Computer Fundamental PDF
Computer Fundamental PDF
Computer Fundamental PDF
INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER SYSTEM
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Characteristics of Computers
1.3 A Computer System
1.4 Organization of a Computer System
1.5 Evolution of Computers
1.5.1 The First Generation
1.5.2 The Second Generation
1.5.3 The Third Generation
1.5.4 The Fourth Generation
1.5.5 The Fifth Generation
1.6 Classification of Computers
1.7 Applications of Computers
1.8 Limitations of Computers
1.9 Summary
1.10 Check your Progress - Answers
1.11 Questions for Self - Study
1.0 Objectives
Today, almost all of us in the world make use of computers in one way or the
other. It finds applications in various fields of engineering, medicine, commercial,
research and others. Not only in these sophisticated areas, but also in our daily
lives, computers have become indispensable. They are present everywhere, in
all the devices that we use daily like cars, games, washing machines, microwaves
etc. and in day to day computations like banking, reservations, electronic mails,
internet and many more. The word computer is derived from the word compute.
Compute means to calculate.
The computer was originally defined as a super fast calculator. It had
the capacity to solve complex arithmetic and scientific problems at very high
speed. But nowadays in addition to handling complex arithmetic computations,
computers perform many other tasks like accepting, sorting, selecting, moving,
comparing various types of information.They also perform arithmetic and logical
operations on alphabetic, numeric and other types of information. This information
provided by the user to the computer is data. The information in one form which
is presented to the computer, is the input information or input data. Information
in another form is presented by the computer after performing a process on it.
This information is the output information or output data. The set of instructions
given to the computer to perform various operations is called as the computer
program.
Therefore a computer can now be defined as a fast and accurate data processing
system that accepts data, performs various operations on the data, has the
capability to store the data and produce the results on the basis of detailed step
by step instructions given to it. The process of converting the input data into the
required output form with the help of the computer program is called as data
processing. The computers are therefore also referred to as data processors.
The terms hardware and software are almost always used in connection with
the computer.
• The Hardware:
The hardware is the machinery itself. It is made up of the physical parts or
devices of the computer system like the electronic Integrated Circuits (ICs),
magnetic storage media and other mechanical devices like input devices, output
devices etc. All these various hardware are linked together to form an effective
functional unit. The various types of hardware used in the computers, has evolved
from vacuum tubes of the first generation to Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits
of the present generation.
• The Software:
The computer hardware itself is not capable of doing anything on its own. It has
to be given explicit instructions to perform the specific task. The computer
program, is the one which controls the processing activities of the computer.
The computer thus functions according to the instructions written in the program.
Software mainly consists of these computer programs, procedures and other
Computer Fundamentals / 2
documentation used in the operation of a computer system. Software is a
collection of programs which utilize and enhance the capability of the hardware.
2. Answer in brief.
a. Define a computer.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
b. What is software?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
b. Keyboard is
(i) Input device (ii) CPU
(iii) Output device (iv) Storage device
Computer Fundamentals / 4
1.3 A Computer System
Each of these units perform a specific task. However, none of them ca function
independently on their own. They are logically related and controlled to achieve
a specific goal. When they are thus integrated they form a full fledged computer
system.
Input devices are the devices which are used to feed programs and data to the
computer. The input system connects the external environment with the computer
system. The input devices are the means of communication between the user
and the computer system. Typical input devices include the keyboard, floppy
disks, mouse, microphone, light pen, joy stick, magnetic tapes etc. The way in
which the data is fed into the computer through each of these devices is different.
However, a computer can accept data only in a specific form. Therefore these
input devices transform the data fed to them, into a form which can be accepted
by the computer. These devices are a means of communication and inter1 station
between the user and the computer systems.
Arithmetic
Logic Unit
Central
Processing
Unit
Computer Fundamentals / 6
Primary Storage Unit :
This is also called as Main Memory. Before the actual processing
starts the data and the instructions fed to the computer through the input units
are stored in this primary storage unit. Similarly, the data which is to be output
from the computer system is also temporarily stored in the primary memory. It
is also the area where intermediate results of calculations are stored. The main
memory has the storage section that hold the computer programs during
execution.
Thus the primary unit :
- Stores data and programs during actual processing
- Stores temporary results of intermediate processing
- Stores resuts of execution temporarily
Output Unit :
The output devices give the results of the process and computations
to the outside world. The output units accept the results produced by the
computer, convert them into a human readable form and supply them to the
users. The more common output devices are printers, plotters, display screens,
magnetic tape drives etc.
c. The unit of the computer which gives the results of the process and
computations is the ……………
2. Answer in brief
a. Define a system.
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
b. Write the functions of the input unit.
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
Abacus Pascaline
Fig. 1.3 The first Generation Computers
Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented the first mechanical
machine, a rectangular brass box, called Pascaline which could perform
addition and subtraction on whole numbers. This was in the seventeenth
Computer Fundamentals / 8
century.Colmar, a Frenchman invented a machine that could perform the four
basic arithmetic functions of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Colmar’s mechanical calculator, arithometer, presented a more practical
approach to computing. With its enhanced versatility, the arithometer was
widely used until the First World War, Although later inventors refined Colmar’s
calculator, together with fellow inventors, Pascal and Leibniz, he helped define
the age of mechanical computation.
Charles Babbage a British mathematician at Cambridge University
invented the first analytical engine or difference engine. This machine could
be programmed by instructions coded on punch cards and had mechanical memory
to store the results. For his contributions in this field Charles Babbage is known
as ‘the father of modern digital computer’.
Some of the early computers included :
• Mark I -This was the first fully automatic calculating machine. It was
designed by Howard Aiken of Harvard University in collaboration with IBM. This
machine was an electronic relay computer. Electromagnetic signals were used
for the movement of mechanical parts. Mark I could perform the basic arithmetic
and complex equations. Although this machine was extremely reliable, it was
very slow (it took about 3-5 seconds per calculation) and was complex in design
and large in size.
• ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator And Calculator) - The first all electronic
computer was produced by a partnership between the US Government and the
University of Pennsylvania. It was built using 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors
and 1,500 relays and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. The ENIAC
computed at speed about thousand times faster than Mark I. However, it could
store and manipulate only a limited amount of data. Program modifications and
detecting errors was also difficult.
• EDVAC - In the mid 1940’s Dr. John von Neumann designed the Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer with a memory to store both program
Computer Fundamentals / 10
Fig 1.5 Transistors
IBM 1401 was universally accepted throughout the industry and most
large businesses routinely processed financial information using second
generation computers. The machine language was replaced by assembly
language. Thus the long and difficult binary code was replaced with abbreviated
programming code which was relatively easy to understand.
The stored program concept and programming languages gave the computers
flexi bility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The
stored program concept implied that the instructions to run a computer for a
specific task were held inside the computers memory and could quickly be
modified or replaced by a different set of instructions for a different function.
High level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN and ALGOL were developed.
Computers started finding vast and varied applications. The entire software
industry began with the second generation computers.
1.5.3. The Third Generation :
The third generation computers were characterized by:
- Use of Integrated circuits,
- Phenomenal increase in computation speed,
- Substantial reduction in size and power consumption of the
machines,
- Use of magnetic tapes and drums for external storage,
- Design-of Operating systems and new higher level languages,
- Commercial production of computers.
Computer Fundamentals / 12
The Fourth Generation realized Large Scale Integration (LSI) which
could fit hundreds of components on one chip and Very Large Scale
integration (VLSI) which squeezed thousand of components on one chip.
The Intel 4004 chip, located all the components of a computer (central
processing unit, memory, input and output controls) on a single chip and
microcomputers were introduced.Higher capacity storage media like magnetic
disks were developed. Fourth generation languages emerged and applications
softwares started becoming popular.
Computer production became inexpensive and the era of Personal Computers
(PCs) commenced. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer for use in
office, home and schools. In direct competition, the Macintosh was
introduced by Apple in 1984. Tirtie shared interactive systems and user
friendly environments were the features of these computers.
As the computers started becoming more and more powerful, they could
be linked together or networked to share not only data but also memory space
and software. The networks could reach enormous proportions with local area
networks. A global web of computer circuitry, the Internet, links the computers
worldwide into a single network of information.
1.5.5 The Fifth Generation :
Defining the fifth generation computers is somewhat difficult because
the field is still in its infancy. The computers of tomorrow would be characterized
by Artificial Intelligence (At). An example of Al is Expert Systems. Computers
could be developed which could think and reason in much the same way as
humans. Computers would be able to accept spoken words as input (voice
recognition).
Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are
coming together to enable the creation of fifth generation computers. Two such
advances are parallel processing where many CPUs work as one and advances
in superconductor technology which allows the flow of electricity with little or
no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.
• Small Computers :
o Microcomputers:
Microcomputers are generally referred to as Personal Computers (PCs).
They have smallest memory, and less power. The are widely used in day to day
applications like office automation, and professional applications, eg. PC-AT,
Pentium etc.
o Note Book and Laptop Computers :
These are portable in nature and are battery operated. Storage
devices like CDs, floppies etc. and output devices like printers can be
connected to these computers. Notebook computers are smaller in physical
size than lap top computers. However, both have powerful processors, support
graphics, and can accept mouse driven input.
