Factors affecting the lifespan of cast

refractory linings: a general overview

by N. Patel*

Material selection must be based on a

combination of the three major wear factors:
Synopsis mechanical, chemical, and thermal. These all
induce different stresses in the lining and are
Many factors, from engineering and design to supply, installation,
and operation affect the service lifespan of cast refractory linings. If a
all application-specific. In addition to the
shortcoming occurs at any of these stages, the lining lifespan can be material type and selection, the engineering
drastically reduced. Although not every aspect that can affect a cast and design process for cast linings must also
refractory lining’s lifespan is outlined here, a few key points are assess the type of anchoring system that will
highlighted, with an emphasis on the various installation parameters. be implemented to support the refractories
during operation.
Keywords
Options such as the inclusion of stainless
cast linings, refractory lifespan, lining engineering and design, lining
supply, lining installation, curing, dry-out.
steel fibres in a cast lining may help increase
the lining lifespan. Again, the inclusion of
such a material must be carefully engineered
and designed in order to ensure it is fit for
purpose and will not lead to any detrimental
Engineering and design effects. The addition of stainless steel fibres
can help increase the spalling resistance of cast
The engineering and design of any refractory
linings through the increase in tensile strength
lining is a complex discipline that requires a
that the fibres offer. Consequently, cast linings
detailed knowledge of the process or operation,
often utilize stainless steel fibres when
together with a knowledge of the available
mechanical stresses are important or when a
refractory materials and their properties. The
lining is subject to thermal cycling or repeated
success of a refractory lining is critical to a
thermal shocks.
plant’s operational performance and the safety
There is a fine balance in determining the
of its personnel and surrounding environment.
proportion of stainless steel fibres required.
Therefore, optimal refractory selection for each
Typically, the fibre addition ranges between
specific application is of great importance.
2–4% by weight. Although the fibres add to
Although not a performance criterion,
the lining’s mechanical strength and thermal
economic decisions typically influence the final
shock resistance, additions above 3% may
selection, and the most technically suited
have a detrimental influence on the mixing
refractory material may not necessarily be
characteristics of the castable, as well as its
chosen. The balance between economics and
fluidity. Fibre balling may occur, where the
performance is often a trade-off for a particular
fibres tend to clump together and form a ball
lining design, even though it may not result in
within the cast lining. If left in a castable lining
the longest lifespan in service.
as such, the balls of fibre may lead to a
The critical initial step for any refractory
decrease in the lining life or even failure in
design is to understand the process
some severe cases.
metallurgy. Operating conditions such as
temperature, pressure, chemical attack,
thermal shock, abrasion, erosion, mechanical
movement, vibration, and stress can all affect
the life of a cast lining. For example, an
operating temperature above the refractory
maximum service temperature can weaken or
* AnMar-BRS Africa.
melt the refractory, which may lead to a
© The Southern African Institute of Mining and
decrease in the lining life or failure of the
Metallurgy, 2013. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper
lining. Thus, accurate knowledge of operating was first presented at the, Refractories 2013
temperature and its variability is crucial Conference, 23–24 April 2013, Misty Hills
information to have during the engineering Country Hotel and Conference Centre, Cradle of
and design of the lining. Humankind, Muldersdrift, South Africa.
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The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy VOLUME 113 AUGUST 2013 637
Factors affecting the lifespan of cast refractory linings: a general overview
The success of a refractory lining when installed in a designer must have an intimate knowledge of the refractory
vertical or overhead position is dependent on the success of materials being selected for any given application in order to
the designed anchoring system. A refractory anchor, like the minimize the amount of misleading information being
refractory material selection, must be fit for purpose. The extracted for a lining design.
selection criteria for a given anchoring system can be as Contrary to general belief, the chemical composition of a
complex as for the refractory material itself, but are often refractory material may not be the most important selection
neglected in the engineering and design phase. The anchor’s criterion as a chemical analysis alone gives only composi-
length, diameter, spacing, and orientation are all critical tional information. It does not allow for the evaluation of
factors that must be closely examined. The number of properties such as volume stability at high temperatures or
anchors to be used is dependent on the operating conditions, the ability of the material to withstand stress, slagging, or
the refractory materials used, and the lining thickness. The spalling.
