNZ, 179 regeneration of exhausted adsorbents,
surface chemical characteristics, 175 11–12
textural properties, 174 synthesis, adsorbents, 8–9
adsorbent-adsorbate interactions, 183 water sanitation, 8
adsorption isotherms, 180, 181 Pseudo-first-order model, 60, 73, 115, 116
adsorption kinetics, 173 Pseudo-second-order model, 60–61, 73,
carbon S, 174 116–117
Nonlinear algebraic equations, 71 PVDM. See Pore volume diffusion model
Nonlinear least-square objective function, 73 (PVDM)
Index 255
R Surface diffusion, 55, 167

Redlich–Peterson (R-P) model, 33–34, 39, Surface diffusion coefficient, 72
114, 124
Regeneration of exhausted adsorbents, 11
Regression methods T
characteristics, 40 Temkin isotherm, 32
error function, 41 Tetracyclines (TCs)
error-structure of data, 40 activated carbons, 171–173
Gauss–Newton algorithm, 41 adsorbent-adsorbate interactions, 184
generalized reduced gradient algorithm, 41 adsorption
Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm, 41 intraparticle diffusion, 167
linear and nonlinear regressions, 40 kinetics model, 164
linearization, 40 mechanism, 166
linearizations to Langmuir and Freundlich PVDM, 167, 168
models, 40 SDM, 168
linear vs.nonlinear, 42–45 surface diffusion, 167
model accuracy, 41–42 textural and chemical
nonlinear forms, 40 parameters, 166
numerical algorithms, 41 carbon materials, 142
statistical regression methods, 40 carbon S, 185
Rice husk ash (RHA), 122 characteristics, 194
chemical structures, 157, 159
dispersion interactions, 184
S food additive, 140
Safe drinking water, 2 Freundlich’s equation, 183, 186
“Salt-templating” methodology, 85 Langmuir’s equation, 182, 186
S curves/vertical orientation isotherm, 27, 28 montmorillonite, 142
SDM model, 58, 59 sludge-derived adsorbents, 185
Second-order central difference TNZ adsorption, 193, 196
approximations, 71 water types, 194, 195
Second-order forward difference Thermal activation method, 88
approximations, 71 Thermodynamics
Second-order kinetic model, 162 adsorption parameters, 24
Simulated moving bed adsorption, 21 chemisorption, 45, 47
Simultaneous adsorption, 4 equilibrium, 34, 46
Sips (Langmuir-Freundlich) model, 114 molar concentration, 47
Sludge-derived materials negative values, 47
adsorbent parameters, 45
binding agent properties, 151–153 physisorption, 45, 47
chemical activation, 145, 147 regression and parameter estimation, 47
plant sludge treatment, 146 solid–liquid adsorption system, 46
textural characterization, 149–151 standard enthalpy change, 45
thermal pyrolysis, 145 standard Gibbs free energy change, 45
composting techniques, 144 Van’t Hoff plot, 46
humic acid, 145 Thomas model, 66
linear model, 145, 147 Transition metal-substituted magnetite
orthogonal model, 147–149 (TMSM) synthesis
Solid–liquid adsorption, 20, 45, 46 coprecipitation approach, 228
Statistical physics models, 34–35 Fe2+/Fe3+ cations, 228
Statistical regression methods, 40 Fenton reaction, 238
Stock solutions, 26 FeIII species, 229
Stoichiometric capacity, 67 preparation set up, 230
Student t-test, 72 reactions, 229
Sum of square error (SSE), 40, 43 structural dislocations, 228
256 Index
V Water treatment
Vanadium adsorption, 39 activated carbon, 132
van der Waals interactions, 47 adsorption process, 227
Van’t Hoff plot, 46 aluminum industry wastes, 122
AOPs, 227
applications, 110
W Fenton chemistry, 227
Water pollution control fly ash reuse, 122
arsenic, 7 methods, 226
dyes, 5 Wolborska model, 66, 67
emerging pollutants, 7–8
fluoride, 6–7
heavy metals, 5, 96, 226 Y
lack of safe drinking water, 2 Yoon-Nelson model, 67
pharmaceuticals, 6
resources, 2
Water purification, 2 Z
Water sanitation, 2, 4, 7, 8 Zeolites, 126–132

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What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the challenges discussed regarding water pollution control using adsorption systems?

What are some of the challenges discussed regarding water pollution control using adsorption systems?

Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet

Hilda Elizabeth Reynel-Ávila

ISBN 978-3-319-58135-4 ISBN 978-3-319-58136-1 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017943969

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Adsorption is a competitive technology for the treatment and purification of

Aguascalientes, México Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet

2.4 Adsorption Isotherm Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

6.3 Kinetic Study of the Adsorption of Tetracyclines

8.3 Physicochemical Changes in Modified Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Pietro Altimari Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome,

Raúl Ocampo-Pérez Center of Research and Postgraduate Studies, Faculty of

Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet, Didilia Ileana Mendoza-Castillo,

Abstract This chapter covers fundamental aspects of adsorption process engineering.

Keywords Adsorption • Water sanitation • Process intensification • Aquatic

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1

1.1 Adsorption: A Cost-Effective Technology for Water

Water pollution control is a major environmental concern worldwide. For example,

protection. They include aluminas (Kasprzyk-Hordern 2004), zeolites (Koshy and

1.2 Priority Pollutants in Water Purification

There is a great variety of water pollutants with a wide range of physicochemical

due to their persistence in the environment, bioaccumulation, and toxicological

1.2.1 Heavy Metals

Metallic species represent a significant proportion of the pollutants contained in the

Pharmaceuticals are considered as one of the emerging hazardous water pollutants

Fluoride is recognized by the World Health Organization as a toxic geogenic

serious disruptions to these important biochemical processes (Tomar and Kumar

1.2.6 Emerging Pollutants

In recent years, the advances in analytical instrumentation and techniques have

1.3 Adsorption Process Intensification

Process intensification is an engineering strategy to improve the performance,

1.3.1 Synthesis of Tailored Adsorbents

Fig. 1.1 Engineering

than that obtained for inorganic compounds including geogenic chemicals. It is

1.3.2 Optimization and Design of Adsorption Systems

Adsorbent performance in water treatment is a nonlinear function of several

packed-bed columns is a function of both the operating conditions and bed

1.3.3 Modeling of Adsorption Processes

1.3.4 Regeneration and Final Disposal of Exhausted

Regeneration of exhausted adsorbents is a fundamental stage to establish the

microorganisms (Salvador et al. 2015a, b). The recovery of adsorption capacity is

1.3.5 Life Cycle Analysis

1.4 Scope and Outline of Chapters

for the preparation of hydrochars. Physicochemical properties of hydrochars are

Loganathan P, Vigneswaran S, Kandasamy J, Naidu R (2013) Defluoridation of drinking water

Sani T, Gómez-Hortiguela L, Pérez-Pariente J, Chebude Y, Dı́az I (2016) Defluoridation

Jeferson Steffanello Piccin, Tito Roberto Sant’Anna Cadaval Jr.,

Abstract Adsorption is a fundamental unit operation used for several purposes in

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 19

Keywords Adsorption • Equilibrium • Isotherms • Liquid phase • Modeling

can be electrostatic, hydrogen bonds, van der Waals, or dipole–dipole (Bergmann

Fig. 2.1 Schematic representation of a discontinuous batch adsorption operation

In discontinuous batch operations, a simple mathematic treatment is normally