Computer Fundamentals / 14
Microcomputer
• Mainframe Computers:
Main frame computers are very large computers which process data at
very high speeds of the order of several million instructions per second. They
can be linked into a network with smaller computers, micro computers and with
each other. They are typically used in large organisations, government
departments etc. eg. IBM4381, CDC etc.
• Super Computers :
A super computer is the fastest, most powerful and most expensive
computer which is used for complex tasks that require a lot of computational
power. Super computers have multiple processors which process multiple
instructions at the same time. This is known as parallel processing. These
2. Answer in brief
1. What is parallel processing?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. What is analog computer?
_______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. Write 1-2 lines on mainframe computers.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Computer Fundamentals / 16
• Information :This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication,
Internet, networks are all based on computers.
• Education :
The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students
develop the habit of thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem
solving techniques. CDs on a variety of subjects are available to impart education.
On line training programmes for students are also becoming popular day by
day. All the major encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now available in
the digital form and therefore are easily accessible to the student of today.
Creativity in drawing, painting, designing, decoration, music etc. can be well
developed with computers.
1.9 Summary
A computer is a fast and accurate data processing system which ac-
cepts data, performs various operations on the data, has the capacity to store
data and process the data with the set of instructions given to it. The data is the
information provided by the user to the computer and the set of instructions to
The typical characteristics of the computer are its superfast speed, the
accuracy of each and every calculation, and its consistent efficiency. It has
tremendous storage capacity and can store large volumes of data. It is versatile
in the sense that it can be used in a vast range of applications from complex
scientific problems to a child’s game. A system is a group of integrated elements
which are logically related to achieve the goal of the system Each element
performs a specific task assigned to it. A computer system is made up of:
Input Unit: which accepts input data The Central Processing Unit: This
is made up of the Control unit, the Arithmetic and Logic Unit and the Primary
Storage Unit. This unit controls the entire computer system.
Output Unit: This unit gives the results of the computation to the user.
The evolution or development of computers is characterized by generations of
computers. The first generation had very large and complex machines which
made use of the vacuum tube technology. Invention of transistors in the second
generation reduced the size of the computers and the concept of stored program
emerged, as well as higher level languages were introduced. The third generation
was characterised by Integrated Circuits and commercial production of computers.
The fourth generation saw the invention of microcomputers with Very Large Scale
Integration, Networking and introduction of personal computers. The fifth or the
present generation has seen advances in parallel processing and superconductor
technologies.
Computer Fundamentals / 18
1.10 Check your Progress - Answers
1.1
1. a) program
b) calculate
c) hardware
1.2
1. b) Speed
2. a) Input device
3. c) Central Processing Unit
1. a) Main Memory
b) Central Processing Unit
c) Output Unit
d) Control Unit
1.6
1. a) Microcomputer
b) Hybrid Computer
c) Digital
2.a) Multiple processors multiple instructions at the same time. This is known
as parallel processing.
b) Analog computer is a computer in which data (information) is recognised
as a continuous measurement of a physical property like voltage, speed,
pressure etc. Graphical output or readings on a dial are obtained, eg. voltage,
speed, t emperature, pressure can be measured in this way.
c) Mainframe computers are very large computers which process data at very
high speeds. They can be linked into a network and are used in large
organisations and gov ernment departments, eg. I BM 4381.
Computer Fundamentals / 20
NOTES
Computer Fundamentals / 22
Chapter-2
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Input Devices
2.2.1 Punched Cards
2.2.2 Keyboards
2.2.3 Mouse
2.2.4 Light Pen
2.2.5 Joystick
2.2.6 Track Ball
2.2.7 Touch screen
2.2.8 Digitizer
2.2.9 Scanner
2.2.10 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
Device
2.2.11 Voice Recognition Device
2.3 Output Device
2.3.1 Printers
2.3.2 Plotter
2.3.4 Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
2.4 Summary
2.5 Check Your Progress - Answers
2.6 Questions for Self - Study.
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
As seen earlier, computer hardware is made up of the physical
parts of the computer system like the electronic ICs, magnetic storage
media and the mechanical devices. The devices
Computer Fundamentals / 24
2.2.2 Keyboard
The keyboard is one of the most commonly used input device. The
computer keyboard is simHar to a typewriter keyboard. The keyboard has keys
made up of letters, numbers, symbols and special function keys. A display
screen or monitor (Cathode Ray Tube) is used to display the data entered by the
operator with the keyboard. This monitor can also display the results of processing
as well as messages generated by the computer.
A special symbol, called a cursor, indicates the position on the screen.
There are special keys on the keyboard which allow the cursor to move in up,
down, left and right directions. Other special keys on the keyboard include keys
like Tab, Del, Ctrl, Ins, PgUp, PgDn etc.
The keys on the keyboard include :
A-Z : Used to enter alphabets
0-9 :Used to enter numbers
Up, Down, Left, Right(Arrow Keyes): To Move the cursor in the specified
direction
F1-F12 : Special Function Keys
PgUp/PgDn : To movethe cursor up or down by one page
enter: To Move the curaor to a new line
Shift : A Special key To Select the other option shown normal character on the
same key
Num Lock : Activates the keypad on the right side of the keyboard. In the
normal mode this numeric pad works as per the function written below the
number on the key
The mouse is a pointing device. The mouse is used to control and manipulate
cursor movement on the monitor. The mouse usually has three or four buttons
on it and a roller ball which signals the movements made by the mouse on a
flat surface. These movements are transferred to the system. The mouse is
rolled on a flat surface by the user. It can be used independently, but normally
it is used in conjunction with the keyboard to improve the efficiency of the
input operation. The mouse can be used to select data. Also the mouse
makes it possible to move fast from one part… of the screen to the other.
The various types of mouse in use are
- Mechanical mouse
- Optical mouse
- Optomechanical mouse
2.4.5 Joystick
The position and speed with which the joystick is moved is converted into digital
signals by the use of a lever. These signals are then sent to the computer system.
This in turn controls the movement of the cursor on the screen. The joystick is
mainly used in video games applications.
Computer Fundamentals / 26
2.4.7 Touch screen :
A touch panel is a transparent plate which is fitted over the CRT. Input is
registered when a finger or any other object comes in contact with the plate.
There are two types of touch panels :
- Optical touch panels
- Electric touch panels
2.4.8 Digitizer :
A digitizer converts a graphical or pictorial data into digital form which
can be directly entered and stored in a computer. A digitizer is also called as a
graphics tablet. There are two types of digitizers :
2.2.9 Scanner :
Scanner is able to directly enter text and images into the computer
memory. Therefore the duplication work of entering data is eliminated and this
also results in increased accuracy. The speed of data entry also increases.
There are two types of scanners :
- Optical Scanners
- Magnetic Ink Character Recognition devices
• Optical Scanner:
The optical scanner uses a light source and sensor for reading the
information on the paper. It can read characters, pictures, graphics from the
paper.
The common types of optical scanners are:
The Optical Mark Reader (OMR) is capable of reading prespecified marks made
by pencils or pens with the help of light. Light is focussed on the page that is to
be scanned. The reflected light pattern is detected by the device. These types of
scanners are normally used where the data is preprinted for applications eg.
answer papers of the objective tests where the answers are marked with pencils
or preprinted forms.
Bar code reader is a device which reads bar coded data. Data which is coded in
the form of light or dark lines (bars) is a bar code. Bar code readers are normally
Computer Fundamentals / 28
used in applications like labeling of products in retail shops, super markets etc.
A laser beam scanner is used to read the bar code.
The most commonly used bar code is the Universal Product Code (UPC).
In this code the bars are coded as 10 digits. The first five digits define the
manufacturer or supplier, and the remaining five digits denote the actual product
of the manufacturer.
This system allows the user to talk with the computer. The Voice
Recognition System consists of a microphone or telephone into which the
operator speaks. The speech is converted into electrical signals. The signal is
input as the voiqe of the operator. This is matched with an already entered pre-
stored pattern of words called vocabulary. When the closest match is found the
word is recognised. Since each operator may have a different style of speaking,
all Voice Recognition systems are highly operator dependent. Also a separate
vocabulary for each operator is required to be maintained. The advantages of the
Voice Recognition systems are that they reduce the cost of data entry. Also the
operator can move freely while talking into the computer.
Impact Printer
Impact printers are similar to typewriters. They use hammer to strike a
character against an inked ribbon and the impact of the hammer causes the
image of the character to be printed on paper. E.g. Dot matrix printers, line
printers, daisy wheel printers,
Impact Printers are most commonly used because :
- Their functioning is relatively easy
- Multiple copies can be produced at the same time with th help of carbon
paper.
Impact printers are noisy in operation and are subject to wear and tear
of mechanical parts.
Computer Fundamentals / 30
Fig. 2.8 A dot matrix printer, a daisy wheel and a daisy wheel printer
These printers are relatively low in cost and print at speeds of 50-500 characters
per second. The programmer can also define the shape of characters for this
printer. Therefore it is possible to print many special characters, characters in
various sizes as well as charts and graphs on such printers. Dot matrix printers
are very commonly used in most computer systems.
Line Printer:
Line printers are very fast printers which print at speed of 200-2500
lines per minute. These printers are impact printers and normally have 132
print positions per line. Different types of character set are available for
different printers. Line printers are normally used in applications where large
volumes of data are to be printed.
