01 Concrete

BUILDING MATERIALS AND
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
ar. rey m. evangelista

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STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION
TOPICS STRUCTURAL STEEL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEMS

STEEL COLUMNS & CONNECTIONS
STEEL BEAMS & CONNECTIONS
OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS
METAL DECKING
STEEL TRUSSES & RIGID FRAMES
STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS
STEEL WELDING

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STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION
1. STRUCTURAL STEEL FLOOR FRAMING

SYSTEMS
Structural steel girders, beams, and columns are
used to construct a skeleton frame for structures
ranging in size from one-story to skyscrapers.
Because structural steel is difficult to work with on
site, it is normally cut, shaped, and drilled in a
fabrication shop according to design
specifications; this can result in relatively fast,
precise construction of a structural frame.

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STRUCTURAL STEEL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEMS
FIREPROOFING
Structural steel may be left exposed in unprotected

non-combustible construction, but because steel
can lose strength rapidly in a fire, fire-rated
assemblies or coatings are required to qualify
as fire-resistive construction.

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1.1 ONE-WAY BEAM SYSTEM

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1.1 ONE-WAY BEAM SYSTEM

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1.2 TWO-WAY BEAM SYSTEM

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1.2 TWO-WAY BEAM SYSTEM

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1.3 THREE-WAY BEAM SYSTEM

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1.3 THREE-WAY BEAM SYSTEM

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2 STEEL COLUMNS & CONNECTIONS
2.1 TYPES OF STEEL COLUMNS
Steel columns are of the following types:

a. Struts of one or two angles. These are used for
compression members in roof trusses, light towers, and
lattice girders. The two angles of a double struts are
riveted together by rivets driven through washers placed
between the two angles at intervals of 4 to 6 ft.

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2.1 TYPES OF STEEL COLUMNS
b. Starred angles of two or four connected by

batten plate spaced at intervals of 3 to 4ft.
These are used to support the light loads.

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c. Latticed Columns
made up of channels or
angles connected by
lattice bars are often
used where light loads
are to be supported on
long columns.

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d. Rolled H-columns.
These are obtainable
with depths ranging
from 6” to 16” and are
now commonly used
instead of built-up
columns in steel
skeleton construction.

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e. Built-up Columns. These are usually of H-

shaped section formed by a combination of
plates and angles although box columns with
two or more webs are not uncommonly used in
heavy building frames.

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f. Top Chord sections of

heavy trusses are usually
unsymmetrical and are made
of two rolled or built-up
channel sections and a cover
plate. The open (bottom) side
of the section is latticed.

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g. Columns for bents are

sometimes made up of a pair
of channels and an I – beam
with batten plates at intervals
of 3 to 4 ft. connecting the
flanges of the channels.
Columns made of four angles
and a web-plate are
commonly used in mill
building bents.

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h. Battened columns are

those in which two
component parts of the
column are connected only
by batten plates. They are
decidedly inferior to latticed
columns and should be
avoided if a continuous plate
or latticing can be used
instead.

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2.2 LALLY COLUMNS
These are columns made up of a
cylindrical steel pipe shell filled with
1:1-1/2:3 Portland cement concrete.
The standard type of lally column is
reinforced with only the steel pipe
shell.
Special types of columns are
obtainable with additional
reinforcement consisting of steel pipe,
reinforcing bars or structural steel
shapes.
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2.3 COMPOSITE COLUMNS

Columns in which a concrete core is further reinforced with a steel
or cast-iron core designed to support a part of the load.
Steel cores - structural H-

sections or four angles,
latticed or battened; usually
either solid shafts or hollow
pipe sections.
may be reinforced by vertical
rods or bars placed at the
circumference and enclosed
by spirals.

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COLUMN BASES
NO-SHRINK
GROUT
ANCHOR BOLT

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COLUMN SPLICES

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3.1 TYPES OF STEEL
BEAMS
Steel beams may be

rolled in the shape of the
letter I (I-beams), channel
beams or angles. Beams
of T shape were formerly
used but have now been
restricted to minor uses.
The I-beam is the ideal
type of steel beam.

