Processing Manual PDF

Processing Manual for Virgin Coconut Oil,
its Products and By-products

for Pacific Island Countries and Territories
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Processing Manual for Virgin Coconut Oil,
its Products and By-products
for Pacific Island Countries and Territories
By Divina D. Bawalan BSChE, MSEgyE

SPC-LRD consultant (funded under the EU-FACT project)
Secretariat of the Pacific Community

Noumea, New Caledonia, 2011
© Secretariat of the Pacific Community 2011
All rights for commercial / for profit reproduction or translation, in any form, reserved. SPC authorises the partial
reproduction or translation of this material for scientific, educational or research purposes, provided that SPC
and the source document are properly acknowledged. Permission to reproduce the document and/or translate
in whole, in any form, whether for commercial / for profit or non-profit purposes, must be requested in writing.
Original SPC artwork may not be altered or separately published without permission.
Original text: English
Secretariat of the Pacific Community Cataloguing-in-publication data
Bawalan, Divina D.
Processing Manual for Virgin Coconut Oil, its Products and By-products for Pacific Island Countries and Territories
/ Divina D. Bawalan
1. Coconut oil – Oceania – Handbooks, manuals, etc.

2. Copra industry – Oceania – Handbooks, manuals, etc.
3. Coconut products – Oceania – Handbooks, manuals, etc.
I. Bawalan, Divina D. II. Title III. Secretariat of the Pacific Community
665.3550995
AACR2
ISBN: 978-982-00-0484-9
Secretariat of the Pacific Community

BP D5 98848 Noumea Cedex, New Caledonia
Tel: +687 26 2000 Fax: +687 26 3818
Web: http://www.spc.int
Prepared for publication at

SPC Suva Office,
Suva, Fiji, 2011
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements viii
Preface ix
Chapter 1 Coconuts and Pacific Island countries and territories 1
1.1 Characteristics of Pacific Island countries and territories 1
1.2 The coconut industry in the Pacific region 2
1.2.1 Coconut harvesting, collection and husking practices in PICTs 3
1.2.2 Coconut processing in the Pacific region 6
1.3 Socio-economic significance of VCO processing in PICTs 8
Chapter 2 Understanding coconut oil and its quality parameters 11
2.1 Characteristics of coconut oil 11
2.2 Types of edible coconut oil 12
2.3 Multifunctional uses of coconut oil 13
2.4 VCO as a versatile product 13
2.5 Health benefits of VCO 14
2.6 Quality standards of virgin coconut oil 15
Chapter 3 VCO production technologies 17
3.1 Pre-processing stage 17
3.2 Processing stage 17
3.2.1 Fresh-dry VCO processing technologies 18
3.2.1.1 The fresh-dry low pressure oil extraction method 18
3.2.1.2 The fresh-dry high pressure expeller methods 23
3.2.1.3 The Fresh-dry centrifuge method 27
3.2.2 Fresh-wet VCO processing technologies 28
3.2.2.1 The fresh-wet modified kitchen method 28
3.2.2.2 The fresh-wet modified natural fermentation method 32
3.2.2.3 The fresh-wet centrifuge method 37
3.2.3 The Bawalan-Masa Process 40
3.3 Post-processing stage 42
3.3.1 Oil drying 42
3.3.2 Ageing 43
3.3.3 Fine filtration of VCO 43
3.4 Packaging and storage 43
3.5 Comparative analysis of different processes for producing VCO 45
3.6 Issues in VCO processing 48
3.6.1 Misconceptions in VCO processing and labelling 48
3.6.2 Organic certification 49
Chapter 4 Good manufacturing practices and sanitation
standard operating procedures 53
4.1 Pre-processing stage 54
4.1.1 GMPs for selection/harvesting 54
4.1.2 GMPs for husking 55
4.1.3 GMPs for transport of husked nuts to the VCO processing plant 56
4.1.4 GMPs for inspection of nuts at the VCO plant 56
4.1.5 GMPs for storage of nuts 56
i
4.2 GMPs for processing stage 56
4.2.1 GMPs for handling coconut water 56
4.2.2 GMPs for removal of the coconut kernel and particle size reduction 58
4.2.3 GMPs for fresh-dry process 58
4.2.3.1 GMPs for drying of freshly comminuted kernel 58
4.2.3.2 GMPs for low pressure oil extraction 60
4.2.3.3 GMPs for high pressure oil extraction (from Bawalan and Chapman 2006) 60
4.2.3.4 GMPs for settling and filtration of newly extracted VCO 61
4.2.4 GMPs for fresh-wet processes 61
4.2.4.1 GMPs for coconut milk extraction 61
4.2.4.2 GMPs for recovery of VCO from fresh-wet process 63
4.2.4.3 GMPs for filtration of VCO produced from the fresh-wet processes 65
4.3 Good manufacturing practices for the post-processing stage 66
4.3.1 GMPs for oil drying 66
4.3.2 GMPs for ageing of VCO produced from the modified fermentation process 66
4.4 GMPs for packaging and storage of VCO 67
4.5 Sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs) 67
4.5.1 Sanitation in the processing area 68
4.5.2 Sanitation in processing equipment 69
4.5.3 Personal hygiene (from Bawalan and Chapman 2006) 69
4.5.4 Record keeping and production data 71
Chapter 5 General requirements for setting up VCO processing plants 73
5.1 Site requirement 73
5.2 Plant building design and features 73
Chapter 6 By-products processing 77
6.1 Coconut shells 77
6.1.1 Fuel for heating applications by direct burning 78
6.1.2 Conversion into coconut shell charcoal 79
6.1.3 Processing coconut shell into fashion accessories and novelty items 81
6.1.4 Processing coconut shell into coconut shell flour 83
6.1.5 Investment costs 83
6.2 Coconut water 83
6.3 Coconut residue 84
6.3.1. Utilisation of coconut milk residue for food and nutrition 85
6.3.2 Production of VCO and coconut flour through the
application of the Bawalan- Masa process 86
6.3.3. Drying for further oil extraction 86
6.3.4. Composting to produce organic fertiliser 87
6.3.5 Quality control and handling of wet coconut milk residue 87
6.4 Coconut skim milk 88
Chapter 7 Downstream products from virgin coconut oil 89
7.1 Moisturising toilet/bath soap 89
7.2 Aromatherapy/massage oils 91
7.3 Skin care products 93
7.4 Hair care products 93
7.5 Utilisation of residual coconut oil and off-quality VCO for downstream products 94
ii
Annexes
Annex 1 Fatty acids and chemical composition of coconut oil 95
Annex 2 Process description and quality standard RBD coconut oil 99
Annex 3 Frequently Asked Questions 102
Annex 4 Standards for virgin coconut oil 108
Annex 5 Recommended procedure to indicate the moisture content of
grated kernel in a DME dryer 113
Annex 6 Virgin coconut oil production equipment 114
A6.1 Husking equipment 114
A6.2 Comminution equipment: grating, shredding, cutting, scraping, grinding 116
A6.3 Coconut milk extraction 119
A6.4 Coconut milk separation equipment 122
A6.5 Drying equipment 122
A6.6 Coconut oil extraction equipment 126
A6.7 Filtration equipment 127
A6.8 Fermentation cabinet 127
Annex 7 Production data sheet and other relevant record forms in a VCO
processing facility 129
Annex 8 Coconut shell processing technologies and quality grading 135
A8.1 Charcoal processing technologies 135
A8.1.1 Pit method 135
A8.1.2 Kiln method 136
A8.2 Quality parameters and grading of coconut shell charcoal 139
A8.2.1 Grades and standards of charcoal 139
A8.2.2 Physical grading 140
A8.3 Processing of coconut shell charcoal briquettes 140
Annex 9 Simple processing technologies for coconut water utilisation 142
A9.1 Coconut water vinegar 142
A9.2 Coconut sauce 145
Annex 10 Food products from coconut milk residue 146
Annex 11 Production of coconut flour and VCO from coconut milk residue
using the Bawalan-Masa process 150
Annex 12 Formulations and procedures for downstream products from VCO 151
A12.1 Toilet/bath soap 151
A12.2 Aromatherapy/massage oils 156
A12.3 Skin care products 157
Glossary 158
Bibliography 162
iii
LIST OF TABLES
1 Profile of Pacific Island countries and territories 2
2 Coconut area and production of Asian and Pacific Coconut Community member countries 3
3 Comparative fatty acid profile of common fats and oils 11
4 Comparative analysis of different processes for producing VCO 45
5 Chemical composition of coconut shell 77
6 Calorific values of coconut shell charcoal (as reported by different authors/researchers) 80
7 Comparative composition and calorific value of different types of charcoal 80
8 Composition of coconut water at different growth stages 83
9 Comparative nutritional values of coconut skim milk, coconut milk, soybean milk,
cow’s milk and human milk 88
10 The composition, type and most common sources of fatty acids 98
11 The Philippine Standard for RBD coconut oil 101
12 Lipid-coated microorganisms reported to be inactivated
by lauric fatty acid and monolaurin 105
13 Bacteria reported to be inactivated by MCFAs and their monoglycerides 105
14 Grading parameters for coconut shell charcoal 139
15 Charcoal quality assessment guide 140
16 Average composition of coconut water 142
17 Electrolyte composition of coconut water from coconuts of various ages 142
18 The yeast and microbial culture process for coconut water vinegar production 143
19 Processing of coconut water vinegar using three-day-old coconut toddy 144
20 Basic formulations for moisturising herbal soaps 152
21 Processing steps and safety measures for the preparation of caustic soda solution 153
22 Processing steps and critical control points for soap making 154
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Map of the Pacific region 1
Figure 2. Basket made of coconut leaves for carrying coconuts. 3
Figure 3. Cattle-drawn improvised carts for transporting coconuts in Fiji 4
Figure 4. Husking tool and husking operation in Fiji 5
Figure 5. Splitting of whole coconuts with an axe 5
Figure 6. Cutting green copra 6
Figure 7. Hot air copra dryers in Fiji 7
Figure 8. Virgin coconut oil 8
Figure 9. Refined, bleached and deodorised coconut oil 12
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of VCO process technologies under the fresh-dry process 17
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of VCO process technologies under the fresh-wet process 18
Figure 12. The fresh-dry low pressure oil extraction method 19
Figure 13. Bridge press developed by the Natural Resources Institute, United Kingdom 19
Figure 14. Motorised DME grater 20
Figure 15. Other types of coconut grater being used by VCO processors in Fiji 20
Figure 16. Drying of grated kernel in a standard DME flat bed direct contact type dryer 21
Figure 17. Loading of dried grated kernel in the DME cylinder through a built-in feed hopper. 21
Figure 18. Low pressure oil extraction using a DME press 22
iv
Figure 19. New Zealand Press 22
Figure 20. The fresh-dry high pressure expelling process 24
Figure 21. Motorised shelling (left) and manual shelling (right) 24
Figure 22. Manual paring (left) and paring machine (right) 26
Figure 23. Washing of pared fresh coconut kernel 26
Figure 24. The fresh-dry centrifuge process 27
Figure 25. The modified kitchen method 29
Figure 26. Hand squeezing of coconut milk using a cheese cloth 29
Figure 27. Extraction of coconut milk using a hydraulic jack 30
Figure 28. Separated coconut cream and skim milk 30
Figure 29. Separation of oil from the coagulated protein during heating of coconut cream 31
Figure 30. Separation of VCO and sinusinu 31
Figure 31. Simple filtration of VCO 32
Figure 32. Participants at the training courses on VCO processing and related matters held
at SPC’s Community Education Training Centre, Narere, Fiji. The author, Dr Lex Thomson
and Mr Tevita Kete of SPC-EU FACT Project can be seen in the picture on the right 32
Figure 33. The modified natural fermentation method 33
Figure 34. Thai coconut shredding machine 34
Figure 35. Gravity settling of coconut milk to separate cream and skim milk 35
Figure 36. Layers after fermentation of coconut milk 36
Figure 37. Manual recovery of VCO 36
Figure 38. Recovery of second grade VCO 37
Figure 39. The fresh-wet two-phase centrifuge method 38
Figure 40. Centrifugal separation of coconut cream and skim milk 39
Figure 41. The fresh-wet three-phase centrifuge method 40
Figure 42. The three-phase centrifuge 40
Figure 43. The Bawalan-Masa Process 41
Figure 44. Improvised double boiler 42
Figure 45. Packaged VCO in PET bottles 44
Figure 46. Good, mature coconuts 54
Figure 47. Overmature coconuts with germination growth 54
Figure 48. Husked coconuts with the eye still covered by a portion of husk 55
Figure 49. The correct way to split coconuts 57
Figure 50. Left, good coconut kernel for processing. Middle, discoloured kernel for rejection.
Right, kernel with haustorium. 57
Figure 51. Electrically heated forced draught tray-type dryer at the Food Processing
Centre, Kiribati 59
Figure 52. Food-grade white plastic container 62
Figure 53. VCO with a pink colour as a result of using a Fijian vine to extract the coconut milk 62
Figure 54. White plastic net bag for grated coconut kernel for extraction in a manually
operated milk press 63
Figure 55. Separation of coconut oil from the coagulated protein (sinusinu) during heating 64
Figure 56. Simple filtration using sterilised cotton balls 66
Figure 57. Filtration using filter paper 66
Figure 58. Filling bottles with VCO 67
Figure 59. Work attire in a VCO processing facility that conforms to sanitation requirements 70
Figure 60. Trainees at SPC’s Community Education Training Centre wearing proper work attire 71
v
Figure 61. Suggested floor plan and building perspective for VCO plant using the
fresh-wet process 74
Figure 62. Suggested floor plan and building perspective for VCO plant using the
fresh-dry process 75
Figure 63. Suggested floor plan and building perspective for pilot processing, training and
demonstration plant with space provision for processing of
VCO-based downstream products 75
Figure 64. Coconut shells 77
Figure 65. Formation of coconut shell charcoal as fuel in a Sri Lankan copra dryer 78
Figure 66. Coconut shell charcoal 79
Figure 67. Fashion accessories made from coconut shell 81
Figure 69. Buttons and souvenirs made of coconut shell 82
Figure 68. A punching/cutting machine for coconut shell handicrafts 82
Figure 70. Options for utilisation of coconut milk residue 85
Figure 71. Coconut flour 86
Figure 72. Natural draught coconut shell/husk-fired tray dryer 87
Figure 73. Moisturising bath soap 89
Figure 74. Aromatic roots and leaves in Fiji 91
Figure 75. Infusion of aromatic roots and leaves in oil 92
Figure 76. Comparative fatty acid profile of common fats and oils 96
Figure 77. Classification of fats and oils 96
Figure 78. Process flow chart for the production of RBD coconut oil 99
Figure 79. Copra-derived coconut oil in a Fijian supermarket 100
Figure 80. Manual husking tools from Kiribati (left), Marshall Islands (centre) and Fiji (right) 114
Figure 81. Motorised husking machine 114
Figure 82. Motorised shelling machines from Philippines (left) and Malaysia (right) 115
Figure 83. Manual graters from Kiribati and Marshall Islands 116
Figure 84. Motorised graters from Fiji (left), the Philippines (centre) and Thailand (right) 116
Figure 85. Coconut grinding machine from Malaysia (left) and coconut scraping
machine (another model) from Thailand (right) 117
Figure 86. Stainless steel drum with spikes and rod in the coconut scraping machine
from Thailand 118
Figure 87. Philippine Bridge press for coconut milk and oil extraction 119
Figure 88. Manually operated hydraulic jack type coconut milk press from the Philippines,
stand alone (left) and table (right) models 120
Figure 89. Two models of motorised horizontal screw type coconut milk extractors from the
Philippines 120
Figure 90. Motorised horizontal screw type coconut milk extractor from Thailand 121
Figure 91. Motorised hydraulic coconut milk press from Thailand 121
Figure 92. Two phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge 122
Figure 93. DME flat bed direct contact dryer 122
Figure 94. Electrically heated forced draught tray dryer at Food Processing Centre in
Tarawa, Kiribati 123
Figure 95. Mini conveyor dryer from the Philippines 124
Figure 96. Natural draught coconut shell/husk-fired tray dryer 125
Figure 97. SIMPLEXTRACTOR high pressure expeller (Philippines) 126
Figure 98. Gravity type filtering device designed by the author 127
vi
Figure 99. Mini plate and frame filter press from Australia (left) and standard plate and
frame filter press at Wainiyaku Estate Plantation, Fiji (right) 128
Figure 100. Vertical pressure filter at Wainiyaku Estate Plantation, Fiji 128
Figure 101. A rectangular pit for charcoal making 135
Figure 102. Two versions of the drum kiln for charcoal making 136
Figure 103. Fabricated metal kiln (Pag-Asa kiln) 137
Figure 104. PCA brick kiln charcoal making (Pag-Asa kiln) 138
Figure 105. Briquetting machine (left) and manual briquetting press (right) 141
Figure 106. Coconut burgers (left) and macaroons (right) 149
Figure 161. Soap-making tools and equipment 151
Figure 162. Appearance of soap mixture at ‘full trace’ 155
Figure 163. Soap cutter for rectangular (left) and for circular (right) shaped soaps 155
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The consultant would like to express her heartfelt gratitude and thanks to the following:
1. Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Land Resources Division through its EU Funded Project
on Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade (FACT) for providing the funds for the consultancy
services in the preparation of the manuscript. Special thanks are accorded to Dr Lex Thomson,
Team Leader, EU FACT project for trusting in the capability and giving the opportunity to the
consultant to prepare a comprehensive and more focused VCO processing manual.
2. Mr Stephen A. Dembner, Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch, Office of Knowledge
Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO Rome for granting permission to use and reproduce
copyrighted materials from Bawalan, D.D. and K.R. Chapman, 2006. Virgin coconut oil production
manual for micro and village scale processing, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific,
Bangkok, Thailand, February, 2006.
3. Mr Romulo N. Arancon Jr, Executive Director, Asian and Pacific Coconut Community for giving
permission to use relevant materials from Idroes, M., Muhartoyo, and R.N. Arancon Jr, 2007.
Guidelines towards the certification of organic coconut farming and virgin coconut oil, Asian and
Pacific Coconut Community, Jakarta, Indonesia, August 2007.
4. Mr Tevita Kete of the SPC-EU FACT Project for providing inputs on the additional topics that
should be included in the manual.
5. Special thanks are accorded to Ms. Emily Nadike, Graphic Artist in the SPC Regional Media
Centre, and Ms. Frances Pene, Editor in the SPC Publications Section, for their great work in
typesetting and editing this manual.
6. Beloved daughter, architect Rowena D. Bawalan, for the additional drawing of the floor plan and
building perspective for a suggested VCO processing facility with space for downstream products
processing that can also be utilised for training and demonstration.
7. Engr. Evelyn T. Caro, Agriculturist 1 and Technology Transfer Specialist, Philippine Coconut
Authority, for the information provided on coconut shell charcoal and briquette processing.
8. Philippine Coconut Authority for the statistics on the marketing of VCO and other coconut
products.
9. Ms Cherry Kaake, Project Assistant for the SPC-EU FACT Project, for her assistance with all the
administrative needs of the consultant.
10. Last but not least, to all participants of the training courses on VCO and by-products processing
whom the consultant conducted in Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea and Solomon
Islands, and whose active participation gave her added insights into life in the Pacific Islands. The
interactions with them gave her the impetus for the preparation of this manual.
viii
PREFACE
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) is the purest form of coconut oil. Introduced onto the world market at the
end of the 20th century, it is one of the highest value products derived from the fresh coconut. From a
much maligned substance in the 1970s and 1980s — the American Soybean Association claimed that
coconut oil caused heart disease and atherosclerosis — this high quality version has resurrected the
reputation of coconut oil and made a dramatic turn-around in the world market as a functional food that
not only nourishes but also heals. Because of its multi-functional uses and the way it can be produced
at different production levels, VCO has been generating a lot of interest in coconut-producing countries
as well as importing countries. VCO production offers an opportunity to coconut farmers to improve
their income with this alternative to low value copra production.
In February 2006, the Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
(FAORAP) published the manual Virgin coconut oil production manual for micro and village scale
processing. This is a ready reference that discusses key aspects of the production of good quality
VCO. One of the major concerns with producing VCO on a home, micro and village scale of operation
is achieving a product with consistently good quality that will meet international standards and always
be fit for human consumption. The FAO manual addresses these concerns and documents the VCO
processing technologies developed in the Philippines, as well as the results of programmes initiated by
FAORAP in promoting and improving the VCO industry in Thailand. The manual was prepared by Ms
Divina D. Bawalan, previously a senior science research specialist with the Philippine Coconut Authority,
and Mr Keith R. Chapman, formerly an industrial crops officer at FAO’s Asia-Pacific office.
In the course of conducting VCO training courses in Pacific Island countries and territories (PICTs) since
2006, Ms Bawalan discovered that one of the simplest micro/home scale VCO processing technologies,
which was developed in the Philippines and documented in the FAO VCO manual, does not actually
work well in the Pacific region. This may be due to the differences in coconut variety, coconut harvesting
procedures and other factors. Hence, for every training course in a Pacific country, modifications to the
natural fermentation process were made, adapting it to the particular conditions of each country.
In 2009, a roundtable meeting was held in Nadi, Fiji, to discuss the state of the art of coconut processing
and the market prospects of coconut products in Pacific countries. The meeting was organised by the
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) and the Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC). It
highlighted the need for PICTs to focus on the production of high value coconut products. Consequently,
SPC’s Land Resources Division (LRD) deemed it necessary to develop this Processing manual for virgin
coconut oil, its products and by-products for Pacific Island countries and territories which is appropriate
for the conditions in the Pacific region. The preparation of this manual meets with LRD’s mandate to
improve the food and nutritional security of the Pacific community. Funding for the preparation of the
manual was provided under LRD’s EU-funded (European Development Fund 9) project on Facilitating
Agricultural Commodity Trade (FACT) in the Pacific Islands.
Aside from presenting VCO processing technologies specifically applicable to the PICTs, the manual
covers technology options for the processing of coconut shell, water from matured coconut and coconut
milk residue, which are the by-products generated in VCO processing. It also includes the processing
of VCO-based downstream products such as herbal soap, aromatherapy oils and herbal ointments
using aromatic plants available in PICTs. In essence, this manual is an expanded and more focused
version of the Virgin coconut oil production manual for micro and village scale processing by Bawalan
and Chapman published by FAORAP in 2006. Permission C017/2010 from FAO HQ (Publishing Policy
and Support Branch) to use/reproduce some figures, information and sections from the FAO manual to
complete the Pacific VCO Manual is gratefully acknowledged.
Similar to the goal of the FAO VCO processing manual, this manual is intended as a primary source
of practical knowledge on the proper handling and processing of fresh coconuts to ensure that VCO
and its by-products will be produced to meet and possibly exceed international standards. Further, it is
envisioned that the manual will lead to a better understanding of coconut oil and its quality parameters
so that VCO processors can easily respond to the queries of their buyers. In the preparation of the
manual, images from different PICTs which were collected during the conduct of training courses are
used to illustrate key points.
ix
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
APCC Asian and Pacific Coconut Community

BAFPS Bureau of Agricultural and Fisheries Product Standard
CFL Compact fluorescent lamp
DC/DCN Desiccated coconut
DME Direct micro expelling
EU European Union
FACT Facilitating Agricultural Commodity Trade
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (United Nations)
FAORAP FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
FFA Free fatty acid
FNRI Food and Nutrition Research Institute
GLC Gas liquid chromatography
GMP Good manufacturing practice
HACCP Hazard analysis critical control points
kg Kilogram
LRD Land Resources Division (SPC)
LTO License to operate
MC Moisture content
MCFA Medium chain fatty acid
NRI Natural Resources Institute
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PCA Philippine Coconut Authority
PDD Product Development Department
PICTs Pacific Island countries and territories
PNS Philippine National Standard
psi Pounds per square inch
RBD Refined, bleached and deodorised
RP Republic of the Philippines
SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community
SSOP Sanitation standard operating procedures
UK United Kingdom
UCAP United Coconut Association of the Philippines
UHT Ultra high temperature
USD United States dollar
VCO Virgin coconut oil
x
Chapter 1
Coconuts and Pacific Island
countries and territories
1.1 Characteristics of Pacific Island countries and territories

The main geographic characteristics of Pacific Island countries and territories (PICTs) are their small land
masses, distance from world markets and dispersal over wide areas of ocean or archipelagic formations
(Hazelman 1996). Twenty-two countries and territories, comprising some 7500 islands, are spread
over 30 million square kilometres (Tevi 1997), of which 98% is ocean. Of the 7500 islands, only 500 are
inhabited (Bird 2002) (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Map of the Pacific region

Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP)
The Pacific region is divided into the three sub-regions of Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia, based on
ethnic, linguistic and cultural differences. Tevi (1997) mentions the following geographical characteristics
of the sub-regions:
The Melanesian countries of Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and New
Caledonia comprise large, mountainous and mainly volcanic islands. They are endowed with
considerable natural resources: fertile soils, large forests, mineral deposits and rich ocean
resources. Micronesia and Polynesia are characterised by much smaller island countries. Most
are small atolls with poor soil, with elevations usually between one and two metres (Kiribati and
Tuvalu); there are some islands of volcanic origin with more fertile lands (Samoa and Tonga).
Natural resources are mostly limited to the ocean; the seas of Micronesia and Polynesia are
generally rich in living resources, and reported to have significant prospects for exploitable non-
living resources (petroleum, natural gas, minerals).
Coconuts and Pacific Island countries and territories 1

1.2 The coconut industry in the Pacific region
The most widespread crop in PICTs is the coconut (Cocos nucifera linn.) inasmuch as the palm grows
even in the infertile soil of the atoll countries. Coconuts have been part of the everyday life of Pacific
Islanders for thousands of years. Coconut milk extracted from the grated fresh coconut kernel is an
indispensable ingredient in traditional meals. Home-made coconut oil is used for cooking and for hair
and skin conditioning. In Rarotonga, Cook Islands, slices of fresh mature coconut kernel are served with
fruit after every meal.
The coconut’s uniqueness and vital importance among Pacific crops is evidenced by the long history
of usage and the numerous studies that characterise and define the composition of the different
components of the tree and its fruit. It has been demonstrated that every part of the coconut tree and
its fruit can be used or converted into valuable products. If properly utilised, the coconut has the highest
economic value among the various palm trees (Bawalan 2003). This is the reason the coconut is often
referred to as the tree of life, or the king of tropical flora or the tree of abundance.
While the coconut industry has lost much of its significance in the economies of PICTs in recent years,
coconuts remain one of the major sources of livelihood, especially for people living on the outer islands
who have to rely on the resources of their island because of the distance to urban centres and high
inter-island transport costs.
With the exception of Papua New Guinea, the majority of PICTs have land areas less than 1000 square
kilometres (Table 1). Correspondingly, coconut areas and production in these countries are miniscule
compared to the Philippines and Indonesia (Table 2).
Table 1. Profile of Pacific Island countries and territories
Country 2010 Mid-year Land area

population estimate Sq. kilometres
American Samoa 65,896 199
Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas 63,072 457
Cook Islands 15,708 237
Federated States of Micronesia 111,364 701
Fiji Islands 847,793 18,273
French Polynesia 268,767 3,521
Guam 187,140 541
Republic of Kiribati 1000,835 811
Nauru 9,976 21
New Caledonia 254,525 18,576
Niue 1,479 259
Palau 20,518 444
Papua New Guinea 6,744,955 462,840
Pitcairn Islands 54 5
Republic of the Marshall Islands 54,439 181
Samoa 183,123 2,785
Solomon Islands 549,574 30,407
Tokelau 1,165 12
Tonga 103,365 650
Tuvalu 11,149 26
Vanuatu 245,036 12,281
Wallis and Futuna 13,256 142
Source: Secretariat of the Pacific Community 2010
2 Processing Manual for Virgin Coconut Oil, its Products and By-products for Pacific Island Countries and Territories
Table 2. Coconut area and production in Asian and Pacific Coconut Community member countries
Country Coconut area Coconut production

(hectares)
Million nuts Copra equivalent (tonnes)
Federated States of Micronesia 17,000 40 7,000
Fiji Islands 60,000 150 25,000
India 1,903,000 14,744 2,100.000
Indonesia 3,799,000 16,235 3,247,000
Kiribati 29,000 131 26,000
Malaysia 115,000 390 78,000
Marshall Islands 8,000 27.5 6,000
Papua New Guinea 221,000 1,101 132,000
Philippines 3,380,000 12,573 2,399,000
Samoa 93,000 180 60,000
Solomon Islands 59,000 100 20,000
Sri Lanka 395,000 2,909 556,000
Thailand 247,000 1,186 356,000
Vanuatu 96,000 308 61,000
Vietnam 141,000 760.08 169,000
Source: www.apccsec.org
1.2.1 Coconut harvesting, collection and husking practices in PICTs

Generally speaking, harvesting of nuts in the strictest sense of the word is not practised in any PICTs.
In coconut-producing countries in Asia, the nuts are plucked by means of a long pole or by climbing,
whereas in PICTs, the mature nuts are allowed to fall to the ground. They are collected only when the
coconut farmer or the estate worker wants to cut the raw kernel (also known as green copra) from the
nut for subsequent sale or processing into copra.
The Pacific Island style of harvesting consists of walking through the coconut grove, picking up the nuts,
putting them in a sack or basket made of coconut leaves (Figure 2) and carting them to a central place
for cutting. In some areas in Fiji, horses or cattle-drawn improvised carts (Figure 3) are used to bring
the whole nuts to the area where the copra dryer is located and copra cutting is done (Bawalan 2008).
Source: www.spc.int
Figure 2. Basket made of coconut leaves for carrying coconuts.

Figure 3. Cattle-drawn improvised carts for transporting coconuts in Fiji
The Pacific style of harvesting, or the natural fall method, while relatively cheap, has two disadvantages:
1. A lot of nuts are left on the ground, as the nut collector usually stays on existing tracks, especially
in areas of rough terrain and heavy undergrowth.
2. Frequent collection is required to prevent germination of nuts on the ground and on the tree (the
Rennell Island Tall Palms of Solomon Islands have been observed to germinate while still intact on
the palm). Germination causes a reduction in the quantity and quality of fresh kernel, dried coconut
flesh or copra and the resulting oil. During the rainy season, germination of nuts on the ground is
aggravated and heavy losses are incurred.
These harvesting practices restrict the type of coconut food products that can be commercially
produced in PICTs, since specific food products require specific levels of maturity of the nuts to obtain
the expected high quality.
Most coconuts produced in PICTs are not husked; they are just cut into halves and the fresh kernel
is cut out of the shell for drying into copra or for selling to traders who convert it into copra. In PICTs,
husking of coconuts is done only for nuts earmarked for the following purposes:
• delivery to processing plants using fresh coconuts as starting material for VCO and coconut cream;
• delivery to markets that sell husked coconuts;
• home use for grating and extracting coconut milk as an ingredient in traditional Pacific dishes and
for making coconut oil for cooking and other purposes.
On-farm husking of the nuts earmarked for these purposes is done to reduce the bulk and weight of the
nuts when they are transported to specific destinations. Husking is done manually, using a round metal
bar with sharpened tip anchored in the ground (Figure 4). Otherwise, the whole nuts are split with an axe
(Figure 5) and the coconut kernel is taken out with a knife (Figure 6) or other tool.
Figure 4. Husking tool and husking operation in Fiji
Figure 5. Splitting of whole coconuts with an axe

Figure 6. Cutting green copra
1.2.2 Coconut processing in the Pacific region

The coconut industry in the Pacific region is primarily based on copra. Smallholders and estate plantation
owners derive income from coconuts by selling copra, green or dried. Copra is generally produced by
drying the kernel in various types of hot air dryer (Figure 7). In some areas, split whole coconuts are sun-
dried. Since copra is a low value product and prices in the world market fluctuate, the income obtained
by farmers is marginal. This could be the reason for the coconut industry in PICTs losing much of its
economic significance.
Figure 7. Hot air copra dryers in Fiji
Several PICTs, including Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu, have
established oil mills to add value to their copra. However, unless the copra-derived coconut oil produced
is used domestically, the value-added by the oil milling is negated due to the high cost of exporting the
oil.
It should be noted that PICTs will never be able to compete with big coconut producers in Asia on
price alone. The distance of PICTs to major coconut product trading centres and their small volume of
production severely limit the type of coconut products that can be economically produced for export.
Hence, PICTs should focus on high value coconut products that can be produced on micro and village
scales of operation and those that can be utilised and marketed domestically and/or easily exported to
the nearby markets of Australia and New Zealand.