• Laser Printers:
Computer Fundamentals / 32
These printers are used where a very superior quality output is desired. The
image is created on a photo sensitive drum ; with a laser beam. The laser is
turned on and off when it moves back and forward across the drum. It leaves a
negative charge on the drum to which a positively charged black toner powder
sticks. When the paper rolls by the drum, the ink is transferred to the paper.
Laser printers have a buffer memory to store entire pages and hence their speed
is very fast. The biggest advantage of these printers is that no mechanical
movement is involved, therefore they are noiseless in operation. However their
are comparatively expensive.
• Drum Plotter:
• CRT:
An electron beam is moved across a phosphor coated screen to produce
the image. The CRT can be monochrome or coloured. This screen normally has
25 lines and 80 characters.
• Flat Panel Display :
The most common flat panel display is the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
This does not have a picture tube. The other type of display is the gas plasma
screen.
• Flat Panel Display :
The most common flat panel display is the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
This does not have a picture tube. The other type of display is the gas plasma
screen.
• The Video Display Terminal:
The most popular output device in direct access processing is the Video
Display Terminal. These terminals display information instantanously. The monitor
and the keyboard together are called a terminal. The types of terminals are :
DumbTerminal:
This is a combination of a keyboard and monitor which can send or
receive data, but cannot process the data.
Smart Terminal:
A smart terminal has an inbuilt microprocessor. It can perform
arithmetic, logic and control functions. They also have some memory capacity.
Computer Fundamentals / 34
So they can store the data before sending to the processor. They can also
control the cursor movement.
Intelligent Terminal:
This type of terminal also has an inbuilt microprocessor which can be
programmed by the user. These terminals also have limited processing capability.
They can communicate with other terminals and processors.
Answer in brief.
a. What is a terminal? Name any two types of terminals.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
b. What is an impact printer? Name one impact printer.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2.4 Summary
by the user into a form which can be understood by the computer and also
convert output generated by the computer into a human readable form.
Data can be entered in the computer directly i.e. online or after first
preparing it and entering later i.e. offline.
Output Devices:
The common output devices are :
Printer - these are of two types : impact and non impact.
Impact printers produce output on paper and use a hammer to strike a character
against a ribbon.Non impact printers use thermal, chemical, electrostatic and
inkjet technologies to produce output.Some of the commonly used printers are
dot matrix, Line printers, Drum printers, Ink jet printers and laser printers.
Plotter: Plotters are mainly use for output of graphs and drawings. The common
plotters are Flat Bed Plotters and Drum Plotters.
Video Display Terminals : Some of the popular video output devices are the
monitor, Liquid Crystal Display, and a terminal which is a combination of a monitor
and keyboard together.
Computer Output Microfilm : These are highly sophisticated output devices
which record computer output as microscopic filmed images.
1. a) Light pen
b) Mouse
c) Graphics tablet
2. a) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
b) Optical Character Reader
c) Optical Mark Reader
3. a - 3
b-4
c-1
d-2
Computer Fundamentals / 36
2.3
1. a) The monitor and the keyboard together are called a terminal eg. Dumb
Terminal, Smart Terminal.
b) Impact printers are printers which use a hammer to strike a character
against an inked ribbon, the impact of which causes the image of the character
to be printed on the paper, eg. dot matrix printers,
Computer Fundamentals / 38
Chapter : 3
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Primary Storage
3.3 Secondary Storage Devices
3.3.1 Sequential and Direct Access
3.3.2 Sequential Access Devices
3.3.3 Direct Access Storage Devices
3.3.4 Optical Devices
3.4 Summary
3.5 Check Your Progress-Answers
3.6 Questions for Self-Study
3.0 Objectives
This chapter “Primary Storage and Secondary Storage Devices” will enable
the student to understand
• What is a storage unit and the criteria according to which the differenjt types
of storage are ranked.
• Primary storage, secondary storage and the various types of storage devices
and their storage capacities.
• Various concepts related to memory of the computer viz volatile and non-
volatile, random access and sequential access etc.
3.1 Introduction
• Access time:
This is the time required to locate and retrieve a particular data from the
storage unit. A fast access to data and programs always yields higher efficiency.
• Storage Capacity:
Storage capacity is the amount of data that can be stored by a storage
unit. Large capacity of data storage is always desirable.
As seen earlier, the smallest unit of data which the computer understands
is the bit. A group of 8 bits forms a byte. The storage capacity of a computer
system is defined in terms of bytes or words. One kilobyte (1 KB) is 2^ or 1024
bytes, eg. 4 KB memory implies that it can store 4 x 1024 bytes or characters.
Storage capacities of primary and secondary units are measured in
Kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes.
• Cost:
Low cost storage media are always desirable.
Thus, storage units with faster access time, higher storage capacity
and low costs are the ones which are considered to be of a superior nature.
Computer Fundamentals / 40
• ROM:
ROM is Read Only Memory. In this type of memory the data is
permanently stored. The information can only be read and new data cannot be
written onto this memory. However the contents of the ROM are not lost even
when the power is turned off i.e. this memory is non-volatile. Such memories
are also called as field stores, or permanent stores.
There are a number of high level functions which are required to be
performed by the computer system. Such functions are performed by writing
special programs called micro programs. Micro programs generally execute
the low level machine functions. These programs are mainly used as a substitute
for hardware. Such programs can be stored on ROMs and be used again and
again. This results in reducing the hardware of the system. ROM helps to increase
the efficiency of the CPU as it can perform specialized tasks. ROM comes in
the form of a chip. Once information is stored on a R “)M chip it cannot be
changed or altered.
• PROM:
PROM is Programmable Read Only Memory. These are ROMs which
can be programmed. A special PROM programmer is used to enter the program
on the PROM. Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM
cannot be altered. PROM is non volatile ie. data is not lost when power is
switched off.
• EPROM :
Another type of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory. It is possible to erase the data which has been previously stored on an
EPROM and write new data onto the chip.
Cache Memory:
This is a very special type of high speed memory. This memory cannot
be accessed by the user. The main function of this cache memory is to make
the programs and data available to the CPU very fast.
Access time of memory is generally very high as compared to the
execution time of the GPU. Therefore a cache, which is a very small but fast
memory is used between the CP|J and the main memory. This memory also
Registers :
Registers are used to retain information temporarily. These are special
memory units which are not actual parts of the main memory, but allow efficient
movement of information between the various units of the computer system. The
registers receive information, hold it temporarily and make it available as and
when required.
o Accumulator Register:
It holds the initial data, the intermediate results and the final data
of the program under excution.
o Instruction Register:
This register holds the current instruction being executed.
o Input/Output Register:
The function of this register is to communicate with the Input/Output
devices.
Computer Fundamentals / 42
3.1 & 3.2 Check your Progress.
Punched paper tapes were the early devices of data storage. Data is coded onto
a paper tape as a combination of punched holes across the width of the tape.
Each row on the tape represents one character. The data has to be coded on the
tapes using special coding systems. The punched paper tapes are a low cost
storage medium and their storage capacity is unlimited. However, the paper is
susceptible to wear and tear and mishandling. Nowadays, punched paper tapes
Computer Fundamentals / 44
- Tapes are sensitive to dust, humidity and temperature, hence require
proper storage facilities.
• Floppy Disks :
Floppy disks are made up of flexible mylar coated with iron oxide. This
disk is enclosed in a square plastic jacket to protect the surface of the disk from
dust. A floppy disk is to be inserted in the floppy disk drive of the computer
system to read or write information. The read/write head of the drive makes a
direct contact with the floppy disk
Computer Fundamentals / 46
a double sided disk. This disk drive has two heads, one for each side. A single
sided drive has only one head. Floppy disks can also be single side double
density and double side double density depending upon their storage capacity.
Floppy disks are a very popular storage medium since they are small in
size, relatively cheap and can store data on line. Floppy disks are also very
portable. They can be carried form one place to another very easily.
• Winchester Disk
In a Winchester, the disks are permanently enclosed in a sealed
container. The disks are coated with a special lubricant to reduce friction with
the read/write head. This technology allows for an increase in the number of
tracks on the disk, and higher storage density. Winchester disks are fast and
highly reliable. They are used extensively in mirco computers.
• Magnetic Drum :
This is a cylinder whose outer surface is coated with a thin layer of magnetic
material. A motor rotates on the cylinder at a constant speed. Data is
recorded on thetracks of the drum as magnetized spots. A set of stationary
read/write heads arepositioned slightly away from the surface of the drum.
Data is read from and written onto this drum with the help of these heads. The
drum rotates are relatively fast speeds of theorder of a several thousand
rotations per minute. Magnetic drums have faster data transfer rates as
compared to disks. However their storage capacity is limited. Magnetic drums
are rarely used today.
• Optical Card :
The optical card has an optical laser encoded strip which can store
approximately 2 megabytes of data. These cards are the size of a credit card.
Optical cards find use only in specific areas like storing credit records or medical
histories of people.
• Optical Tape:
Optical tapes are similar to magnetic tapes in appearance. However
optical laser techniques are used to write data on the tapes. Like optical disks
optical tapes too are read only storage devices.
3.4 Summary
The storage unit is that part of the computer system which stores the data
and instructions. The two types of storage are primary storage and secondary
storage. The characteristics of the storage unit are access time, storage
capacity and cost..