choice of anchor material, shape, number, and size all have a The pore size distribution is a very important parameter.
significant impact on the cast refractory lining lifespan. Like many other aspects of cast linings, the pore size distri-
The installation of the anchoring system is also critical for bution must be balanced between the greater mechanical
the lining life. The anchor installation often involves welding strength and increased resistance to chemical attack
a heat-resistant anchor to a carbon steel shell, and it is conferred by a lower porosity and the increased thermal
therefore imperative that a detailed welding procedure is shock resistance that comes with a higher porosity. Pore size
prepared as part of the design phase. To ensure the anchoring distribution also affects the resistance of the material to slag
system is fit for purpose, the welding procedure should attack and, in turn, the lifespan of the material.
include mechanical testing, chemical testing, and metallo- Cold crushing strength (CCS) values listed on material
graphic examination, with the chemical testing being of the manufacturers’ data sheets can also be misleading if not
utmost importance. The chemical test will confirm that the carefully examined. Cold or room-temperature measurements
weld material will perform as well as the anchor material cannot be used directly to predict how the material will
itself. perform in service. In addition, different CCS results for the
Anchors can fail due a number of different situations that same material can be obtained simply by using different test
commonly arise in refractory linings. For example, procedures. CCS does, however, give a good indication of the
expansion/contraction differences between the anchor degree of bond formation during production.
material and the refractory materials can induce excessive Apart from material properties, other important factors to
stresses in the lining that may reduce the lining life. Errors in consider in the supply of the material include packaging,
the anchor component design, manufacture, and installation storage, and shelf life. As with most refractory materials,
can all lead to a decreased lifespan or even failure of the castables should be stored in dry, well-ventilated areas and
refractory lining. held off the floor, most typically on pallets. This is usually
A common error during the engineering of a refractory not a concern at the refractory manufacturer’s facilities;
lining occurs when refractory material data sheet values are however, adequate storage facilities are rarely found onsite
used for critical lining stability calculations involving the prior to installation. If the castable materials are to be stored
three major wear factors. Using the incorrect or average outside, the bags must be protected from rain or dripping
material property data may lead to critical flaws in the lining water by a fixed waterproof cover. If the bags are further
design, and result in a reduced lining lifespan. It is good protected by plastic sheeting, sufficient ventilation should be
practice to use extreme minimum and maximum property available to prevent water from condensing on the bags.
values in order to account for worst-case scenarios when Although not always possible, storage in high humidity areas
engineering and designing a refractory lining. should be avoided.
The maximum stacking height for castables is often no
more than three pallets high, and should be reduced to two
Supply
pallets high when storing lightweight castables. Packing the
The material data sheet values are often used for engineering castables too high can lead to the consolidation and caking of
calculations and refractory lining designs. However, a data the material in the bottom rows of the bottom pallet.
sheet is not a specification, and often refers to ‘typical’ Castable materials tend to have a nominal shelf life
technical properties, in that it shows the average chemical ranging from 6 to 12 months, depending on the material
and physical properties for a large number of production type. Products that are older than the shelf life should be
batches. All refractory materials will vary in both chemical checked by the manufacturer for setting properties, moisture
composition and physical properties from batch to batch and demand, and mechanical strength prior to use. Increased
even within a batch. It is the responsibility of the refractory setting times can indicate aging, but more importantly, aging
manufacturer to control the variations within acceptable can lead to a reduction in the castable strength and in turn
limits. The consistency of the mix will also play a role in the the lining lifespan.
property and composition variability that may be experienced. Due to the variability in the different materials within and
In essence, the challenge for the manufacturer lies in across the various suppliers it is critical that the guidelines
producing a consistent product repeatedly to ensure that the and specifications for refractory installation are followed
design lining life can be achieved when in operation. carefully. The installation procedures and specifications
In general, the data sheets are based on tests used by the written by the refractory manufacturer are intended to ensure
manufacturer for quality assurance purposes and are not the material will perform as per design in service. Although
intended to be used for determining the suitability of the the procedures and specifications are often very detailed, skill
product for a specific application. Therefore, the engineer or and expertise are required during the installation stage.