Marshall Islands and Vanuatu are the leaders among PICTs in the utilisation of coconut oil for fuel, where
filtered coconut oil is blended with diesel or kerosene. Fiji and Samoa lead the group in terms of the
largest number of coconut-based products. Hoff (2008) reported that in Samoa, copra, coconut oil,
canned coconut cream, virgin coconut oil, handicrafts from coconut shell, and furniture and novelty items
from coconut wood are being produced. He also mentioned that both mature and young coconuts are
sold in many places in Samoa with the greatest concentration of sales at Fugalei Market in Apia. Aside
from producing copra, crude coconut oil and VCO, Fiji is now known for the downstream processing of
high quality coconut oil and VCO into specialty soaps and skin care products (e.g. lotions, creams and
scented body oils). In addition, Pacific Green, a company which has become synonymous with high
quality coconut wood furniture, is also based in Fiji.
With the development of a niche market for VCO (Figure 8) and its increasing popularity in developed
countries, several Pacific countries — Fiji, Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon
Islands and Tonga — have now gone into VCO production. This is mostly done by small-scale producers
in villages.
Figure 8. Virgin coconut oil
At present, VCO production in PICTs is still very small in volume. A major concern in producing VCO
on a micro- and village-scale is achieving consistently high quality oil that conforms to international
standards. This manual provides detailed guidelines, from harvesting to product packaging and storage,
on how to achieve this standard.
1.3 Socio-economic significance of VCO processing in PICTs

The advent of VCO in the world market offers an opportunity for PICTs to convert their coconuts into
high value products. VCO can be produced economically on micro- or village-scale operation and VCO
processing is appropriate, given the available coconut supply in PICTs, and well suited to the harvesting
practice in PICTs, since the process requires fully mature nuts. Under normal circumstances, coconuts
fall naturally from the tree at full maturity.
Among the plant-derived vegetable, seed and nut oils, VCO is considered unique in the sense that it
is the only oil with multi-functional uses: It is the only oil which one can eat as a food supplement or
functional food, use for cooking, apply to the hair and skin as a moisturiser and conditioner, and use as
a major ingredient in skin care products or as carrier oil in aromatherapy and massage oils. Moreover,
it can be used in applications in which the copra-derived refined, bleached and deodorised (RBD) oil is
traditionally used, e.g. as a substitute for expensive butterfat in filled milk, filled cheese and ice cream or
to provide the lubricating action in dressings or the leavening effect in baked items.
The VCO-based products industry (e.g. skin and hair care products) is growing. Under these conditions,
VCO will not lack for prospective markets. To expand VCO production, what is needed in PICTs is a
concerted effort in technology transfer, access to reliable equipment suppliers, market promotion and
a strong trader/exporter base that can aggregate the VCO produced by village producers and export
in bulk.
As mentioned previously, VCO is a high value product. Based on export data for the Philippines, the
average bulk price of VCO is about five times higher than the average price of copra-derived coconut oil
(CNO) in the world market. Records show that the average Philippine export price (2003–2008) of CNO
is USD 696 per tonne, while the average export price (2003–2008) for VCO was USD 3231 per tonne.
The Philippine export performance for copra-derived coconut oil and VCO can be used as a benchmark
for the world market price of these commodities because the Philippines is the biggest producer and
supplier of both products.
Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA) statistics show that, as of 2008, VCO produced in the Philippines
is exported to 38 countries, with the USA being the biggest importer, accounting for 62.5% of the total
volume exported, followed by Canada at 27.3%. The use of VCO as functional food is common in the
Philippines and it can now be readily bought from drug stores and supermarkets, packaged in 250 and
500 ml bottles. Since 2005, a big herbal company has been selling VCO with added flavours (banana,
jackfruit and corn) to make it more palatable. It should also be noted that one of the first companies
that marketed VCO through the Internet since 2000 is Mt Banahaw Health Foods Corporation under
the brand name Tropical Traditions. This company (now based in the United States) is also credited
with being the one that started the VCO industry in the Philippines. Its VCO production and marketing
scheme, in which VCO is produced by coconut farmers at home while quality assurance, aggregation
and marketing are handled by the company, can be adapted in PICTs.
As demonstrated in Samoa, organically produced VCO attracts high-end international buyers who are
willing to pay a high price for the product. However, the VCO producer should also consider the fact that
organic certification is an investment in itself (see Section 3.6.2 for more details). A word of caution — in
making price projections for VCO, one should take note of the law of supply and demand, i.e. the more
suppliers, the higher the competition and the lower the price. When the Philippines first exported VCO
to the USA in 2001, the only exporter at that time received USD 11,006 per tonne (or USD 11.01/kg).
When more producers entered the market, the price tapered down to the current levels of USD 3200
per tonne (or USD 3.20/kg).

Chapter 2
Understanding coconut oil
and its quality parameters
2.1 Characteristics of coconut oil

In its purest form, coconut oil is clear (like clean water), with a distinct coconut flavour and aroma and no
rancid smell, even without undergoing chemical refining and deodorisation processes. It was only in the
late 1990s that the clear version of coconut oil (otherwise known as virgin coconut oil) became known
in the market. The coconut oil which has been traditionally produced and traded since the later part of
the 19th century is yellow in colour.
The degree of saturation and the length of the carbon chain of the fatty acids in any fat or oil help
to determine its properties, corresponding uses and effects on human health. The outstanding
characteristic of coconut oil compared to other fats and oils is its high content of medium chain fatty
acids (MCFAs) with carbon chain lengths ranging from 8–12 (see Annex 1 for a detailed explanation
of fatty acids). Several studies on coconut oil have indicated that MCFAs have antibiotic and other
beneficial properties for human health. In the digestive system, the MCFAs in coconut oil are rapidly
absorbed, carried by the portal vein to the liver and then oxidised, thereby producing energy very rapidly
(Dayrit 2005). This makes coconut oil and its derivatives suitable as diet components for convalescing
patients and premature infants. Dietary supplements containing MCFAs and their monoglycerides (e.g.
monolaurin) are now marketed in health food stores. About 64% of coconut oil consists of MCFAs, with
lauric fatty acid (C12) in the largest proportion, ranging from 45–56% depending on the coconut variety.
The comparative fatty acid profile of common fats and oils is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Comparative fatty acid profile of common fats and oils
Coconut oil Palm oil Soybean oil Corn oil Butter

A. Saturated % % % % %
C4:0 - - - - 3.0
C6:0 Caproic 0.5 - - - 1.0
C8:0 Caprylic 7.8 - - - 1.0
C10:0 Capric 6.7 - - - 3.0
C12:0 Lauric 47.5 - - - 4.0
C14:0 Myristic 18.1 1.1 - - 12.0
C16:0 Palmitic 8.8 44.0 11.0 11.5 29.0
C18:0 Stearic 2.6 4.5 4.0 2.2 11.0
C20:0 Arachidic 0.10 - - - 5.0
B. Unsaturated % % % % %
C16:1 Palmitoleic - 0.1 - - 4.0
C18:1 Oleic 6.2 39.2 25.0 26.6 25.0
C18:2 Linoleic 1.6 10.1 51.0 58.7 2.0
C18:3 Linolenic - 0.4 9.0 0.8 -
Others - 0.4 - - -
% Saturated 92.1 49.6 15.0 13.7 69.0

% Unsaturated 7.9 50.4 85.0 86.3 31.0
Source: Arranza 2001
Understanding coconut oil and its quality parameters 11

The most significant physical property of coconut oil is that, unlike most fats, it does not exhibit gradual
softening with increasing temperature but passes rather abruptly from a brittle solid to a liquid within a
narrow temperature range. Coconut oil is liquid at temperatures of 27°C or higher and is solid at 22°C
or lower, when it is similar to the consistency of cocoa butter.
Coconut oil that does not rapidly solidify when placed in the refrigerator is not pure, and presumably has
been mixed with other oil or other substances.
2.2 Types of edible coconut oil

At present, there are two types of edible coconut oil available in the commercial market: refined,
bleached and deodorised (RBD) coconut oil and virgin coconut oil (VCO).
Refined, bleached and deodorised coconut oil
RBD coconut oil (Figure 9) is derived from copra, the dried coconut kernel that is processed either by
sun drying, smoke drying or hot air drying. The crude coconut oil is subjected to chemical refining,
bleaching and deodorisation processes to make it fit for human consumption. (Please refer to Annex 2
for a description of the processing of RBD coconut oil.)
RBD coconut oil is yellow in colour, odourless and tasteless, and does not contain any Vitamin E since
this is removed during the chemical processes. RBD coconut oil is generally used as a cooking oil in
the Philippines.
Figure 9. Refined, bleached and deodorised coconut oil
Virgin coconut oil

The Philippine National Standard for VCO (PNS/BAFPS 22:2007/ ICS 67.200.10) officially defines VCO
as:
… an oil obtained from the fresh, mature kernel of the coconut by mechanical or natural means,
with or without the use of heat, without undergoing chemical refining, bleaching or deodorizing,
and which does not lead to the alteration of the nature of the oil. Virgin coconut oil is an oil which
is suitable for consumption without the need for further processing.
VCO is the purest form of coconut oil. It is clear/colourless, contains natural Vitamin E and has not
undergone atmospheric and hydrolytic oxidation as attested by its low peroxide value and low free fatty
acid content. It has a mild to intense fresh coconut aroma. The intensity of the scent depends on the
process used in its production.
RBD and VCO coconut oil have the same physical and chemical characteristics but have different
sensory attributes and prices.
2.3 Multifunctional uses of coconut oil

As an edible oil, coconut oil is used for frying and cooking because of its good resistance to rancidity
development (Bawalan and Chapman 2006). It is also used as a substitute for expensive butterfat
in filled milk, filled cheese (reconstituted milk/cheese) and ice cream to make these products more
affordable without altering their palatability. When hydrogenated, coconut oil is used as margarine,
shortening and baking fat. Other edible applications are as follows:
• a source of fat in infant formulas and baby foods because it can be easily absorbed and digested;
• a spray oil for crackers, cookies and cereals to enhance flavour, increase shelf-life and impart a
glossy appearance;
• an ingredient in confectionary.
The Spectrum of Coconut Products (PCA undated) states that in food preparations and in diet, coconut
oil performs the following functions:
• It serves as an important source of energy in the diet.
• It supplies specific nutritional requirements.
• It provides the lubricating action in dressings and the leavening effect in baked items.
• It acts as a carrier and protective agent for fat-soluble vitamins.
• It contributes to palatability and enhances the flavour of food.
The major inedible use of coconut oil is as a raw material for (a) the manufacture of laundry and bath
soaps, (b) coconut chemicals for the production of biodegradable detergents, shampoos, shower gels
and other cleaning agents, (c) cosmetics and toiletries, (d) foam boosting of non-coconut oil-based
soaps, and (e) the production of synthetic resins and plasticisers for plastic (Bawalan and Chapman
2006).
Among vegetable, seed and nut oils, VCO is considered unique in that it is the only oil that is multi-
functional. It has more uses than RBD coconut oil; can be utilised in all applications where crude, cochin
and RBD coconut oil are traditionally used; and is a much better alternative if it can be made available
in large quantities at an affordable price.
The current emerging major uses of VCO are:
• a hair and skin conditioner
• an oil base for various cosmetic and skin care products
• a carrier oil for aromatherapy and massage oils
• a nutraceutical and functional food.
2.4 VCO as a versatile product

VCO is a unique and versatile coconut product for the reasons given below.
a) It has multi-functional uses as discussed above, thereby providing flexibility in marketing.

b) Technologies are available for it to be processed at different scales of operation.
- VCO can be produced at home even without any specialised equipment or it can be produced
in large-scale commercial plant operations.
a) Other functional food products can be processed together with it, depending on the type of
technology applied, thereby maximising the utilisation of coconut kernel and increasing the
economic viability of the operation.
- For the dry process of VCO manufacture, high dietary fibre coconut flour can be produced as
a co-product. For the wet process (coconut milk route), low fat desiccated coconut (DCN) or
another type of VCO and coconut flour can be produced as co-products.
b) With minimal additional investment, VCO production can easily be integrated with an existing
coconut milk or desiccated coconut processing plant.
- Production of VCO can be integrated with an existing DCN plant with just the addition of a
high pressure expeller and filter press. It can also be integrated with an existing coconut milk
plant with the addition of fermentation equipment (modified natural fermentation process) or the
addition of a three phase centrifuge (centrifuge process).
c) Lower quality VCO can still be used for processing other downstream products such as bath soaps
and massage oils, thereby preventing any waste.
d) It is one of the highest valued coconut products in the world market.
2.5 Health benefits of VCO

Virgin coconut oil is considered a nutraceutical, i.e. a substance that nourishes and also protects and
heals. Studies have suggested the following.
• The medium chain (C8–C12) fats in coconut oil are similar in structure to the fats in mother’s milk that
gives babies immunity from disease and have similar effects (Kabara 2000).
• Coconut oil possesses anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and antioxidant properties that work
together to protect the arteries from atherosclerosis and the heart from cardiovascular disease (Fife
2004).
• It is cholesterol-free, trans-fat free and heart-healthy (Verallo-Rowell 2005).
• It boosts the immune system (Dayrit 2005).
• It protects against heart disease by increasing high density lipoprotein which collects the excess or
unused cholesterol in the body for excretion in the liver (Blackburn et al. 1989 cited in Dayrit 2005).
• Monolaurin, which is formed by the body when coconut oil is ingested, provides protection against
infectious diseases caused by lipid-coated microorganisms (Kabara 2000). Diseases caused by
such pathogens are not ordinarily cured by known antibiotics.
• It is digested easily without the need for bile and goes direct to the liver for conversion into energy
(Dayrit 2005).
• It stimulates metabolism, boosts energy and prevents deposition of fats, thereby helping to prevent
obesity (Dayrit 2003).
• It improves the nutritional value of food by increasing the absorption of vitamins, minerals and amino
acids (Fife 2004).
• It inhibits the action of cancer-forming substances (Lim-Syliangco 1987).
For further information on the health benefits of coconut oil and frequently asked questions about VCO,
please refer to Annex 3.
2.6 Quality standards of virgin coconut oil
Quality assurance in the context of any industry should be viewed from two perspectives. One is the
need to ensure that the product produced by any processor conforms to a set of domestically and
internationally accepted product standards. This is particularly critical in VCO processing, inasmuch as
it is now developing into an important source of foreign exchange for coconut-producing countries. The
market for VCO, whether local or international, should be protected and sustained by ensuring that only
VCO with the highest quality is produced and traded.
From the other perspective, quality assurance needs to be strictly implemented to protect consumers
and assure them that the VCO that they are buying is of the highest quality. At present, VCO is bought
for use as a food supplement or nutraceutical because of the growing number of its beneficial effects
on human health, as attested to by the medical literature. In this case, the quality of the product is of
paramount importance since the product is being taken internally without being cooked or heated
(which would further sterilise the product).
In addition, VCO is in growing demand as a base oil for hypoallergenic skin care products, which also
require good quality. Annex 4 has details of the revised Philippine National Standard for VCO (PNS/
BAFPS 22:2007/ICS 67.200.10) and the Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC) standard for
VCO.
Standards cover many aspects of VCO: the identity characteristics (fatty acid composition), quality
characteristics (colour, odour and taste, free fatty acid and moisture contents, peroxide value), allowable
contaminants, hygiene, packaging, labelling and methods of sampling and analysis. Please refer to the
Glossary for the definition of free fatty acid, moisture content and peroxide value.
As a general rule, VCO production samples should be regularly analysed in a laboratory to determine its
actual quality. However, as a first step in determining the quality of VCO, small scale VCO processors
who cannot afford to set-up their own quality control laboratory or to send samples regularly to analytical
laboratories should do sensory evaluation by testing the colour, odour and taste of the VCO.
Colour is the first characteristic that distinguishes virgin coconut oil from any other type of plant-
derived oil (vegetable or oilseed). The colour of VCO also indicates that it has been processed at
the right temperature and with strict quality control in handling the fresh coconut. For the coconut oil
to be categorised as virgin, its colour should be water-clear. The colour of virgin coconut oil can be
visually determined by putting a 250 ml sample in a clear glass bottle and looking at it against a white
background.
The odour and taste of VCO is sweet coconut, no rancid smell, no ‘off’ flavour and no sour taste. A
simple test to determine the odour and taste of VCO is done by heating a sample in a water bath to a
temperature of about 50°C, putting a teaspoon of warm VCO on the tongue, then inhaling air through
the mouth and exhaling through the nose.
In addition, VCO should not cause any itchiness in the throat when ingested, since this is an indication
that the free fatty acid content is already higher than the prescribed standard.

Chapter 3
VCO production technologies
VCO production is composed of three basic stages, namely, pre-processing, processing and post
processing. The VCO processor either at the plant or at home should adhere strictly to a set of guidelines
or good manufacturing practices (GMPs) and quality control procedures (as may be required) in each of
these stages to ensure the production of high quality VCO. These are discussed in detail, together with
sanitation standard operating procedures in Chapter 4.
3.1 Pre-processing stage

The pre-processing stage covers all necessary steps before the fresh coconut is actually opened for
conversion into VCO. These steps include on-farm activities (harvesting, collection and husking of nuts),
transport from the farm to the VCO processing site (factory or home), storage, and selection for daily
processing.
General farm practices for harvesting, collection and husking of coconuts in PICTs are described in
detail in Section 1.2.1. GMPs for harvesting, husking, transport of husked nuts, storage and the required
quality control for selection of nuts at the farm, at the processing plant and at the storage area prior to
processing are discussed in detail in Chapter 4 Section 4.1.
3.2 Processing stage

The processing stage covers all the necessary steps from the opening of the fresh coconuts to the
recovery of VCO. The processing steps that are employed depend on the type of VCO processing
technology that is selected.
There are nine existing VCO processing technologies which VCO producers can adopt and/or adapt.
VCO production starts with the fresh kernel which is subjected to a series of processing steps specified
in a particular technology. The choice of the technology depends on the scale of operation, the degree of
mechanisation that is desired, the amount of investment available and, most importantly, the demands
of the prospective buyer(s).
VCO processing technologies can be generally categorised into fresh-dry processes and fresh-wet
processes.
Fresh-dry is the general term given to VCO processing technologies in which VCO is obtained directly
from fresh coconut kernels. All these processes require drying of fresh kernels in comminuted form
(grated, shredded, ground, milled) before extracting the VCO. Process technologies under the fresh-dry
category can be seen schematically in Figure 10.
Fresh kernel
Low pressure oil High pressure Fresh-dry centrifuge

extraction method extraction method method
Wet milling Desiccated Grated nut

route coconut route route
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of VCO process technologies under the fresh-dry process
VCO production technologies 17
One of the major constraints against upscaling VCO production in PICTs using the fresh-dry process
is the lack of an appropriate mechanical dryer for the coconut kernel. The direct micro expelling (DME)
dryer design that is currently being used is too labour-intensive but VCO producers in PICTs use it for lack
of anything else. Most of the available mechanical coconut dryers that are being used in other coconut-
producing countries, including the Philippines, India and Sri Lanka, have high processing capacities
(150–800 kg dried kernel/hour) which is well beyond the capacity that can usually be supplied under
existing coconut production in PICTs.
Fresh-wet is the general term given to VCO processing technologies in which VCO is recovered from
coconut milk by various means after it has been extracted from freshly comminuted coconut kernel.
VCO processing technologies under the fresh-wet category are shown schematically in Figure 11.
Fresh kernel
Comminution of coconut kernel

and extraction of milk
Coconut milk Coconut milk

residue
Further processing to Natural Fresh-wet Modified

make coconut flour and fermentation centrifuge kitchen
a special type of VCO method method method
using the Bawalan-Masa
process
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of VCO process technologies under the fresh-wet process
3.2.1 Fresh-dry VCO processing technologies

As can be seen in Figure 10, the fresh-dry process can be classified into the low pressure oil extraction
method, the high pressure expeller method and the fresh-dry centrifuge method. These are described
in the following sections.
3.2.1.1 The fresh-dry low pressure oil extraction method

The fresh-dry low pressure oil extraction method is also called intermediate moisture content method by
researchers from the Natural Resources Institute (NRI) of the UK, which developed and introduced the
technology to the Philippines and several countries in Africa. It works on the principle that oil from seeds
or nuts can be extracted using low pressure (about 460 psi) provided that the moisture content of the
material is within the range of 10–13%. The traditional process of extracting plant-based oil is through
the use of high pressure expellers (above 1600 psi), generally at a feed moisture content of 3–4%.
Fresh kernel Grating
Drying 10%–12%
moisture content
White oil Settling and low

Coconut meal
with foots temperature oil
drying
Manual pressing VCO
Figure 12. The fresh-dry low pressure oil extraction method
The low pressure oil extraction method (Figure

12) for coconut oil developed at NRI involves
splitting the nut, grating the meat into fine
particles, drying it to a moisture content of
about 10–12% and extracting the oil using an
NRI-developed, manually operated, vertical
screw-type press known as a bridge press
(Figure 13).
The grated kernel is dried either by solar drying
(not sun drying) or by indirect hot air drying. The
dried grated meat is placed in bags made of
cheese cloth prior to oil extraction in the bridge
press. This is to make it easier to remove the
residue and to reduce the amount of fine kernel
particles that are entrained in the oil, since
cheese cloth also acts as filter medium.
The direct micro expelling process developed
by Dr Dan Etherington of Australia works on the Figure 13. Bridge press developed by the Natural Resources
same principle. However, it differs Institute, United Kingdom
in the type of manually operated press being
used for oil extraction and the manner in which
the grated coconut meat is dried prior to oil extraction.
3.2.1.1a The fresh-dry direct micro expelling process
VCO processing technology as practised in PICTs is synonymous with the direct micro expelling (DME)
process developed by Dr Dan Etherington of Australia. The DME process and equipment were first
introduced in Fiji in 1998 with the setting up of the processing facility in Nadi Village, Cakaudrove
Province, Vanua Levu (Bawalan 2008). Small scale VCO production using the DME process is now
being done in Fiji, Federated States of Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Samoa.
The DME technology and equipment is supplied by Kokonut Pacific Pty. Ltd. A standard set consists of
the robust rack and pinion SAM™ press with its interchangeable stainless steel cylinders and pistons;
two electric graters; tools for collection, measurement and cleaning; and the trainer’s manual (www.
kokonutpacific.com.au). Part of the system is a DME-designed coconut shell-fired, flat-bed, conduction-
type dryer which is constructed on site. This set of equipment can process about 300 nuts each eight-
hour day. As mentioned previously, the DME process works on the same principle as the low pressure
oil extraction method.
The DME process described below is the standard process with a few modifications to address the
need for higher processing capacity and to suit the Pacific context.
Splitting of the coconuts – pre-selected fully mature, husked coconuts without cracks, spongy
haustorium (or vara), or germinating root/shoot are split into half cups ready for grating.
Grating – the fresh coconut kernel is comminuted into fine particles and removed from the shell through
the use of motorised DME grater (Figure 14) or other types of grater (Figure 15) which are now also used
by processors in Fiji.
Figure 14. Motorised DME grater
Figure 15. Other types of coconut grater being used by VCO

processors in Fiji
Drying – the freshly grated coconut kernel is
dried to a moisture content of about 10–11%
using a DME-designed coconut shell-fired flat-bed
conduction-type dryer (Figure 16). This is done by
spreading batches of 12 kg of grated kernel thinly
on the surface of the dryer. In the standard DME
process, batches of 3–3.5 kgs of grated kernel are
dried. The loaded kernel is regularly turned by two
people positioned on either side of the dryer.
GMP 4.2.3.1
These arrows direct you to the good Figure 16. Drying of grated kernel in a standard DME flat bed
manufacturing practice for this process. direct contact type dryer
The moisture content of the dried kernel is usually determined by feel and greatly depends on the skill
of the operator doing the drying process and preparing the grated kernel prior to extraction. This is the
major reason why batches of VCO produced using the DME process have variable quality. A suggested
science-based procedure to indicate if the grated meat is at the right moisture content level is discussed
in Annex 5.
Drying is the most critical part in the DME process for the following reasons:
• If the kernel is not turned by highly skilled dryer operators, it may get scorched or burned and
produce yellow oil, which can no longer be classed as VCO.
• The right moisture content (10–11%) of grated kernel is needed prior to its transfer to the cylinder
for oil extraction. If the moisture content is too low, then no oil will be extracted. If the moisture
content is too high, then the oil that comes out of the press is mixed with coconut milk (i.e. it is
cloudy). Residual moisture in the oil will shorten its shelf-life.
Loading into cylinder – When the grated
kernel is dried to the right moisture content
(10–11%) and at the right temperature (about
70°C), it is loaded into the DME cylinder
through a built-in hopper located on one side of
the front end of the dryer (Figure 17). Kokonut
Pacific recommends the use of a cylinder that
is already hot (by putting it in the sun before
being loaded). It should be noted that the feed
hopper is absent in the modified DME process.
Figure 17. Loading of dried grated kernel in the DME cylinder

through a built-in feed hopper.

Oil extraction – the DME cylinder with the dried grated kernel and piston on top is then positioned in
the DME press and the lever mechanism pushed down to compress the loaded grated kernel in the
tube and subsequently release/extract the oil (Figure 18). After the pressing is done, the spent grated
coconut kernel is pushed out of the tube.
Figure 18. Low pressure oil extraction using a DME press
GMP 4.2.3.2
GMP 4.2.3.4
Settling – The oil coming out of the DME

press has entrained fine particles of dried
kernel. These are removed by allowing the
oil to clarify by letting it stand for at least two
weeks.
Alternatively, and currently replacing the DME
press for a higher VCO production capacity
is the fabricated press (Aquarius or Axis
Olive oil press) from New Zealand (Figure
19), which is a combination of a manually
operated vertical screw and a hydraulic jack
type pressing system.
Figure 19. New Zealand Press
The major advantage of the DME process is that VCO can be produced within four hours from start to
finish, thereby guaranteeing a very fresh product. On the other hand, it needs relatively high investment
for equipment and a plant building for a small processing capacity of about 300 nuts per eight-hour day.
Likewise, without any motorised filtering device, a minimum of two weeks must pass after oil extraction
before the clarified VCO can be used or sold. In economic terms, this means working capital is tied-up
and the producer needs a building with enough room to store the oil during gravity settling.
VCO produced using the low pressure oil extraction process is less viscous than VCO produced from
the high pressure oil expeller process. It can be inferred that not all natural gums in the coconut kernel
are extracted with the oil, since oil extraction is done at low pressure. The coconut aroma is also less
intense.
3.2.1.2 The fresh-dry high pressure expeller methods GMP 4.2.3.3

For a VCO processing capacity of 3,000 or more nuts a day, the high
pressure expeller method under the fresh-dry process is appropriate.
This method requires the use of mechanical dryers and high pressure expellers with water-cooled
wormshafts. If the high pressure expeller method for VCO production is adopted in PICTs, it is advisable
to use the wet-milling route because this has the highest oil extraction efficiency and not much major
equipment is needed.
VCO produced from the high pressure expeller process contains all the natural gums present in the
fresh kernel, so it is viscous and feels a little greasy to the skin. It has a moderately intense coconut
aroma and is normally used as a base oil in specialty soaps and as an ingredient in hypoallergenic
cosmetics and skin care products.
The VCO obtained after extraction has entrained very fine particles of dried kernel (generally referred to
as ‘foots’) which are normally removed through the use of a motorised plate and frame filter press. It
takes a minimum of two weeks to clarify the oil if gravity settling is used.
Full-protein, medium-fat coconut flakes are obtained as a co-product in the high pressure expeller
method. If the preparation of the fresh kernel and subsequent oil extraction is done under very strict
sanitary conditions and in accordance with the GMPs of VCO processing (please refer to Chapter 4),
the coconut flakes can be further ground to produce coconut flour.
An expeller press for VCO production is designed in such a way that the temperature inside does not
rise beyond 90°C. If it does so, the oil produced will have a pale yellow colour that disqualifies it from
being labelled ‘virgin’. The press has a screw that moves the ground, dried coconut kernel continuously
to the discharge end of the expeller and forces it to enter a very narrow clearance called a choke. In so
doing, high pressure is created to compress the material and subsequently release the oil. The extracted
oil flows down through slats in a barrel cage surrounding the screw or worm shaft. The defatted material
forms into a hardened cake in which the thickness is defined by the adjustments made on the choke.
The high pressure expeller method of VCO production can be subdivided according to how the fresh
coconut kernel is prepared before drying:
• the wet milling route (grinding), described in detail below
• the desiccated coconut route (shelling, paring, washing, grinding, blanching)
• the grated nut route (grating)
After drying, the same extraction process is followed, using the same operating conditions as well as
the same post-processing of the oil (Figure 20).