Primary storage is an integral part of all computer systems. Primary storage is
also called as Random Access Memory. This memory is volatile. The data stored
on this memory is lost when the power is turned off. There are special types of
memories which come in the form of chips. Micro programs which perform low
level machine functions and which are used as a substitute for hardware are
stored on such chips. Such memories are called field stores or permanent stores
Computer Fundamentals / 48
or Read Only Memory (ROM). Data can be permanently stored in this type of
memory. Other similar memories are PROM, EPROM. Cache memory is a special
type of high speed memory. Special memory units are used in computers which
are not a part of the main memory. These units hold data temperorily. These
units are called registers, eg. Memory Address Register, Instruction Register
etc.
Secondary storage devices are used to store large amounts of data.
Secondary storage devices are cheaper as compared to primary storage. However
their data access time is less. Secondary storage is non volatile and stored
external to the computer. There
are two ways in which data can be accessed from the secondary devices,:
sequential access and random access. Punched paper tape, magnetic tape are
sequential access devices. Punched paper tapes are nowadays rarely being
used. Magnetic tapes can store unlimited data and have a high data density.
They are also low in cost and portable. But since information can be accessed
only sequentially, they are slow.
Direct access or random access devices allow the access of data from
any storage location randomly, without having to follow the sequence in which it
has been stored. Magnetic disk is made of a thin mylar platter and coated on
both sides by magnetic material. Data is recorded as magnetic spots on this
disk. A number of such disks are mounted on a disk pack. Each disk is divided
into a number of concentric circles called tracks. All the corresponding tracks in
all the surfaces together are called as a cylinder. These disks are also called
hard disks and can be permanently installed in a disk drive in the computer.
Floppy disks are made of flexible mylar coated with iron oxide. The floppy disks
come in various sizes like 8 inch, 5^4 inch, 31^ inch. Floppy disks are relatively
cheap and can store data online. They are also very portable. Winchester disks
are permanently enclosed in a sealed container. A magnetic drum is a cylinder
whose outer surface is coated with magnetic material. The drums have faster
data transfer rate as compared to disks. However their storage capacity is limited.
Optical laser techniques are used to write data onto optical devices like
optical disks, optical tapes and optical cards. The storage capacities of these
devices are tremendous. But these are permanent storage devices.
1. Discuss what are storage units. What are the types of storage units?
Describe the characteristics of the storage units.
2. Discuss what is volatile and non-volatile memory.
3. Define registers. Write in short about the most commonly used registers
in the computer systems.
4. Explain the methods by which data on a secondary storage device can be
accessed.
5. Describe any two sequential access devices.
6. Describe any two direct access storage devices.
7. What are moving head systems and fixed head systems?
8. Discuss any two types of optical storage devices.
Computer Fundamentals / 50
NOTES
Computer Fundamentals / 52
Chapter- 4
Number Systems
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Non Positional Number System
4.3 Positional Number System
4.4 Conversion
4.5 Shortcut Methods
4.6 Summary
4.7 Check Your Progress-Answers
4.8 Questions for Self-Study
4.0 Objectives
Friends, In this chapter we are going to learn various number systems. The
main features of this chapter are as follows
4.1 Introduction
Number Systems / 53
perform arithmetic with such a number system, positional number system was
developed.
In a positional number system, there are only a few symbols called digits. These
symbols represent different values, depending on the position they occupy in a
number. The value of each digit in such a number is determined by three
considerations.
1. The digit itself,
2. The position of the digit in the number, and
3. The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total
number of digits available in the number system).
In our day-to-day life, we use decimal number system. In this system, base is
equal to 10 because there are altogether ten symbols or digit (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,
and 9). You know that in decimal number system. Successive positions to the
left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. However,
notice that each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example,
decimal number 2586 (written as 258610) consists of digit 6 in units position, 8 in
tens position, 5 in hundreds position, and 2 in thousands position, and its value
can be written as:
(2 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (6 x 100)= 2000 + 500 + 80 + 6 = 2586
Observe that the same digit signifies different values, depending on the position
it occupies in the number. For example,
In 258610 the digit 6 signifies 6 x 100 = 6
In 256810 the digit 6 signifies 6 x 101 = 60
In 265810 the digit 6 signifies 6 x 102 = 600
In 625810 the digit 6 signifies 6 x 103 = 6000
Hence, we can represent any number by using the available digits and arranging
them in various positions.
The principles that apply to decimal number system, also apply to any other
positional number system. It is important to keep track of only the base of the
number system in which we are working.
The value of the base in all positional number systems suggests the following
characteristics:
1. The value of the base determines the total number of different symbols or
digits available in the number system. The first of these choices is always
zero.
2. The maximum value of a single digit is always equal to one less than the
value of the base.
Number Systems
Binary Number System
Binary number system is like decimal number system, except that the base is
2, instead of 10. We can use only two symbols or digits (0 and 1) in this number
system. Note that the largest single digit is 1 (one less than the base). Each
position in binary number represents a power of the base (2). Hence, in this
system, the rightmost position is units (20) position, the second position from
Computer Fundamentals / 54
the rights 2’s (21) position, and proceeding in this way, we have 4’s (22) position,
8’s (23) position, 16’s (24) position, and so on. Therefore, decimal equivalent of
binary number 10101 (written as 101012) is :
(1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20) = 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 21
In order to be specific about which system we are referring to, it is a common
practice to indicate the base as a subscript. Hence, we write”
101012 = 2110
The sort form of “binary digit” is bit. Hence, “bit” in computer terminology means
either a 0 or 1. An n-bit number is binary number consisting of ‘n’ bits. Below
table lists all 3-bits numbers along with number can have not one of the 8 values
in range 0 to 7. In fact, any decimal number in the range 0 to 2n-1 can be
represented in binary form as an n-bit number.
000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
Every computer stores numbers, letters, and other special characters in binary
form. There are several occasions when computer professionals need to know
the raw data contained in a computer’s memory. A commonly used way to
doing this is to print memory contents on a printer. This printout is called a
memory dump. Memory dumps, which are in binary numbers, would have many
pages of 0s and 1s. Working with these numbers would be very difficult and
error prone for computer professionals. Hence, two number systems – octal
and hexadecimal, are often used as shortcut notations for binary. These number
systems and their relationship with binary number system are explained below.
Number Systems / 55
Octal Number System
In octal number system, the base is 8. Hence, there are only eight symbols or
digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7 (8 and 9 do not exist in this system). The largest
single digit is 7 (one less than the base 8). Each position in an octal number
represents a power of the base (8). Therefore, decimal equivalent of octal number
2057 (written as 20578) is :
(2 x 83) + (0 x 83) + (5 x 81) + (7 x 80) = 1024 + 0 + 40 + 7 = 1071
Observe that since there are only 8 digits in octal number system, 3 bits (23= 8)
are sufficient to represent any number in binary (see the above table)
4.4 Conversion
Computer Fundamentals / 56
one base to another. A method of converting from another base to decimal, and
a method of converting from decimal to another base are described below.
Converting from Another Base to Decimal
The following steps are sued to convert a number in any other base to a base 10
(decimal) number.
Step 1 : Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on
the position of the digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 : Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.
Step 3 : Sum up the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent
value in decimal.
Example 4.1.
11002 = ? 10
Solution:
Step 1: Determine Column values
16 8 0 0 1
Number Systems / 57
Example 4.2.
47062 = ? 10
Solution:
Step 1: Determine Column values
Column Number Column Value
(from right)
1 80 = 1
2 81 = 8
3 82 = 64
4 83 = 512
Step 2: Multiply the column values
By the corresponding column
Digits
512 64 8 1
x4 x7 x0 x6
2048 448 0 6
Example 4.3.
1 AC16 = ?10
Solution :
1AC16 = 1 x 162 + A x 161 + C x 160
= 1 x 256 + 10 x 16 + 12 x 1
= 256 + 160 + 12
= 42810
Computer Fundamentals / 58
Example 4.4.
40527 = ?10
Solution :
405216 = 4 x 73 + 0 x 72 + 5 x 71 + 2 x 70
= 4 x 343 + 0 x 49 + 5 x 7 + 2 x 1
= 1372 + 0 + 35 + 2
= 140910
Example 4.5.
40526 = ?10
Solution :
40526 = 4 x 63 + 0 x 62 + 5 x 61 + 2 x 60
= 4 x 216 + 0 x 36 + 5 x 6 + 2 x 1
= 864 + 0 + 30 + 2
= 89610
Comparing this result with the obtained in Example 3.4, we the find
that although the digits (4052) are the same for both the numbers, their decimal
equivalents are different. This is because the number in Example 3.4 is repre-
sented in base 7 number system, whereas the number in Example 3.5 is repre-
sented in base 6 number system.
Solution :40526 = 4 x 63 + 0 x 62 + 5 x 61 + 2 x 60
= 4 x 216 + 0 x 36 + 5 x 6 + 2 x 1
= 864 + 0 + 30 + 2
= 89610
Example 4.6.
40527 = ?10
Solution :
110014 = 4 x 44 + 1 x 43 + 0 x 42 + 0 x 41 + 1 x 40
= 1 x 256 + 1 x 64 + 0 x 16 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 1
= 2562 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 1
= 32110
Number Systems / 59
Example 4.7.