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638 AUGUST 2013 VOLUME 113 The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Factors affecting the lifespan of cast refractory linings: a general overview
Installation The mixing time must also be respected. Excessive
mixing generates heat and speeds up the setting time, and
There are many factors during installation that can affect the
insufficient mixing can result in a non-homogeneous batch,
lifespan of a cast refractory lining. It is imperative that good
both of which can lead to a reduction in the cast lining
refractory practices, techniques, skill, knowledge, and
strength. Generally, depending on the material, conventional
experience are implemented by qualified installation
castables are mixed for 2 to 5 minutes and start to set within
personnel.
20 minutes of being mixed, leaving 20 minutes for the
The first important aspect in the installation process is to
transportation of the material from the mixer to the casting
ensure that all the equipment that will be used for the instal-
area for installation. The mixer should therefore be placed as
lation is clean and free of all foreign debris and contam-
close to the casting area as possible, and a single batch
inants. The mixers and vibrators should be regularly cleaned.
should not contain more material than can be installed within
Depending on the type of debris or contaminants present,
20 minutes. This 20 minute time span is often referred to as
flash setting can occur, which can compromise the lining life.
the working time of the castable material.
One of the major factors at the installation stage that
Oiling of the formers prior to the start of installation is
contribute to a cast lining’s lifespan is the water addition.
good practice. Not only does this allow for easy removal, but
The amount of water added to the castable affects the
it also helps prevent moisture loss during setting. The former
properties more than any other factor, and must be measured
material must be carefully chosen to ensure that no moisture
accurately and according to the material manufacturer’s
is drawn from the castable into the formwork during setting
specification. Adding too much water may dilute the binder
and curing.
and weaken the mix, but also leads to a floating of the
It is essential that the refractory castable be vibrated
cement fines to the cast surface upon vibration. Too little
water prevents proper vibration and the ability of the cast to accordingly upon casting. This not only ensures that the
reach its design density. castable flows to all areas of the cast, but also aids in the
The water temperature also plays an important role in the removal of air pockets and air bubbles, which in turn
castable lifespan. Cold water tends to delay the setting times, increases the castable density and strength. A balance must
while hot water tends to accelerate the set and may even lead be achieved, as over-vibration can lead to the segregation of
to flash setting in the mixer. The cleanliness of the water also the components (water from the mix) and weaken the lining,
plays an important role in the quality of the cast lining, and thus reducing its lifespan. It is imperative that at no point
only potable water should be used when mixing the castable during the curing process should the casting be moved,
materials. shaken, or vibrated as these will all interrupt the bonding
Although the environment on site may make it difficult to process. If the bonding process is interrupted, the final cast
achieve ideal installation conditions, steps can be taken to product will most likely exhibit a reduction in ultimate
counteract the detrimental effects. For example, if the strength.
weather is cold, warm water should be used (and vice versa) The final vibrated material will have a wet appearance
to ensure the mix temperature is roughly at room and the rising of the air bubbles to the surface will have
temperature upon casting. ceased. The movement and removal of the vibrator through
Stainless steel fibre additions, if required, should be and out of the castable should be done with skill and care. If
added to the castable after all the refractory and water has the vibrator is forced through the castable or removed too
been added to the mixer. In order to help minimize or prevent quickly, holes, channels, and/or pockets of air can remain or
fibre balling, the fibres should be sprinkled over the mix in form in the lining which can, in turn, lead to a reduction in
order to loosen and separate the individual fibres. It is lining life or to lining failure.
important to note that in castables that already contain fibres, Although an aesthetically pleasing finish is appealing to
the addition of water should be based on the weight of the many clients, excess surface troweling should be avoided
powder and not the weight of the bag. It is also important to when finishing the exposed surface of the casting to the
note that although the addition of the stainless steel fibres necessary shape or level. Trowelling of the surface draws the
may lower the fluidity of the mix, no extra water needs to be water, which carries cement fines, to the surface of the cast.
added to compensate for this loss of fluidity. This produces a cement-rich segregate material on the cast
The anchoring system must be properly installed so that surface that is easily dislodged by heating and cooling cycles.
it behaves exactly as the design intended. Details such as the In addition, it seals the surface and can impede the escape of
anchor spacing and the anchor orientation must be strictly moisture during dry-out.