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GIRDERS
May be built up of angles and plates riveted together for long
spans and for unusual cases of very heavy loading.
a. Plate Girders. a beam composed of a wide plate,

known as a web, at the top and bottom of which are
riveted angles and plates.
The simplest type of plate girder consists of a web and
four flange angles.
Cover plates may be added to give
sufficient flange area. The web is
reinforced against buckling by
angles riveted to its sides,
(stiffener angles).
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b. Box Girders. This is a built up

beam in which more than one web
plate is used.

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Beams and girders may be connected to columns by

either seated connections or framed connections.
In a seated connection
the bottom flange of the
beam rests on and is
field-riveted to an angle
shop-riveted to the
flange or web of the
column. Another angle
is field-riveted to the
column and to the top
flange of the beam.
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In a framed connection the web of the beam or

girder is connected by angles or by gusset-plates
to the column. In framed connections, angle seats
are usually shop-riveted to the columns to hold the
beam or girder during erection.

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3.2 STEEL BEAM
CONNECTIONS
A. MOMENT CONNECTIONS
AISC Type 1 – also called Rigid
Frame connections are able to
hold their original angle under
loading by developing a
specified resisting moment,
usually by means of plates
welded or bolted to the beam
flanges and the supporting
column.

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MOMENT CONNECTIONS

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B. SHEAR CONNECTIONS
AISC Type 2 – Simple Frame connections are made
to resist only shear and are free to rotate under
gravity loads. Shear walls or diagonal bracing is
required for lateral stability of the structure.

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SHEAR CONNECTIONS

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C. SEMI-RIGID CONNECTIONS
AISC Type 3 – Semi-Rigid Frame connections
assume beam and girder connections possess a
limited but known moment resisting capacity.

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4 OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS
Open web joists are lightweight, shop fabricated

steel members having a trussed web.
K-series joist has a web consisting of a single bent
bar, running in a zigzag pattern between the upper
and lower chords.
LH- and DLH-series joists have heavier web and
chord members and are for increased loads and
spans with criss-crossed diagonal bracing .

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METAL DECKING
5 METAL DECKING
Metal decking are corrugated steel panels used as a

working platform during construction and eventually
as formwork for sitecast concrete slab.

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METAL DECKING
The decking panels are secured with puddle-welds or

shear welded through the decking to the supporting
steel joists or beams. The panels are fastened to
each other along their sides with screws, weld, or
button punching standing seams.

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METAL DECKING
THREE MAJOR TYPES OF METAL DECKING:
5.1 FORM DECKING

serves as a permanent formwork for a
reinforced concrete slab until the slab can
support itself and its live load.

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METAL DECKING
5.2 COMPOSITE DECKING

serves as a tensile reinforcement for the concrete slab
to which it is bonded with embossed rib pattern.
Composite action between the concrete slab and the
floor beams or joists can be achieved by welding shear
studs through the decking to the supporting beam
below.

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METAL DECKING
5.3 CELLULAR DECKING
manufactured by welding a corrugated sheet to a flat
steel sheet, forming a series of spaces or raceways for
electrical and communications wiring; special cutouts
are available for floor outlets. The decking may serve
as an acoustic ceiling when the perforated cells are
filled with glass fiber.

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6 STEEL TRUSSES & RIGID FRAMES

6.1 ROOF TRUSSES
TRUSS
is a structural framework composed of :
- top chord - The upper members of a truss
- bottom chord - The lower member of truss
- web members - The members of the truss which
are framed between and join the top and bottom
members

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TOP-CHORD : always in compression

BOTTOM CHORD : in tension
= flanges of a steel beam
WEBS: either in compression or tension:
COMPRESSION WEB when in compression
TENSION WEB when in tension
COUNTERBRACE when designed for both
COUNTER – partial loading with zero stress

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TERMINOLOGIES STEEL TRUSSES & RIGID FRAMES
BENT- When a truss is supported at its ends by

columns, the truss together with its columns, considered
as a unit
JOINT or PANEL JOINT - The intersection between two
or more members of the truss
PANEL or PANEL LENGTH - and the distance between
two adjacent joints along either the top or bottom chords.
PANEL - The quadrangular space, crossed by an
inclined web-member; The axes of all members at each
joint should always meet in a common point.