1AC13 = ?10
Solution :
1AC13 = 1 x 132 + A x 131 + C x 130
= 1 x 169 + 10 x 13 + 12 x 1
= 31110
Compare the result with the result obtained
In Example 2.3
The Following steps are used to convert a have 10 (decimal) number to a number
in another base.
Step 1 : Divide the decimal number by the value of the new base.
Step 2 : Record the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least
significant digit) of the new base number.
Step 3 : Divide the quotient of the previous division by the new base.
Step 4: Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left)
of the new number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, recording remainders from right to left, until the quotient
becomes zero in Step 3. Note that the last remainder, thus obtained, will be
most significant digit of the new base number.
Example 4.8.
2510 = ?3
Solution :
Steps 1 and 2 : 25/2 = 12 and remainder 1
Steps 3 and 4 : 12/2 = 6 and remainder 0
Steps 3 and 4 : 6/2 = 3 and remainder 0
Steps 3 and 4 : 3/2 = 1 and remainder 1
Steps 3 and 4 : 1/2 = 0 and remainder 1
Computer Fundamentals / 60
Example 4.9.
4210 = ?2
Solution :
2 42 Remainders
21 0
10 1
5 0
2 1
1 0
0 1
Example 4.10.
95210 = ?8
Solution :
8 952 Remainders
119 0
14 7
1 6
0 1
Example 4.11.
4210 = ?16
Number Systems / 61
16 428
26 12 = C
1 10 = A
0 1= 1
Example 4.12.
10010 = ?5
Solution :
5 100 Remainders
20 0
4 7
0 6
Hence, 10010 = 4005
Example 4.13.
10010 = ?4
Solution :
4 100 Remainders
25 0
6 1
1 0
0 1
Computer Fundamentals / 62
Example 4.14.
171510 = ?16
Solution :
Remainders in Base 12
12 1715
142 11 =B
11 10 = A
0 11 = B
Example 4.15.
5456 = ?4
Solution :
Step 1: Convert from base 6 to base 10
545 = 5 x 62 + 4 x 61 + 5 x 60
= 5 x 36 + 4 x 6 + 5 x 1
= 180 + 24 + 5
= 20910
4 209 Remainders
52 1
13 0
3 1
0 3
Number Systems / 63
20910 = 31014
Therefore, 5456 = 20910 = 31014
Hence, 5466 = 31014
Example 4.16.
1011102 = ?8
Solution :
Step 1: Convert 1011102 to base 10
1011102 = 1 x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 +
= 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20
= 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 0
= 4610
Step 2 : Convert
4610 to base 8
8 46 Remainders
5 6
0 5
4610 = 568
Therefore, 1011102 = 4610 = 568
Hence, 1011102 = 568
Example 4.17.
110100112 = ?16
Solution:
Step 1 : Convert 110100112 to base 10
110100112 = 1 x 27 + 1 x 26 + 0 x 25 + 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21
+ 1 x 20
= 1 x 128 + 1 x 64 + 0 x 32 + 1 x 16 + 0 x 8 + 0 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x1
= 128 + 64 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 21110
Computer Fundamentals / 64
16 211 Remainders
13 3 = 3 in Hexadecimal
0 13 = D in Hexadecimal
Example 4.18.
1011102 = ?8
Solution:
Step 1 : Divide the binary digits into groups of 3, starting
from the right (LSD)
101 110
Step 2 : Convert each group into one digit of octal
(use binary-to-decimal Conversion method).
1012 = 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 4+0+1
= 58
1102 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20
= 4+0+1
= 68
Hence, 1011102 = 568
Compare the result with the result obtained in Example 3.16.
Number Systems / 65
Example 4.19.
11010102 = ?8
Solution:
11010102 = 001 101 010
(Group of 3 digits from the right)
= 1528 (Convert each group to an octal digit)
Hence, 11010102 = 1528
Example 4.20.
5628 = ?2
Solution :
Step 1: Convert each octal Digit to 3 binary digits
58 = 1012
68 = 1102
28 = 0102
Hence, 5628 = 1011100102
Example 4.21.
67518 = ?2
Computer Fundamentals / 66
Example 4.22.
110100112 = ?16
Solution:
Step 1 : Divide the binary digits into groups of 4, starting
from the right (LSD) 1101 0011
Step 2 : Convert each group into one digit of octal
(use binary-to-decimal Conversion method).
11012 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21+ 1 x 20
= 8+4+0+1
= 1310
= D16
00112 = 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21+ 1 x 20
= 0+0+2+1
= 316
Hence, 110100112 = D316
Compare the result with the result of Example 3.17.
Example 4.23.
101101011002 = ?16
Solution:
101101011002 = 0101 1010 1100
(Group 4 digits from the right)
= 5AC (Convert each group to a hexadecimal digit)
Hence, 101101011002 = 5AC16
Example 4.24.
2AB16 = ?2
Solution :
Step 1: Convert decimal equivalent of Each hexadecimal digit to 4
binary digits
516 = 210 = 00102
A16 = 1010 = 10102
B16 = 1110 = 10112
Number Systems / 67
Example 4.25.
ABC16 = ?2
Solution :
ABC16 = 1010 1011 1100
A B C
= 1010101111002
Hence, ABC16 = 1010101111002
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 10 2
3 3 11 3
4 4 100 4
5 5 101 5
6 6 110 6
7 7 1000 7
8 8 1001 10
9 9 1010 11
10 A 1011 12
11 B 1100 13
12 C 1101 14
13 D 1101 15
14 E 1110 16
15 F 1111 17
16 10 10000 20
Computer Fundamentals / 68
Relationship among Decimal, Hexadecimal, Binary, and Octal number
systems.
4.6 Summary
1) Number systems are of two types – non-positional and positional.
2) In a non-positional number system. Each symbol represents the same value
regardless of its position in the number and to find the value of a number, one
has to count the number of symbols present in the number. It is very difficult
to perform arithmetic with such a number system.
3) In a positional number system, there are only a few symbols called digits.
These symbols represent different values depending on the position they
occupy in a number. The value of each digit in such a number is determined
by the three considerations:
· The digit itself,
· The position of the digit in the number, and
· The base of the number system (where base is defined at the total number
of digits available in the number system).
4) In our day-to-day life, we use the decimal number system. In this system,
base is equal to 10 because there are altogether ten symbols or digits.
(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9).
5) Some positional number system that are used in computer design and by
computer professionals are binary (having base 2), octal (having base 8),
and hexadecimal (having base 16).
Number Systems / 69
Fill in the Blanks
1. 255
2. 10002
3. Least Significant Digit & Most Significant Digit.
4. 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
5. 5AC16
Computer Fundamentals / 70
NOTES
Number Systems / 71
NOTES
Computer Fundamentals / 72
Chapter - 5
5.0 Objectives
Friends,
This chapter deals with Boolean algebra and logic gates. After learning this
chapter you will be able to know
· Boolean Algebra
· Logic Gates
· Logic Circuits
· Design of Combinational Circuit
5.1 Introduction
Boolean algebra deals with binary number system. It is very useful in designing
logic circuits used in processors of computer system. In this chapter, you will
learn about this algebra and elementary logic gates used to build up logic
circuits of different types for performing necessary arithmetic operations. These
logic gates are the building blocks of all logic circuits in a computer. You will
also learn how to use Boolean algebra for designing simple logic circuits used
frequently by arithmetic logic unit and almost all computers.
Logical Addition
The symbol ‘+’ is used for logical addition operator. It is also known as ‘OR’
operator. We can define the + symbol (OR operator) by listing all possible
combinations of A and B with the resulting value of C for each combination in
the equation A + B = C. Since the variables A and B can have only two possible
values (0 or 1). Only four (22) combinations of inputs are possible (see the table
below ). The resulting output values for each of the four input combinations are
given in the table. Such a table is known as a truth table. Hence, the below
figure is the truth table for logical OR operator.
Inputs Output
A + B = C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Observe that the result is 0 only when both input variables are 0. It is 1 when
any one or both of the input variables are 1. This is the reason why the +
symbol does not have the “normal” arithmetic meaning, but is a logical addition
operator. This concept of logical addition may be extended to any number of
variables. For example, in the equation A + B + C + D = E, even if A,B,C and D,
all had the value of 1, the sum of the values (the result E) would be 1 only. The
equation A + B = C is normally read as “A or B equals C”.
Computer Fundamentals / 74
Logical Multiplication
The symbol ‘.’ Is used for logical multiplication operator. It is also known as
‘AND’ operator. We can define the symbol (AND operator) by listing all possible
combinations of A and B with the resulting value of C for each combination in the
equation. A . B = C. Below Figure shows the truth table for logical AND operator.
Observe that the result C is equal to 1 only when both input variables A and B
are 1, otherwise it is 0. The equation A. B = C is normally read as “A and B
equals C”.
Inputs Output
A . B = C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Input Output
A A
0 1
1 0
Operator Precedence
Does A + B .C mean (A + B) . C or A + (B . C)? The two generate different values
for A = 1, B = 0, and C = 0 because we have (1 + 0) . 0 = 0 and 1 + (0.0) = 1.
Hence, operator precedence rules are needed to correctly evaluate Boolean
expressions. The precedence rules for Boolean operators are as follows:
1. The expression is scanned from left to right.
2. Expression enclosed within parentheses are evaluated first.
3. All complement (NOT) operations are performed next.
Input A B Output
C = A.B
B
Inputs Output
A B C=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Computer Fundamentals / 76
OR Gate
An OR gate is the physical realization of logical addition (OR) operation. It
is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1, if any of the
input signals is also 1.