adhered to in order to prevent failures in the lining. Shear or Curing times and temperatures are also important to the
stress concentrations can be formed within the lining through cast lining life. It is important to allow for a 12-24 hour
the incorrect anchor spacing and orientation on installation. It curing time to allow for the full hydration of the calcium
is also important to ensure that the metal anchors have aluminate binder. Loss of water from the surface of the cast
plastic caps to compensate for linear thermal expansion and before the cement is fully hydrated results in a weaker cast. If
for the difference in expansion coefficients between the the material dries out before the cement has had time to fully
anchor and the refractory material. In order to further hydrate, the castable strength will be reduced significantly.
enhance the anchoring system performance, it is also good At no point during the casting, curing, or drying time
practice to paint the refractory anchor with a bitumen paint to should the castable be subjected to freezing temperatures. If
accommodate any radial expansion throughout the anchor the castable freezes before the hydraulic set is completed, the
diameter and to allow for minimal movement of the lining material’s ultimate strength can be decreased by more than
without inducing additional stresses. 50%. Conversely, at high temperatures, the setting time is
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The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy VOLUME 113 AUGUST 2013 639
Factors affecting the lifespan of cast refractory linings: a general overview
drastically reduced leading to the incomplete formation of the and generic guideline, if at any time during the dry-out steam
required hydrated cement bonds that contribute to the cast’s is witnessed the temperature should be held until no more
ultimate strength. steam is being generated. It should be kept in mind that the
The most critical factor that can affect the cast refractory dry-out sequence and generalizations mentioned here should
lining’s lifespan is the refractory dry-out. This is the last not be replicated for any specific lining dry-out. Rather, the
stage in the installation process, and carries over into the manufacturer’s heat-up schedule should be strictly followed.
start of operation and production during the commissioning When drying out the refractory lining it is also crucial to
phase. The objective of the carry-over is to bring the keep in mind that a temperature gradient will exist in the cast
refractory lining to a condition suitable to commence lining between the hot and the cold faces. In order to properly
operation. dry out castable refractories, thermocouples should be placed
Unfortunately, it is not possible to recommend a standard at both the hot and the cold faces of the lining. This ensures
dry-out schedule to meet all conditions. Due to the variability that once the lining-specific hold temperatures are achieved
of the products, their water contents, and their final desired at the cold face, the free and combined water have been
properties it is crucial that the dry-out procedure, also known removed from the entire lining. A key component of a good
as the heat-up schedule, is obtained from the refractory dry-out is to minimize this gradient as much as possible,
manufacturer for that particular material and that it is inherently reducing the thermal stresses induced in the lining
followed strictly. and increasing the lining lifespan towards its design life.
The main mode of failure during the refractory dry-out is Important heating characteristics include good
spalling, which is often the result of excessive pressurization temperature homogeneity, control of heating and cooling
of entrapped steam that forms upon heating the lining. In rates, and effective heat transfer. One of the worst-case
general, if the refractories are heated up to rapidly, steam will scenarios in drying out occurs when one or all of the dry-out
form quicker than it can escape, resulting in cracking and in burners fail. All precautions should be taken to ensure that
worse cases, spalling and explosion spalling as the internal once the refractory dry-out commences it is not interrupted in
steam pressure exceeds the mechanical strength of the any way. If such a situation does occur, every attempt must
castable. Also, if the refractories are heated in such a way be made to keep the lining warm. When cooling down cannot
that the surface of the cast lining bakes, an impenetrable be avoided it must be done very carefully, and reheating
crust can form that traps the steam within the cast. In such should be carried out as per the original heat-up schedule.
instances spalling is inevitable. The temperature reversal that is experienced in losing a
Cast linings contain two different forms of water, known burner during the dry-out leads to a reversal of the steam
as free water and combined water. The free water in the cast direction back through the lining, but with an extremely
remains in the pores and does not react with the other explosive force.