Fresh kernel
Desiccated coconut
Grated nut route, grating Wet milling route,
route, grinding and
grinding
blanching
Mechanical drying
High pressure expelling
Oil with foots Coconut flakes
Settling Grinding
and
filtration
VCO Foots in filter cloth Coconut flour
Figure 20. The fresh-dry high pressure expelling process
3.2.1.2a The fresh-dry high pressure expeller method, wet milling route
This technology involves the following process steps:
Shelling – involves the removal of the brown shell from the husked nut in order to free the fresh kernel.
This is done either by the use of a manual shelling tool or a shelling machine (Figure 21). The fresh kernel
can also be separated from the shell, much like the way green copra is usually cut in PICTs.
Figure 21. Motorised shelling (left) and manual shelling (right)
Source: Hagenmaier (1980)
Cutting – Cut the shelled fresh kernel either manually with a knife or a manufactured cutter to remove
coconut water and reduce to a size appropriate for feeding into the grinder. This step is no longer
necessary if the fresh kernel is removed from the shell like green copra.
Grinding or wet milling – Granulate the fresh kernel to about 3 mm particle size using a grinder or
knife mill.
Drying – The ground or milled fresh coconut kernel is dried to a moisture content of 3–4% at temperatures
of 70–75°C using an indirect, hot air dryer (e.g. tray type or conveyor ). See Annex 6 for details of the
different types of dryers.
Oil extraction – The dried kernel is fed to the high pressure expeller
with a built-in cooling system immediately after drying. Extracting the GMP 4.2.3.3
oil while the feed material is still hot allows the oil to flow freely, thereby
increasing product yield.
Settling of the oil – The oil is allowed to settle by gravity for a minimum of seven days, preferably
in a tank with a conical bottom, to give sufficient time for the entrained foots to settle at the bottom.
Commercial oil milling plants have built-in settling tanks fitted with a moveable screen and mechanical
scrapers to continuously remove the foots before the oil is passed through the motorised plate and
frame filter press. However, the processing capacity of this type of equipment is generally too big for
application in a village scale operation.
Typically, oil extracted by a well-designed high pressure expeller already has very low moisture content,
so there is no need to subject the oil to an oil drying step. However, it entrains a higher percentage of
foots — about 10–5% of the weight of the oil expelled.
Filtration of the oil – After settling, filtration of the oil is done using motorised filtering devices to
remove the remaining entrained foots which were not removed during settling. Refer to Annex 6 for
information on filtration equipment.
The standard equipment used for filtration in commercial oil milling plants is the motorised plate and
frame filter press to ensure that all foots are removed. When filtration is done using gravity filters, there
may still be foots settling at the bottom of the container after a long period. In these cases, decant and
transfer the oil to another container and let stand for another seven days.
Given a properly designed expeller and the correct operating conditions, the highest oil extraction
efficiency is obtained from the high pressure expeller method, especially if the fresh coconut kernel is
milled and dried without removing the testa, or brown skin of the kernel (Bawalan and Chapman 2006).
Most VCO processors remove the testa because there is a general belief that it causes discolouration
of the oil. However, this is not the case, as proven by various production trial runs conducted by the
author at the PCA Davao Research Center since 1990. As long as the fresh kernel is properly handled
and processed under the right operating conditions, the oil is water-clear, even when the testa is not
removed. It should be noted that testa should be removed if coconut flour is intended to be produced
as a coproduct with VCO.
3.2.1.2b The fresh-dry high pressure expeller method, DCN route
Processing of the fresh coconuts prior to oil extraction under the DCN route has the following steps.
Shelling – This is the same step as described in the wet milling route. However, the manner in which
green copra is taken from the shell is not applicable here.
Paring – This involves the removal of the brown testa covering the white meat. It is done either manually
using a double-bladed knife or by using a paring machine (Figure 22). The process is like peeling
potatoes. The paring knife is calibrated so that little or no white meat is shaved off. The use of paring
machines still requires follow-up manual paring because not all the brown skin is removed.

Figure 22. Manual paring (left) and paring machine (right)
Cutting – The order in which this step is done depends on the method of paring. If the paring is done
manually, then cutting is done after paring (i.e. manual paring of shelled nuts is done while the coconut
water is still inside the intact nut). If paring is done using a machine, then cutting and removal of coconut
water is done after shelling.
Washing – The white coconut kernel is thoroughly washed in washing
tanks fitted with several spray nozzles using fresh water chlorinated
to about 3 ppm active chlorine (3 mg/l) (Figure 23).
Grinding – The white coconut kernel is ground between a stationary
and a rotating disk with a distinct configuration of sharp edges in a
grinding machine. This is fitted with attachments that can produce
a desired particle size and feeding screws that ensure a fairly even
particle size.
Drying – The ground white coconut kernel is dried to a moisture
content of 2.5–3% using a conveyor type hot air dryer where the
ground material is subjected to three diminishing temperature levels
(100°C, 85°C, 65°C ) as it passes through the dryer from beginning to
end. Air heating is done either by steam or through a heat exchanger
attached to a coconut shell-fired or gas-fired burner.
Figure 23. Washing of pared fresh Oil extraction, settling and filtration are exactly the same as described
coconut kernel
in the wet milling route. The desiccated coconut (DCN) process
is particularly useful to producers as DCN that does not pass the
stringent quality standard for colour or microbial content can still be converted into high value virgin
coconut oil and coconut flour (if the DCN fails the standard for colour) or an aflatoxin-free high grade
animal feed (if the DCN fails the standard for microbial content).
3.2.1.2c The fresh-dry high pressure expeller method, grated nut route
Processing of fresh coconuts prior to oil extraction under the grated nut route has the following steps:
Splitting and grating – This is exactly the same as described in the DME process.
Drying – This is exactly the same as described in the wet milling route.
Oil extraction, settling and filtration are exactly the same as described in the wet milling route.
3.2.1.3 The Fresh-dry centrifuge method
This is the newest VCO processing technology being promoted by the Integrated Food Processing
Machinery Pte Ltd of Singapore. The novel idea in this process is the use of a micro-pulveriser to convert
dried, finely ground coconut kernel into a paste-like consistency. The high oil content of the dried kernel
is the reason it is turned into a paste when micro-pulverised. The coconut paste is then passed through
a two-phase (solid-liquid) centrifuge to recover the VCO. The resulting residue (slurry) is a by-product
of the process and can be reconstituted with hot water into a healthy, high-fibre, low-fat coconut milk.
The process involves the preparation of kernels much like the process involved in desiccated coconut
production (refer to Section 3.2.1.2b), then micro-pulverisation and centrifugation (Figure 24).
Micro pulverised DCN is another high value coconut product in itself. It is called creamed coconut in the
world market and is used for making coconut-based confectionaries and candies.
The VCO produced by the fresh-dry centrifuge process is ready to use immediately after recovery from
the centrifuge. It has a very intense, fresh coconut aroma, is viscous and feels greasy on the skin. It is
suitable for use as a functional food.
Among the VCO processing technologies, the fresh-dry centrifuge process has the highest energy
input. Micro-pulverisation of the dried material with high oil content (about 67%) is a difficult process
and requires high electric power input. Based on the author’s experience, grinding coconut flakes with
an oil content of just 8–12% to convert into coconut flour at 100 mesh particle size requires special
process conditions and a 7.5 HP motor. In micro-pulverisation, the particle size of ground dried kernel
is reduced to 5–10 microns.
Paring
Fresh kernel White kernel
Grinding/wet
milling
Wet testa
Mechanical Micro pulverisation

drying
Drying
Coconut Centrifugation
slurry
Dried testa
Reconstitution
with hot water
High-fibre,
low-fat coconut
milk Premium grade
VCO
Figure 24. The fresh-dry centrifuge process
3.2.2 Fresh-wet VCO processing technologies
Coconut milk is an emulsion of oil in water bonded by protein. To separate GMP 4.2.4
the oil from the water, the protein bond has to be broken, either by heating
or by the use of natural enzymes or a high centrifugal force. This is the
basis for the development of VCO processing technologies under the fresh-wet process.
Fresh-wet is the general term given to VCO processing technologies in which VCO is recovered from
coconut milk, the milky fluid obtained when freshly comminuted coconut kernel is pressed, either by
manual or mechanical means with or without the addition of water. The yield and quality of coconut milk
obtained from a batch of fresh coconuts depends on the coconut variety, the maturity of the nut, the
particle size of the kernel, the kernel temperature prior to extraction, the ratio of water to comminuted
kernel (if water is added) and the extraction pressure. Generally, moisture content ranges from 47–56%
while oil/fat is 27–40% (Banzon, Gonzales and Leon 1990).
In a micro or village scale operation, the coconuts are split, the kernels are grated and the milk is
extracted either manually or using a manually operated milk press (hydraulic or vertical screw-type)
or a motorised hydraulic or horizontal screw-type milk extractor. The type of coconut milk extraction
method depends on the scale of operation. Likewise, the number of milk extractions done and the type
of hydrating liquid to be used (tap or purified water or coconut water) depends on the preference of the
processor and the type of equipment used for milk extraction.
After the milk has been extracted, a solid residue is left, amounting to 25–50% of the weight of the fresh
coconut kernel on a wet basis, depending on the extraction process. Please refer to Section 6.3.1 for
options on how to utilise this residue.
VCO produced from the fresh-wet process is very light in texture, much like mineral oil, and is easily
absorbed by the skin. This is actually the major advantage of VCO produced from the fresh-wet process
over VCO produced from the fresh-dry process. The natural gums in fresh coconut kernel go with
the coconut milk when it is extracted. However, these gums are automatically removed when VCO is
recovered from coconut milk by other methods.
VCO produced by the fresh-wet process can be clarified by a very simple filtration process because the
particles of coagulated protein or curd are relatively large and floating on the surface of the oil.
There are three methods for the production of VCO under the fresh-wet process (Figure 11), the modified
kitchen method, the modified natural fermentation method and the fresh-wet centrifuge method. These
are described in the next sections.
3.2.2.1 The modified kitchen method GMP 4.2.4.2a

This VCO processing technology is generally referred to as the modified
kitchen method as it is very similar to the traditional way of making
coconut oil at home, a common practice in PICTs. The basic difference is in controlling the heat to
prevent the coconut oil from turning yellow. The process (Figure 25) involves gradually heating the
coconut milk mixture (first and second extract) until all the water has been evaporated to produce the
virgin coconut oil and proteinaceous residue (called sinusinu in Fijian).
After grating the fresh kernels, the milk is extracted by either the manual method or by using a hydraulic
jack and manually operated milk press.
• Manual method. Mash the grated kernel thoroughly to facilitate the flow of the milk. Then place it in
a clean cheesecloth bag and squeeze tightly (Figure 26) to extract the milk.
Second milk extraction – A second milk extraction is recommended only if manual extraction is
used. It is an optional step and is done to increase the amount of coconut milk recovered from the
grated kernel. Add hot water to the coconut milk residue obtained after the first milk extraction in a
2:1 ratio, i.e. for every two cups of residue, add one cup of hot water. Mix thoroughly. Place it in a
cheesecloth bag and squeeze tightly.
Fresh kernel
Grating and milk

extraction
Coconut
Decanting
skim milk
Slow heating
Settling
Filtering
Coagulated protein
sinusinu
Oil drying
VCO
Figure 25. The modified kitchen method
Figure 26. Hand squeezing of coconut milk using a cheese cloth

• Hydraulic jack method. Place the grated kernel in a white net bag (Figure 27), position the bag at the
centre of a manually operated hydraulic jack type press and extract the coconut milk in accordance
with the jack’s operating procedure.
Figure 27. Extraction of coconut milk using a hydraulic

jack
Source: PCA Product Development Department
The coconut milk is subjected to the steps described below to recover the VCO.
Settling of the coconut milk – This process step is actually optional. The coconut milk can be heated
immediately without settling. However, it is preferable to allow the coconut milk to stand for at least two
hours for the following reasons:
• Settling for at least two hours separates the coconut milk into cream (oily phase) and skim
milk (watery phase) (Figure 28). The heating time to recover the VCO will be considerably
reduced by just heating the coconut cream and discarding the skim milk, as this step
will considerably reduce the amount of water in the coconut milk.
• Coconut skim milk can be used as a nutritious beverage if settling is done in the refrigerator or ice
box for a maximum of two hours. (Refer to Section 6.4 for the nutritional value and more information
on coconut skim milk.) Settling beyond two hours, even in the refrigerator, will make the skim milk
sour and unsuitable for human consumption.
Coconut cream
Coconut skim milk
Figure 28. Separated coconut cream and skim milk
Separation of coconut cream and coconut skim milk – Separate the cream (oily phase) from the
skim milk (watery phase) by scooping the cream from the top.
Heating the coconut cream – Place the coconut
cream in a wok and heat it to coagulate the protein,
evaporate the residual water and release the oil.
For the first hour of heating, the temperature can
be allowed to reach 90°C (stove setting between
medium and high). For the rest of the time, when
the protein starts to coagulate, the temperature
should not exceed 80°C (stove setting at medium).
Reduce the stove setting to low when the oil starts
to separate from the coagulated protein (Figure 29).
Stir the coconut cream during this heating process
to disperse the heat constantly.
Figure 29. Separation of oil from the coagulated protein during

heating of coconut cream
Remove the oil from the wok by scooping it out as soon as enough has separated from the coagulated
protein. Do not allow the sinusinu to turn brown as this will cause the oil to turn yellow.
Separation of oil and sinusinu – Separate the oil
from the sinusinu by pouring the mixture through a
stainless steel strainer with fine mesh or a muslin
cloth placed over a stainless steel pot (Figure 30).
Set aside the sinusinu for use as a topping for
rice cakes or as an extender to meat-based food
recipes, making the meal cheaper without reducing
its nutritional value (e.g. mix it with minced beef or
pork for meat balls). Note: the sinusinu should only
be used for food if it is obtained from coconut milk
which is directly heated after extraction or when
settling time to separate the cream with coconut
skim milk prior to heating does not exceed three
hours. If the settling time exceeds three hours, the
sinusinu tastes sour and is no longer palatable. Figure 30. Separation of VCO and sinusinu
Filtration of oil – filtration of the VCO is done to clarify it. Filter the oil
which was scooped up from the wok during the heating process and the GMP 4.2.4.3
oil that separated when the oil-sinusinu mixture was strained. One way
of filtering is to put a sterilised cotton swab (like those used in hospitals)
in the hole of a big funnel (Figure 31), pour the oil over it and allow the oil
to trickle through. Absorbed oil in sterilised cotton balls can be recovered by squeezing and mixing with
second grade VCO for further processing. (The use of tissue paper is not recommended because of the
possible presence of chemicals, e.g. bleaching agents.) For bigger scales of operation, a manufactured
pressure filter with a filter cloth is recommended to increase the filtration rate.
Filtration is quite simple because the coagulated protein particles are just adhering or floating on the
surface of the oil.

Figure 31. Simple filtration of VCO
Oil drying is the removal of moisture that might still be entrained in the oil after extraction. Please refer
to Section 3.3 (post-processing stage) for oil drying techniques.
It should be noted that there is no clear indication when the heating step in the modified kitchen method
should be stopped or when the residual moisture content is removed. Hence, an oil drying step is
necessary to ensure that the residual moisture content is reduced to the lowest level possible (0.1% or
below) in order to prolong the shelf-life of the oil.
3.2.2.2 The fresh-wet modified natural fermentation method

This technology was introduced by the author in several countries in the Pacific through a series of
training courses that began in 2006 and were funded by the APCC and SPC – EU FACT Project (Figure
32). It is now the most common VCO processing technology being used by homescale VCO producers
in Fiji.
Figure 32. Participants at the training courses on VCO processing and related matters held at SPC’s Community Education Training
Centre, Narere, Fiji. The author, Dr Lex Thomson and Mr Tevita Kete of SPC-EU FACT Project can be seen in the picture on the right.
If properly diluted coconut milk is allowed to stand under favourable conditions for several hours, the
oil naturally separates from the water and protein that binds them together as coconut milk emulsion.
This process is termed fermentation, although no fermenting substance is actually added. It is believed
that natural enzymes in coconut may be acting as the fermentation medium. In the traditional natural
fermentation method, settling and subsequent fermentation of coconut milk lasts for 36–48 hours.
However, laboratory analysis of coconut oil produced using this process shows that the free fatty acid
(FFA) content ranges from 0.33–0.38%. This already exceeds the prescribed standard of a maximum of
0.1% FFA. Likewise, in certain cases, the coconut oil produced is already pale yellow in colour. Hence,
the process in which the settling period/fermentation time is controlled up to a maximum of 16 hours is
termed the ‘modified natural fermentation process’ (Figure 33).
Grating and
extraction of milk
Fresh kernel
Settling and
fermentation
Filtration
Oil separation
VCO
Figure 33. The modified natural fermentation method
This technology requires very little investment, modest labour and low energy inputs. VCO can be easily
produced at home with this method, using a manual coconut grater and kitchen utensils.
The heart of the method is the preparation of coconut milk and the right temperature that will promote
overnight separation of the milk into different layers of gum, water, proteinaceous curd and oil.
The modified natural fermentation process is very sensitive to the maturity and the freshness of the
coconuts. Fully mature coconuts should be processed within three days from the time of harvesting
to ensure that the oil separates naturally from the coconut milk after 16 hours. Immature nuts contain
a higher percentage of protein, which makes the protein bond in coconut milk more difficult to break
to release the oil. Likewise, the longer the coconuts are stored, the higher the risk of spoilage and
contamination.
Splitting and grating – This is the same process as described in the modified kitchen method.
An alternative to splitting and grating is to manually remove the shell and feed the kernel into a Thai
coconut shredding machine (Figure 34) or a Malaysian grinding machine.
Milk extraction – After grating or shredding the fresh kernels, the milk is extracted by either the manual
method or by using a hydraulic jack and manually operated milk press or by a motorised screw milk
press (for larger scale of operation).

• Manual method. The grated kernel is thoroughly mashed to facilitate the flow of the milk. Place the
mashed grated coconut kernel in a clean cheesecloth bag and squeeze tightly (Figure 26) to extract
the milk.
Figure 34. Thai coconut shredding machine
• Hydraulic jack method. Place the grated kernel in a white net bag (Figure 27), position the bag at the
centre of a manually operated hydraulic jack type press and extract the coconut milk in accordance
with the jack’s operating procedure.
• Motorised screw type milk press. Feed the grated or shredded fresh coconut kernel evenly into the
feed hopper of the machine.
Second milk extraction – A second milk extraction is recommended only if manual extraction is used.
It is an optional step and is done to increase the amount of coconut milk recovered from the grated
kernel. Add hot water to the coconut milk residue obtained after the first milk extraction in a 2:1 ratio,
i.e. for every two cups of residue, add one cup of hot water. Mix thoroughly. Place the mixture in a
cheesecloth bag and squeeze tightly. Add this milk extraction to the first and stir for about ten minutes.
Dilution of coconut milk – Dilution of coconut milk with potable water (or coconut water as described
below) is necessary to facilitate the removal of natural gums which interfere with the natural separation of
VCO. These gums, which are inherent in the fresh kernel, go with the coconut milk when it is extracted.
Add water, following the recommendations below and stir for about 15 minutes.
• The dilution ratio for coconut milk:water is 1:1 that is, for every cup of coconut milk, add one cup of
water. (In Kiribati more water is needed because coconuts there have more gum; the dilution ratio
should be one cup milk:two cups of water.)
• For plucked or newly fallen coconuts, water at a temperature between 27° and 30°C) can be used.
If using coconuts from the market (and therefore not knowing how long ago they fell or were picked)
the diluting water should be heated to a temperature of about 50°–60°C.
Coconut water can be used as a substitute for water but filtration must be followed immediately by
storage in a refrigerator. Using sterilised (boiled) coconut water delays the natural separation of VCO
from the other components of coconut milk, such that complete separation of the oil is achieved only
ining course in Fiji in October 2009.
after 40 hours of settling. This was found out during the training
Settling/fermentation – allow the coconut milk mixture to stand for
12–16 hours in a place where the temperature can be maintained at GMP 4.2.4.2b
35°–40°C to produce premium grade VCO (Figure 35).
For home scale production of VCO (50 nuts per batch), the following
methods can be used to achieve the temperature that will promote efficient fermentation.
a. In places where there is no electric power or where electricity is available for only a few hours at
night, pour boiling water into a metal pot, put the lid on it and place it next to the container of
coconut milk in a kitchen cabinet or, if available, a styrofoam box (normally used for transporting fish
with ice) because of its insulating property.
b. In places where electricity is available, use a tall carton and hang a 20 watt incandescent bulb (not
CFL) over the container of coconut milk.
For VCO production from more than 50 nuts per batch, the use of a fermentation cabinet is recommended
(Annex 6).
Figure 35. Gravity settling of coconut milk to separate cream and skim milk
When proper operating conditions and sanitary precautions are strictly followed, five distinct layers can
be seen in the fermenting container after 16 hours (Figure 36). The bottom layer is gummy material. The
next layer up is the watery portion which is actually fermented skim milk. The skim milk recovered here
is not fit for human consumption and must be properly discarded. Above the layer of skim milk is a solid
layer composed of spent fermented curd and above this is the separated oil for recovery as VCO. At
the top is another layer of fermented curd. The fermented curd, especially the topmost layer, contains a
lot of oil. Premium grade VCO is harvested when the colour of this curd is light cream. It should not be
allowed to turn brown prior to recovery.

Fermented curd
Separated VCO
Fermented curd
Fermented coconut skim milk
Gummy sediment
Figure 36. Layers after fermentation of coconut milk

Source: Bawalan and Chapman (2006)
Oil recovery – Remove the top layer of fermented curd and scoop out the separated oil (Figure 37).
Take care not to disrupt the layers of oil, fermented curd and fermented skim milk. Collect the fermented
curd in a container and set it aside.
Filtration of oil – Filtration of the VCO is done to clarify it.
One way of filtering is to put a sterilised cotton swab (like those used in hospitals) in the hole of a
big funnel or an improvised funnel (Figure 31), pour the oil over it and allow the oil to trickle through.
Absorbed oil in sterilised cotton balls can be recovered by squeezing and mixing with second grade
VCO for further processing. (The use of tissue paper is not recommended because of the possible
presence of chemicals, e.g. bleaching agents.) For bigger scales of operation, a manufactured pressure
filter with a filter cloth is recommended to increase the filtration rate.
Figure 37. Manual recovery of VCO
Recovery of second grade VCO – The fermented curd that is collected in a separate container
during the recovery of premium grade VCO is allowed to stand/ferment for a further 24 hours to recover
second grade VCO (Figure 38).
Figure 38. Recovery of second grade VCO
The recovered second grade VCO is filtered separately from the premium grade. Please refer to Section
7.5 for ways of utilising second grade VCO.
In the Philippines, 6.5 litres of premium grade VCO and about 1 litre of second grade VCO are recovered
per 80 husked coconuts.
Ageing – VCO obtained from the modified natural fermentation process develops a sour smell if
operating conditions and fermentation time are not controlled properly. Ageing of VCO is an additional
process done in the Philippines to ensure the removal of any faint sour smell. Please refer to Section
3.3.2 for the procedure on ageing.
3.2.2.3 The fresh-wet centrifuge method

There are different versions of the centrifuge method under the fresh-wet process. Process steps,
supporting equipment and investment costs vary, depending on the type of centrifuge being used, i.e.
the two-phase (liquid-liquid) or three-phase (liquid-liquid-solid) type.
3.2.2.3a The two phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge process
There are variations of the two-phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge method depending on how the VCO
is recovered from the cream after the separation of the skim milk using the centrifuge. Some of the
reported processes are the following:
Process 1: The cream is subjected to vacuum evaporation to remove water and coagulate the protein.
The oil is then passed through a pressure filter to get clarified VCO and then vacuum-dried.
Process 2: The cream is frozen, then heated in a double boiler and filtered to remove the coagulated
protein. The oil is passed through the centrifuge to remove the remaining water and then vacuum-dried.
Process 3: The cream is heated at a controlled temperature to coagulate the protein and remove the
water. Then the mixture is passed through a pressure filter. The oil is then vacuum-dried.
Figure 39 shows the steps of the two-phase centrifuge.

Preparation of the coconut kernel prior to milk extraction is the same as the process used in the fresh-
dry high pressure expeller method, DCN route, i.e. shelling, paring, cutting, washing and grinding.
Please refer to Section 3.2.1.2b for details.
Extraction of coconut milk – Coconut milk is extracted from the freshly comminuted (pared) kernel
by means of a motorised screw-type coconut milk press.
Filtration of coconut milk – Stainless steel strainers with fine mesh are used to remove all adhering
solid particles. If not removed, these particles will cause clogging in the centrifuge.
Comminuted
kernel Coconut milk residue
for further processing
Milk
extraction
Filtration
Two-phase
centrifuge
Coconut
Heating
cream Coconut skim milk
may be processed
further
Separation
of oil
Filtration
Oil drying
Premium
grade VCO
Figure 39. The fresh-wet two-phase centrifuge method
Separation of cream from the skim milk (Figure 40) – The coconut milk is passed through the liquid-
liquid centrifuge to separate the coconut cream (oily phase) from the skim milk (watery phase).
Heating – The cream is heated using controlled temperature to coagulate the protein
Filtration – The oil is passed through pressure filter to separate the coagulated protein
Oil drying – The VCO produced is dried under vacuum to remove the residual moisture that is entrained
in the oil.
In terms of oil recovery, this process has the lowest among the VCO processing technologies because,
aside from the oil retained in the residue when the coconut milk is extracted, some losses are also
incurred when the coconut cream is separated from the skim milk in the centrifuge.
Figure 40. Centrifugal separation of coconut cream and skim milk
3.2.2.3b The three-phase centrifuge

The three-phase (liquid-liquid-solid) centrifuge process (Figure 41) is much simpler than the two-phase
centrifuge process. Filtered coconut milk is passed through a three-phase centrifuge system (Figure 42)
where the oil is separated from the other components of coconut milk by means of a centrifugal force
of 10,000 rpm.
The coconut milk is fed to the centrifuge with hot water. When the oil coming out of the centrifuge is still
cloudy, it is fed in, again with hot water, for a second pass. The oil is then passed through a micro filter
to remove the fine, solid particles, and dried, using a vacuum dryer, to recover the VCO.
Preparation of the coconut kernel prior to milk extraction is the same as the process used in the fresh-
dry high pressure expeller method, DCN route, i.e. shelling, paring, cutting, washing and grinding.
Please refer to Section 3.2.1.2b for details. Extraction and filtration of coconut milk is the same as
described in the two-phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge method.
Scales of operation for the three-phase (liquid-liquid-solid) centrifuge process are relatively large
because of the high investment cost. The smallest three-phase centrifuge being used in the industry
has a process capacity of 800 litres per hour (equivalent to about 3500 nuts/hour). The viability of VCO
production using the centrifuge process can be improved if the coconut milk residue is processed
further to make coconut flour and another type of premium grade VCO.

Comminuted
kernel
Milk
extraction Hot water
Coconut milk
Coconut milk Three-phase
residue
centrifuge
for further
processing
separation
Protein Diluted
VCO slurry skim milk
Vacuum
drying
Premium
grade VCO
Figure 41. The fresh-wet three-phase centrifuge method
Figure 42. The three-phase centrifuge
Source: Masa (2008)
3.2.3 The Bawalan-Masa Process for VCO production

The Bawalan-Masa Process can be considered a hybrid of the fresh-dry and the fresh-wet processes
of VCO production. The starting material for VCO extraction is the coconut milk residue, a by-product
of the fresh-wet VCO process. However, the manner in which VCO is extracted from the coconut
milk residue is similar to the fresh-dry VCO process. This VCO processing technology can be used in
tandem with the fresh-wet centrifuge method and in the processing of coconut milk, coconut cream
and coconut cream powder to maximise the utilisation of coconuts and improve profitability.
Coconut milk residue represents approximately 25–50% of the weight of freshly grated kernel on a wet
basis, depending on the coconut milk extraction process that is used (Bawalan and Chapman 2006).
It still retains about 35–40% of the original oil content of the fresh coconut kernel. VCO and high-
fibre, low-fat coconut flour can be produced by further processing the coconut milk residue using the
Bawalan-Masa Process. For every tonne of wet coconut milk residue, 170 kg of VCO and 263 kg of
coconut flour can be recovered.
VCO produced from the Bawalan-Masa process is very light in texture, much like water, easily absorbed
by the skin and has a very mild coconut scent. For these reasons, this type of VCO is preferred by
manufacturers of aromatherapy oils and operators of spas.
The utilisation of coconuts can be maximised by combining the centrifuge process of VCO production
with the Bawalan-Masa process to produce two types of high quality VCO and coconut flour.
The production process (Figure 43) was developed by the author while working as Senior Science
Research Specialist, Product Development Department (PDD), Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA),
together with Ms Dina B. Masa, Manager, PDD – PCA.
The process involves blanching the residue, drying it at a specific moisture content level and subsequently
defatting the dried residue under controlled conditions using specially designed equipment to produce
VCO and low-fat, high-fibre coconut flakes. The flakes are further ground to produce coconut residue
flour. The technology was adopted for commercialisation in 2002 by Sirawan Foods Corporation, a
coconut milk manufacturer, through a technology transfer agreement with PCA. The technology has an
approved patent from the Philippine Intellectual Property Office in the name of the PCA.
Coconut milk
residue
Mechanical
Blanching
drying
Defatting
Coconut oil Coconut

with foots flakes
Setting or Re-drying
mechanical
filtration
Grinding
VCO
Coconut
Figure 43. The Bawalan-Masa Process flour

A more detailed process description of the Bawalan-Masa process is presented in Annex 11 and
discussed in conjunction with the utilisation of by-products in Chapter 6.
3.3 Post-processing stage

The post-processing stage covers the additional steps that have to be taken to ensure that the VCO
will be of the highest quality, will have a long shelf-life and a fresh coconut scent/aroma. The steps that
need to be taken depend on the technology used to produce the VCO.
3.3.1 Oil drying

GMP 4.3.1
The presence of water in VCO will cause it to go rancid and shorten its
shelf-life. Hence, entrained moisture in the oil should be reduced to as
low a level as possible (not more than 0.1%).
Oil drying as a post processing step is recommended for the VCO produced by the following processes:
• the direct micro expelling (DME) method
• the modified kitchen method
• the modified natural fermentation method
• the fresh-wet centrifuge process.
Based on experience, the moisture content of VCO produced by the high pressure expeller process is
already at a level of 0.1% or less after oil extraction. However, residual moisture content is particularly
critical in the VCO produced by the fresh-wet process since the oil is being recovered from coconut
milk, which has high moisture content. On the other hand, while the DME process is also categorised
under the fresh-dry process, oil extraction is done when the moisture content of the kernel is still
relatively high. Likewise, the subjective way of determining the final moisture content of dried kernel prior
to oil extraction under the DME process causes the oil to have variable quality. This can be corrected
by an additional oil drying step.
Bawalan and Chapman (2006) recommend the drying methods described below.
• Place the extracted oil in a double boiler (Figure 44) and simmer for about fifteen minutes or until the
oil has turned water-clear.
• Incubate or air heat the open oil-filled container at 50°C for 12 hours or until the oil has turned
water-clear.
• Vacuum drying.
An improvised double boiler can be made by
placing a stainless steel mixing bowl inside a
pot half full of water. The oil is placed in the
mixing bowl. Ensure that the bottom of the
mixing bowl is touching the water inside the
pot. In this way, heating of the oil is regulated.
Once the water in the pot starts to boil, reduce
the flame to the lowest possible setting such
that the temperature of the hot water will just
be maintained. NEVER HEAT oil directly in a
pot or pan as this will cause it to turn yellow.
Figure 44. Improvised double boiler
Incubation or air heating of the oil at 50°C can be done in a specially designed cabinet fitted with an air
heater and thermostat control.
Vacuum drying is the most effective way of drying oil without the risk of it turning yellow. A vacuum dryer
is a standard feature in a VCO plant using the fresh-wet centrifuge process in a medium scale operation,
but is not viable for an individual micro-scale processor because the investment cost is high. If, however,
there is a vacuum dryer in a central location to which processors could bring their raw VCO to dry under
a user-pays scheme, it could be viable.
3.3.2 Ageing GMP 4.3.2

VCO obtained by the modified natural fermentation process normally
develops a sour smell if operating conditions and fermentation time are
not controlled properly. Ageing of VCO is an additional process done in the Philippines to ensure the
removal of any faint sour smell.
Ageing is done by placing VCO in stainless steel pots, covering the pots with coarse cheese cloth and
storing them for a week in a warm room (50°C) or in a cabinet specially designed for the purpose. In
this way, the aromatic compounds responsible for the sour smell are volatilised and removed. Likewise,
whatever residual moisture the oil contains settles at the bottom of the container. Hence, ageing and
drying are done simultaneously.
After ageing, transfer the VCO to another container by scooping it up. Leave about two centimetres
of oil in the bottom of the pot because any residual moisture in the oil will be in this bottom layer. This
oil that is left can be dried using an appropriate oil-drying technique as described above and sold as
cooking oil (after accumulating enough volume) or mixed with second grade VCO for further processing
into downstream products (see Chapter 7).
3.3.3 Fine filtration of VCO

Based on experience, very fine particles of dried kernel (foots) entrained in the VCO produced using the
low pressure oil extraction method /DME process and the high pressure expeller method are not totally
removed even after gravity settling for two weeks. This is manifested in unsightly residue that settles
at the bottom of VCO bottles in retail stores and it puts prospective buyers off. This problem can be
solved through fine filtration using motorised pressure filters before packaging. However, pressure filters
are relatively expensive and not economically viable for small scale operations using the DME process.
One way of solving this problem is for government or a development project to set up filtration centres
that will service small-scale VCO producers using the DME process. Such facilities can be operated on
a user-pays scheme, i.e. a fee is charged for each litre of VCO filtered in order to cover operating and
maintenance expenses.
3.4 Packaging and storage

The most appropriate packaging for VCO is glass bottles in tropical GMP 4.4
climates and widemouthed glass jars in temperate climates. This is
especially important if the VCO is to be sold in stores where it might stay
on the shelves for long periods.
However, bottles made of PET (a thermoplastic resin) have evolved as the preferred packaging material
because glass is quite heavy to transport and there is the risk of breakage. Plastic bottles similar to
those used for mineral water can also be used, provided the VCO is consumed within a month.
For domestic sales, VCO is normally packaged in white 20 litre food-grade plastic containers if it is to be
sold in bulk, or in 500 ml or 250 ml PET bottles (Figure 45) if it is to be sold in retail stores. For export in
bulk, it is packed in 200 litre food-grade plastic drums.
Packed VCO should be stored in an enclosed area with screened windows, protected from rain, direct
sunlight and materials with strong odours.