Two or more switches connected in parallel behave as an OR gate. Observe
from the below Figure that the input current will reach the output point
when any one of the two switches (A or B) are in ON (1) state. There will be
no output only when both the switches are in OFF (0) state.
A
Input Output
A
C =A+B
B
Inputs Output
A B C =A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
C D = A+B+C
Inputs Output
A B C D = A. B. C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Inputs Output
A B C D = A+ B + C
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Block diagram symbol and truth and truth table for (a) Three-input AND
gate and b) Three-input OR gate.
Computer Fundamentals / 78
NOT Gate
A NOT gate is the physical realization of complementation operation. It is an electronic
circuit that generates the reverse of the input signal as output signal as output signal.
It is also known as an inverter because it inverts the input.
Below Figure shows the truth table and block diagram symbol for a NOT gate. Recall
that complementation operation is unary operation defined on a single variable. Hence,
a NOT gate always has a single input. Below figure also shows that two NOT gates
connected in series given an output equal to the input. This is the gating counterpart of
the law of the double complementation. A = A.
Input Output
A A
0 1
1 0
A A
(a)
A A A =A
(b)
Figure (a) Block diagram symbol and truth table for NOT gate.
(b) Two NOT gates in series.
NAND Gate
A NAND gate is a complemented AND gate. That is the output of NAND gate will
be 1 if any one the input is 0, and it will be 0 only when all inputs are 1.
Below Figure shows the truth table and block diagram symbol for a NAND gate.
The symbol ‘ ‘ is usually used to represent a NAND operation in Boolean
expressions.
Hence
A B = A.B = A + B.
C=A B=A.B=A+B
B
Inputs Output
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
An AND gate followed by a NOT gate operates as a NAND gate (see Figure
above) . In the figure, the output of the AND gate will be A .B that is turn is
fed as input to the NOT gate. Hence, the final output will be complement of
A.B, which is equal to (A.B) or A + B or A B. in fact, the small circle on the
output of NAND gate (see Figure 6.24) represents complementation.
A A.B = A + B = A B
B
Figure Demonstrating NAND gate realization with AND gate and a NOT
gate
NOR Gate
A NOR gate is complemented OR gate. That is, the output of a NOR gate
will be 1 only when all input are 0, and it will be 0 if any input is a 1.
Below figure shows the truth table and block diagram symbol for a NOR
gate. The symbol ‘ ’ is usually used to represent a NOR operation is Boolean
expressions.
Hence A B = A + B = A .B.
Inputs Output
A B C= A 0 B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Computer Fundamentals / 80
A C =A B = A.B + A.B
An OR gate followed by a NOT gate operates as a NOR gate (see the below
figure). In the figure the output of the OR gate will be A +B that in turn is fed as
input to the NOT gate. Hence, the final output will be complement of A +B,
which is equal to (A + B) or A.B or A B. In fact, the small circle on the output
of NOR gate (see Figure below) represents complementation.
Multiple-input NOR gates can be analyzed similarly. A three-input NOR gate
with inputs A,B, and C will have an output equal to A + B + C or A. B. C meaning
that the output will be 1 only when all three inputs are 0, and it will be 0 if any of
the three inputs is a 1.
A A+B
A + B = A.B
= A .B
Logic gates described in the previous section are seldom used alone but are
used in combinations . They are interconnected to form gating/logic networks
known as combinational logic circuits. Boolean algebra expression for a given
logic circuit can be derived by systematically progressing input to output on its
gates. Few examples are given below.
Example
Find the Boolean expression for the output of the logic circuit given below.
D
B
Solution
Input A is fed to the NOT gate, whose output will be A.
Inputs B and C are fed to the OR gate, whose output will be B + C
These two outputs (A and B + C) are in turn fed as input to the AND
gate, whose output will be A . (B + C)
Hence, D = A . (B + C) is the Boolean expression for the output of the
given logic circuit.
Find the logic expression for the output produced by the logic circuit given below.
Solution
The output of the OR gate is
A + B ………… (a)
The output of the first AND gate is
A . B ………… (b)
Expression (b) is fed as input to the NOT gate, whose output will be
A . B ………… (c)
Now, expressions (a) and (c) are fed as input to the second AND gate, whose
output will be (A + B) . (A . B)
Hence, C = (A + B) . (A . B) is the logic expression for the output produced by the
given logic circuit.
A A .B
A .B+C
C
Computer Fundamentals / 82
The desired logic circuit is shown above and it self-explanatory.
Constrict a logic circuit for the Boolean expression
A.B + C.D + E.F.
A A.B AB
E E.F E.F
Design of a combinational circuit starts from the outline of the problem and
ends in a logic circuit diagram.
1. State the given problems completely and exactly.
2. Interpret the problem to determine available input and required output
variables.
3. Assign a letter symbol to each input variable and each output variable.
4. Design a truth table that defines the required relations between inputs
and outputs.
5. Obtain the simplified Boolean expression for each output
6. Draw a logic circuit diagram to implement the Boolean expression.
The design procedure is illustrated below with the design of adder circuits
because addition is the most basic arithmetic operation for any computer
system.
The following four rules summarize addition in binary number system.
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 10
The first three operations produce a single-digit sum, but when both augends
and addend bits are equal to 1, the sum consists of two digits. The higher
significant bit of this result is called a carry. When both augends and addend
numbers contain more than one digit, the carry obtained from addition of two
bits at any stage is added to the next pair of significant bits. A combinational
Design of Half-Adder
From the definition given above, a half-adder needs two binary inputs and two
binary outputs. The input variables designate the augends and addend bits whereas
the output variables and addend bits whereas the output variables produce the
sum and carry bits. Let A and B be the two inputs and S (for sum) and C (for
carry) be the two outputs. The truth table of the Figure defines the function of a
half-adder.
Inputs Output
A B C D
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
S = A.B + A.B
B B
A.B
C = A .B
B
Computer Fundamentals / 84
A half-adder is limited in the sense that it can add only two single bits. Although,
it generates a carry for the next higher pair of significant bits it cannot accept a
carry generated from the previous pair of lower significant bits. A full-adder solves
this problem.
Design of Full-Adder
A full-adder forms the arithmetic sum of three input bits. Hence, it consists of
three inputs and two outputs. Two of the input variables (A and B) represent the
augends and addend bits and the third input variable (D) represents the carry
from the previous lower significant position. Two outputs are necessary because
the sum of three binary digits ranges from 0 to 3 and binary 2 and 3 need two
digits. These two outputs are designated by the symbols S (for sum) and C (for
carry). The truth table of the below Figure defines the function of a full-adder.
The 1s and 0s for the output variables are determined from the arithmetic sum of
the three input variables. When all input variables are 0, the output is 0 for both
C and S. The S output is equal to 1 when only one input is equal to 1, or when
all three inputs are equal to 1. The C output is 1 if two or three inputs are equal
to 1.
Inputs Outputs
A B D C S
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
The sum-of-products expressions for the two outputs can be obtained directly
from the truth table and are given below.
S = A.B.D + A.B.D + A.B.D + A.B.D
C = A.B.D + A.B.D + A.B.D + A.B.D
A A*B* D A
A.B
B
C B
A A*B*D A
B A.D
C S
A S B
B
C A*B*D A B.D
A B
A*B*D
B
C
Computer Fundamentals / 86
The carry output is:
C = (A.B. + A.B.).D + A.B
= A.B.D + A.B.D + A.B.(D+ D)
= A.B.D + A.B.D + A.B.D + A.B.D
This can be simplified, as before, to
C = A.B + A.D + B.D
5.6 Summary
1) Boolean algebra deals with binary number system. That is, the variables
used in Boolean equations may have only two possible values (0 and
1).
2) In Boolean algebra the ‘OR’ operator used for logical addition is
represented by the symbol ‘+’; the ‘AND; operator used for logical
multiplication is represented by the symbol ‘.’, and the ‘NOT’ operator
used for complementation is represented by the symbol ‘-‘.
3) As regards precedence of Boolean operators, ‘NOT’ operator takes
precedence over ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ operators, and ‘AND’ operator takes
precedence over ‘OR’ operator.
4) An Boolean algebra, there is a precise duality between the operators.
(AND and + (OR) and the digits 0 and 1. This property is known as the
principle of duality.
5) A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables, the
two binary operators OR and AND, the unary operator NOT, parentheses,
and equal to sign.
6) Complement of a Boolean function F is F is obtained by interchanging
0s and 1s and 1s for 0s in the truth table defining the function.
7) A sum-of-products expression is a single product term (midterm), or
several product terms (midterms) logically added (ORed) together. For
example, expression x.y and x.y is a sum-of-products expression.
8) A logic gate is electronic circuit that operators on one more input signals
to produce standard output signals. These logic gates are the building
blocks of all electronic circuits in a computer.
9) The logic gates are interconnected to form gating or logic networks
known as combinational logic circuits.