components in the castable. Free water can be driven off at a Although the main information in this dry-out section
temperature just above the boiling point of water at 100°C. was based on a single lining layer, the general guidelines
The combined water, however, is usually present in the listed here can also be applied to multi-layer linings with an
hydrated compounds of the cement and can be removed at insulation castable at the cold face. Due to the fact that the
temperatures ranging between 150°C to 650°C, depending on insulation castable has a much higher water content, the
the material. drying out procedure must remove the water from the
Typically, once the curing process is complete, the dry-out insulating lining without damaging the hot face castable. In
is commenced by slowly increasing the cast lining addition, with a lining that is heavily insulated, the
temperature by 20–30°C per hour from room temperature to temperature in the dense hot face material rises more rapidly
approximately 110°C, and holding for 1 hour for every 25 and a slower heat up is required. The dry-out for a multilayer
mm of lining thickness. After the first hold is complete, the lining can be done in a number of ways. Drying out the
20–30°C incremental hourly temperature increase is resumed installation slowly, drying out the insulation lining before
until approximately 350°C, where the second hold takes installing the hot face castable, and venting the steel shell
place. Depending on the castable material, a third hold may (creating weep holes) so that moisture can escape from the
also be required. The key is to increase by 20–30°C every cold face instead of the hot face are just some examples of the
hour until the hold points and after each hold. Once the last techniques that can be employed. In instances where none of
hold is complete, the lining temperature can be increased at a these options are possible, such as for pressure vessels, a
rate of 50°C per hour until the required working temperature matrix of 3 mm diameter holes through the hot face castable
for commissioning is achieved. Note that any castable can be spaced every 30 cm can be considered. These holes will allow
heated up at a slower than recommended rate, but never at a the moisture to escape from the insulation through the hot
faster one. face lining without compromising its integrity.
In some instances, in order to allow for a more aggressive Unfortunately, as was the case for the material selection
dry-out schedule, while practicing extreme caution, additions and design, economic considerations often dictate the speed
of low melting temperature fibres such as polypropylene at which a refractory lining is dried out and full production
fibres, for example, can be added to the mix. As the lining is reached. This is not only due to the costs associated with the
heated up, the additional fibres burn out and form permeable dry-out, but more a result of the lost production time
paths for vapour to escape into the atmosphere, thereby (anywhere from 36 hours upwards) entailed in order to
relieving the internal lining pressure and the potential for carefully dry out the refractory lining. What must always be
spalling. kept in mind are the long-term economic losses that can
The key when drying out the refractory lining is to ensure result from the loss in production due to a failed lining that
all the steam has a safe exit path from the lining. As a simple was not dried out properly.
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640 AUGUST 2013 VOLUME 113 The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Factors affecting the lifespan of cast refractory linings: a general overview
Operation the installed refractory lining is experiencing, which leads to
a decreased lifespan for the installed cast lining and in many
The commissioning of the refractory lining is also extremely
cases failure of the lining.
important to the lining’s lifespan. In many cases the dry-out
is fast-tracked and the operation started in order to reach full
production as quickly as possible. Such decisions are often Conclusion
made by personnel that have little knowledge of the effect on There are a number of factors that can affect the lifespan of
the refractory lining lifespan. Typically, the end user rarely cast refractory lining, many of which are not mentioned in
appreciates the amount of effort that goes into the lining this paper. A successful lining requires a fine balance of
design, supply, and installation specifications and many factors, as well as an interdisciplinary attitude by all
procedures, and the importance of these for the final parties involved in the lining design, supply, installation, and
refractory life. end use. A complex combination of knowledge and skills
It is evident that the operating conditions that the lining acquired through education and training by all parties
experiences are critical to its life. Refractory failures can involved is required in order to ensure that a cast refractory
result from the most minor changes in the process lining reaches its full design lifespan. In addition, stringent
operational variables. The difficulty comes in trying to control quality control procedures and checks during every stage of
the process operational parameters closely to those on which the refractory lining, from conception to maintenance, should
the lining was developed. be implemented to ensure a maximum-life refractory lining
If the lining is engineered and designed for a certain set installation.
of operating parameters and conditions and those parameters
and conditions change, so should the refractory material
design to ensure that the lining is fit for purpose. The Reference
conditions that were specified originally in order to accurately Thermal Ceramics. 2002. Conventional refractory castables by casting. Design
engineer and design the lining are no longer the conditions and installation manual. www.thermalceramics.com. December 2002. ◆

The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy VOLUME 113 AUGUST 2013 641