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SPAN - is the distance between the centers of the

supports
RISE - is the distance between the apex of the truss and
the line joining the points of support.
PITCH - is the ratio of the rise to the span for a truss
symmetrical about its center line.
SLOPE of an inclined member - is the tangent of the
angle of inclination with the horizontal, usually specified
in inches rise per 12” run.
BAY - The portion of the roof between two adjacent
trusses
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6.2 TYPES OF TRUSSES
A. RELATIVE TO THE NUMBER AND
ARRANGEMENT OF THE MEMBERS COMPOSING
THE TRUSS
1. Complete Frame. A complete structural frame, or
truss, is one which is made up of the minimum
number of members required to provide a complete
system of triangles fixing the relative positions of a
given number of panel joints.
If the number of panel points in the given structure and
n = the number of necessary members,
:. n = 2p – 3
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2. Incomplete Frame. One in which the number

of members is less than that required by the
equation given above.
3. Redundant Frame. A redundant frame is one

which contains more members than that
required by the equation given above.

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B. RELATIVE TO FORM
1. Triangular 4. Scissors
SCISSORS
DOUBLE HOWE
2. Quadrangular
5. Arched
WARREN
3. Crescent
CAMBERED
BOWSTRING

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C. RELATIVE TO METHOD OF SUPPORT
1. Simple Truss. A truss supported at each end-

point.
Panel Length
Peak
Truss Plate Continuous Lateral Brace
Top Chord
Slope
Heel Pitch
Web
Bottom Chord Splice

Wedge Block
Bearing Point Panel Point
Span (Out to Out of Bearings) Cantilever
Overhang Bottom Chord Length

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2. Overhanging end span. A truss supported at one

end-joint and other joint not an end-joint.
3. Cantilever span. A truss where the entire support

is at one end only.
Panel Length
Peak
Truss Plate Continuous Lateral Brace
Top Chord
Slope
Heel Pitch
Web
Bottom Chord Splice

Wedge Block
Bearing Point Panel Point
Span (Out to Out of Bearings) Cantilever
Overhang Bottom Chord Length

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D. RELATIVE TO ARRANGEMENT OF THE WEB-BRACING SYSTEM
FINK
SAWTOOTH
HOWE
WARREN
PRATT
SCISSORS
PETTIT

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6.3 RIGID FRAMES
Rigid frames consist of two columns and a beam or

girder that are rigidly connected at their joints.
Applied loads produce axial, bending and shear forces
in all members of the frame since the rigid joints
restrain the ends of the members from rotating freely.
In addition, vertical loads cause a rigid frame to
develop horizontal thrusts at its base.

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A rigid frame is statically indeterminate and rigid only

in its plane.

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7 STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING SYSTEMS
7.1 ARRANGEMENT OF VERTICAL COMPONENTS

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7.2 STRENGTHENING THE FRAMING SYSTEM

The framing system can be stiffened against horizontal
forces in the following three (3) methods:
1. The structure is composed of rigid
frames which may comprise some
hinged joints but there must be
sufficient rigid joints to ensure that
none of the nodes of the frame is free
to move sideways. The members may
be straight or curved and a variety of
shapes may be chosen for such
framed structure.

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2. A bracing system which consists of a
triangulated framework of rolled
sections will hold the joints together
and further strengthen the
framework against lateral loads.
The joints are conventionally assumed

to be hinged, so that the members are
either ties or struts, loaded purely in
tension or compression, respectively.
However, the overall bracing effect of a
lattice system can be enhanced by
constructing it with stiff members and
rigid joints.

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3. Finally, shear walls in the form of more or less

solid diaphragms, usually of reinforced concrete,
transmit the wind and earthquake forces by shear
and bending.

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7.3 The Ultimate Structures for Skyscrapers
– THE TUBULAR FRAME
The high-rise building conceived as a rigid tube ---

If a high-rise building is of suitably compact shape on plan
(circular, square, not too narrow a rectangle), the external
columns can be structurally merged with the external
lattice bracing or with spandrel girders so as to form a
vast rigid tube. This stiffening system is particularly
effective and economical. This is due not only to the
optimum distribution of the bracing, but also more
particularly to the co-operation of all the columns and
bracing or spandrel girders in the external walls.