Figure 45. Packaged VCO in PET bottles
3.5 Comparative analysis of different processes for producing VCO
Table 4. Comparative analysis of different processes for producing VCO
Type of Process Quality of Oil and Recovery Advantages and Limitations
Fresh-dry processes
High pressure expeller method wet FFA - 0.05–0.08% Produces full-protein, medium-
milling route MC - 0.07–0.1% fat coconut flakes with testa as a
Colour - water-clear co-product which can be further
processed into coconut flour or
MC of dried kernel for extraction sold as an aflatoxin-free animal feed

Oil recovery - 60 kg per 100 kg of
should be at 3-4% ingredient.
dried milled kernel; 31 kg per 100 kg
of fresh milled coconut kernel with Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and
testa (based on 50% initial MC of above.
fresh kernel) Uses mechanical type of equipment
Highest extraction efficiency to produce the oil.

Applicable in a village scale plant
operation (5,000+ nuts/day).
High pressure expeller method FFA - 0.05–0.08% Produces full-protein, medium-fat
Desiccated coconut route MC - 0.0–0.1% coconut flour without testa as a
Colour - water-clear co-product.
Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and
MC of dried kernel for extraction Oil recovery - 58 kg per 100 kg of above.
should be at 3-4% desiccated coconut ; 30 kg/100 kg of Uses mechanical type of equipment

fresh pared, ground kernel (based on to produce the oil.
50% initial MC of fresh kernel) More appropriate to be used in
tandem with an existing DCN
processing plant.
High pressure expeller method FFA - 0.05–0.08% Produces full-protein, medium-fat
Grated nut route MC - 0.07–0.1% coconut flour without testa as a
Colour - water-white coproduct.
Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and
MC of dried kernel for extraction Oil recovery - 30 kg per 100 kg of above.
should be at 3–4% fresh grated kernel (based on 50% Uses mechanical type of equipment
initial MC of kernel) to produce the oil.
Applicable in a village scale plant
operation (5,000+ nuts/day).
Low pressure extraction method FFA - 0.1–0.2% Uses manually operated equipment
MC - 0.17% and below to produce the oil.
Colour - water-clear Produces a semi-dry coconut
residue that has to be further dried or
MC of dried kernel for extraction Oil recovery - 25 kg per 100 kg of processed to have market value.
should be within the range of fresh grated coconut kernel (based Shelf-life of oil can be very short if
10–12%. on 50% initial MC of kernel) milled or grated coconut kernel is
not properly prepared prior to oil
extraction.
Oil drying is recommended to ensure
long shelf-life.

Centrifuge method FFA - 0.05–0.08% Produces low-fat, high-fibre coconut
MC - 0.1% and below milk as a co-product.
Colour – water-clear Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and
above.
MC of dried kernel prior to Oil recovery - 60 kg per 100 kg of Can also be used in tandem with
micro-pulverisation at 5% dried ground kernel without testa; 31 DCN processing.

kg per 100 kg of fresh pared kernel High investment cost since it uses
(based on 50% MC of fresh kernel) highly specialised equipment and is
Second highest oil extraction energy intensive.
efficiency. Very intense, fresh coconut aroma.
Fresh-wet processes
Modified kitchen method FFA - 0.1% Very low investment cost.
MC - 0.14% and below if heating is Can be produced on a home scale
done long enough to remove water in operation using ordinary kitchen
the coconut milk utensils.
Colour - water-clear to pale yellow Produces a wet coconut residue that
depending on the heating process has to be further dried or processed
to have market value.
Oil recovery - 16.5 kg per 100 kg of Produces a by-product
fresh grated coconut kernel (based (proteinaceous residue) which
on 50% initial MC of kernel) does not have commercial value at
present.
Oil drying is recommended to prolong
shelf-life.
Hardest to control in getting the
correct colour and low MC.
Modified natural fermentation method FFA - 0. 1% Very low investment cost. Lowest
MC - 0.12% and below labour and energy input.
Colour - water-clear Can be produced quickly on a home
Oil recovery - 34 litres per 100 litres scale operation using ordinary kitchen
of coconut milk (about 19 kg oil per utensils or on small/medium scale
100 kg of fresh grated kernel) operation using semi-mechanised
(Based on 50% initial MC of kernel) equipment.

Disposal of fermented skim milk
could be a big problem if done on a
medium scale plant operation.
Oil produced has a faint sour smell
which can be removed by ageing.
Produces premium and class B
grades of VCO.
Uses a lot of potable water.
Fresh-wet centrifuge method FFA - 0.04–0.08% Produces the best quality coconut oil
(2-phase centrifuge) MC - 0.1% and below with best sensory attributes if done in
Colour - water-clear a two stage centrifuge process.
Oil recovery - about 28 litres oil per Can only be applied in a medium
100 litres of coconut milk (about 17 scale operation as investment cost is
kg oil per 100 kg fresh grated kernel) very high.
(Based on 50% initial MC of kernel) Optimisation of the process is still
Reported oil recovery rate was required to improve oil recovery rate.
computed from the information Current oil recovery rates are much
provided by a VCO producer using a lower than the modified fermentation
2-phase centrifuge. Oil recovery rate process. Lowest extraction efficiency.
using a 3-phase centrifuge may be Further processing of the coconut

different. skim milk into health beverage and
the sapal generated into coconut
flour can improve profitability
Bawalan-Masa process FFA - 0.05–0.08% Further recovery of high value oil from
(VCO from coconut milk residue) MC - 0.07–0.12% residue makes coconut milk/VCO
Colour – water- clear processing more profitable.
Oil recovery - 17 kg per 100 kg of wet Long shelf-life of oil – 1 year and
residue above.
Coconut flour - 26.3 kg per 100 kg of Produces low fat high fibre coconut
wet residue flour as a by-product.
Requires mechanical type of
equipment to produce the oil.
Production process has to be
attached or integrated to an existing
coconut milk processing plant or a
high capacity VCO plant.
Maximises the income from coconut
kernel when used in tandem with
coconut milk processing or the
fresh-wet centrifuge process of VCO
production.
Source: Updated and revised table from Bawalan (2002)

3.6 Issues in VCO processing
3.6.1 Misconceptions in VCO processing and labelling
a) Process temperature
One of the biggest misconceptions in VCO processing is that the use of heat will make coconut oil lose
the attributes of being ‘virgin’ oil. A lot of people think, and a lot of VCO producers claim, that coconut
oil should be processed without any heat to retain its virgin quality. These producers claim that VCO
processed without heat is the best quality and is priced higher, regardless of its quality and sensory
characteristics. Admittedly, VCO processed without heat has a relatively higher Vitamin E content than
VCO processed with heat but, in terms of value, the Vitamin E content of coconut oil is not high enough
(36 mg/kg) for it to be considered a deciding factor in the grading of VCO. Vitamin E is also lost when
the oil is exposed to sunlight.
It should be emphasised that the main reason virgin coconut oil is bought at a much higher price than
any other edible oil is the high percentage of medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) it contains, particularly
lauric acid. Studies have suggested that they have anti-microbial properties, promote weight loss, boost
the immune system and have other health benefits. Information on the stability of different nutrients to
temperature, light, acid and other factors tells us that essential fatty acids are not affected by temperature
as long as the smoke point of the oil is not reached. It is the vitamins that are susceptible to increases
in temperature.
To sum up, VCO extraction at a high temperature, as long as it does not discolour the oil, is permissible
and does not diminish the health benefits that can be obtained from it. It should be noted that the VCO
standard stipulates that VCO should be colourless. This in itself is a self-checking mechanism on how
high the processing temperature can be because having too high a temperature discolours the oil.
In addition, internet research revealed the following basic criteria for any vegetable or seed or nut oil to
be entitled to the label ‘virgin’. The processing temperature is not a requirement in these criteria:
• The oil is not refined or no other processing is done on the oil after extraction other than
filtration.
• The oil is fit for human consumption after extraction and filtration.
• The oil retains the aroma of the seed or nut from which the oil is extracted, i.e. if it is olive oil, it
should have the aroma of olives; if coconut oil, it should retain the natural aroma of coconut, etc.
Therefore, coconut oil that has been extracted by means of drying the fresh kernel under sanitary
conditions and immediately extracting the oil using an expeller can qualify for the label ‘virgin’. Likewise,
existing quality standards for VCO do not stipulate any upper processing temperature (see Annex 4).
b) Testa or brown skin of coconut kernel
Another misconception in VCO processing is that if the brown skin, or testa, of the coconut kernel
is not removed, it will discolour the VCO. Hence, most VCO producers make it a point to remove
the testa prior to extraction of the oil. This practice increases the VCO production cost in terms of
additional labour for removing the testa and there are also raw material losses, as the removed brown
skin (plus some closely attached white meat) comprises about 13% to 15% of the total weight of the
fresh coconut kernel. Removing the testa strips the VCO of linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid required
by the body at a maximum level of 3.5% of total fat intake.
From 1991–1996, the author did countless coconut oil production trials from fresh coconut where
the brown skin was included. The resulting coconut oil was still water-clear. Moreover, in the research
studies under the RP-UK Aflatoxin Reduction in Copra Project, where the author worked as counterpart
engineer, it was found that any colour in the coconut oil after extraction is normally caused by microbial
action on improperly handled fresh kernel or copra and a very high processing temperature.
c) ‘Extra virgin’ and ‘cold pressed’ label for VCO
A number of VCO producers in different coconut-producing countries, including Fiji, that are selling on
the retail market are placing ‘extra virgin’ and ‘cold pressed’ on their label without actually understanding
what that label means. There is even pale yellow coconut oil being sold with the label ‘extra virgin VCO’.
To gain a full understanding of the terminologies involved, a literature and internet research survey was
conducted which revealed that the term ‘extra virgin’ is exclusive to olive oil. However, the term ‘virgin’
can be applied to olive oil as well as other types of oil, provided that the criteria listed in Section 3.6.1a)
are satisfied. The main reason for the ‘extra virgin’ label being exclusive to olive oil is that, when fresh
olives are pressed, what comes out can be called ‘olive oil juice’. This is essentially a mixture of olive
oil and water from which, after settling or centrifugal separation, the olive oil can be recovered. On
the other hand, when fresh coconut kernel is pressed, what comes out is coconut milk which is an
emulsion of oil and water, with globules of oil surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids (fatty
acid emulsifiers) and proteins. To recover the coconut oil, the membranes and bonds have to be broken,
either by heating, or by natural or biological fermentation, or by centrifugal action, or some other means.
Information on internet websites gave conflicting information as to what constitutes ‘cold pressed’ oil. A
lot of websites mentioned that the term ‘cold pressed’ does not have any legal definition in the United
Kingdom and the USA. It is a marketing strategy. For oil to be efficiently extracted from its plant-based
source (seeds, nuts, etc.), it has to be heated to a certain extent to allow the oil to flow freely. Likewise,
oil can be extracted by pressing only from seeds or nuts or any other plant source with oil content
above 30%. It was also mentioned that most plant-based oils cannot be produced in big/commercial
quantities if only cold pressing is used. In most websites, the term ‘cold pressed’ is associated with
olives for reasons stated above. On the other hand, some websites mention that the term ‘cold pressed’
is associated with oil that has been extracted/processed at a temperature below 50°C. Therefore, under
this condition, coconut oil that is produced by drying the fresh comminuted kernel and subsequently
extracting the oil using high pressure expellers, does not qualify for the label ‘cold pressed’ since
temperatures higher than 50°C are generated inside the expellers, but it does qualify to be labelled
‘virgin’. However, it was also noted that some manufacturers are placing the term ‘cold pressed’ on their
labels although their process is done at temperatures higher than 50°C. Only VCO produced using
the modified natural fermentation process and the fresh-wet centrifuge process with vacuum
evaporation is entitled to the labels ‘virgin’ and ‘cold pressed’.
Based on the author’s experience, the only major difference that can be discerned between ‘cold
pressed’ VCO and expeller-pressed or heat-processed VCO is that the ‘cold pressed’ or low
temperature-processed VCO does not leave an oily after-taste in the mouth when ingested. Likewise,
VCO processed at low temperatures also solidifies much faster and liquefies much more slowly than
the expeller-pressed VCO. Customer preferences will determine which type of VCO is preferred for
particular end use(s).
3.6.2 Organic certification

Consumers’ preferences when it comes to agricultural products, especially products from developed
countries, have dramatically changed in recent years with the growing awareness and concern for
health and environmental issues. Organic farming and labelling of food as organic is a steadily growing
sector of agriculture.
Organic agriculture as defined by the International Federation of Agriculture Movement and cited by
Idroes, Muhartoyo and Arancon (2007) includes all agricultural systems that promote the environmentally,
socially and economically sound production of food and fibres. These systems take local soil fertility as
the key to successful production. Organic agriculture dramatically reduces external inputs by refraining
from the use of chemo-synthetic fertilisers, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. Instead, it works with the
laws of nature to increase both agricultural yield and pest resistance.

FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission 1999 as cited by Idroes et al. (2007) states that:
Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances
agro ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It
emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off farm inputs, taking
into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by
using where possible agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to using
synthetic materials to fulfill any specific function within the system.
At present, there are two niche markets to which VCO is generally being supplied. These are:
• the nutraceutical market, i.e. VCO as a functional food is sold in stores specifically catering to
the demand for products intended for wellness and health;
• cosmetics and skin care products markets, where VCO is used as a base oil in the manufacture
of hypoallergenic cosmetics and skin care products.
Major institutional buyers for both markets normally prefer organically certified VCO as an assurance
that the product does not have any trace of synthetic pesticides, chemical fertilisers and other likely
harmful residues that might have an effect on their intermediate buyers and consumers.
On a general note, it can often be said that the majority of coconut plantations and wild stands in PICTs
are organic by default, inasmuch as they are not actually being tended. The growth of coconut trees
and their fruit-bearing capacities are left to the care of Mother Nature. However, the norm in international
trade is that one cannot claim a product is organically produced unless it has been certified as organic
by an internationally recognised and authorised body.
The Organic Certification Center of the Philippines mentions the following:
Certification is the procedure by which an independent third party gives written assurance that
a clearly identified production or processing system is methodically assessed and conforms to
specified requirements/standards.
Certification of organic agriculture combines certification of products and quality systems, but
it is primarily certification of a production system or method. All operation in the product chain,
including farmers, processors and distributors, must be certified as acting in conformity with the
standards and regulations of the certification program.
Certification is one way of ensuring that products claimed to be organic are actually produced
according to organic farming principles. It is a way of protecting consumers, producers, and
traders against the use of misleading or deceptive labels. It is also a marketing instrument enabling
producers to access markets for organic products and obtains premium prices. It also creates
transparency as information in certified producing organizations and their products are made
public.
(http://www.occpphils.org/certification.htm)
Before deciding to undertake or apply for an organic certification, a VCO producer should be aware of
the following information which was collated from Idroes et al. (2007).
1. A company or an individual who is interested in obtaining an organic certificate from an authorised
certifying body has to satisfy certain requirements and procedures. The procedures are set
by the certifying body in compliance with a particular standard such as the National Organic
Program of the United States Department of Agriculture, the Organic Production Method of the
European Union and the Organic Certification Program of Japan Agriculture Standard. There is
also the National Association for Sustainable Agriculture of Australia.
Each of these standards has its own requirements and procedures. Consequently, interested
companies have to decide which standard they want to comply with. In essence, the choice
depends on which market or countries the VCO producer intends to supply. There is no single
certifying body which is accepted or recognised worldwide.
2. The transition to organic agriculture takes at least three years, during which period the products
cannot be sold as organic. However, the transition period can be reduced to six months by
implementing a retroactive system, provided certain conditions and procedures are complied
with.
3. The following criteria should be considered in selecting coconut farms:
• the location must be free from contamination by forbidden chemicals, inorganic fertilisers
and pesticides (verified through the site visit and interview with the farmer and/or owner);
• the location must be safe from possible contamination from adjacent nearby farms (verified
by inspecting the topographic position of the coconut farm and adjacent nearby farms);
• the coconut farm is not intensely intercropped and is, ideally, far from villages;
• the coconut farm should be close to the processing site.
4. The applicant for an organic certification has to pay the registration fee of USD 3500 to an
internationally accredited certifying body. In addition, the applicant has to shoulder the expenses
of the inspector from the certifying body. Expenses include air fare, accommodation, transport
and daily subsistence allowance during the inspection.
5. If the application is approved, the organic certificate given is valid for one year and is subject to
renewal the following year.

Chapter 4
Good manufacturing practices and
sanitation standard operating procedures
As the world population continues to grow, the global market for food products is expanding, together
with an increased emphasis on food safety. Consumers have become more discerning in the type of
foods they buy and how these foods affect their health and well-being.
Food safety is generally defined as the assurance that the food will not cause any harm to the consumer
when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use (Alba 2006). To achieve food safety, a
management system has been developed which focuses on preventing problems before they occur,
rather than trying to detect failures through end product testing. It also places more responsibility for
ensuring food safety on food manufacturers, who have to develop control and traceability of their
products from ‘farm to plate’. The system requires the identification of specific hazards throughout
the entire process of food production, concentrates on the points in the process that are critical to the
safety of the product, and highlights measures for their control. This food safety management system is
referred to as HACCP or hazard analysis critical control points.
VCO is considered a functional food and is increasingly consumed and/or processed into nutraceutical
products. It is not only used as a food ingredient but also as a food supplement that people take for its
health benefits. As such, it has to be carefully processed with food safety considerations at the forefront.
While it is not generally required for a VCO plant to be HACCP compliant when it is just starting its
operation, strict adherence to the prerequisite programmes of HACCP by processors is strongly
recommended. These prerequisite programmes are described below.
• Good manufacturing practices (GMPs) – This is a set of guidelines and procedures that
have to be followed to ensure that the food products manufactured in a particular plant are
free from the presence of dirt, contaminants and pathogenic microorganisms such that it will
be safe for human consumption (Bawalan and Chapman 2006). These are regulations and
procedures that guide food manufacturers in the development and proper implementation of
food safety programmes (Kindipan et al. 2006). Adherence to GMP ensures the prevention of
food adulteration and contamination due to unsanitary conditions.
• Sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs) – This is a set of activities related to
the sanitary handling of raw materials, food products, work areas and equipment (Kindipan
et al. 2006). It ascertains that conditions prescribed by GMP are met by plant facilities and
operations. It ensures the effectiveness of maintenance, corrective actions and record-keeping
activities.
GMPs in VCO production cover the adherence to a specific set of guidelines for each of the following
stages:
• pre-processing stage – all the steps before the coconuts are opened for conversion into VCO:
harvesting, collection, husking, transport, storage;
• processing stage – the actual steps in the processing of fresh coconut into VCO, from opening
the nuts to recovering the VCO, varying according to the technology;
• post-processing stage – additional steps to further improve the quality of VCO: fine filtration, oil
drying (if required) and ageing (if required);
• packaging and storage of the product.
SSOPs for VCO processing cover the following aspects:
• sanitation in the processing area;
• sanitation in the processing equipment;
• personal hygiene.
Good manufacturing practices and sanitation standard operating procedures 53

4.1 Pre-processing stage
4.1.1 GMPs for selection/harvesting
The fresh coconut kernel, as the raw material for processing VCO, requires special handling and control
to ensure the production of high quality VCO. Fresh coconut kernel is a low acid substance with high
moisture and nutrient contents. This makes it susceptible to microbial attack and contamination.
While still on the tree or as a whole harvested mature nut (with or without husk) and as long as there
are no cracks and the ‘soft eye’ of the nut is not damaged, the coconut kernel is edible and sterile,
uncontaminated by any microorganism. However, once the nut is opened or the shell is cracked (in
the case of husked nuts), the kernel is then susceptible to attack and deterioration by airborne micro-
organisms. When this happens, the nut is no longer suitable for food processing.
Coconuts in PICTs are allowed to fall naturally at maturity and are collected off the ground. Since
coconuts do not fall naturally from the tree unless they are mature or over-mature, on-farm selection of
coconuts for VCO processing consists of segregating the good mature nuts (Figure 46) from the over-
mature nuts with signs of germination or growth (Figure 47). The prevalence of germinating nuts is quite
common in PICTs, since fallen coconuts are not collected daily.
Figure 46. Good, mature coconuts
Figure 47. Overmature coconuts with germination growth
Selection of the nuts for VCO processing starts at the farm when the nuts are collected. For VCO
production, only sound, fully mature nuts (12–13 months old) should be selected as these have the
highest oil content and the lowest moisture content. Nuts with cracks, or a damaged soft eye or
germination growth exceeding 1 cm must be discarded. Under conditions in PICTs where nuts are
not being picked from the tree but are picked up from the ground after they have fallen, it is difficult to
get a batch of ungerminated nuts. One compromise is that if germinated nuts cannot be avoided, only
nuts with a maximum germination growth of one centimetre should be accepted for VCO production.
Generally speaking, the maturity of whole unhusked coconuts can be determined by the indicators
described below.
• Colour of the husk – mature nuts at 12–13 months old are light brown or yellowish brown; those
at 10–11 months are green with a tinge of yellow. Immature nuts less than ten months old are
generally green except for those varieties that have golden nuts (e.g. Sri Lankan golden king,
Malaysian red dwarf).
• Colour of the shell – another indication of the maturity of the nut is the colour and the hardness
of the shell. Mature coconuts have a hard, brown shell.
• The sound that the nut makes when it is shaken – immature nuts do not make a noise when
shaken because the cavity is completely full of water. Mature nuts make a sloshing sound when
shaken (Ranasinghe, Cataoan and Patterson 1980).
Over-mature nuts (above 13 months old), especially those which have already germinated, impart an
off-flavour and oily taste to coconut products so they should be discarded. Likewise, the oil content of
the kernel starts to decline once the haustorium (creamy, spongy tissue that fills a germinating nut) is
formed. Aside from oil yield, the oil quality also deteriorates as the haustorium grows bigger.
4.1.2 GMPs for husking

Guidelines for husking coconuts
• If possible, do the husking early in the morning or in a shady area so the husked nuts are not
exposed to direct sunlight.
• Cover the pile of husked nuts as a protection from direct sunlight. Exposure of husked nuts to
direct sunlight for more than an hour will cause the shell to crack.
• If the coconuts are not to be processed within two days from the time of husking, keep the eye
of the nut adequately covered by leaving a portion of the husk attached to it during husking
(Figure 48).
After husking and before transport to a VCO processing plant, the nuts should be inspected.
Figure 48. Husked coconuts with the eye still covered by a portion of husk

4.1.3 GMPs for the transport of husked nuts to the VCO processing plant
Cover the coconuts if they are in an open vehicle, especially on hot, sunny days and if the transport time
is more than an hour. Proper care must also be taken during loading and unloading of the nuts so that
they are not exposed to sunlight or broken.
Ideally, husked fresh coconuts should be processed within seven days from the time of harvest.
Accordingly, VCO processing facilities should be set up within the coconut producing areas to ensure
the freshness of the raw material (Bawalan and Chapman 2006). This also lowers the transport cost.
4.1.4 GMPs for the inspection of nuts at the VCO plant

The nuts are inspected yet again on delivery to the plant. Husked nuts with a cracked shell, or a
damaged soft eye, or germination growth exceeding one centimetre in length should be rejected.
For small deliveries, it is a common practice in Fiji to put husked nuts in plastic sacks. In this case, the
husked nuts should be removed from the sack and inspected individually on arrival at the plant.
4.1.5 GMPs for the storage of nuts

• Husked nuts should be kept in clean storage areas with cement floors, good ventilation and
adequate rain/sun cover.
• Storage bins should be designed and partitioned so that the principle of first in, first out can be
easily implemented.
• The husked nuts should not be placed directly on a cement floor but on an elevated platform
(pallet) with slats which is at least six inches above the floor. In this way, coconut water can flow
away from the pile if coconut shell breakages occur.
• The stockpile of husked coconuts should be inspected daily to remove nuts with cracked shells
and soft eyes.
• The height of a storage pile of coconuts should not exceed 1.8 metres.
(Bawalan and Chapman 2006)
In addition, NEVER store coconuts in plastic sacks. Since there is no air circulating inside the sacks,
moisture emanating from the fresh nuts is trapped inside and will cause deterioration of the nuts. The
situation is aggravated if there are nuts with a cracked shell or a deteriorating eye in the sack.
Another quality control and inspection needs to be done when the nuts are taken out of storage for
processing to ensure that only good quality nuts enter the processing area.
4.2 GMPs for the processing stage

4.2.1 GMPs for handling coconut water
GMPs on the proper handling of coconut water are important because it spoils and ferments very fast
once the nut is split.
Guidelines for handling coconut water
• Split the coconuts above the ground and put a receptacle underneath for the coconut water
(Figure 49).
• Do not split the coconuts at too high a level above the coconut water receptacle because there
will be a tendency for the water to splash on the floor.
• If the coconut water is not to be used in VCO processing or is not be further processed, remove
it at intervals from the splitting area and dispose of it in dedicated septic tanks to prevent the
generation of a foul odour in the process area. Do not dispose of large quantities of coconut
water directly into drains or a sewage system, or into a creek, a river or the sea without proper
treatment. Coconut water is considered a major pollutant because of its high biochemical
Figure 49. The correct way to split coconuts
oxygen demand (BOD5) or biological oxygen demand. This amounts to 14,000–15,000 mg/
litre (Sison 1976).
• Immediately wash the floor with water if coconut water gets spilled on it. Spilled coconut water
on the floor if not immediately cleaned will attract flies and become a source of contamination
(Bawalan and Chapman 2006). It will also destroy the cement surface of the floor (if there are no
tiles) since fermented coconut water becomes very acidic.
Selection of coconut kernels for processing
Quality control on the fresh coconut kernel should be done after splitting the nuts to ensure that only
fresh, unspoiled coconut flesh is further processed (Figure 50). The kernel should be firm in texture and
white/opaque in colour. Coconut kernel with a soft texture, slimy surface or discolouration should be
segregated and discarded. Likewise, kernel from nuts with big haustorium or germination growth is soft
and thin and has a rancid smell. Hence, it must be discarded as it will destroy the quality of the whole
batch.
As a general rule, coconuts for food products should be processed within four hours from the time the
shell is broken or the nut is split.
Figure 50. Left, good coconut kernel for processing. Middle, discoloured kernel for rejection. Right, kernel with haustorium.