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True
Computer Fundamentals / 88
NOTES
Computer Fundamentals / 90
Chapter 6
Computer Software,
Programming Languages and
Program Development
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction to Software
6.1.1 Application Software
6.1.2 System Software
6.1.3 Utility Software
6.1.4 Firmware
6.2 Programming Languages
6.3 Program Development Process
6.4 Summary
6.5 Check your progress - Answers
6.6 Questions for Self - Study
6.0 Objectives
6.1.4 Firmware :
Computer Fundamentals / 92
6.1 Check your Progress.
A B
1. Application Software a. Program to control system
working of computer
2. Firmware . b.sandisk
3. Systems Software c.payroll
4. Utility Software d.Software available on Rom chips
- Input/Output operations,
- Arithmetic operations - mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction,
- Logical operations - Comparison for equality, inequality etc.
- Movement of instructions and data to and from the CPU.
To use the programming language, the programmer has to strictly follow the
rules of the language including all commas, punctuation marks etc. otherwise
the program will not be understood by the computer. Thus, although the
programming languages are much smaller and simpler than the natural languages,
they have to be used with the greatest accuracy.
• Machine Language:
This is the only language which is understood by the computer. This is
the language nearest to the machine. In this language the programs are written
Assembly Languages
Machine Languages
Machine
Assembly Language:
The Os and 1 s of the machine language were substituted by letters and
symbols in assembly languages. The assembly languages use mnemonics
(memory aid) in place of operation codes. The language uses symbols instead
of numbers to write programs. A program written using such symbols in the
assembly language is called the source program. The program written in
assembly language has to be converted into machine language for use by the
computer. This is achieved with the help of the assembler. The assembler is a
system program which is supplied by the manufacturer. It converts the assembly
program into a machine readable program and the resulting program is called
the object program. Thus the input to the assembler is the source program
and the output of the assembler is the object program. The assembler translates
each assembly language instruction into a corresponding machine code.
Computer Fundamentals / 94
It is relatively easy to write programs in assembly language as compared
to machine language. They can be also modified relatively easily. However, like
the machine language, assembly languages are also hardware dependant. When
the machine changes, the program has to be changed.
Since the machine language and assembly language both are dependent
on the hardware, they are referred to as low level programming languages.
Both these languages require a deep understanding of the internal structure of
the computer.
Compiler:
The compiler translates the entire source program into machine language
program at once. The source code remains intact. Once a program is compiled
it can be run as many times as required, without being required to be recompiled.
A compiler can translate only those programs which have been written in the
language for which it is designed. Also each machine has to have its own compiler.
A compiler is a program which normally resides on the secondary storage
device. It gets loaded into the CPU when the source program is to be translated.
A compiler checks for errors like illegal symbols, statements etc. during
compilation and gives out a list of error messages at the end of execution. This
is a very valuable aid to the programmer to correct the programs. However, the
compiler is incapable of detecting any logical errors in the program.
Interpreter:
The interpreter is the program which translates a high level language
program into machine language as follows :
- it takes one statement from the high level language program
- translates it into a machine instruction and the instruction is
immediately executed.
Since the program is translated statement by statement, the machine
level program of the source program is not stored anywhere in memory. Therefore,
BASIC:
BASIC stands for Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code. The language was developed by Prof. John Kemeny and
Thomas Kurtz in USA. It is relatively easy to learn. Programs written
in BASIC language are interpreted. It resembles FORTRAN in many
ways, but can also be effectively used in business applications. Thus
it can be used for both business and scientific applications. BASIC is
one of one most popular languages for use in microcomputer
systems.
COBOL :
Common Business Oriented Language was designed specially for
business applications. A COBOL program is constructed from sentences,
paragraphs, sections and divisions. A COBOL program must have four divisions
: the identification division, the
environment division, data division,and the procedure division. Thus COBOL is
a self documenting language. It is one of the most widely used commercial
language.
RPG :
Report Generator is a general purpose, business oriented language
designed to generate output reports. The language was developed by IBM and
was launched for use on the IBM 1401 computer. It is best suited for applications
where large data files have to be read and extensive reports are to be output. It
has limited mathematical capability and is not suited for scientific applications.
Computer Fundamentals / 96
PASCAL:
PASCAL has been named after the French mathematician Blaise
Pascal, It allows the programmer to structure the programming language. The
features of PASCAL allow it to be used for both scientific and business
applications. It is a very powerful language. It is implemented on several computers
including microcomputers and minicomputers and is also widely used to teach
programming to students and beginners.
C:
C was designed and developed at Bell Laboratories USA. It is a block
structured language which allows the use of various concepts of structured
programming. C also has the advantage of being able to manipulate internal
processor registers of the computer. Thus it has some powers of the assembly
language. C is also very portable. C is the most popular language used for
systems programming like designing compilers and operating systems.
LISP :
LISP stands for list processing. This language is mostly used in non
numeric applications which require logical rather than numerical operations.
Therefore it is widely used in games, pattern recognition and artificial intelligence.
- Algorithm:
An algorithm represents the logic of the processing to be performed. It is
a sequence of instructions which are designed in such a way that if they are
executed in the specified sequence, the desired goal is achieved. It is imperative
that the result be obtained after execution of a finite number of steps. In an
algorithm,
- Each and every instruction has to be precise and clear.
- The instruction has to be executed in a finite time.
- When the algorithm terminates the desired result should be
achieved.
- Flowchart :
A flowchart is a pictorial representation of the algorithm. It represents
the steps involved in the procedure and shows the logical sequence of processing
using boxes of different shapes. The instruction to be executed is mentioned in
the boxes. These boxes are connected together by solid lines with arrows,
which indicate the flow of operation.
The first step in the design of a program is the algorithm. The algorithm
is then represented in the form of a flowchart and the flowchart is then expressed
in the computer language to actually prepare the computer program.
The symbols used in the flowchart are :
• Terminal (Start/Stop):
The symbol denotes the beginning, ending and halt operation in the
program logic. Thus it is the first and the last Symbo! in any nov-chart to indicate
the start and stop of the process.
Input/Output:
Indicates when an input or output operation is to performed in the process.
Processing :
This represents the arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction etc,
and the movement of data in the process.
Computer Fundamentals / 98
Fig. 6.2 Symbols used in a flowchart.
Decision :
The decision symbol is used to represent a point where one or more
alternatives is possible. The criteria for decision making is written in the decision
box. On each path the condition for which the particular path is to be followed
has to be written. During the execution the appropriate path will be followed
depending upon the result of the decision.
Flow lines :
These indicate the flow of operation ie. the sequence of instruction
execution. Flowlines are normally drawn with arrowhead indicating the direction
of flow of the program.
Connectors :
A connector is used to indicate the logic flow from one page to another
when the flowchart becomes very long. Connectors do not represent any operation.
They are mainly used in the flowchart for clarity and convenience.
Types of logic used in the flowchart :
(I) Sequential Execution : In this logic the instructions are executed
one after the other sequentially.
(ii) Transfer of control: This is a logic which is used when the option to
be chosen depends upon the result of the decision. The control is transferred to
a particular path if the result of the decision branches to that path.
(iii) Looping : In looping or repetitive logic, an instruction or a number of
instructions are executed more than once. The instructions are executed till
the’decision crieteria is true. The decision criteria can be placed before the loop
or after the loop depending upon the statements which are to be executed in
the loop.
Let us see some examples of writing algorithms and flowcharts.
(1) Write an algorithm and develop a flowchart to convert the temperature input
in Celsius scale to Farenheit scale.
Solution :
First write a detailed stepwise algorithm to do the conversion
Step 1 : Start.
(2) Write an algorithm and flowchart to read two numbers A and B and
compare them. If
A is greater than B print, A is greater than B else print B is greater than A.
Algorithm :
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Input values of A and B.
Step 3 : Compare values of A and B (Is A > B ?).
Step 4 : If yes then print “A is greater than B”.
Step 5 : If no, the print “B is
greater than A”. Now draw the
flowchart for the above.
6.3.3 Coding :
6.3.4 Debugging :
At this stage the errors in the programs are detected and corrected.
This stage of program development is an important and tirpe consuming process.
Debugging is also known as program validation.
Some common errors which might occur in the programs include :
• Uninitialisation of variables,
• Reversing of order of operands,
• Confusion of numbers and characters,
• Inverting of conditions eg jumping on zero instead of on not zero.
The tools or methods which can be used to debug the programs
include :
• Simulator -This is a computer program which simulates the execution
of the program on another computer.
• Logic Analyzers:
This test instrument detects the states of digital signals during each
clock cycle and stores them in memory. It then displays this data on the monitor.
• Breakpoints :
This is introduced in the program to halt the execution at some
intermediate point. At this point, the values of the various inputs, outputs,
variables etc. can be checked.
• Software interrupts :
This is an instruction which saves the current value of the program
counter and then branches to a specific memory location. At this location there
is the debugging program which displays the status information.
• Memory dump :
This gives a listing of the current contents of a section of the memory.
Memory dumps are common in most simulator programs, and microcomputer
systems.
•Trace routine:
This program prints the current status of the processor at specified
intervals.
The program is tested on a number of suitable test cases. A test plan of the
program has to be done at the stage of the program design itself. This ensures
6.3.6 Documentation :
Documentation is a very essential step in the program development.
Documentation help$ the users and the people who maintain the software. This
ensures that futur^ modification if required can be done easily. Also it is required
during redesigning and maintenance.