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The John Hancock Center, Chicago

(architects: Graham and Skidmore, Owings
and Merrill) employs the tube in its
framing system. In this 335 m high
100-story building, all the horizontal
forces are transmitted through
external bracing, whereby a
substantial saving has been achieved
in comparison with a bracing system
located in the interior. The external
lattice members form a distinctive
architectural feature.
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STEEL WELDING
8 STEEL WELDING
Welding has become fully accepted as a

means of joining steel structural members in
buildings because it has the inherent
advantage of fusing the metals to be joined,
thereby simplifying connections and
fabricating operations.

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STEEL WELDING
8.1 DEFINITION OF FUSION WELDING (ELECTRIC ARC
WELDING)
The fusion welding process employs an electric arc,

wherein energy in the form of heat is supplied by
establishing an arc between the base or parent metal (the
parts to be joined) and a metal electrode. As the arc is
formed, tremendous heat is concentrated at the point of
welding. Instantly, the materials are at melting-point
temperature. The parent metal melts in a small pool and
additional metal supplied by the electrode is transferred
through the arc an deposited in the pool. As the electrode
continues along the joint, the molten metal left behind
solidifies to form the weld.

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STEEL WELDING
8.2 COATED ELECTRODES
Most welding is done with coated electrodes. The function of

the coating is to form a gaseous shield, which protects the
arc and molten metal from contact with the air. Oxides and
nitrides resulting from contact with the air tend to produce
brittle welds. The coating also forms a slag-fuse shield, which
floats above the molten metal, protecting it from the
atmosphere. The slag is easily removed after the weld has
cooled.
The size and strength of weld is determined by the length of

its leg.

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STEEL WELDING

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STEEL WELDING
8.3 TYPES OF WELD
FILLET WELD – is of
approximately triangular
section joining two
surfaces approximately at
right angles to each other.
The fillet weld is the most
common type of weld used
in structural work.

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STEEL WELDING
GROOVE WELD – is made by
depositing filler material in a groove
between two members to be joined.
The standard types of grooves are
square, V, bevel-U, and J. With the
exception of the square groove, all
grooves may be either single or double.
PLUG /SLOT WELD – is made of a
circular hole (plug) or an elongated hole
(slot) in one member of a lap joint,
joining that member to the portion of
the surface of the other member that is
exposed through the hole.

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STEEL WELDING
8.4 WELD POSITIONS
There are four positions in welding. In order of economy, they

are the flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead positions.
Overhead welds, which is the most difficult, should be avoided
whenever possible.

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STEEL WELDING
8.5 WELD JOINTS
The three most common joints used in structural work are the
butt, T, and lap joints. Other types are the edge and
corner joints. Fillet welds are applicable to T, lap, and corner
joints; groove welds are applicable to all joints with the
exception of lap joints.

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STANDARD WELDING SYMBOLS STEEL WELDING

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STEEL WELDING
WELDING SYMBOLS – Examples of use

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STEEL WELDING
WELDING SYMBOLS – Examples of use

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END OF
STEEL CONSTRUCTION

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BUILDING MATERIALS AND

ar. rey m. evangelista

TOPICS STRUCTURAL STEEL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEMS

ar. rey m. evangelista

1. STRUCTURAL STEEL FLOOR FRAMING

ar. rey m. evangelista

Structural steel may be left exposed in unprotected

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ar. rey m. evangelista

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Steel columns are of the following types:

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b. Starred angles of two or four connected by

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e. Built-up Columns. These are usually of H-

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f. Top Chord sections of

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g. Columns for bents are

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h. Battened columns are

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2.3 COMPOSITE COLUMNS

Steel cores - structural H-

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Steel beams may be

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a. Plate Girders. a beam composed of a wide plate,

b. Box Girders. This is a built up

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Beams and girders may be connected to columns by

In a framed connection the web of the beam or

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4 OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS

Open web joists are lightweight, shop fabricated

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Metal decking are corrugated steel panels used as a

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The decking panels are secured with puddle-welds or

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THREE MAJOR TYPES OF METAL DECKING:

5.1 FORM DECKING

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