There are three options for utilising split coconuts that fail the quality control for VCO processing. These
are:
• convert them into copra by sundrying;
• use them as animal feed, e.g. for chickens and pigs;
• process them for second grade VCO using the modified natural fermentation process and use
the resulting coconut oil for making soap and other downstream products (see Chapter 7).
4.2.2 GMPs for removal of the coconut kernel and particle size reduction
Whatever method is used to remove the coconut kernel from the shell and reduce the particle size of
the flesh, all parts of the processing equipment that come into contact with the coconut kernel should
preferably be made of food-grade stainless steel, which is preferable, or plastic containers.
This step needs to be done in as short a time as possible to prevent bacterial contamination.
Guidelines for manual grating of coconuts
• Before starting to grate, wash the grater blade thoroughly with soap and water. Use hot water
for the last rinse.
• Manual grating should not be done while one is sitting on the ground/floor, but if there is no
alternative, sit a clean cement floor.
• Use a clean container (stainless steel or white plastic basin) as a receptacle for the grated
coconut kernel.
• Do not place any split coconuts on the ground.
Guidelines for motorised grating
• Ensure that the blades and housing of the grater are thoroughly cleaned with soap and water
before starting the operation. Make certain that no soap residue is left on the surface by
thoroughly rinsing with water. Use hot/boiling water for the last rinse to sanitise.
• Avoid touching the grated kernel with bare hands. Use a stainless steel ladle when removing the
grated flesh that adheres to the surface of the grater housing.
• Make certain that only highly skilled operators do motorised grating. The rotating metal blades
of the grater may cause injury if the grater is handled by unskilled or untrained workers.
• Clean the grater blades and housing immediately after each use. Use a pressurised water hose
if necessary to dislodge fine coconut kernel particles. Make certain that there is not a speck of
coconut left adhering to the grater head.
4.2.3 GMPs for fresh-dry process
4.2.3.1 GMPs for drying of freshly comminuted kernel
Drying of the freshly comminuted kernel is the most critical step in the fresh-dry process. Delay in drying
or the use of improper drying techniques produces second grade VCO.
Guidelines for drying — all methods
• Dry the coconut kernel within four hours of splitting the nut. Beyond four hours, the nut will yield
yellow or pink oil due to microbial attack. The risk is much higher in kernels of small particle size
(as in this case) because more surface area of the kernel is exposed.
• Dry the comminuted kernel at the appropriate temperature (70–75°C) to prevent it from being
burned or scorched. High temperature and improper drying techniques result in unacceptable
pale yellow coconut oil with a burnt odour. If the drying temperature is too low, bacterial
contamination may occur which also results in unacceptable yellow-coloured oil (Bawalan and
Chapman 2006).
• Do not overload the dryer. Just load the amount of grated/shredded/milled coconut kernel
according to the specified processing capacity. Overloading the dryer can cause deterioration
of the kernel that is not reached by heat and may also result in yellow-coloured oil.
• Dry the comminuted kernel to the right moisture content as specified in the type of VCO fresh-
dry processing technology that is used (e.g. 10–12% for the low pressure method, 3–4% for the
high pressure expeller and fresh-dry centrifuge process).
Guidelines for the flat-bed conduction type dryer or DME dryer
• Regulate the dryer temperature by regulating the amount of coconut shell fed into the burner for
a specific period of time, i.e. feeding a constant number of shells per unit of time, e.g. 25 half
shells every ten minutes. The exact number of half shells should be determined by doing actual
drying trials.
• Do not load wet comminuted kernel onto the surface of the hottest portion of the dryer. Place
it first on the cooler portion and reduce the moisture content before it is moved to the hotter
portion. This is because any material with high moisture content tends to stick when placed on
a very hot surface.
• Do not allow the kernel to stay long on the dryer surface. Constant moving and fast turning of
the grated kernel is required to prevent it from getting scorched. If this happens, the resulting oil
will be pale yellow and have a burnt odour.
Guidelines for drying in a forced draught (with fan) tray-type dryer (Figure 51)
• Spread the freshly comminuted coconut kernel thinly in each of the loading trays. The thickness
of the layer of kernel in each loading tray should not exceed one centimetre.
• Set the thermostat control of the dryer at 75°C for the first hour of drying. Then reduce the
temperature setting to 70°C and maintain this temperature until the kernel has reached the
desired moisture content.
• Regularly change the position of the trays inside the dryer. Likewise, regularly mix the loaded
kernel in the trays to assist with a more uniform drying regime.
It should also be noted that, under conditions of low humidity and hot midday temperatures, solar
drying of the grated kernel can be done. A well designed solar dryer normally generates a drying
temperature of about 70°C, which is suitable for drying grated/shredded coconut kernel intended for
VCO production (Bawalan and Chapman 2006). Solar, not sun, drying is done to prevent the grated
kernel from being contaminated with dust and insects.
Figure 51. Electrically heated forced draught tray-type dryer at the Food
Processing Centre, Kiribati

4.2.3.2 GMPs for low pressure oil extraction/DME
All containers, receptacles and utensils used during extraction of coconut oil should be made of stainless
steel. If stainless steel is not available, food-grade plastic white containers may be used.
• All parts of the equipment that come into contact with the dried kernel and VCO should be made
of stainless steel. The quality standard for VCO stipulates certain limits for metal contaminants
including iron, lead and copper.
• Thoroughly dry all containers and equipment parts that come into contact with the dried kernel and
VCO prior to starting operations.
• Clean all equipment at the end of each production shift. Remove all adhering particles of coconut
kernel from the equipment. Rinse with hot water and allow to dry for the next operation.
• Always watch the colour of the oil that is extracted. If it is cloudy (i.e. there is some opaque white
colour in it) do the gravity settling to remove fine particles in a room or specially designed cabinet
heated at 50°C. This will prevent the oil from turning rancid during the two-week gravity settling
period as the oil will be dried as well.
4.2.3.3 GMPs for high pressure oil extraction (from Bawalan and Chapman
2006)
The critical factors in the high pressure extraction of VCO are the moisture content of the feed material
and the processing temperature in the expeller. Optimum recovery of oil is obtained if the granulated
fresh kernel is dried to a moisture content of 3–4%. The temperature in the expeller should not be
allowed to exceed 90°C in order to prevent the oil from turning yellow. A high pressure expeller with a
water-cooled worm shaft is required to ensure that the temperature inside the expeller remains within
acceptable levels.
The oil extraction efficiency of high pressure expellers is determined by the following factors:
• moisture content of the feed material
• temperature of the feed material
• choke clearance
• particle size.
Guidelines for high pressure oil extraction to ensure optimum recovery and the production of high quality
VCO
• The dried granulated/milled coconut kernel should have a moisture content of 3–4% when fed
into the expeller.
• Extract the oil immediately after drying. It is better to process the dried kernel while it is still
warm to help ensure that the oil flows easily during the extraction process. The Anderson
expeller, which is generally used in the coconut oil milling industry in the Philippines, has a built-
in conditioner-cooker to adjust the moisture content and temperature of the milled copra.
• Adjust the choke clearance to a setting which will yield optimum oil recovery. The thickness of
the pressed cake coming out of the expeller gives an indication of the oil extraction efficiency in
the expeller, i.e. experienced operators know whether the oil extraction rate is at the optimum
level by looking at the thickness of the pressed cake. Corresponding adjustments in the choke
clearance are normally made if the thickness of the pressed cake is greater than 1 mm. (Please
refer to the glossary of terms for the meaning of choke.)
• Dried coconut kernel to be fed into the expeller should be in granulated or milled form with a
particle thickness of 3 mm. Very thin particles as in grated or sliced or shredded coconut kernel
tend to slide out of the choke, thereby reducing the yield of oil.
• High pressure extraction causes the temperature in the expeller to rise, so a cooling system
is required. Use an expeller with a built-in cooling system in the worm shaft to ensure that
the temperature does not rise above a level that will cause the coconut oil to turn yellow. For
expellers without a cooling system, one way of reducing the temperature inside the expeller is
to adjust the choke to a wider clearance and to use feed material with slightly higher moisture
content. However, this method sacrifices the oil extraction efficiency and in turn reduces the
profitability of VCO production.
• Ensure that all materials, containers and utensils used during oil extraction are thoroughly dried.
4.2.3.4 GMPs for settling and filtration of newly extracted VCO

VCO extracted using a low pressure press (e.g. bridge press, DME press, New Zealand press) or a
high pressure expeller contains very fine particles of dried kernel called foots which are entrained and
then suspended in the oil. For the low pressure oil extraction process, the general practice is to filter
the newly extracted oil with cheese cloth to remove larger particles of entrained kernel. The oil is then
allowed to undergo gravity settling for a minimum of two weeks to clarify the oil. VCO extracted using
a high pressure expeller is allowed either to undergo gravity settling or is passed through a motorised
plate and frame filter press.
The use of a motorised plate and frame filter press or any type of pressure filter is preferable to gravity
settling. Based on experience, foots are not completely removed, even after two weeks of gravity
settling, and form a residue that settles at the bottom of VCO or VCO-based body oil after packaging
and standing for a long time. The presence of residue at the bottom of a VCO bottle puts buyers off.
If a VCO operation using the fresh-dry process is too small to warrant procurement of a motorised
pressure filter, then gravity settling using containers with a conical bottom is recommended. An
improvised settling container that satisfies this requirement is the 20 litre plastic water container used in
water dispensers. Remove the bottom and position it upside down in a manufactured stand. Place it in
a room in which the temperature is maintained at about 50°C. In this way, whatever residual moisture
there is in the oil will also be removed during the process of settling. The theory is that, at relatively high
temperatures, oil molecules will move upwards more rapidly and the settling process will be hastened.
The designated gravity settling room can be heated using a heater similar to those used for chicken
brooders in poultry farms. It can also be heated using charcoal briquettes as fuel (see Annex 8.3).
Ensure that the heater is placed at a distance from the coconut oil containers when using charcoal
briquettes as fuel to heat the room.
As an additional guideline, always ensure that the container to be used for settling VCO or any filtering
device is totally dry and free from dirt or any extraneous matter before putting in the oil.
4.2.4 GMPs for fresh-wet processes

4.2.4.1 GMPs for coconut milk extraction
Coconut milk is categorised as a low acid food. It contains proteins and other nutrients in which micro-
organisms from the air and other sources can thrive. In addition, coconut milk has a high moisture
content which allows microorganisms to multiply very fast. Correct handling of coconut milk is therefore
critical in the fresh-wet VCO process, since there is a very high risk of spoilage if is not processed under
strict conditions.
• All containers, receptacles and utensils used during the extraction of coconut milk should be
made of food-grade stainless steel. If stainless steel is not available, food-grade plastic white
containers should be used.
• Ensure that all materials, utensils and equipment are thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with hot
water. They should be free from any soapy residue (Bawalan and Chapman 2006).
• Water used for dilution for a second milk extraction should be of high quality, free from microbial
contamination and of low mineral content (Bawalan and Chapman 2006). Coconut water

can also be used for dilution purposes but specific handling procedures need to be followed,
especially during hot weather (i.e. filtration and immediate storage in a refrigerator or ice box
while waiting for the grating and first milk extraction to be finished). Otherwise, the coconut
water will start to ferment, which will make it unsuitable for dilution purposes.
• Thoroughly wash your hands with soap and water before doing any preparation work.
In addition to the above general guidelines, the following should be observed if coconut milk is extracted
manually.
• Remove rings from fingers when directly handling and mashing grated coconut kernel for milk
extraction.
• Do coconut milk extraction on top of a table. Any plastic containers used as receptacles should
be food-grade and white (Figure 52).
• Ensure that the cloth is clean and sanitised.
• Do not use bark, such as bark of the beach hibiscus, known in Fiji as vau, for straining and
extracting coconut milk. It imparts a pink colour to the VCO produced (Figure 53).
For processing VCO via the coconut milk route at a capacity higher than home scale production,
manually operated coconut milk presses (hydraulic or vertical screw type) or motorised hydraulic presses
are generally used in coconut-producing countries like the Philippines and Thailand. In these types of
milk presses, grated coconut kernel is normally placed in bags to make it easier to remove the residue
after milk extraction.
Figure 52. Food-grade white plastic container Figure 53. VCO with a pink colour as a result of using a Fijian
vine to extract the coconut milk
In addition to the above general guidelines, the practices listed below need to be observed if the
coconut milk is to be extracted using a manually operated and motorised hydraulic press.
• All parts of equipment which come into contact with coconut kernel and coconut milk should
be made of stainless steel.
• Equipment should be rinsed with hot water before use and cleaned every four hours during
operation in order to prevent contamination. All equipment is to be thoroughly cleaned at the
end of the day’s shift.
• Never leave the equipment with adhering grated coconut kernel and film of coconut milk on the
surface after use because it will develop a bad odour and attract flies and other insects.
• Bags for holding the grated coconut kernel should be made either of white plastic nets with fine
mesh or sanitised cheesecloth or canvas cloth (Figure 54).
• The person who does the bagging should observe proper personal hygiene (e.g. not report for
work if ill, remove rings from the fingers, wear gloves, etc.) before starting work.
4.2.4.2 GMPs for recovery of VCO from fresh-wet processes

4.2.4.2a GMPs for recovery of VCO by the modified kitchen method
Aside from proper handling of coconut milk, heating of the coconut milk or cream is the major critical
step in the modified kitchen method, as this will determine whether the recovered oil is water-clear or
yellow, which will preclude it from being classified as virgin.
Figure 54. White plastic net bag for grated coconut kernel for extraction in a manually
operated milk press
The following control measures should be observed at all times to ensure that only waterclear VCO is
recovered:
• Heating should be done with proper temperature control. For the first hour of heating, the
temperature can be allowed to reach 90°C (a stove setting between medium and high).
Subsequently, and once the proteins have started to coagulate, the temperature should not
exceed 80°C (a medium stove setting). Reduce the stove setting to low when the oil starts to
separate from the coagulated protein. Constant stirring is needed during heating of the coconut
cream.
• Do not allow the proteinaceous residue to turn brown as this will give yellow-coloured coconut
oil. Once the oil separates out from the sinusinu (Figure 55), take the oil out. Then toast the
sinusinu to recover the residual oil which is entrained in it. Note that this type of oil will be yellow
and suitable only for skin care products.

• Dry the recovered oil using one of the techniques discussed in Section 3.3.1 to prolong its shelf-
life.
Figure 55. Separation of coconut oil from the coagulated protein (sinusinu) during heating
4.2.4.2b GMPs for recovery of VCO using the modified natural fermentation process
Settling and fermentation are the critical steps in this process, and they require proper control of
operating conditions and observance of strict sanitary measures (Bawalan and Chapman 2006). There
are cases in which no oil separates, even after 24 hours settling. There are also cases when the coconut
milk mixture that is left to settle for 12–16 hours generates big bubbles and no oil separates. To ensure
that good quality VCO is produced, the measures below should be taken.
• Place the diluted coconut milk in food-grade transparent white plastic containers and allow it
to settle for 12–16 hours, preferably at a temperature of 35°–40°C. Fermentation does occur at
temperatures below 35°C but the oil recovery for premium grade VCO is lower. Fermentation
continues up to 36 hours if allowed. However, fermentation time is set at 16 hours to get
premium grade VCO. The longer the fermentation time, the more intense the sour smell in the
coconut oil and the higher the risk of free fatty acids increasing to levels above those permitted
in the VCO standard.
• Relative humidity within the area should be maintained below 75%.
• Loosely cover the container of coconut milk to allow the release of carbon dioxide which is
generated during fermentation.
• Strict sanitary measures have to be observed at all times. The major cause of the bubbling over
problem mentioned above is contamination, either through soap residue on the fermenting
container or invasion of different types of microorganism. (Note: If this problem occurs,
immediately put the mixture in the evaporating pan and follow the modified kitchen method so
that oil can still be recovered, instead of wasting the whole batch. Also note that the coconut
oil that is recovered is second grade VCO and should only be used for making herbal soap and
skin care products.)
Remember that, in PICTs, the freshness of the coconut cannot be accurately ascertained
because coconuts are not actually harvested but picked up off the ground. It was ascertained
during the training courses in Marshall Islands and Papua New Guinea that VCO does not
separate naturally from coconut milk obtained from fallen coconuts if the water used to dilute
the coconut milk is at room temperature. The problem can be corrected if hot water (about
60°C) is used to dilute the coconut milk prior to settling. This was successfully done in training
courses in Solomon Islands and Fiji.
Hence, the general rule for PICTs is to use hot water for dilution of coconut milk if the coconuts
are known to be not newly fallen or just bought from the market.
• Dispose of the fermented skim milk (watery phase) and gummy portions properly in a designated
septic tank. Do not put it directly into the sewage system.
Fermentation of the curd can be allowed to continue for another 24 hours after recovering the
premium grade VCO. The curd still contains a lot of oil, especially the top layer, and can be used
to recover second grade VCO.
The following guidelines should be followed for recovering the oil produced in the modified natural
fermentation process.
• Use a stainless steel strainer and soup ladle for taking the VCO out of the fermenting container.
• Great care needs to be taken not to touch the water layer with the ladle whilst removing the
VCO.
• Ensure that all containers and utensils used in recovering and holding the VCO are clean and
thoroughly dried.
4.2.4.3 GMPs for filtration of VCO produced from the fresh-wet processes
The suspended particles (coagulated protein in the modified kitchen process and fermented curd in the
modified natural fermentation process) are floating on the surface of the oil. They can be removed by a
simple filtration method (Figure 56) using fine strainer, cheese cloth or course filter paper (Figure 57) or
any material that will allow only the passage of liquid. This method does not leave any unsightly residue
at the bottom of the bottle after it is packed and left on the shelf for some time.
Guidelines
• Always ensure that the container to be used to hold the oil or any filtering medium is totally dry
and clean, free from any dirt or extraneous matter.
• If cheese cloth is used as the filtering medium, it should be free from any soapy residue,
thoroughly dried and ironed (for sanitation) before using.

Figure 56. Simple filtration using sterilised cotton balls
Figure 57. Filtration using filter paper
Source: PCA Product Development Department Source: PCA Product Development Department
4.3 Good manufacturing practices for the postprocessing stage

4.3.1 GMPs for oil drying
• NEVER heat oil directly in a pot or pan as this will cause it to turn yellow.
• In using an improvised double boiler for oil drying, ensure that the bottom of the mixing bowl
holding the oil is touching the water in the pot.
• Ensure that all process containers and utensils are thoroughly cleaned and dried.
• Ensure that the specially designed cabinet where incubation or air heating of VCO is done is
clean at all times and free from insects.
4.3.2 GMPs for ageing of VCO produced from the modified fermentation process
• Ensure that all process containers and utensils are thoroughly cleaned and dried.
• Ensure that the cheese cloth used to cover the VCO container is sanitised and dry.
• When transferring VCO to packaging containers after ageing, always leave behind about 2 cm
of oil at the bottom. Any residual moisture in the oil settles in this bottom layer after aging.
4.4 GMPs for packaging and storage of VCO

Guidelines for packaging
• In selecting plastic bottles for packaging, always ensure that they are food-grade and do not
impart any flavour to the oil.
• Always ensure that the container (glass or plastic) is thoroughly clean and dry before filling it with
VCO.
• If packaging VCO in glass bottles with metal caps that automatically seal with a vacuum, fill the
bottle up to the top. Moisture in trapped air in the empty space may condense and cause the
oil to become rancid.
• Cover the container immediately after filling (Figure 58).
Guidelines for storage
• Store packaged VCO in an enclosed area with screened windows, protected from rain and
away from direct sunlight and materials with a strong odour.
• Keep the room temperature at 27°C or above, preferably with a dehumidifier.
Figure 58. Filling bottles with VCO
4.5 Sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOPs)

Sanitation standard operating procedures (SSOP) are activities related to the sanitary handling of
raw materials, food products, work areas and equipment (Kindipan et al. 2006). They ascertain that
conditions prescribed by GMPs are met by plant facilities and operations. They ensure the effectiveness
of maintenance, corrective actions and record keeping activities.
Cleanliness and sanitation of plant and premises include both maintenance of clean and well sanitised
surfaces of all equipment coming into contact with food, good housekeeping in and about the plant,
and correct disposal of waste (Frazier and Westhoff 1988).
4.5.1 Sanitation in the processing area

Cleaning and disinfecting processing areas should not be neglected: they can substantially reduce
the risk of VCO not meeting consumer and government standards. Translated into business terms,
strict adherence to sanitary procedures will mean zero or fewer rejections and complaints and zero
involvement in outbreaks of food poisoning.
Guidelines for cleanliness and sanitation
• Frequent and continuous cleaning must be done at the various process section areas (e.g.
regular removal of waste and by-products) as well as cleaning at the end of every eight hour
period and/or at the end of every production shift. The purpose of continuous cleaning is to
keep waste from accumulating during the operating day, which not only improves sanitation,
but also reduces the time needed for end-of-shift cleaning.
• Every weekend (or once a week), every process area should be scrubbed with soap and water
and rinsed. An anti-bacterial agent must be applied.
• Ceilings and roof spaces should be regularly monitored and appropriate measures taken to
keep them free of insects, geckos and rodents.
• The grating and milk extraction areas (in the case of the fresh-wet VCO process) or the shelling,
washing and kernel grinding area (in the case of the fresh-dry VCO process) should be regularly
cleaned every eight hours to prevent microorganisms from building up. The cleaning can be
done by washing off all coconut flesh using a high pressure hose. It should be noted that
immediate flushing with water is required whenever coconut water is spilled in the floor.
• An exhaust fan should be installed in the fermentation room of the VCO facility using the
modified natural fermentation method. The exhaust fan should be run for at least half an hour
at the end of every fermentation cycle to remove stale air, laden with carbon dioxide, from the
room. Likewise, the fermentation room should be airy, allowing fresh air to circulate.
• Packaging areas should be equipped with a white formica-topped table and should be cleaned
after every use. Any spillage of oil in the floor must be immediately cleaned with soap and water
to prevent accidents.
Guidelines for handling the by-products
• Coconut shells should be regularly removed from the grating area. Please refer to Section 6.1
for the options for processing coconut shells.
• If coconut water is not to be further processed, regularly dispose of it in an assigned disposal
area or septic tank after proper treatment to prevent the generation of a foul odour in the
process area. It should be noted that coconut water starts to ferment within four hours of
splitting the nuts.
Flush the area with water if coconut water gets spilled on the floor. Spilled coconut water on the
floor, if not immediately cleaned, attracts flies and becomes a source of contamination. It will
also destroy the surface of a cement floor since fermented coconut water is very acidic.
• In the case of a plant producing VCO from coconut milk, the coconut milk residue generated
after milk extraction should be regularly transferred to the drying area or the area where it will be
further processed. Please note that wet coconut milk residue, if left unattended for more than
four hours, will deteriorate and cause a foul odour and microbial contamination.
4.5.2 Sanitation in processing equipment
Food-grade stainless steel is the recommended material of construction for all parts of VCO processing
equipment that come in contact with coconut kernel or milk.
Bawalan and Chapman (2006) list the following sanitation guidelines that should be followed for
equipment.
• All equipment where fresh coconut kernel is being handled /processed should be cleaned after
every four hours of use. It must all be cleaned at the end of each production cycle. Cleaned
equipment should be free of grease and adhering product particles, detergent residue, brush
bristles, etc.
• Use hot or boiling water for the final rinse of the equipment.
• Special attention should be given to the internal parts of coconut milk presses to ensure that no
coconut kernel particles are left adhering to the surface of the equipment filter or perforated cage
or loading cylinders at the end of production day. They should be flushed out with pressurised
water.
• The blades of coconut graters, including the housing, must be thoroughly cleaned with water
every four hours of operation and with soap and water at the end of the production day. Use
hot or boiling water for the final rinse to prevent bacterial contamination.
• The intake, internal and discharge points of the grinder or shredder need to be cleaned with
cold water and rinsed with hot water every four hours. They should be thoroughly cleaned and
free from any adhering particles of coconut kernel at the end of production day.
• In the case of the VCO plants using the low pressure oil extraction method and the high pressure
expeller process, dryers should be cleaned every eight hours. This includes complete removal
of coconut particles, specifically the yellow/scorched particles adhering to the dryer surface
which holds the coconut kernel (e.g. tray for tray type dryer, apron for conveyor type dryer,
metal surface for DME dryer). It should be noted that dried coconut particles should not be left
in the area for more than 24 hours.
• All tools and equipment accessories should also be thoroughly cleaned before and after use.
4.5.3 Personal hygiene (from Bawalan and Chapman 2006)

A major source of contamination is through the people who are actually involved in the processing of
VCO. Hence, in maintaining sanitation, personal hygiene has to be given equal consideration to other
HACCP aspects, such as building layout and processing equipment. A washing area should be placed
near the entry point so that workers can wash their hands with soap and water, prior to dipping them
in an antiseptic solution.
Only healthy personnel should be working in the processing areas. This means that the person is free
from the following disorders:
• respiratory tract infections such as the common cold, sore throat, pneumonia and tuberculosis;
• intestinal disorders such as diarrhoea, dysentery, typhoid fever and hepatitis B and C;
• skin disorders such as sores, abrasions and lesions, infected ears, boils, scabies and severe
rashes.
Plant personnel who are ill, or suspected of being ill, from any of these diseases should stay well away
from the processing area and other personnel until they are completely cured.

Proper work clothes must be worn in the processing area (Figure 59). These comprise hair cover, facial
masks as may be necessary, uniform, apron and boots or other appropriate footwear. Work attire is
preferably white so that dirt can be easily seen. Street clothes and shoes should never be worn inside
the processing area. Occasional visitors or inspectors to the production area are also required to put on
sanitary attire before entering.
Figure 59. Work attire

in a VCO processing
facility that conforms to
sanitation requirements
Hair cover (Figure 60) This is necessary to prevent hair from falling into the VCO
product. Any packaged food product seen with strands of hair in
it is a big turn off to customers. Wearing a clean hair cover also
prevents microbial contamination of hands if they touch the hair.
Facial mask (Figure 60) This is worn while handling coconut milk, recovering the
oil separated from the fermentation process and during
packaging. Masks must cover the nose and mouth. They
prevent microorganisms expelled from the mouth and nose from
contaminating the air and they also prevent the worker from
touching the nose and mouth. They also minimise talking during
work, thereby increasing productivity.
Apron and uniform The wearing of an apron and uniform has a positive psychological
effect on plant personnel and makes them conscious of
maintaining cleanliness at all times in the processing area. Aprons
and uniforms should preferably be white or light coloured so that
dirt can easily be seen and indicates the need for washing.
Footwear Footwear can be a source of contamination, so specific footwear
should be assigned to be worn inside the process area. Plant
personnel should change their footwear when going outside the
production area and at the toilet. Street shoes should never be
worn inside the process area.
Figure 60. Trainees at SPC’s Community Education Training Centre wearing proper work attire
High standards of personal hygiene include having clean hands at all times. This is the reason a wash
area is provided near the entrance of processing plants. The hands should be washed with soap and
water:
• before starting work
• after touching or scratching the head, hair, mouth, nose, ears, or any uncovered part of the
body
• after using the toilet
• after a break, smoking, eating or drinking
• after touching dirty dishes, equipment and utensils
• after coughing, sneezing or blowing one’s nose
• after chewing gum or using toothpicks
• after touching trash, floors, soiled objects etc.
• after using cleaners or chemicals
• after cleaning, taking out the trash or putting away supplies.
4.5.4 Record keeping and production data
A daily record of production and other data should be kept and maintained in the VCO plant. This is
necessary for computing production costs as well as determining if production efficiency and productivity
are improving. Likewise, each batch of product needs to be given a coded identification number to
make it easier for management to trace the possible causes if there are some customer complaints
about a particular batch that has been delivered. A sample production data sheet and other relevant
forms are shown in Annex 7.

Chapter 5
General requirements for setting up
VCO processing plants
As mentioned before, VCO is increasingly being considered as a functional food product. Hence, all the
requirements for setting up a food processing facility have to be applied to VCO processing plants. The
plant should be designed in such a way that the entire location, construction, operation and maintenance
are in accordance with sanitary design principles. In the Philippines, VCO processing plants are required
to get a license to operate (LTO) from the Food and Drug Administration. An LTO is issued only if plant
buildings and facilities comply with the requirements for a food processing plant as stipulated in the
Presidential Decree No. 856, otherwise known as the Sanitation Code of the Philippines.
5.1 Site requirement

Bawalan and Chapman (2006) list the following criteria in choosing the site for setting up a VCO
processing facility.
• Availability of abundant potable water supply. This is particularly critical in VCO plants employing
the modified kitchen and natural fermentation methods.
• Abundant raw material supply base that is near enough so that fresh coconuts can be delivered
to the plant within one day after husking.
• Processing plant to be located well away from materials or facilities that have associated strong
and foul odours (e.g. piggery or poultry, chemical plants)
• Availability of electric power. For the high pressure expeller process, a three-phase electrical line
is required.
• A good drainage system around the site.
In addition, the site should be high enough to be safe from flooding during heavy rains. For PICTs, the
land area or plant premises should be big enough to allow the setting up of rain water collection tanks
and the construction of dedicated septic tanks for coconut water disposal. It should also be big enough
to allow delivery vehicles to enter and manoeuvre within the area.
5.2 Plant building design and features

In compliance with the Sanitation Code for a food processing facility, the plant building should have the
following features and specifications.
• It must be designed to permit easy cleaning.
• The construction materials should not transmit undesirable substances (e.g. asbestos).
• The walls should be made from water-proof, non-absorbent, washable material such as
concrete; preferably painted white; smooth without crevices, holes or cracks; and easy to clean
and disinfect.
• The ceilings should be designed to prevent dirt accumulation, and to minimise condensation,
mould development and flaking.
• The floor must be made from non-absorbent and moisture-proof material, be easy to clean,
have appropriate drains, and be free of joints and cracks where dirt can accumulate.
• The provision of natural lighting and ventilation through screened windows needs to be
incorporated in the building design whenever appropriate; ceiling lights should have shatter-
proof covers to prevent contamination in case of breakage.
General requirements for setting up VCO processing plants 73

• The design must incorporate provision for the installation of devices (ventilators, exhaust fans,
etc.) that will help control odours and humidity.
• Exit and entry points need to be pest-proof, preventing rodents from gaining access to the
building.
In designing the floor plan and machinery lay-out for the building, Bawalan and Chapman (2006) mention
the following features that ought to be considered.
• Process flow should be done in such a way as not to cause contamination, i.e. a continuous
linear flow of processing steps instead of having the personnel going to and fro between different
production areas. This is to minimise cross-contamination of materials being processed.
• Processing steps that are critical in the operation and highly susceptible to microbial
contamination must be done in an enclosed area where strict sanitation can be implemented
and only authorised personnel can enter (e.g. drying of fresh kernel if the intention is to produce
coconut flour with VCO from the high pressure expeller method).
• Plant and equipment lay-out must be designed to facilitate easy access for cleaning the specific
areas and decontamination of assigned personnel.
• Entrance to the processing area should be separate from the entrance to the general access
area where non-plant personnel and outsiders enter, e.g. office and display room, pantry.
• A washing area must be provided near the entrance to the processing area so that production
personnel can wash their hands whenever necessary.
A suggested floor plan and building perspective to minimise risk of contamination in a village scale
VCO plant using the fresh-wet process and the fresh-dry process are shown in Figures 61 and 62. The
main entrance to the processing plant needs to be opened only once a day to receive the nuts to be
processed that day. Processing personnel should enter only through the personnel entrance near the
changing room and wash room.
Figure 61. Suggested floor plan and building perspective for VCO plant using the fresh-wet process
Figure 62. Suggested floor plan and building perspective for VCO plant using the fresh-dry process
A suggested floor plan and building perspective for a pilot VCO processing facility with space provision
for downstream products and which is also intended for demonstration and training is shown in Figure
63.
Figure 63. Suggested floor plan and building perspective for pilot processing, training and demonstration plant with space provision for
processing of VCO-based downstream products
General requirements for setting up VCO processing plants 75

Chapter 6
By-products processing
6.1 Coconut shells

Coconut shell is one of the primary by-products of VCO processing since it is typically husked coconut
that is brought to the plant. Coconut shell or endocarp (Figure 64) is the thin, hard, dark brown, layer
between the coconut husk (mesocarp) and the kernel of the mature coconut. It is soft and dark cream
in colour when the nut has not reached maturity. The chemical composition of coconut shell is given in
Table 5.
Generally speaking, coconut shell is not processed in PICTs. In Fiji, most coconut husks with the
attached coconut shell are allowed to rot after the green copra has been cut out. To a limited extent,
shells are used as fuel for drying copra and in the DME flat-bed conduction dryers. Hoff (2008) reported
that coconut shell handicrafts are made in Samoa for tourists. The most widely known use of coconut
shells in Fiji is their use as a cup for drinking kava during social and cultural gatherings.
Figure 64. Coconut shells
Table 5. Chemical composition of coconut shell
Country of Origin of Nuts

Constituent Philippinesa Sri Lankab Philippinesd
Percentage (Dry Basis)
Ash 0.23 0.61 0.55
Lignin 33.30 36.51 27.26
Cellulose (crude) 44.98 53.06 33.52
Pentosan cellulose 17.67 20.54 5.26
True cellulose 27.31 32.52 28.26
Methoxyl 5.39 - 5.84
Source: Carbonell (1979)
By- products processing 77

The usefulness of coconut shell is clearly illustrated by the description of Dr W.R.N. Nathanael, former
director of the Coconut Research Institute in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) cited in Guarte (1993):
In the hands of the beggar, a coconut shell serves as his begging bowl; in the hands of the artist,
it turns into a thing of beauty; it provides the humble housewife with a brightly burning fire to cook
her simple fare; it lets the chemist unlock its secrets and yields a dozen new things. Such is the
coconut shell, versatile part of the world’s most versatile tree – the coconut palm.
There are four ways in which coconut-producing countries in Asia are using large quantities of coconut
shell. These are:
a. as a fuel in copra drying and direct combustion burners/furnace for process heating applications;
b. conversion into coconut shell charcoal for various heating applications or further conversion into
activated carbon;
c. processing into coconut shell fashion accessories and novelty items;
d. processing into coconut shell flour.
The next sections have more information about each of these uses.
6.1.1 Fuel for heating applications by direct burning

Coconut shell is an agricultural residue that has a very high heating value—5,500 kcal/kg (Paddon
and Harker 1979). As such, it is considered a good solid fuel for heating applications. In the villages
of coconut-producing countries in Asia, coconut shell is used for cooking. In Sri Lanka and Malaysia,
coconut shell is the major fuel used for drying copra in the so-called Ceylon kilns where the half-
cup shells are bonded together in interlocking positions and arranged like a snake in an enclosed
area underneath the copra loading bed (Figure 65). In the Philippines, coconut shell is used as fuel in
biomass fired boilers for steam generation in desiccated coconut processing plants. In Sri Lanka and
the Philippines, a major portion of coconut shells is converted into charcoal.
Figure 65. Formation of coconut shell charcoal as fuel in a Sri Lankan copra dryer
In PICTs where VCO is produced using the DME process, coconut shell is generally used as a fuel in
DME flat-bed type conduction dryers to dry grated coconut kernel prior to oil extraction. In Fiji, coconut
husks with attached coconut shells are used as fuel for copra drying in estate plantations or on farms if
copra cutting is done near the dryer. Otherwise, they are allowed to rot on the ground, often providing
a habitat for dengue-carrying mosquitoes. It should be noted that in Fiji, the general practice is that
farmers sell the green copra and traders do the copra drying. In this case, firewood is generally used as
fuel. At the Cocoa and Coconut Research Institute in Papua New Guinea, coconut shell is used as fuel
in big copra dryers.
At Wainiyaku Estate Plantation in Taveuni, Fiji, dried coconut husks with attached shell are used as fuel
in a biomass-fired boiler to generate steam, which is piped to a steam turbine to produce electricity to
supply the power needs of the estate, including the operation of machines for coconut oil production.
The heat given out when the exhaust steam from the turbine condenses heats the air that is blown
through the condenser. This heated air is then directed to blow through an enclosed bed of green copra
for drying.
6.1.2 Conversion to coconut shell charcoal

Coconut shell is converted to charcoal to increase its calorific value and for use as a smokeless, clean
fuel for cooking in urban areas and for industrial heating applications. Coconut shell charcoal (Figure
66) is generally defined as the product of carbonisation of coconut shell from mature nuts in a limited or
controlled amount of air. It contains the highest percentage of fixed carbon of all ligneous charcoal. High
grade coconut shell charcoal is uniformly black in colour and snaps with a clean shiny fracture. It is free
from dust and ash and produces a metallic sound when dropped on hard ground.
Figure 66. Coconut shell charcoal
Shell charcoal has higher calorific value than wood charcoal. The calorific values of coconut shell
charcoal as measured and reported by different researchers are shown in Table 6. Comparative data
on the calorific value and composition of coconut shell, coconut husk and ipil-ipil (Leucaena wood)
charcoals are shown in Table 7.