6.3.7 Maintenance:
Updation and correction of the program for changed conditions and field
experience is accounted for in maintenance. Maintenance becomes essential
in following situations :
- Change in specification,
- ChangelrY equipment,
- Errors which are found during the actual execution of the program. Modularity,
structured programming, thorough testing and debugging and proper
documentation greatly reduce the time and cost of maintenance of the software.
_________________________________________________________
6.1
1. 1 -c
2-d
3-a
4- b
2. Software means a set of programs, procedures and other associated
documentation which describes what the program does and how it is to
be used.
1 a. Machine Language, Assembly Language, High Level language,
Fourth Generation Languages. .
b. The programs which transalate the source programs into object
programs i.e machine language programs are called translators, eg.
compiler.
c. The aims of 4 GL are : to develop programs faster, write programs which
can be easily modified and make them easy to learn.
6.2.3
(i) - f
(ii) -d
(iii) -e
(iv) -a
(v) -b
(vi) -c
6.3
a) Problem definiton, program design
b) Algorithm, Flow chart
c) Connectors, Flow lines
d) Break points, simulators
e) Change in specification, change in equipment. 2. a) Algorithm
: Step 1 : Start,
Step 2 : Input marks of five subjects
(ml,m2,m3,m4,m5).
Step 3 : Calculate percentage (p = (ml -i- m2 + m3 +
m4 + m5)/5).
Step 4 : Check if percentage (p) >= 90.
Step 5 : If yes, print “A grade”.
Step 6 : If no, check if percentage (p) >= 75.
Step 7 : If yes, print “B grade”.
Step 8 : If no, print “C grade”.
Step 9: Stop.
Step 6 : Stop.
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Computer Processing Techniques
7.3 Summary
7.4 Check your progress - Answers
7.5 Questions for Self - Study
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Definition :
An Operating system is defined as an integrated set of programs which
manage the various resources and operations of a computer system. The
operating system acts as an interface between the humans and the computer.
The operating system ensures smooth and efficient operation of a computer.
• Memory management
Allocation of main memory and other storage to the system programs
and the user data and programs.
• Input/Output management
Management of the input/output devices and their assignment to the
various programs that are being executed
• File management
The files have to be stored in various storage devices. They have to be
transferred from one storage device to another. This is taken care of by the
Operating System.
Each of these functions are performed by a program or a set of programs and all the
programs together make the operating system. Normally, there is one control program
of the operating system that resides in the main memory of the computer. This
program is known as the resident program. The other programs known as transient
programs or service programs reside on the disk and are accessed as and when
required.
The total amount of work performed by the operating system over a period of time is
known as throughput.
The response time is the time interval between the time the user submits request
and the -time he receives the response. Response time is also known as turnaround
time the efficiency of a computer system depends upon the throughput and the
response time.
7.2.3 Multiprogramming :
7.2.4 Multiprocessing :
In time sharing, it is possible for multiple users to run more than one application
at the same time on the computer. This is accomplished by providing;a=separate
terminal to each user. All these terminals are connected to the main computer.
The GPU time is divided among all the users on a scheduled basis. The time
that each user gets is called a time slice. The CPU switches from one user to
the another, and e|^cutes a part of the process in the time slice. This process
continues till the job is executed. In time sharing, like in multiprogramming only
one program is in control of the CPU at any given time.
In time sharing environment, it is not always possible that all the programs of all
the users reside in the main memory. Only the control program and some programs
reside in the main memory. The remaining programs are loaded from the secondary
memory as and when they are to be executed.
Real time processing is an on line processing system where the records are
updated and data is processed as soon as the transaction takes place-Real
time systems allow the users to communicate with the computer during the
processing itself. Typical examples of real time systems are the air line reservation
market systems etc. In real time systems a number of terminals may be linked
to a single CPU. A number of remote stations are connected to the computer
with communication lines and several stations operate simultaneously. The
transactions update records. In off line processing, the data processing is not
directly controlled by the CPU. !n minicomputers a number of terminals are
used to enter the data onto a secondary storage like a tape or disk. The data is
validated, and then entered into the main CPU in a batch mode for processing.
7.3 Summary
8.0 Objectives
Friends, this chapter gives a brief introduction of some popular operating systems
After learning this chapter you will be able to understand the following operating
systems
· Unix
· MS-DOS
· Windows XP
· Windows Vista
· Linux
8.1 Introduction
8.2.1 Components
List of Unix programs
The Unix system is composed of several components that are normally packaged
together. By including — in addition to the kernel of an operating system — the
development environment, libraries, documents, and the portable, modifiable
source-code for all of these components, Unix was a self-contained software
system. This was one of the key reasons it emerged as an important teaching
and learning tool and has had such a broad influence. The inclusion of these
components did not make the system large — the original V7 UNIX distribution,
consisting of copies of all of the compiled binaries plus all of the source code
and documentation occupied less than 10MB, and arrived on a single 9-track
magnetic tape.
The names and file system locations of the Unix components have changed
substantially across the history of the system. Nonetheless, the V7
implementation is considered by many to have the canonical early structure:
· Kernel — source code in /usr/sys, composed of several sub-components:
o conf — configuration and machine-dependent parts, including boot code
o dev — device drivers for control of hardware (and some pseudo-hardware)
o sys — operating system “kernel”, handling memory management, process
scheduling, system calls, etc.
o h — header files, defining key structures within the system and important
system-specific invariables
· Development Environment — Early versions of Unix contained a
development environment sufficient to recreate the entire system from
source code:
o cc — C language compiler (first appeared in V3 Unix)
o as — machine-language assembler for the machine
o ld — linker, for combining object files
o lib — object-code libraries (installed in /lib or /usr/lib) libc, the system library
with C run-time support, was the primary library, but there have always been
additional libraries for such things as mathematical functions (libm) or database
access. V7 Unix introduced the first version of the modern “Standard I/O” library
stdio as part of the system library. Later implementations increased the number
of libraries significantly.
o make — build manager (introduced in PWB/UNIX), for effectively automating
the build process
o include — header files for software development, defining standard interfaces
and system invariants
o Other languages — V7 Unix contained a Fortran-77 compiler, a programmable
arbitrary-precision calculator (bc, dc), and the awk “scripting” language, and
later versions and implementations contain many other language compilers
8.4 Windows XP
Service Pack 1
Set Program Access and Defaults was added in Service Pack 1.
Service Pack 1 (SP1) for Windows XP was released on September 9, 2002. It
contains post-RTM security fixes and hot-fixes, compatibility updates, optional
.NET Framework support, enabling technologies for new devices such as Tablet
PCs, and a new Windows Messenger 4.7 version. The most notable new features
were USB 2.0 support and a Set Program Access and Defaults utility that aimed
at hiding various middleware products. Users can control the default application
for activities such as web browsing and instant messaging, as well as hide
access to some of Microsoft’s bundled programs. This utility was first brought
into the older Windows 2000 operating system with its Service Pack 3. This
Service Pack supported SATA and hard drives that were larger than 137GB (48-
bit LBA support) by default.
Service Pack 2
Windows Security Center was added in Service Pack 2.
Windows XP, including a firewall, improved Wi-Fi support, such as WPA encryption
compatibility, with a wizard utility, a pop-up ad blocker for Internet Explorer 8,
and Bluetooth support. The new welcome screen during the kernel boot removes
the subtitles “Professional”, “Home Edition” and “Embedded” since Microsoft
introduced new Windows XP editions prior to the release of SP2. The green
loading bar in Home Edition and the yellow one in Embedded were replaced with
the blue bar, seen in Professional and other versions of Windows XP, making the
boot-screen of operating systems resemble each other. Colors in other areas,
such as Control Panel and the Help and Support tool, remained as before. Service
Pack 2 also added new security enhancements, which included a major revision
to the included firewall that was renamed to Windows Firewall and is enabled by
default, Aditionally, security-related improvements were made to e-mail and web
browsing. Windows XP Service Pack 2 includes the Windows Security Center,
which provides a general overview of security on the system, including the state
of antivirus software, Windows Update, and the new Windows Firewall. Third-
party anti-virus and firewall applications can interface with the new Security Center.
Memory 512 MB 1 GB
HDD capacity 20 GB 40 GB
Removed Features
Some notable Windows XP features and components have been replaced or
removed in Windows Vista, including Windows Messenger, NTBackup, the
network Messenger Service, HyperTerminal, MSN Explorer, Active Desktop,
and the replacement of NetMeeting with Windows Meeting Space. Windows
Vista also does not include the Windows XP “Luna” visual theme, or most of the
classic color schemes which have been part of Windows since the Windows
3.x era. The “Hardware profiles” startup feature has also been removed, along
with support for older motherboard technologies like the EISA bus, APM and
Game port support (though on the 32-bit version game port support can be
enabled by applying an older driver). IP over FireWire (TCP/IP over IEEE 1394)
has been removed as well. The IPX/SPX Protocol has also been removed, although
it can be enabled by a third-party plugin.
8.2
I. State whether the following statements are true or false
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. True
8. True
8.3
I. Fill in the blanks
1. Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical
User Interfaces
2. Real-time Operating system.
3. 1000
4. Mem
5. Type
8.2
II. Abbreviate the following
1. PDA
2. IBM
3. BASIC
8.4
1. Home Edition and Windows XP Professional.
2. Table PC Edition.
3. September 9,2002
4. Versions 8 or 7
5. 1.5 GB
8.5
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
5. True
8.6
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. False