Table 6. Calorific values of coconut shell charcoal (as reported by different authors/researchers)
Author Calorific value, kcal/kg

Lozada (1978;1980) 6540
Cruz (1978) 6654
Tamolang (1978) 6784
Grimwood (1975) 7500 to 7600
Paddon and Harker(1979) 7204
Breag and Harker(1979) 7108 to 7339
Source: Guarte (1993)
Table 7. Comparative composition and calorific value of different types of charcoal
Product Coconut shell Coconut husk Ipil-ipil (wood)

charcoal charcoal charcoal
Calorific value MJ/kg 27.0 – 31.8 25.0 – 27.0 25.5 – 28.5
Fixed carbon % 80.5 – 88.5 75.5 – 80.0 79.5 – 85.0
Volatile matter % 11.5 – 14.8 8.0 – 10.0 10.5 – 17.5
Ash content % 3.0 – 4.7 7.0 – 12.0 3.0 – 7.0
Moisture content % 2.0 – 3.5 3.0 – 5.5 4.0 – 10.0
Source: Hauser (1995)
In coconut-producing countries in Asia, coconut shell charcoal is traditionally used as a fuel for
household cooking, for barbecue grills in restaurants and for irons (to iron clothes) in areas where there
is no electricity. It is a clean-burning fuel with high heating value. Granulated coconut shell charcoal is
used as a deodoriser for refrigerators, bedroom closets and kitchen cabinets. However, the processing
technologies and uses of coconut shell charcoal are not generally known in PICTs. There is a need for
information dissemination and training to introduce these technologies for wider adoption in the Pacific
region.
Processing of coconut shell into charcoal in the Philippines is generally done on-farm and is a corollary
activity to copra-making. It is done either through the pit method or by using second-hand 200 litre
metal drums or manufactured metal kilns. Hence, coconut shell charcoal-making can be easily done in
PICTs. For more detailed information on coconut shell charcoal characteristics, uses, processing and
quality standards, please refer to Annex 8.
Activated carbon
In the Philippines, coconut shell charcoal is processed to produce activated carbon, which brings in a lot
of foreign exchange because it is one of the most highly valued coconut products in the world market.
Activated carbon from coconut shell charcoal has certain natural outstanding properties and some
specific purposes. It is superior to other amorphous carbon. It has more resistance to abrasion, higher
capability for adsorption and less ash (Hauser 1995). It is specifically superior for gas adsorption because
of its small micropore structure. Activated carbon is used in large quantities in sugar, waste-water
treatment, mining and mineral processing, oils and fats, food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, and
electroplating industries. It is also currently used for reducing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
levels in crude coconut oil, which is a result of making copra in direct type dryers where combustion
gases from burning coconut husks and wood are allowed contact with the coconut kernel to take out
the moisture, or when atmospheric air contaminated with PAH gets into contact with the kernel. Owing
to the fact that activated carbon is the best all-around adsorbent for toxic gases, it is almost universally
used in most gas masks and for removing and abating industrial stench (Guarte 1993).
In the process of making coconut shell charcoal and granulated shell charcoal for activated carbon
processing, considerable amounts of very small charcoal pieces (fines) are generated, which charcoal
producers and granulators dismiss as waste. These charcoal fines may amount to 15–20% of the total
charcoal yield per batch. Charcoal fines cannot be burned by the usual simple charcoal burning method
or converted into activated carbon. There are two uses for them:
• They can be converted into charcoal briquettes, also called patent fuel, which is a compacted
mass of fuel material made from a mixture of charcoal fines and a binder and moulded under
pressure (FPRDI 1992). While Filipinos generally prefer shell charcoal for grilling and barbecues,
charcoal briquettes are already used as household fuel in Europe, America and some countries
in Asia, where big hotels and restaurants use them for grilling and roasting. A major portion of
charcoal briquettes produced in the Philippines is exported to Japan and South Korea.
When properly processed, a charcoal briquette has a slow burning rate and delivers intense
heat per unit volume (Caro 1999). It also burns with very little smoke. As such, it is a cheaper
alternative to electric bulbs or LPG when used as a heating medium for eggs and newly-
hatched chicks in poultry farms. Most poultry farms in the southern Philippines use charcoal
briquettes in their chicken brooders.
The procedure for making charcoal briquettes is given in Annex 8.
• Charcoal fines can also be blended into the soil as biochar to provide very long-term and
sustainable improvements in soil fertility and carbon sequestration.
6.1.3 Processing coconut shell into fashion accessories and novelty items
Using coconut shell to make novelty items like bags, necklaces and other fashion accessories (Figure 67)
is currently practised in the Philippines and Thailand. In both countries, these coconut shell handicrafts
are made on a cottage level. The technology used there can be easily adapted in PICTs, especially in
countries where there is a well-developed tourist industry.
Figure 67. Fashion accessories made from coconut shell

Already, coconut shell handicrafts are made in Samoa to a limited extent. The equipment consists
of simple motorised punching/cutting and grinding machines. A set comprising two puncher/cutters
(Figure 68), one grinder and one finishing machine costs about USD 1300 (FOB price ex Cebu City,
Philippines). In Fiji, potential products are coconut shell buttons (Figure 69) for bula shirts, novelty items,
such as bags and cellphone holders, and fashion accessories, such as belts and necklaces, that can
be sold in souvenir shops.
Figure 68. A punching/cutting machine for coconut shell

handicrafts
Figure 69. Buttons and souvenirs made of coconut shell
6.1.4 Processing coconut shell into coconut shell flour
Coconut shell flour is a high value product which has a special niche in the world market. Coconut
shell is cleaned, ground and pulverised into very fine particles of 100, 300 and 600 mesh grades. In
one processing run, all mesh grades are produced at the same time and separated using vibrating
fine screens and cyclone separators. Coconut shell flour is used extensively as a compound filler for
synthetic resin glues and as a filler and extender for phenolic moulding powders. This unique filler is also
used successfully with specialised surface finishes, liquid products (as an absorber), mastic adhesives,
resin casting, mild abrasive products, hand cleaners, polyester type laminates, and bituminous products
(Guarte 1993). The most common application of coconut shell flour is in the production of mosquito
repellant coils.
6.1.5 Investment costs

Among the various technologies for coconut shell, the production of coconut shell flour and the
downstream processing of coconut shell charcoal into activated carbon require high initial investment
and start-up costs. However, both products are amongst the most highly valued coconut products. The
current (2010) export price for activated carbon is USD 1200–1700 per metric tonne (depending on the
country of supply).
Since PICTs will start processing coconut shell at almost zero level, it should initially consider expanding
its utilisation for fuel (either as is or as charcoal) for heating applications and the making of specialty
coconut shell handicrafts where investment requirements are relatively low. For instance, coconut shell
charcoal can be easily produced in used petroleum drums which currently cost FJD 14.00 per piece.
Later, after doing a feasibility study, Fiji can consider the processing of a high value product such as
coconut shell flour.
6.2 Coconut water

Coconut water from mature nuts is another by-product generated during VCO processing. Coconut
water is the liquid endosperm inside the coconut fruit. In Fiji, it comprises about 12% of the weight of the
whole nut or 22% of the weight of the husked nut. The changes in the composition of coconut water at
different stages of maturity are shown in Table 8. Coconut water spoils/ferments very fast once the nut
is opened so it is essential for VCO processors to know whether it will be set aside for further processing
or whether it will be discarded as a waste product.
Table 8. Composition of coconut water at different growth stages
Without With soft kernel With semi-hard With hard kernel

kernel (0–4 mm) kernel (2–6 mm) (10–12 mm)
Ph 4.8 4.9 4.9 5.3
NaCl, per cent 0.280 0.252 0.268 0.383
Reducing sugar, per cent 3.95 5.25 5.26 5.24
Sucrose, per cent 0.148 0.329 0.484 0.160
Vitamin C mg/ml water 2.5 3.71 3.44 2.24
Volume water, ml 295 230 235 210
Source: Carbonell (1979)

There are two commercial products that can be made from coconut water, namely, coconut water
beverage and coconut water vinegar. The Philippines is the biggest exporter of coconut water beverage,
with Taiwan, the United Kingdom, Canada and Japan as its major markets.
The average export volume for the period 1997–2006 was 827,464 litres with an average value of
USD 642,250 or an average price of USD 0.78/litre. The Philippines also exports coconut vinegar at an
average price of USD 0.75/litre.
Under the present condition of the coconut industry in PICTs, the most appropriate utilisation of coconut
water is to convert it into vinegar rather than the beverage for the following reasons:
a. All types of vinegar sold in most PICTs are imported and relatively expensive.
b. Processing of coconut water vinegar can be done even on a micro scale operation and requires
minimal investment. For PICTs where coconut toddy is collected, the recommended process is
to use three-day old toddy as a starter, since this is a much simpler and shorter process than the
addition of ‘mother vinegar’, which has to be prepared initially from a microbial culture.
c. Processing of coconut water into a beverage can be done only in a plant operation and requires a
much higher investment because special pasteurisation and packaging equipment are needed. The
ordinary pasteurisation method (80°C for 20–30 minutes) to kill pathogens cannot be used because
the coconut water flavour is destroyed by heat. The beverage is made using either the steam-heated
UHT (ultra high temperature) or HTST (high temperature short time) system of pasteurisation. In the
Philippines, this system is normally integrated with the processing of coconut milk/cream, as it uses
the same equipment such as steam boilers, the UHT packaging system in the case of tetrapak
packaging, or the canning equipment and retort in the case of the canned product. Even with
careful processing, however, the taste of the beverage is altered, and people who are
familiar with the taste of natural coconut water do not enjoy the taste of the processed
beverage. Hence, it is unlikely that a local market for the processed beverage can be developed in
PICTs as tourists would much prefer to drink natural coconut water than the processed product. In
the Philippines, it is exported to countries that do not grow coconuts.
Processing of coconut water into vinegar could be a viable option for PICTs where coconut toddy is
harvested, such as Cook Islands, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu. In this way,
the simple process of using three-day old toddy as a starter can be adopted instead of using starter
culture that requires preparation by a microbiologist. Initially, these countries can develop a domestic
market for coconut water vinegar and then export to neighbouring markets such as Australia and New
Zealand. It should be noted that there is now an emerging market for naturally processed products like
coconut water vinegar.
Another possible use of coconut water is to make coconut sauce, which can be easily made in a
kitchen. Coconut sauce can be used as a substitute for soy sauce in household cooking.
Please refer to Annex 9.1 for the process technology and quality specifications for coconut water
vinegar and to Annex 9.2 for the recipe for making homemade coconut sauce.
6.3 Coconut milk residue

Coconut milk residue is the solid material left behind when coconut milk is extracted from grated or
shredded coconut kernel. It is generated as a by-product of wet processing production (coconut milk
route) of VCO. This residue represents approximately 25–50% of the weight of the grated kernel on a
wet basis, depending on the coconut milk extraction process that is used. In most Pacific households,
the coconut milk residue left after the milk has been extracted is used as animal feed or discarded as
waste. The residue has a bland taste, since most of the protein and fat is extracted with the coconut
milk.
Studies done at the Philippine Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FNRI) reveal that coconut residue
has a much higher dietary fibre content (32%) than oatmeal (8%) and flax seed (23%), which are being
promoted by American food companies as healthy foods. Based on FNRI analysis, dried coconut milk
residue has the following percentage composition: 51% carbohydrates, 32% dietary fibre, 38% fat, 5%
protein, 4% moisture and 2% ash.
Coconut milk residue can be used either dried or wet, depending on the application. The different
options for using it are schematically shown in Figure 70.
Use as an ingredient and

extender for home food
preparations to enhance
nutritional value
+ beef or fish = coconut burger
Coconut milk + pumpkin = okoy
residue + carrots = spring roll
all with spices and fried
cookies macaroons
Processed into cookies and
macaroons as nutritious
snack food
Convert into
Drying Process with strict organic fertiliser
sanitation and apply by composting
the Bawalan-Masa
process to produce
another type of VCO
and coconut flour
Sell to oil millers Pass through a

for mixing into small scale expeller
copra for further to produce residual
oil extraction oil and high grade
coconut meal for
animal feed
Figure 70. Options for utilisation of coconut milk residue
6.3.1. Utilisation of coconut milk residue for food and nutrition

Wet coconut milk residue can be used as an extender in meat or fish dishes for family meals, i.e. it can
be mixed with meat or fish to make burgers or spring rolls and other fried food items, adding to the
nutritional value of the meal, as well as being economical. Coconut milk residue is a healthy food, rich in
dietary fibre and healthy fats, mainly medium-chain length saturated fatty acids. Studies done at FNRI
indicate that dietary fibre from coconut residue is good for lowering cholesterol and for people who are
suffering from type II diabetes (mature onset). Likewise, coconut milk residue also contains coconut
dietary fat, which studies suggest has antimicrobial properties and can boost the immune system, aside
from providing food energy.
Dried coconut milk residue, when processed under strict sanitary conditions, can be used as a substitute
for desiccated coconut in baked food products such as breads and cookies. Because of its bland taste,
it does not detract from other flavours that may be added to cookies to enhance their taste. It can also
be used in making fibre-enriched foods and in the formulation of functional foods because of its high
dietary fibre content.

Various recipes developed by the Philippine Coconut Authority on the processing and utilisation of wet
and dry coconut milk residue for food products are presented in Annex 10. These food products can
be made using ordinary kitchen equipment and tools.
6.3.2. Production of VCO and coconut flour through the application of the
Bawalan-Masa process
Coconut flour (Figure 71) is another coconut-based product for which the demand is increasing.
Coconut flour was found to have high dietary fibre, much higher than oatmeal and flax seed, and
is being promoted as a heart-healthy product in the USA. The colour of the coconut flour varies,
depending on the processing routes. If the coconut flakes failed the standard microbial count for food
products, then it can still be sold as an aflatoxin-free animal feed component.
Based on analyses done at the PCA laboratory, and depending on the milk extraction process used,
coconut milk residue still contains 36–42% oil on a dry weight basis. It should be noted that coconut
kernel contains 67–69% oil on a dry basis. This is actually the reason VCO recovery from the fresh-
wet process is lower than from the fresh-dry process (i.e. part of the oil originally contained in the fresh
kernel is retained in the coconut milk residue). Hence, to improve profitability of operation in a VCO
facility using the fresh-wet process, the coconut milk residue should be utilised.
In large scale VCO production using the coconut milk route, where relatively large volumes of coconut
residue are generated, the Bawalan-Masa Process to produce coconut flour and VCO is appropriate.
This technology enhances its economic viability; for every ton of wet coconut milk residue, 170 kg of
Figure 71. Coconut flour
VCO and 263 kg of coconut flour can be recovered. The VCO produced from coconut milk residue is
generally preferred for application in aromatherapy products because it is easily and rapidly absorbed
through the skin and has a very mild coconut scent. Please refer to Annex 11 for details of the Bawalan-
Masa Process.
It should be noted that coconut milk residue from coconut milk processing plants is a food-grade raw
material and should not be used for low value purposes such as an animal feed ingredient.
6.3.3. Drying for further oil extraction

Coconut milk residue still contains 36–42% oil on a dry basis. Coconut kernel contains 67–69% oil on
a dry basis. Hence, there is still a considerable amount of oil that can be recovered when it is passed
through a high pressure expeller.
Figure 72. Natural draught coconut
shell/husk-fired tray dryer
Drying coconut milk residue for mixing with copra for further oil extraction is not as critical as drying it
for VCO and coconut flour production. Drying can be done either by sun-drying or lightly toasting it in a
pan or using a coconut husk-fired, indirect natural draught dryer (Figure 72), similar to the copra dryer
currently being used in Fiji with minor modification or a coconut shell-fired DME flat-bed dryer (Figure
16).
To determine the approximate amount of oil that can be recovered from coconut milk residue mixed with
copra, a rough material balance computation was made, based on the situation in Fiji. The Coconut
Industry Development Authority estimates that about 35% of the total coconut production in Fiji or
about 45 million nuts per year are used in households for the extraction of coconut milk for use in food
preparations and for making traditional village coconut oil (Bawalan 2008). Based on the average weight
and composition of Fijian coconuts, an equivalent amount of about 6,561 tonnes of wet coconut milk
residue is generated. If this residue is dried and mixed with milled copra for pressing, it will yield an
additional 1115 tonnes of coconut oil, which is equivalent to USD 1.3 million at USD 1200/tonne (a
typical price in 2010).
This is a new concept for PICTs. It will need negotiation with oil millers to make the concept work. In
the Philippines, there are already buyers of wet coconut milk residue who take the residue from VCO
producers immediately after coconut milk extraction. These buyers also dry the residue.
6.3.4. Composting to produce organic fertiliser

Wet coconut milk residue can be mixed with other agricultural farm wastes and animal manure, with or
without the addition of useful inoculums (micro-organisms), to produce organic fertiliser. These useful
micro-organisms can be nitrogen-fixing, phosphate-solubilising and cellulose-degrading types. They
enhance the production and availability of plant nutrients from natural sources through accelerated
microbial processes. Hence, conversion to organic fertiliser is much faster with added inoculum.
Composting can be done in a compost pit or on a plastic sheet laid out on the ground and covered by
another plastic sheet for moisture retention.
6.3.5 Quality control and handling of wet coconut milk residue

The still relatively high moisture content (about 42%), as well as the residual protein and other
micronutrients of wet coconut milk residue, makes it highly susceptible to microbial contamination and
attack, much like the fresh coconut kernel. Hence, immediate processing or drying of wet coconut milk

residue within four hours of opening the nut is essential. In addition, since it is already in the form of small
particles, special care should be taken to prevent contamination by any foreign matter while it is being
handled. Small particles of metal are to be avoided at all cost since they will destroy the oil expeller if it
is mixed with milled copra for further oil extraction. Once dried, it should be processed immediately for
the production of VCO and coconut flour, or else packed in polyethylene bags for delivery to the oil mill.
6.4 Coconut skim milk

Coconut skim milk is the watery phase that separates out from the coconut cream when coconut milk is
allowed to stand for two hours or when it is passed through a two-phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge. In the
two-stage centrifuge process of VCO production, coconut skim milk is generated as a by-product since
it is only the separated cream that is processed into VCO. Coconut skim milk is a low fat substance that
has a sweetish flavour characteristic of young coconuts. It can be pasteurised, frozen or packed in cans
or tetrabrik, or passed through a spray dryer to produce coconut skim milk powder.
Table 9. Comparative nutritional values of coconut skim milk, coconut milk, soybean milk, cow’s milk and human milk
Coconut Coconut Soybean Cow’s Human

skim milk milk milk milk milk
Moisture, % 56.9
Food energy, calories 27 318 33 65 77
Protein, g 1.6 5.5 3.4 3.5 1.1
Fat, g 0.4 34.8 1.5 3.5 4.0
Carbohydrate, g 4.5 1.9 2.2 4.9 9.5
Calcium, mg 26 15 21 118 33.0
Phosphorus, mg 36.0 100 48 93 14.0
Iron, mg 0.7 1.6 0.8 trace 0.1
Potassium, mg 324
Vitamin A, I.U. - - 40 140 240
Thiamine, mg 0.01 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.01
Riboflavin, mg 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.17 0.04
Niacin, mg 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2
Ascorbic Acid, mg 2.0 trace 0.0 1.0 5.0
Source: Banzon et al. (1990)
Coconut skim milk can be used as an ingredient for ice-cream and as a non-fat nutritious beverage (with
or without additional flavour such as chocolate or strawberry) that is suitable for people who cannot take
dairy milk because of lactose intolerance. This is actually the niche market that can be filled by coconut
skim milk.
The nutritional composition and values of coconut skim milk compared to coconut, soybean, cow and
human milk on a per 100 gram basis are shown in Table 9.
It should be noted that coconut skim milk is a highly perishable food item. Hence, it should be processed
immediately (blast freeze or pasteurise and pack or spray dry) if produced in commercial quantities
through the two-stage centrifuge process, or consumed immediately if produced at home through the
modified kitchen method.
A VCO manufacturer in the Philippines who uses the centrifuge process is currently producing and
selling frozen coconut skim milk as a non-flavoured beverage and coconut skim milk-based ice-creams
and popsicles.
Chapter 7
Downstream products from
virgin coconut oil
Profitability in VCO production can be enhanced by processing some of the VCO into downstream
products such as hand-made bath soaps (ordinary and herbal), massage oils, moisturising body oil,
body butter and other skin care products, and hair conditioner. This was demonstrated in the Philippines,
where small scale producers of VCO survived the competition with big processing plants by going into
VCO-based downstream products. The VCO industry in the Philippines started with farmer producers
linked to traders/exporters and with small producers. However, when the world demand for the product
became bigger, big manufacturers of coconut milk and desiccated coconut added VCO to their product
lines. These plants, which have been in the coconut manufacturing business for decades, hold all
quality certifications (ISO, HACCP etc.) with some also having organic certification. Hence, the majority
of small scale producers, who were producing only VCO, had to cease operations because institutional
buyers preferred the VCO produced by the larger, better accredited companies.
In Fiji, there are several companies, including Pure Fiji Ltd, Fiji Mana/Origins Pacific Ltd, Natural Oils of
Fiji Ltd, Organic Earth Fiji, Mokosoi Products Fiji Ltd, that are processing soaps and skin care products
using VCO or high quality coconut oil. The Pure Fiji brand of soaps, creams, lotions and other skin care
products is well advertised, reasonably priced and sold in duty-free shops in Fiji and Australia and on
international flights of Air Pacific. Likewise, small VCO producers in Samoa under the auspices of the
Women in Business Development Inc. are supplying VCO to The Body Shop International of the United
Kingdom for processing into its coconut bath and body range of products. One company in Tahiti is
also producing VCO-based body oil for tourists. In most of these cases, it is not the VCO producers
producing the downstream products; it is the companies that buy their VCO. The profitability of the VCO
operation is, therefore, dependent on maintaining the goodwill of the companies that buy it.
7.1 Moisturising toilet/bath soap

Soap is a household necessity, assuring manufacturers of a ready market. There are now several home-
scale producers of VCO in the Marshall Islands, Fiji, Kiribati and Papua New Guinea who use this method.
One former trainee in Papua New Guinea is producing VCO and converting it into soap. It was reported
that miners in Papua New Guinea prefer the VCO-based soap that he produces because it lathers and
cleans well, even in hard water. Another trainee in the Marshall Islands has, since 2006, been producing
VCO and converting some of it into a fragrant body oil by infusion with aromatic leaves. In Fiji, a trainee
from Vanua Levu is producing VCO which she converts into herbal soaps for tourist shops. There is now
an association of small-scale VCO producers using the modified natural fermentation method in Fiji.
Figure 73. Moisturising bath soap
Downstream products from virgin coconut oil 89

Soap (Figure 73) is the solid material obtained when an alkali reacts with the fatty acids in animal,
vegetable and seed oils and fats under a process known as saponification. The type of oil or fat used
defines the characteristics of the resulting soap, i.e. whether it is mild or drying to the skin, whether it will
form good lather, whether it will have good detergency or cleaning properties, etc. Soap using coconut
oil as a base oil has two advantages.
• It lathers, even in very hard (brackish) water.
• It has superior cleaning and detergent properties because of the predominant lauric fatty acid
content.
Based on Philippine’s export data, the demand for coconut oil-based soap has been steadily growing.
The United Coconut Association of the Philippines (UCAP) newsletter reported that, as of February
2010, the export of toilet/bath soaps ranked second among the Philippine export of non-traditional
coconut products, with an average price of USD 2.08/kg (www.ucap.org.ph). UCAP further reported
that the export volume for bath soaps increased by around 200% since February 2009. This is even
higher than VCO export performance, which ranked third in the Philippines export of non-traditional
products.
One of the reasons for the increasing popularity of coconut oil-based bath soap is its inherent natural
glycerine content, which moisturises the skin. Such types of soap are produced under cold process
saponification, whereas bath soaps produced in large manufacturing plants are normally made from
soap noodles using the hot process. Soap noodle is a semi-processed substance composed of fatty
acids with carbon chains ranging from C12 to C18. It is produced by removing the glycerol component
and the fatty acids with carbon chains C6–C10 of coconut oil through a steam hydrolysis and distillation
process. Hence, cheaper varieties of commercial bath soaps that do not have added emollients tend to
be drying on the skin since the natural glycerine component of coconut oil has been removed.
Herbal soap is a cold-processed soap with added natural plant material/extracts that are known to
have therapeutic or beneficial effects on the skin. This type of soap has gained popularity because it is
reputed to address specific skin problems. For example, ti-tree, lemon ti-tree and lemon soaps are said
to be useful in preventing pimples and acne. One of the most popular herbal soaps is pawpaw (papaya)
soap because of the general belief that it can lighten the dark patches of skin. Herbal soaps are priced
much higher than ordinary toilet/bath soaps, and comprise a large proportion of the Philippine export
of soaps.
Pawpaw, morinda and other types of herbal soaps can be produced easily in most PICTs because of
the abundance of suitable plant resources. For instance, in Fiji, pawpaw trees grow by the roadside and
in backyards, and the fruits are just eaten by birds and fruit bats. Guava, in many places an invasive
woody weed, and morinda (noni or kura) grow in abundance throughout the Pacific Islands.
For soap formulations, soap making procedures and other related information, please refer to Annex
12.1.
Caustic soda is an ingredient of soap. It requires careful handling. To reduce the risk involved in handling
caustic soda and to ensure that the amount of caustic soda to be used for specific formulation does not
exceed the requirement for saponification, a stock caustic soda solution with known concentration is
prepared first (i.e. mixing 1 kg of caustic soda flakes/crystals with a specific amount of water). It is much
easier and safer to weigh caustic soda solution than small amounts of caustic soda/crystals.
Where there is a group of women producing soap, one person can be assigned to handle the preparation
and weighing of the caustic soda solution for distribution to members of the group, who can then do
the mixing and addition of desired herbal extracts to produce the soap. In this way, the risks associated
with preparation of caustic soda solution are negated.
7.2 Aromatherapy/massage oils
Aromatherapy is the general term used for the application of essential oils from aromatic plants, shrubs
and trees for the treatment of both medical and psychological conditions, and for wellness and beauty,
as in cosmetic preparations. Essential oils are extracted from different parts of different plants, e.g.
lavender and ylangylang from flowers; eucalyptus, lemon ti-tree, tea tree and patchouli from leaves;
cinnamon from leaf and bark, etc. Each essential oil has specific therapeutic values and applications to
address a particular human condition. For example, certain essential oils are believed to ease aching
muscles and relax a tired body, and others to decongest stuffy noses and promote easier breathing.
Massage is the main method used by aromatherapists for the application of essential oils for various
purposes. The oils are combined with specific plant oils, generally called carrier oils, to form the massage
oil. This is done so that the aromatic scent from the essential oil can be dispersed to a wider skin area
and because the use of pure essential oil for direct application to the skin is potentially dangerous, as it
can irritate or even burn the skin.
Massage is an effective means of ensuring that the essential oils which have been diluted with carrier
oils are penetrating a person’s skin. A proportion of the volatile oil vaporises with the heat generated by
the hands on a person’s skin when a massage is performed and extra benefit is gained from inhaling it.
A carrier oil has to be hypoallergenic (i.e. it does not irritate even the most sensitive skin) and it must be
easily absorbed by the skin.
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) has been shown to be an excellent carrier oil, and carrier of choice among
expert masseurs and therapists, because it is hypoallergenic and easily absorbed, as well as having
anti-microbial properties. Results of several researches done at the Dermatology Department of the
Makati Medical Center in the Philippines as reported by Verallo-Rowell (2005) have confirmed VCO’s
anti-microbial properties. It should be noted that VCO obtained from the fresh-wet process (coconut
milk route) is better suited to aromatherapy application because it is very light in texture.
Except for the atoll islands in the Pacific, where agricultural resources are limited, PICTs abound with
aromatic roots, flowers and leaves (Figure 74) which can easily be used for making aromatherapy oils
with VCO. Many of them can be found in backyards or growing wild. Pacific Islanders are aware of the
therapeutic applications of such aromatic plants but not in conjunction with aromatherapy.
Figure 74. Aromatic roots and leaves in Fiji

There are two methods of preparing massage oils using VCO.
a. Addition of an appropriate essential oil to VCO This can be done if pure, natural essential oils are
available or can be purchased. It is the simplest method of making aromatherapy oil.
A single essential oil or a combination of two or more oils can be used to create the specific aroma
and therapeutic value that are needed. For example, lavender and ylangylang essential oils are known
for their relaxing/anti-stress properties, tea tree and lemongrass oil have antimicrobial properties, while
cineole-rich eucalyptus oils are considered excellent for decongesting stuffy noses.
The mixing of essential oils should always be done in dark coloured bottles to prevent the therapeutic
value of the essential oil from being destroyed by sunlight, and it should be done on a drop by drop
basis (e.g. one drop of tea tree oil plus two drops lemon grass). When the scent is right, the percentage
or proportion of each oil is noted. This oil blend can then be mixed with virgin coconut oil.
Normally, 20 drops (almost 1 ml) of essential oil or a blend of essential oils is added per 30 ml of carrier
oil. For very strongly scented essential oils like patchouli, just 2 ml patchouli oil are added to 98 ml VCO
to make a 2% solution. (Annex 12.2 has some formulations for aromatherapy oils.)
Only 100% pure essential oils should be used. Essential oils mixed with alcohol or any other substance
should not be used at all because it will destroy the quality of the aromatherapy oil.
b. Oil infusion of aromatic herbs, roots and leaves
Oil infusion can be done using either dried or fresh herbs, roots, bark and leaves. It should be noted that
flowers are not generally recommended for oil infusion. Essential oils from flowers have to be extracted
by steam distillation or some other means so as not to destroy the scent.
A simple method of oil infusion is to simmer a mixture of VCO and the aromatic plant material in a double
boiler (Figure 75). An improvised double boiler can be made by putting a stainless steel mixing bowl over
a pot of water (Figure 43). The water level inside the pot should be touching the bottom of the mixing
bowl. The procedure is described below.
1) Pound the dried or fresh herbs/aromatic materials in a mortar and pestle and put them in the
stainless steel mixing bowl.
Figure 75. Infusion of aromatic roots and leaves in oil
2) Add VCO. For every 60 grams of dry herbs, add 480 ml of VCO. For fresh herbs or aromatic
materials, the ratio is 120 grams fresh materials for every 480 ml of VCO. A more concentrated
oil infusion can be done by doubling the amount of herbs/aromatic leaves. However, the resulting
concentrated oil infusion may need to be diluted with VCO prior to it being used as a massage
oil.
3 Put the mixing bowl over the pot of water. Cover it loosely and put the improvised double boiler
on the stove. Heat the mixture gently for at least one hour for dry leaves and two hours for dry
roots and bark. It should be noted that, when fresh materials are used, the VCO turns cloudy
at the start due to the water content of the fresh material. This moisture has to be completely
removed, under low-moderate heat, to prevent the aromatic oil from turning rancid. Heat the
mixture until it becomes clear.
4) Cool the mixture. Strain it and store it in dark coloured bottles away from direct sunlight and
heat. A small amount of Vitamin E oil (1 capsule per 240 ml of infusion) will help preserve the
quality of preparation.
Please refer to Annex 12.2 for the formulation of massage oil for rheumatism and muscle pain using
VCO infused with ginger root as the base oil.
7.3 Skin care products

The use of coconut oil as skin moisturiser has been known in PICTs and other coconut-producing
countries for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. VCO does not cause skin irritation and can be
applied to even the most sensitive skin. Hence, one of the major applications of VCO is as a base oil for
hypoallergenic cosmetics and skin care products. This end-use comprises the bulk of the VCO currently
being exported from the Philippines.
Adding attractive or therapeutic fragrances to VCO either through the use of essential oils or by oil
infusion will enhance its marketability as a skin conditioner. In addition, a VCO-based product which can
be used as a natural substitute for petroleum jelly can be easily made in the kitchen.
Note: The skin care formulations (Annex 12.3) presented in this manual are those in which the ingredients
are locally available. They do not require the addition of water and emulsifiers. Emulsifiers are substances
that stabilise the oil and water mixtures, i.e. they prevent oil and water from separating. Creams and
lotions where water is added as part of the formulation to give the product the desired consistency
require chemical preservatives. This is to prevent the base oil from getting rancid and to retard the
growth of microorganisms which might have adverse effects on the skin.
7.4 Hair care products

Coconut oil conditions the hair and scalp. Pacific Islanders, especially women, have been massaging
coconut oil in their scalp and hair for thousands of years. In many countries, not only women, but men
and children also put coconut oil in their hair. VCO is, however, much better than crude, copra-derived
coconut oil for hair conditioning. The addition of essential oils like ti-tree, rosemary and patchouli,
which are believed to have a good effect on the hair and scalp, enhance the efficacy of VCO as a hair
conditioner. When using rosemary, the procedure for oil infusion should be followed (Section 7.2). It
should be noted, however, that the concentration of the essential/herbal oils in scented oils for hair care
should be lower than that used for massage oils. Hence, after infusion using the procedure described
in Section 7.2, the infused oil is diluted with VCO on a 1:1 ratio and then it is packaged and sold as
hair conditioner. Rosemary, patchouli and ti-tree can be easily cultivated in PICTs’ tropical weather.
Rosemary is well known as a herb for cooking and can be bought in supermarkets.

7.5 Utilisation of residual coconut oil and off-quality VCO for
downstream products
In producing VCO from the modified kitchen and natural fermentation methods, some residual oil or
second-grade coconut oil can be recovered after the premium grade VCO is harvested (Bawalan and
Chapman 2006). It is recovered by further heating the sinusinu (in the case of the modified kitchen
method) or by allowing the curd to ferment for another 24 hours (in the modified natural fermentation
method). The residual oil obtained by further heating the sinusinu is already yellow in colour and has a
strong coconut aroma, since a high temperature is required to fully release the entrained oil from the
sinusinu. However, the grade B residual oil obtained through further settling of curd from the fermentation
process is still white (or in some cases a very pale yellow). This amounts to about 10–15% of the
harvested class A VCO.
In cases where there are lapses in strictly following the critical control procedures and in maintaining the
sanitary conditions, the quality of VCO produced may not pass the VCO standard. In these circumstances,
further processing of the oil into downstream products is necessary to recoup production costs and
obtain additional income.
The residual, second grade VCO can be processed into toilet/bath soap (ordinary and herbal) without
the need to reprocess it. Likewise, it can also be used for making oil infusions for massage oils, and skin
and hair conditioners. However, it may need to be further processed to remove unpleasant or strong
coconut odours if it is to be mixed with pure essential oils or if it is to be used as cooking oil.
Based on information obtained by the author from VCO traders in the Philippines, North American
health food traders and Australasian chefs, there is a growing number of people who demand an
odourless, chemical-free, clear VCO for culinary purposes rather than the traditional refined, bleached
and deodorised (RBD) copra-derived coconut oil.
The standard commercial process for removing odour and taste in a copra-derived coconut oil is by
putting it in contact with high pressure (150 psig) steam under vacuum conditions. This process is called
deodorisation. Equipment for deodorisation is a common feature in commercial oil mills which produce
RBD coconut oil or cooking oil. However, application of this process is not economically viable in a
village-scale operation because of the high process capacity of equipment, and the high investment and
operating costs. It should be emphasised that the quality and nutritional value of second grade VCO
from the modified kitchen and natural fermentation methods is still very much higher than the copra-
derived, crude coconut oil. Hence, it can be converted into cooking oil without undergoing the standard
refining and bleaching process.
Bawalan (GTZ Report 2005) and Bawalan and Chapman (2006) provide the following home-scale
procedure for removing the odour and taste in a grade B VCO produced using the modified kitchen
and modified natural fermentation process. Note: This procedure is not suitable for removing odour and
taste from copra-derived crude coconut oil.
a. Place water in the mixing bowl of an improvised double boiler as described in the oil infusion
section above. Add second grade VCO to the water in a ratio of two parts oil to one part water.
Do not stir.
b. Simmer for about three hours. When the water at the bottom of the mixing bowl is hot, water
vapour rises through the oil, carrying with it the aromatic components which give odour and
taste to a particular substance.
c. After three hours, scoop out the top portion (oil) and transfer it to a stainless steel pot while still
hot. Be careful not to scoop out the water as well.
d. Cool the oil to room temperature. Place it in an icebox or freezer to solidify for at least two hours.
e. Remove it from the ice box or freezer and allow it to liquefy at room temperature.
f. Transfer the oil to a dry storage container, leaving behind a 2 cm layer at the bottom. This
layer can be mixed with the next batch for re-processing or can be mixed with the residual oil
earmarked for soap.
Annex 1
Fatty acids and chemical
composition of coconut oil
Coconut oil, like most plant-derived oils, is composed of triglycerides of fatty acids of varying lengths.
For a layman to understand the chemical composition of coconut oil, the meaning of the terms
triglycerides and fatty acids have to be understood first.
A triglyceride is a substance consisting of fatty acids, chemically bound to glycerol in a ratio of 3:1.
The three fatty acids are held together through a special attachment to the glycerol and thus form a
single molecular structure (Enig 2000). This is shown in the general chemical formula below:
O
Rs are hydrocarbon chains of
R – C – O – CH2 varying lengths normally found
in natural fats or oils.
O R could be:
R – C – O – CH
CH3(CH2)4 –
CH3(CH2)10 –
O etc
R – C – O – CH2
Fatty acids are essentially chains of carbon atoms with attached hydrogen atoms. These chains come
in varying lengths (1 to 24 carbon atoms) with carboxyl (acid) group (-COOH) at one end (Enig 2000).
They are represented by the chemical formula RCOOH where R represents the hydrocarbon chain with
the methyl group (-CH3) at the beginning of the chain. Thus, lauric fatty acid (with 12 carbon atoms)
which is predominantly present in coconut oil, has the chemical formula:
CH3(CH2)10COOH
Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated, depending on the type of bonds that connect their
carbon atoms. Fatty acids that have only single bonds in their carbon chain are called saturated. Oils
and fats that are predominantly composed of saturated fatty acids are more stable and more resistant to
oxidation and rancidity. This is because all carbon atoms are filled up with attached hydrogen atoms and
there are no open points where oxygen can react. Coconut oil is predominantly composed of saturated
fatty acids (about 92%) so it is considered a saturated oil in tropical countries and a saturated fat in
temperate countries. (This was actually the basis of the smear campaign levied on coconut oil by the
American Soybean Association in the 1980s.)
Saturated fatty acids are further classified into short chain, medium chain and long chain,
depending on the length of the carbon chain and the number of carbon atoms on it. Short chain fatty
acids have 4–6 carbon atoms, medium chain acids have 8–12 and long chain fatty acids have 14 or
more. The medium chain saturated fatty acids are metabolised differently from long chain saturated fatty
acids. Coconut oil is unique in the sense that, among fats and oils, it contains the highest percentage,
about 64%, of medium chain fatty acids (MCFA).
Fatty acids that have double bonds linking their carbon atoms are categorised as unsaturated. The
presence of a double bond in fatty acids represents a point of instability because this point in between
two carbon atoms is open and susceptible to reaction with oxygen and other substances. The more
double bonds, the higher the instability. Oils and fats that contain predominantly unsaturated fatty
acids, such as soybean oil (about 84% unsaturated) and corn oil (about 86% unsaturated), are unstable
and prone to oxidation. These types of oil have to be partially hydrogenated to prolong their shelf-life.
Annex 95
Hydrogenation is a process where hydrogen gas is bubbled through unsaturated oil in the presence of
nickel as a catalyst. The resulting reaction forces unsaturated fatty acids to accept additional hydrogen
atoms and become partially saturated. Full hydrogenation converts liquid oil into solid fat. Partial
hydrogenation limits the time exposure of the unsaturated vegetable oil to the stream of hydrogen gas,
thereby converting it either into a semi-solid state similar to butter or retaining its liquid state.
Unsaturated fatty acids are further classified into mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated,
depending on the number of double bonds they have. Mono-unsaturated fatty acids contain one double
bond in their carbon chain and poly-unsaturated fatty acids contain two or more double bonds. It
should be noted that all naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids have long carbon chains. Olive oil
is categorised as a mono-unsaturated oil while soybean oil falls into the poly-unsaturated class. The
comparative fatty acid profile of common fats and oils is shown in Figure 76 while the classification of
fats and oils is diagrammatically shown in Figure 77.
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF COMMON FATS AND OILS

(g FA/100g TOTAL FA)
% 100 –
90 –
F 80 –
A
70 –
T
T 60 –
Y 50 –
40 –
A
30 –
C
I 20 –
D 10 –
S 0 –
COCONUT BUTTER LARD PALM OIL CORN SOYABEAN
OIL OIL OIL
LEGEND:
Long-Chain Medium-Chain Long-Chain
Saturated Saturated Unsaturated
(LCF) (MCF)
Figure 76. Comparative fatty acid profile of common fats and oils
Source: UCAP Brochure on Coconut Oil
FATS AND OILS
MEDIUM-CHAIN LONG-CHAIN
MEDIUM CHAIN LONG CHAIN MONO POLY

SATURATED SATURATED UNSATURATED UNSATURATED
6–12 14–18
OMEGA 9
cis OMEGA 6 OMEGA 3
cis cis
CAPRILIC
CAPROIC MYRISTIC 14:0
PALMITIC 16:0 LINOLEIC 18:2
CAPRIC OLEIC 18:1 ALPHA EPA 20:4
STEARIC 18:1 GAMMA LINOLEIC 18:3
LAURIC 12:0 LINOLENIC 16:3 DHA 22:5
COCONUT BUTTER OLIVE CORN LINSEED FISH

PALM LARD SOYABEAN
KERNEL TALLOW SAFFLOWER
PALM PRIMROSE
TRANS
FATS
PARTIAL HYDROGENATION
Figure 77. Classification of fats and oils

Source: UCAP Brochure
The degree of saturation and length of the carbon chain of fatty acids help to determine their properties,
corresponding uses and effect on human health. The more saturated the fat and the longer the chain,
the harder the fat and the higher the melting point (Fife 2001).
The difference in structure between saturated, mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids is
shown in the diagrams below.
SATURATED FATTY ACID
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Stearic Fatty Acid (18 Carbon chain)
MONO-UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
Oleic Fatty Acid (18 Carbon chain, 1 double bond)
POLY-UNSATURATED FATTY ACID

H H H H H H H H H H H H H O
Linoleic Fatty Acid (18 Carbon chain, 2 double bonds)
In subjecting unsaturated vegetable oils like soybean and corn oil to a partial hydrogenation process
to prolong their shelf-life, another type of fatty acid is created. This is the so called trans fatty acid.
With partial hydrogenation, most of the double bonds of the unsaturated oil remain but their hydrogen
atoms change position and become trans, or across, from each other (Verallo-Rowell 2005). Hence,
trans fatty acids are artificially altered unsaturated fatty acids in which hydrogen atoms attached to
the carbon atoms linked with the double bonds have shifted position from the same side (cis) to the
opposite side (trans). It should be emphasised that the cis position (same side) is the natural position and
trans is the abnormal position. The partial hydrogenation process straightens the fatty acid molecules
to enable them to be ‘packed’ in solid form like saturated fats, while remaining unsaturated (www.ucap.
org.ph). Oils that have been partially hydrogenated increase their plasticity and substantially lengthen
their shelf-life, unlike the original, highly unsaturated oils they were made from.
The composition, type and most common sources of fatty acids are shown in Table 10.
Annex 97
Table 10. The composition, type and most common sources of fatty acids
Common Composition1 Type1 Remarks/Most Common Food

Name1 Sources2
Butyric acid C 4:0 Saturated short chain Butter (approx. 4%)
Caproic acid C 6:0 Saturated short Butter (approx. 2%); coconut and palm kernel oil (<
chain 1%)
Caprylic acid C 8:0 Saturated medium Coconut (8%) and palm kernel (4%) oils; butter (1%)
chain
Capric acid C 10:0 Saturated medium Coconut and palm kernel oils (4–6%); butter (2%)
chain
Lauric acid C 12:0 Saturated medium Coconut and palm kernel oils (45–53%); butter (3%)
chain
Myristic acid C 14:0 Saturated long chain Nutmeg butter (87%); Coconut and palm kernel oils
(16–18%); butter (12%); animal tallow (3–5%)
Palmitic acid C 16:0 Saturated long chain Palm oil (45%); cocoa butter (25%); chicken fat
(23%); butterfat (26%); animal tallow (approx. 25%);
cottonseed oil (25%); other temperate seed oils
(approx 10–12%)
Palmitoleic acid C 16:1 Mono-unsaturated Marine animal oils; chicken fat;
long chain, omega 9 ruminant tallow; lard; butterfat; olive oil
Stearic acid C 18:0 Saturated long chain Cocoa butter (35%); chicken fat (6%); butterfat and
lard (12.5%); animal tallow (20-25%); seed oils (2-
5%)
Oleic acid C 18:1 Mono-unsaturated All animal and vegetable fats and oils; olive (approx.
long chain, omega 9 70%); hybrid safflower and sunflower (approx. 80%);
canola (approx. 64%); animal tallow and butterfat
(30– 35%); peanut oil (approx. 50%); palm oil (40%);
other temperate seed oils (15–30%)
Linoleic acid C 18:2 Poly-unsaturated long All animal and vegetable fats and oils (2–8%);
chain Omega 6 safflower oil (80%); sunflower oil (68%); corn oil
(57%); soybean and cottonseed oil (53%); peanut oil
(46%); lard, olive and palm oil (40%); animal tallow
and butterfat (2–4%);
Gamma linolenic C 18:3 Poly-unsaturated long Evening primrose oil (9%); black currant seed oil
acid (GLA) chain Omega 6 (15–19%); borage oil (approx 20%)
Alpha linolenic C 18:3 Poly-unsaturated long Soybean and rapeseed oils (7–10%); flaxseed oil;
acid chain Omega 3 linseed oil1
Arachidic acid C 20:0 Saturated long chain Peanut oil
Eicosa Pentanoic C 20:5 Saturated long chain Unhydrogenated fish oil
acid (EPA) Omega 3
Behenic acid C 22:0 Saturated long chain Peanut oil
Erucic acid C 22:1 Mono-unsaturated Rapeseed oil
long chain Omega 9 Authors note: The high erucic acid content of
rapeseed oil makes it inedible since erucic acid is
toxic to humans
Docosa C 22:6 Saturated long chain Fish oil
Hexaenoic acid Omega 3
(DHA)
1
Source: Dayrit (2005)
2
Source: Enig (2000)
Annex 2
Process description and quality
standard RBD coconut oil
Process Description
Copra in the Philippines is generally produced by small coconut farmers using a wide variety of sun-
drying or smoke-drying methods, or a combination of both and to a certain extent, natural-draught
indirect (hot air) drying. From the farm, the copra goes to a series of traders before it is delivered to the
mills to produce crude coconut oil. In contrast, the common practice in most PICTs is to cut the fresh
kernel (green copra) and sell it to traders, who do the drying and subsequent delivery of copra to the
oil mills.
At the mill, the copra undergoes the following steps shown in Figure 78.
Refining,
bleaching and
Copra deodorisation Coconut oil
Milling
Filtration
Re-drying/
conditioning
Entrained
solids or “foots”
Expelling Settling
Copra Meal
Figure 78. Process flow chart for the production of RBD coconut oil
Cleaning – copra is transferred from the warehouse to the mill by a series of floor conveyors, rotor-
lifts and overhead conveyors. The copra is cleaned of metal fragments, dirt and other foreign matter,
manually or by the use of shaking or revolving screens, magnetic separators and other similar devices.
Milling – to facilitate oil extraction, copra is broken into fine particles by high speed vertical hammer
mills. It is reduced to a particle size of about 1/16” to 1/8”.
Annex 99
Re-drying/Conditioning – the milled copra, which has about 5–6% moisture content, is passed
through a steam-heated cooker where the moisture content is reduced to about 4%. At the same
time, the cooker brings the temperature of the copra to the conditioning temperature of about 104°C
(220°F). At the conditioner, the copra is maintained at about 104°–110°C (220°–230°F) for about 30
minutes. This will ensure uniform heat penetration into the copra before oil extraction. Moderately high
temperature facilitates the expelling action. Oil is able to flow out more easily due to the decrease in
viscosity. Also, obstruction due to gums, proteins etc. in the copra becomes less because the heating
dries and shrinks these substances. The moisture content of copra when it leaves the conditioner is
about 3%.
Oil extraction – the milled copra is subjected to high pressure oil extraction using an expeller, first by
a vertical screw, and finally by a horizontal main screw. The oil extraction efficiency and the thickness of
the cake are controlled by a choking mechanism at the end of the discharge end of the main screw. The
normal setting of the choke is for 3/8” to 1/2” cakes. With this setting, the oil content in the cake is kept
at about 7%. To control the temperature during extraction, the main shaft is provided with water cooling
and cooled oil is sprayed over the screw cage bars. The temperature of the oil should be kept at about
93°–102°C (200–215°F) to produce light coloured oil and effect good extraction.
Screening – the oil extracted in the expeller flows into the screening tanks to remove the entrained
particles in the oil, generally referred to as ‘foots’. The foots settle at the bottom and are continuously
scooped out by a series of chain-mounted scrapers, which lift them to the screen on top of the tank.
While the foots are travelling across the screen, oil is drained out of them. The foots leaving the screen
are conveyed back and mixed with the copra entering the expeller. Screening reduces the solid content
of the oil to about 10%.
Filtration – the oil is passed through a plate and frame filter press to further remove the solids in the oil.
Two filter presses are provided — one on duty while the other is being cleaned and dressed. Maximum
filtering pressures reach about 60 psi. The filtered oil flows into a surge tank from where it is finally
pumped to the coconut oil storage tank.
Crude coconut oil from the dry (copra) process is dark; turbid; high in free fatty acids (FFAs), phosphatides
and gums; has an unpleasant odour; and may be contaminated by bacteria and moulds. To render this
oil edible, it has to undergo further processing as shown below.
Refining – consists of neutralisation, bleaching and
deodorising. Neutralisation reduces the FFAs to improve
the taste and appearance of the oil. It is done by reacting
sodium hydroxide with free fatty acids to form an oil-insoluble
precipitate called soapstock. This is removed once it settles
out. Phosphatides and gums are removed by spraying hot
water on the oil. The oil is then dried under vacuum. Typically,
5% of the weight of the crude oil is lost in refining but the loss
can be as high as 7.5% (Hagenmaier 1980)
Bleaching – takes out most of the dissolved or colloidal
pigments responsible for the colour of crude oil. Either
activated carbon or bleaching earths such as bentonite or
a combination of both are added to the neutralised oil under
vacuum while heating it to 95°–100°C. The bleaching agents
are removed afterwards by passing the oil through a filter
press.
Deodorisation – removes volatile odours and flavours as
well as peroxides that affect the stability of the oil. It is done
by heating the oil to a temperature of 150°C while in contact
with live steam under vacuum conditions (29 psi pressure).
Figure 79. Copra-derived coconut oil in a
Fijian supermarket
It should be noted that most oil mills in PICTs do not undertake refining, bleaching and deodorisation
processes. Instead, the copra-derived oil undergoes only physical refining, using phosphoric or citric
acid to reduce the gums. The appearance of coconut oil sold in the supermarkets in Fiji is shown in
Figure 79.
The power and utilities needed for the production of RBD coconut oil are roughly estimated as follows:
a. power consumption – 120 kWh per ton of copra
b. steam consumption – 100 to 120 kg per ton of copra at 100 psi
c. water consumption – 3 to 5 cubic metres per ton of copra
Quality standard for RBD coconut oil
The Philippine Standard for RBD coconut oil is shown in Table 11.
Table 11. The Philippine Standard for RBD coconut oil
Parameter Values
Moisture Content, % 0.1% max
Free Fatty Acid (as % oleic) 0.1% max
Colour* 10 Y (yellow), 1 R (red)
Saponification Value 250–264
Iodine Value ** 7.5–10.5
Odour Odourless
* Colour is measured in the laboratory with an analytical tool called the Lovibond Tintometer. It works on
the principle of measuring the wavelength of light that passes through a sample of oil.
** The iodine value is a measure of the degree of saturation or unsaturation of the oil, the lower the iodine
value, the more saturated the oil or fat is.
Annex 101
Annex 3
Frequently asked questions1
1. What is virgin coconut oil (VCO)?

The Philippine National Standard for VCO (PNS/BAFPS 22:2007/ ICS 67.200.10) officially defines VCO
as an:
oil obtained from the fresh, mature kernel of the coconut by mechanical or natural means, with
or without the use of heat, without undergoing chemical refining, bleaching or deodorizing, and
which does not lead to the alteration of the nature of the oil. Virgin coconut oil is an oil which is
suitable for consumption without the need for further processing.
It is the purest form of coconut oil, water white in colour, contains natural Vitamin E and has not
undergone hydrolytic or atmospheric oxidation as attested by its very low free fatty acid content and
peroxide value. It has a mild to intense fresh coconut scent depending on the type of process used for
production.
2. What is RBD coconut oil?
RBD coconut oil refers to refined, bleached and deodorised oil that is generally used as edible/cooking
oil in the Philippines. It is derived from copra and has to undergo chemical refining, bleaching and
deodorisation processes after extraction to make it suitable for human consumption. It is yellow or pale
yellow in colour and does not contain Vitamin E since this is removed when the oil is subjected to high
temperature and the various chemical processes. It is odourless and tasteless.
3. What are the ideal quality characteristics of VCO?
Colour – water-clear; reading of 1 yellow, 0.1 red using Lovibond Tintometer
Free fatty acid (as lauric) – 0.1% max
Moisture – 0.1 % max
Peroxide value – 1 meq/kg and below
Lauric fatty acid content – 45–56%
Scent – fresh coconut scent, mild to intense
4. What is the Philippine National Standard for VCO?

Colour – water-clear
Free fatty acid (as lauric) – 0.2% (maximum)
Moisture – < 0.1 %
Matter volatile at 120 0C (w/w) – 0.12% to 0.2 %
Peroxide value – 3 (maximum)
Food additive – none permitted
Contaminants: Iron – 5 mg/kg
Copper – 0.4 mg/kg
Lead – 0.1 mg/kg
Arsenic – 0.1 mg/kg
1
This is a reprinted and updated version of Bawalan D.D. 2004. Frequently asked questions on virgin coconut oil. Cocoinfo International11(2) Jakarta, Indonesia:
Asian and Pacific Coconut Community.
5. What causes the yellow colour in coconut oil?
• Bacterial contamination of the coconut kernel before oil extraction
• High process temperature
Therefore, for the coconut oil to be categorised as virgin, its colour should be water-clear.
6. What is the simplest method of producing VCO?
• The modified natural fermentation process
7. How many coconuts are required to produce one litre of VCO?
• 10–15 mature, husked (12–13 months old) coconuts, depending on the size and the process
used
8. What is the effect of high temperature processing on VCO?
• The Vitamin E and sterol content are removed.
• The colour becomes yellow.
• In the presence of high moisture, the triglycerides may break into free fatty acid and glycerol.
In this case, it will give a false free fatty acid reading which measures the degree of hydrolytic
rancidity that the oil has undergone.
9. Does VCO need to be kept in the refrigerator and how long does it last?
No, VCO does not need to be kept in the refrigerator. Coconut oil is the most stable among the plant-
derived oils being traded in the world. If properly processed, its natural antioxidants give it a longer
shelf-life compared to other oils. Samples of VCO which the author produced in 1998 and stored in
transparent glass bottles at the processing laboratory in PCA Davao Research Center still smell fresh
after five years.
10. What are the current major uses of VCO?
• a hair conditioner
• a body oil or a substitute for moisturising lotion
• carrier oil for aromatherapy and massage oils
• a nutriceutical and functional food
11. Why is VCO considered a nutraceutical substance or a functional food?
A nutraceutical substance and a functional food are almost the same thing. Generally speaking, they
both mean foods or food components that provide other health benefits aside from the nutritional
function that they perform when ingested. In layman’s terms, nutraceuticals are substances which not
only nourish but also heal. VCO is considered a nutraceutical substance and functional food because,
apart from providing instant energy to the human body, it is said to prevent infections, boost immunity,
reverse disease states and assist in the cure of many types of illnesses. Coconut oil is far superior to
other functional foods because of its believed beneficial effect. Several studies indicate that the medium
chain (C8–C12) fatty acids in coconut oil are similar to the fats in mother’s milk that gives babies immunity
from disease.
Annex 103
12. What are the distinguishing characteristics of coconut oil compared to other oils traded in the world
market?
• a high percentage of lauric (C12) fatty acid, ranging from 45–56% depending on the coconut
variety
• a high percentage of medium chain fatty acids (C8–C12), generally about 64%
13. What is the importance of medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and lauric fatty acid?
• Since 1984, increasing amount of literature has been published discussing the antiviral,
antimicrobial, antifungal and antiprotozoal properties of medium chain fatty acids (C8, C10, C12).
Lauric acid (C12) and its monoglyceride form, monolaurin, are mentioned as the most potent
against lipid-coated microorganisms such as HIV, the measles virus, the herpes simplex virus,
Helicobacter pylori and others that are not normally cured by ordinary antibiotics.
• Studies also indicate that MCFAs are directly converted into energy in the liver and increase the
metabolic rate of an individual. This in turn promotes weight loss and reduces the deposit of fats
in the body.
14. What do the experts say regarding coconut oil-derived lauric fatty acid and its monoglyceride form,
monolaurin?
According to Professor Jon Kabara, Professor Emeritus, Department of Pharmacology, Michigan State
University, who pioneered research on monolaurin:
• monolaurin as a dietary supplement has shown very good results as an antibiotic and antiviral
agent, particularly in its potency against lipid-coated viruses;
• it does not cause resistance organisms to appear and has also shown that it can reduce the
resistance of germs to antibiotics;
• when coconut oil is consumed, the body makes the disease-fighting monolaurin.
According to Dr Mary Enig, a noted nutritional biochemist, formerly with the University of Maryland, now
with the Nutrition Department, Enig Associates:
• recently published research has shown that natural coconut fat in the diet leads to a normalisation
of body lipids, protects against alcohol damage to the liver and improves the immune system’s
anti-inflammatory response;
• the antimicrobial fatty acids and their derivatives are essentially nontoxic to man and they are
produced in vivo by humans when they ingest those commonly available foods that contain
adequate levels of medium chain fatty acids like coconut oil;
• the medicinal properties of lauric acid and monolaurin have been recognised by a small number
of researchers over nearly four decades and this knowledge has resulted in more than 20
research papers and several US patents.
15. What are lipid-coated viruses and bacteria?
Lipid is the medical term for fat. Lipid-coated micro-organisms such as viruses and bacteria have an
envelope of fat covering their basic life structure called nucleotides (DNA and RNA). This is the reason
for ordinary antibiotics not being able to penetrate easily and kill this type of pathogenic microorganism.
However, several researchers have reported that MCFAs, particularly lauric acid that is predominately
present in coconut oil, can penetrate and dissolve the lipid coating.
16. What are the lipid-coated microorganisms that have been reported to be inactivated by lauric fatty
acid and its monoglyceride, monolaurin?
Table 12. Lipid-coated microorganisms reported to be inactivated by lauric fatty acid and monolaurin
Lipid-coated viruses
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Visna virus
Measles virus Cytomegalovirus
Herpes simplex virus Epstein-Barr virus
Herpes viridae Influenza virus
Sarcoma virus Leukemia virus
Synctial virus Pneumonovirus
Human lymphotropic virus (Type II) Hepatitis C virus
Vesicular stomatitis virus
Lipid-coated bacteria
Listeria monocyatogenes Streptococcus agalactiae
Helicobacter pylori Groups A,B,F and G streptococci
Hemophilus influenza Gram-positive organisms
Staphylococcus aureus Gram-negative organisms (if pre-treated with
chelator)
Source: Fife (2001)
17. What are the bacteria that have been reported to be inactivated by MCFAs and their monoglycerides,
such as monocaprin and monolaurin?
Table 13. Bacteria reported to be inactivated by MCFAs and their monoglycerides
Bacterium Diseases caused

Streptococcus throat infections, pneumonia, sinusitis, ear ache,
rheumatic fever, dental cavities
Staphylococcus staph infection, food poisoning, urinary tract
infections, toxic shock syndrome
Neisseria meningitis, gonorrhea, pelvic inflammatory disease
Chlamydia genital infections, lymphogranuloma venereum,
conjunctivitis, parrot fever, pneumonia, periodontitis
Helicobacter pylori stomach ulcers
Gram positive organisms anthrax, gastroenteritis, botulism, tetanus
Source: Fife (2001)
Annex 105
18. What is the link between coconut oil and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)?
According to the late Dr Conrado Dayrit, former Professor Emeritus in the Department of Pharmacology
at the University of the Philippines, the coronavirus, which has been identified as the virus causing
SARS, is also lipid-coated, which means that lauric fatty acid and monolaurin could possibly have an
inactivating effect on it.
The pathogenic organisms causing influenza and pneumonia are both on the list of lipidcoated viruses
and bacteria that are found to be inactivated by lauric fatty acid and monolaurin. As mentioned by
Kabara (2000), monolaurin is derived by the human body from coconut oil. It should be noted that the
symptoms exhibited by SARS infected patients are similar to the symptoms of pneumonia and influenza.
Therefore, by inductive reasoning, it can be postulated that lauric fatty acid and monolaurin (which are
derived by the body from coconut oil) could be potential cures for SARS.
19. What are trans fatty acids?
Trans fatty acids are artificially altered unsaturated fatty acids in which hydrogen atoms attached to
the carbon atoms linked with the double bonds have shifted position from the same side (cis) to the
opposite side (trans). This happens when unsaturated oils like soybean and corn oil are subjected to
the partial hydrogenation process. This process straightens the fatty acids molecules to enable them to
be ‘packed’ in solid form like saturated fats, while remaining unsaturated (www.ucap.org.ph). Oils that
have been partially hydrogenated increase their plasticity and substantially lengthen their shelf life, unlike
the original, highly unsaturated oils they were made from.
20. Why are trans fats bad for the health?
The body cannot metabolise trans fats for lack of proper enzymes, thus making these artificial fats
unhealthy. The primary health risk identified with trans fat consumption is an elevated risk of coronary
heart disease (CHD). A comprehensive review of studies of trans fats published in 2006 in the New
England Journal of Medicine indicates a strong and reliable connection between trans fats consumption
and CHD (www.ucap.org.ph). In addition, studies on both humans and animals have shown that trans
fats lower the HDL (‘good’) cholesterol; raise the LDL (‘bad’) cholesterol; increase the risk of heart attack
and diabetes; and may cause certain cancers.
21. Do RBD coconut oil and VCO contain trans fatty acids?
No, RBD coconut oil and VCO do not contain any trans fatty acids. As a very stable oil, coconut oil is
never subjected to the partial hydrogenation process.
22. Is the lauric fatty acid in VCO reduced if it is processed using high temperatures?
No, the lauric fatty acid content of any coconut oil is highly dependent on the variety of coconut and not
on the process used.
23. Is VCO that solidifies in an air-conditioned room or in a refrigerator still usable as a nutraceutical
substance or functional food?
Yes, it is natural for coconut oil, virgin or RBD, to solidify when placed in the refrigerator or a cool
air-conditioned room because coconut oil is solid at temperatures of 22°C and below and liquid at
temperatures of 27°C and above. Coconut oil that does not solidify when placed inside the refrigerator
is not pure coconut oil but is mixed with some other oils.
24. What is the maximum recommended dosage to obtain health benefits from VCO?
• 50 ml or 3.5 tbsp. of virgin coconut oil or
• the kernel of half a mature coconut or
• 66 grams of desiccated coconut (can be mixed with breakfast cereal).
25. What is the best time to take VCO?
It depends on what benefit you want to achieve.
a. If you want to use it for controlling weight, take it 30 minutes before lunch and dinner.
b. If you are using it as a treatment for constipation, take a full dose before bedtime.
c. If you want to boost your immune system, take it any time of the day, in single or divided doses.
26. IMPORTANT REMINDERS!!!
• The information provided in this annex is not in any way meant to encourage readers to substitute
VCO for the drugs or antibiotics prescribed by their doctor for treating illnesses. Please note
that VIRGIN COCONUT OIL IS NOT A DRUG but a functional food and should be used only as
such.
• Further, always remember that anything in excess is bad, so do not take more than 3½
tablespoons of VCO a day.
Annex 107
Annex 4
Standards for virgin coconut oil
A. PHILIPPINE STANDARD FOR VCO (PNS/BAFPS 22:2007/ICS 67.200.10)

The Philippine National Standard for VCO presented here is the revised version of PNS/BAFPS 22:2004/
ICS 67.2000.10 which was issued in 2004 . This revised version took into consideration the results of
several studies done to characterise VCO and validate some of the provisions stipulated in the 2004
standard.
1 Scope
This standard applies to virgin coconut oil in a state of human consumption.
2 References
The titles of the standards publications referred to in this standard are listed on the inside back cover.
3 Definitions
For the purpose of this standard, the following definitions apply:
3.1 General
3.1.1
free fatty acids (FFA)
a specified fatty acid liberated by hydrolysis from naturally occurring fats
3.1.2
glyceride
an ester formed by the combination of glycerol and fatty acid. Glycerides occur naturally in oils and fats
3.1.3
virgin coconut oil (VCO)
oil obtained from the fresh, mature kernel of the coconut by mechanical or natural means, with or
without the use of heat, without undergoing chemical refining, bleaching or deodorizing, and which
does not lead to the alteration of the nature of the oil. Virgin coconut oil is an oil which is suitable for
consumption without the need for further processing
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) consists mainly of medium chain triglycerides, which are resistant to
peroxidation. The saturated fatty acids in VCO are distinct from animal fats, the latter consisting mainly
of long saturated fatty acids.
4 Essential composition and quality of factors
4.1 Identity characteristics
4.1.1 Gas liquid chromatography (GLC) ranges of fatty acids composition 2 shall be in accordance with
Table 1.
Table 1 – Gas liquid chromotagraphy range of fatty acid composition
Common name Composition (%)

Caproic acid C 6:0 0.1 – 07
Caprylic acid C 8:0 4.0 – 10.0
Capric acid C 10:0 4.0 – 8.0
Lauric acid C 12:0 45.1 – 56.0
Myristic acid C 14:0 16 – 21
Palmitic acid C 16:0 7.5 – 10.2
Stearic acid C 18:0 2.0 – 5.0
Oleic acid C 18:1 5.0 – 10.0
Linoleic acid C 18:2 1.0 – 2.5
4.2 Quality characteristics

4.2.1 Colour, odour and taste
Virgin coconut oil shall be colourless, sediment free, with natural fresh coconut scent and free from
rancid odours or tastes.
4.2.2 Virgin coconut oil shall conform to the requirements specified in Table 2.
Table 2 – Virgin coconut oil property requirements
Properties Specification
% Moisture content < 0.1
% Matter volatile at 120°C (w/w) 0.12 – 0.20
% Free fatty acids (expressed as lauric acid) 0.20
Peroxide value, meq/kg oil, max. 3.0
Food additives None permitted
5. Contaminants
Table 3 – Allowable limits of contaminants in Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO)
(Heavy metal, mg/kg, max.

Iron (Fe) 5.0
Copper (Cu) 0.40
Lead (Pb) 0.10
Arsenic (As) 0.10
Annex 109
6. Hygiene
It is recommended that the product covered by the provisions of this standard shall be in accordance
with the appropriate Sections of the General Principle of Food Hygiene recommended by the Codex
Alimentarius Commission (CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev.3-1997).
The total aerobic microbial count does not exceed 100 cfu per ml, the total combined molds and yeast
count does not exceed 10 cfu per ml and it meets the requirements for the tests for the absence of
Salmonella species and Escherichia coli.
7. Packaging
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) should be packed in any suitable food grade container that can withstand
transportation, handling and storage conditions.
8. Labelling
The label of each package shall have the following information:
1. Name of product: “Virgin coconut oil”
2. Brand name or trade name
3. Net content
4. Lot identification
5. Name and address of the manufacturer and/or packer, or distributor
6. The phrase “Product of the Philippines”
7. Type of Process (See Annex)
8. Date manufactured and “Best Before”
9. BFAD registration number and bar code (Optional)
9 Methods of analysis and sampling
9.1 Determination of fatty acid composition
According to IUPAC 2.301, 2.302 and 2.304 or ISO 5508:1999 or ISO 5509:1999.
9.2 Determination of Moisture Content
According to AOAC 984.20 (Karl Fisher Method)
ANNEX
Type of Production Processes recognized by the Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA) on the production
of Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) as per PCA Administrative Order 01 Series of 2005
Implementing Rules and Regulations to Enforce Standards on the Production and Marketing of Virgin
Coconut Oil
Section V: Production Processes
Producers/processors shall state in their product label sufficient information to identify the process
used in the production of virgin coconut oil such as traditional process (latik), fermentation with heat,
fermentation without heat, centrifuge process, expelling process (with or without cooling system),
or equivalent process which insures that the product conforms with the definition and chemical and
physical characteristics in the Philippine Virgin Coconut Oil Standards herein adopted.
B. APCC STANDARDS FOR VIRGIN COCONUT OIL
1. Scope
This standard applies to virgin coconut oil.
2. Description
Coconut oil is derived from the kernel/kernel/copra of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Virgin
coconut oil is obtained from the fresh, mature kernel by mechanical or natural means with or
without the application of heat. Virgin coconut oil is suitable for human consumption in its natural
state.
3. Essential composition and quality factors
Interim APCC Standards

Identity Characteristics
Relative density 0.915 – 0.920
Refractive index at 40 degree-C 1.4480 – 1.4492
Moisture % wt. max. 0.1 – 0.5
Insoluble impurities per cent by mass. max. 0.05
Saponification Value 250 – 260 min.
Iodine value 4.1 – 11.00
Unsaponifiable matter % by mass. max. 0.2 – 0.5
Specific gravity at 30 degree./30 degree-C 0.915 – 0.920
Acid Value max. 0.5
Polenske Value min. 13
GLC Ranges of Fatty Acid Composition (%)
C 6:0 0.4 – 0.6
C 8:0 5.0 – 10.0
C 10:0 4.5 – 8.0
C 12:0 43.0 – 53.0
C 14:0 16.0 – 21.0
C 16:0 7.5 – 10.0
C 18:1 2.0 – 4.0
C 18:2 5.0 – 10.0
C 18:3 – C 24:1 1.0 – 2.5
< 0.5
Quality Characteristics
Colour Water clean
Free Fatty Acid ? 0.5%
Peroxide Value ?3 meq./kg oil
Total Plate Count < 10 cfu
Odour and Taste Free from foreign and rancid odour and taste
Contaminants
Matter volatile at 105 degree C 0.2%
Iron: (Fe) 5 mg/kg.
Copper 0.4 mg/kg.
Lead 0.1 mg/kg.
Arsenic 0.1 mg/kg.
Annex 111
4. Food Additives
None permitted
5. Hygiene
It is recommended that the product be prepared in accordance with the GMP and HACCP
standards.
6. Labelling
The name of the food on the label be “Virgin Coconut Oil”. The provisions of the General Standard
for the labelling of Packaged Food (CODEX STAN 1 – 1985)
(Rev. 1 – 1991) shall apply.
7. Methods of analysis and sampling
Based on Codex Alimentarius (Volume 13).
Annex 5
Recommended procedure to indicate the
moisture content of grated kernel in a DME dryer
Background information
The DME dryer is the most common dryer used by VCO processors in PICTs. It is a flat bed direct
contact type dryer where the batch of fresh grated coconut kernel is spread thinly on the surface of
the dryer. The load is regularly turned to prevent it from getting scorched. As a requirement of the DME
process, the grated kernel has to have a moisture content within the range of 10–12%. A study done
on the low pressure oil extraction process which works on the same principle as the DME revealed that
optimum oil recovery can be obtained if the moisture content of the dried grated kernel is at 11% before
extraction. Under the existing standard process for DME, the moisture content of the dried grated
kernel before it is unloaded from the dryer is determined by feel by dryer operators. This subjective
method of determining moisture content is the major reason why batches of VCO produced by the DME
process have variable quality.
There is a science-based procedure that can be followed to ensure that the 10–12% range of moisture
content will be reached. However, before implementing a more scientific approach, there is a need to
first determine the average moisture content of the coconuts supplied to the VCO plant. This system
is relatively simple to implement in PICTs because there is little variation in the moisture content of the
coconuts. It is certain that coconuts supplied to VCO plants in PICTs are fully mature since they have
fallen from the tree instead of being plucked.
Recommended procedure
The procedure is described as follows:
1. Using the previously determined average initial moisture content of the kernel as a basis, do a
material balance computation to determine the final weight of the kernel when its moisture content
is reduced to 11% for a specific weight of freshly grated kernel to be loaded in the dryer per batch.
- For instance, using a standard 3.5 kg freshly grated kernel per batch and assuming an initial
moisture content of 50 %, the final weight of the dried kernel at a moisture content of 11%
should be 1.97 kg or approximately 2 kg.
- For an initial weight of 12 kg at the same initial moisture content, the final weight of the dried
kernel at 11% moisture content should be 6.74 kg or roughly 6.75 kg (Note: In the modified
DME process, the weight of fresh grated kernel loaded in the dryer is 12 kg per batch.)
2. Station a weighing scale near the dryer that can take the weight of the kernel per batch plus the
weight of the basin. Designate at least three basins with the same weight as the weighing container.
Tare the weighing scale with the weight of the basin by resetting the reading on the weighing scale
to zero while the empty basin is still placed in the weighing scale.
3. Every time a batch of freshly grated kernel is loaded, weigh it. Make the weight of loaded fresh
kernel the same for every batch (i.e. 12 kg for the modified DME process).
4. Unload the dried grated kernel in the designated weighing container. Weigh again.
- If the weight of the dried kernel is still higher than the computed final weight (e.g. 6.75 kg if the
initial moisture content of fresh kernel is 50%), return the batch to the dryer and dry further.
- If the weight of the dried kernel is already lower than the computed weight, sprinkle a little water
(while the basin of dried kernel is positioned on the weighing scale) until the computed weight
is reached. Mix thoroughly after sprinkling with water.
Annex 113
Annex 6
Virgin coconut oil production equipment
A6.1 Husking equipment

• Manual husking tool – These are different variations of metal spike with a sharp tip standing vertically
in the ground (Figure 80).
Figure 80. Manual husking tools from Kiribati (left),

Marshall Islands (centre) and Fiji (right)
• Motorised coconut husking machine – Husking is

done by bringing down a cutter to a positioned
whole coconut that moves through a hydraulic
mechanism (Figure 81). The machine has a
husking capacity of 1800 nuts per eight-hour day
using a 1.5 hp single-phase electric motor. It is
currently used by Tailevu Milk Products Ltd., Viti
Levu, Fiji for their coconut product line. Fabricated
by Method Machine Works Sdn Bhd (729390-
M ) 51-1, Jalan Puteri 5/16, Bandar Puteri,
47100 Puchong, Selangor, Malaysia. Tel: 603-
8060-1925; Fax: 603-8060-1935; URL: www.
coconutmachine.com
Figure 81. Motorised husking machine
Shelling equipment
• Motorised shelling machine – a standard feature in coconut milk and desiccated coconut processing
plants in Asia. It is composed of vertical tool with sharp tip mounted in front of a rotating gear where
the shell of whole husked coconut is held and moved on top of the sharp tool. Untrained and
inexperienced operators should not handle this machine as it might result in cut fingers.
The Philippine shelling machine (Figure 82) has a processing capacity of 200–250 nuts per hour
based on the skill of the operator. It is run by a 1/2 hp gear motor, 3-phase, 220 volts, 40 rpm
output. Designed and fabricated by Princena’s Machine Shop, 3rd St. Villa Antonio Subdivision,
San Pablo City, Philippines. Tel. +6349-5624618; E-mail: [email protected]
The Malaysian shelling machine is currently used at Tailevu Milk Products Ltd, Viti Levu, Fiji (Figure
82). Shelling capacity is 180 nuts per hour depending on the skill of the operator. It is also run by a
1/2 hp gear motor, 3-phase, 220 volts, 40 rpm output.
The Philippine shelling machine differs from the Malaysian equipment in terms of the sharpened tip
of the vertical tool as shown in the figures below. Likewise, it occupies a smaller space.
Figure 82. Motorised shelling machines from Philippines (left) and Malaysia (right)
Annex 115
A6.2 Comminution equipment: grating, shredding, cutting, scraping,
grinding
Grating equipment
• Manual graters
Manual graters (Figure 83) are a standard feature in most Pacific households. They remove the fresh
kernel from the coconut shell and reduce its particle size to fine pieces at the same time.
Figure 83. Manual graters from Kiribati and Marshall Islands
• Motorised graters
 The DME grater, the Fijian grater, the Thailand grater and the Philippine grater (Figure 84) all
work on the same principle, differing only in the type of head. The Philippine grater has a
stainless steel blade and housing, a ½ hp electric motor and direct drive. The Thai grater is
considered the safest, but also the least durable. The Fijian grater is manufactured by On Time
Engineering, G.P.O. Box 12437, Suva, Fiji. Tel. (679) 3385337/3384776; Fax: (679) 3385337.
Figure 84. Motorised graters from Fiji (left), the Philippines (centre) and Thailand (right)
The processing capacity of motorised coconut graters depends on the skill of the operator. Based on
the Philippines experience, the grating capacity can go as high 80 nuts per hour. However, the grating
capacity is reduced as the hands of the operator get tired holding the half nut towards the rotating grater
head.
• Coconut Shredding/Cutting/Scraping/Grinding Machines
The Malaysian coconut grinding machine and the Thai coconut scraping machine (Figure 85) can
be called coconut shredding equipment since both work on the same principle of shredding the
coconut kernel into thin pieces. Both have a stainless steel drum with spikes and a stainless steel
rod which rotate in opposite directions (Figure 86). The coconut kernel is first removed from the shell
using either a manual shelling tool or a motorised shelling machine. The kernel is then dropped in
between the rotating drum and the rod.
 The Malaysian coconut grinding machine is currently being used at Tailevu Milk Products Ltd,
Viti Levu, Fiji. It runs on a 3 hp electric motor and has a shredding capacity of 180 nuts per
hour. It is manufactured by the same company that supplies the coconut husking and shelling
machines.
 The Thai coconut scraping machine runs on a 2 hp single-phase electric motor, 220 volts, 50
Hz. All parts are made of stainless steel. The processing capacity of kernel is equivalent to
about 220 nuts per hour. It is designed and manufactured by Ngow Huat Yoo Machinery, 107
Verngnakom Kasem Lane New Road, Soi 10 Samphantawong, Bangkok 10100, Thailand. Tel:
+66-2-2225571/2247648-9; Fax: +66-2-2247649.
Figure 85. Coconut grinding machine from Malaysia (right) and coconut scraping machine (another model) from Thailand (left)
Annex 117
Figure 86. Stainless steel drum with
spikes and rod in the coconut scraping
machine from Thailand
The coconut shredding machine has several advantages.

• It is safe to use, inasmuch as the hands of the operator are remote from the rotating blade, in
contrast to standard motorised graters.
• It has a higher process capacity than standard motorised graters and is well suited for larger
scales of operation when coupled with a shelling machine.
• Higher oil recovery is achieved on a per nut basis inasmuch as there is no coconut kernel left
on the shell.
 Multi-purpose power grinder complete with accessories and 1-unit induction motor, 3-phase,
220 volts, 1750 rpm for spindle drive, 1-unit 1hp gear motor, 3-phase 220 volts for screw feeder.
Food-grade stainless steel for all parts in contact with the fresh coconut kernel. The equipment is
available in process capacities of 550 and 300 nuts per hour (coconut kernel equivalent). Designed
and manufactured by Princena’s Machine Shop, 3rd St. Villa Antonio Subdivision, San Pablo City,
Philippines. E-mail: [email protected]; Tel: +6349-5624618.
The same advantages as mentioned for the Thai coconut shredder are obtained from this coconut
kernel grinder. In addition, it has a high processing capacity. However, the grinder is considerably
more expensive and uses a special type of motor
 Knife mill – 2 hp, 3-phase, 220 volts motor, process capacity of 100 kg per hour, food-grade
stainless steel for all parts in contact with the fresh coconut kernel. It is exactly the same design as
the knife mill used for copra except that food-grade stainless steel is used instead of mild steel.
 SIMPLEX granulator – Can be used for both fresh and dried kernel; has an input capacity of up to
80 kg per hour; is driven by a 1.5 hp single-phase TEFC electric motor with push button magnetic
contactor with overload cut-off. Designed and manufactured by VFV Trinity Machine Works, 44E
Rizal Avenue Ext. Grace Park, Caloocan City. Tel: +632-3648648; Fax: +632-3658742; E-mail:
[email protected]
A6.3 Coconut milk extraction
Manually operated equipment
• Manually operated vertical screw type (bridge press), with perforated holding basket and receptacle
trough; all materials in contact with the coconut kernel are made of stainless steel; 9 kg grated
coconut kernel per load (about 20 nuts equivalent); 15–20 minutes pressing cycle per load; process
capacity of about 60–80 nuts per hour (Figure 87).
Manufactured in the Philippines by PCDR Metalwerke Enterprise, No. 11 Lourdes St., Marcela,
Kalookan City, Metro Manila, Telefax: +632- 2874834. Original design from the Agro Processing
Division, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom.
Figure 87. Philippine Bridge press for coconut milk and oil
extraction
• Manually operated hydraulic jack (10 tonnes capacity); table model; all materials in contact with
the coconut kernel are made of stainless steel; 2.5 kg grated kernel per load (about 4–5 coconuts
equivalent); five minutes pressing cycle per load, process capacity of about 48–60 nuts per hour
(Figure 88).
Annex 119
Figure 88. Manually operated hydraulic jack type coconut milk press from the Philippines, stand alone (left) and table
(right) models
Motorised equipment
• Motorised horizontal screw type coconut milk press (Figure 89) – Equivalent to 300–350 nuts per
hour process capacity (freshly grated or ground coconut kernel input); 2 hp electric motor, single
phase, stainless steel screw, built-in filter and housing. A higher capacity model at 500 nuts per hour
is also available. Designed and manufactured by Princena’s Machine Shop, 3rd St. Villa Antonio
Subdivision, San Pablo City, Laguna, Philippines. E-mail: pms.since1979@ yahoo.com; Tel: +6349-
5624618.
Figure 89. Two models of motorised horizontal screw type coconut milk extractors from the Philippines
• Motorised coconut squeezing machine (screw type) (Figure 90) – Equivalent to 250 nuts per hour
process capacity (freshly grated or ground coconut kernel input); stainless steel worm shaft/screw
and stainless steel cage and frame fitted with 3 hp single-phase 220 volts, 50 Hz. Designed and
manufactured by Ngow Huat Yoo Machinery, No. 107 Verngnakom Kasem Lane New Road, Soi
10 Samphantawong, Bangkok 10100, Thailand, Tel: +66-2-2225571/2247648-9; Fax: +66-2-
2247649.
Figure 90. Motorised horizontal screw type coconut milk extractor from Thailand
• Motorised hydraulic coconut milk press (Figure 91) – Designed and manufactured by Ngow Huat
Yoo Machinery, Bangkok, Thailand. Contact numbers as above.
Figure 91. Motorised hydraulic coconut milk press from

Thailand
Annex 121
A6.4 Coconut milk separation equipment
Two-phase centrifuge/cream separators (Figure 92) – This is actually designed for the separation
of dairy milk from skim milk but is adapted for separation of coconut milk into coconut cream and skim
milk where the cream is further processed into VCO. The centrifuge is manufactured in India and has a
stainless steel separation bowl and disc; milk separation capacity of 300 litres per hour; 31 discs, 7500
rpm; separation temperature at 35°–40°C; 1/2 hp electric motor, 110/220 volts, 50 Hz; 25 litres holding
capacity of milk reservoir.
Figure 92. Two phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge
A6.5 Drying equipment

The choice of dryer depends on the scale of production, the availability of construction materials (if
needed to be constructed on site), the operator’s preference in terms of ease of operation, and the price
and drying efficiency of the dryer.
• DME dryer (Figure 93) – This is essentially a flat bed, direct contact type of dryer where heat is
directly transferred by conduction to the grated coconut kernel through the surface of the metal
sheet. It is constructed on site, based on the design specifications of the technology developer.
The dryer is composed of a stainless steel sheet (1.21 m x 4.86 m) mounted over a concrete base
with heating stones underneath. A burner/furnace made of used (mild steel) petroleum drums is
mounted on the front end for burning coconut shells and a chimney is attached to the other end.
Figure 93. DME flat bed direct contact dryer
Advantages
 It uses the generated by-product, coconut shells, for fuel.
 It has a relatively fast drying rate because of the direct heating.
Disadvantages
 It is labour intensive since it requires a minimum of three persons: one on each side of the dryer
to do the constant layering of the freshly grated kernel on the metal surface, turning and moving
it fast, and another person to regularly feed fuel into the dryer.
 There is a high risk of the kernel getting scorched or burned, since there is a tendency for the
wet grated kernel to stick to the surface of the metal. Once the kernel is scorched or burned,
the resulting oil will be pale yellow and no longer entitled to the label ‘virgin’.
• Electrically-heated or gas-fired forced draught tray dryer (Figure 94) – This is a standard
dryer that can be bought from known manufacturers. It comes in different capacities and sizes. It is
generally equipped with a thermostat control that allows the operator to set the drying temperature
as desired. It is also equipped with a blower that circulates hot air around and on the surface of the
dryer trays.
Figure 94. Electrically heated forced draught tray dryer at

Food Processing Centre in Tarawa, Kiribati
Advantages
 Drying of the kernel is assured to be under the highest sanitary conditions.
 With proper temperature setting, loaded grated kernel for drying can be safely left untended
without the risk of it getting scorched or burned.
 The thermostat control allows for a constant temperature drying.
Disadvantages
 It uses electric power or gas for heating, so the drying cost is much greater, and so is the
carbon footprint.
Annex 123
 The investment cost is higher.
 It is labour intensive in terms of loading the fresh kernel into trays and mixing it at regular
intervals during the drying process.
• Continuous conveyor (apron) dryer (Figure 95) – Coconut shell or gas-fired heat exchanger,
9.3 m long, 4 blowers of 1.5 hp each, single-phase 220 volts, dryer drive, 1 hp single phase, 220
volts, 30–50 kg per hour dried kernel output depending on moisture content. Output moisture
content can be adjusted by adjusting the speed of the conveyor; output end of the dryer can be
connected to the feed hopper of the expeller. A large capacity dryer is also available. Manufactured
by Princena’s Machine Shop, 3rd St. Villa Antonio Subdivision, San Pablo City, Philippines. E-mail:
[email protected]; Tel: +6349-5624618.
Figure 95. Mini conveyor dryer from the Philippines
Advantages
 It uses the generated by-product, coconut shells, for fuel.
 It can be used continuously, thereby ensuring low downtime in production.
 It prevents the drying pieces of kernel from getting scorched or burned, since it is hot air that is
in contact with the kernel.
 It offers more flexibility in operation, since the desired output moisture content of the kernel can
be set by adjusting the speed of the conveyor.
 It requires only one dryer operator.
 It can be used for drying other products.
Disadvantages
 The investment cost is high.
 It requires a bigger space because of the length of the dryer.
 The electric power cost is relatively high because of the electric motors to run the conveyor and
the air blowers.
• Indirect, natural draught coconut shell/husk-fired tray dryer (Figure 96) – This dryer is
constructed on site and is a modified version of the indirect type of copra dryer developed by the
author at the PCA Davao Research Center. Suitable frames to hold a series of trays with screens
were made in lieu of the loading bed of copra. Drying is essentially a batch type operation. The dryer
is composed of a furnace and a metal cylindrical heat exchanger with baffles (made of used metal
drums) attached to a chimney, from which hot combustion gases generated from burning coconut
husks or shells are released after transferring the heat to the air surrounding the metal exchanger.
The furnace and heat exchanger are enclosed in a dryer body (2.44 x 3.05 x 1.82 m) with concrete
or brick walls provided with air intake ports on the side. As the air is heated through contact with
the metal heat exchanger and the surface of the furnace, it rises to surround the grated coconut
in the trays. It has a total of 30 drying trays which can be loaded with 1.5–2.0 kg of freshly grated
coconut kernel. The temperature in the dryer is controlled by regulating the fuel feed.
Figure 96. Natural draught coconut shell/husk-fired tray dryer
Advantages
 It uses the generated by-products, coconut shells and husks, for fuel.
 It prevents the grated kernel from getting scorched or burned since it is hot air that is in contact
with the kernel.
Disadvantages
 The drying efficiency is highly dependent on the prevailing ambient conditions and wind velocity.
 It has a relatively lower process capacity since it is a batch type operation.
 It is labour intensive in terms of loading the fresh kernel in trays and the need for changing the
position of the trays at regular intervals during the drying process.
• Solar dryer – In areas where there are long periods of sunshine, solar drying of grated kernel
could be the cheapest option for producing VCO from the low pressure oil extraction method
under a micro-scale operation. There are different designs of solar dryer that can be constructed
on site using polyethylene transparent plastic sheets and wood. Some solar heat collectors can
be incorporated to make the solar dryer achieve a higher drying temperature. Previous solar drying
trials done by the author revealed that a temperature of 70°C, which is just right for coconut drying,
can be easily achieved in a properly designed solar dryer.
Annex 125
A6.6 Coconut oil extraction equipment
• Manually operated vertical screw type bridge press trough (Figure 87) – Has a perforated
holding basket and receptacle; all materials in contact with the coconut kernel are made of stainless
steel, 9 kg partially dried grated coconut kernel per load (about 45 nuts equivalent); 15–20 minutes
loading, pressing and unloading cycle per load; process capacity of about 135–180 nuts per hour.
Manufactured in the Philippines by PCDR Metalwerke Enterprise, No. 11 Lourdes St., Marcela,
Kalookan City, Metro Manila, Telefax: +632-2874834; upscale model of the original design from the
Agro Processing Division, Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom.
• DME press (Figure 18) – Kokonut Pacific described this as a ‘robust rack and pinion SAMTM Press
with its interchangeable stainless steel cylinders and pistons’. The press, is mounted on a wall, has
a ratchet mechanism for bringing up and down a lever that pushes the piston positioned on top
of the partially dried grated kernel inside the cylinder. It can press 1.5–2.0 kg partially dried grated
kernel loaded in the cylinder to recover the oil at eight pressings per hour.
• New Zealand Press (Figure 19) – This is manufactured by the Axis Industrial Ltd of Auckland, New
Zealand and is currently being used by Women in Business Development Inc. in Samoa and Origins
Pacific Ltd. in Fiji for VCO production. The press is a combination manually operated vertical screw
and hydraulic jack-type press. The average processing time per cycle per 7 kg dried kernel load is
about 15 minutes.
• SIMPLEXTRACTOR high pressure expeller (Figure 97) – Process capacity of 50 kg dried
kernel per hour, 5 hp motor, 3-phase, 220 volts with built-in cooling system for worm shaft. Also
available in process capacity of up to 80 kg per hour with 7.5 hp 3-phase motor. Designed and
manufactured by VFV Trinity Machine Works, 44E Rizal Avenue Ext. Grace Park, Caloocan City. Tel:
+632-3648648; Fax: +632- 3658742; E-mail: [email protected].
Figure 97. SIMPLEXTRACTOR high pressure expeller (Philippines)
A6.7 Filtration equipment
• Gravity type filtering device (Figure 98) – Designed by the author, this filtering device is suited
for clarifying VCO produced using the modified kitchen and natural fermentation methods. It is
composed of two 20-litre cylindrical water containers (normally used in water dispensers) with the
bottom cut out. These are placed one on top of the other over a stainless steel pot receptacle and
everything is held together by a manufactured mild steel frame. The filtering medium is sterilised
cotton wool placed in the neck of the water container. It can filter 18 litres per batch. This gravity
type filtering device cannot be used for filtering oil obtained from the low pressure oil extraction
method or the high pressure expeller method.
Figure 98. Gravity type filtering device designed by the author
• Plate and frame filter press – This is the standard equipment used for filtration in commercial
oil milling plants to ensure that all foots are speedily removed. The foots are trapped in the canvas
cloth positioned between each plate as the oil is pushed through. A conventional plate and frame
filter press for a commercial oil milling operation can have as many as 18 plates with each frame
measuring approx 40 x 40 cm. A mini plate and frame filter press is also available (Figure 99).
• Vertical pressure filters (Figure 100) – These are normally used for fine filtration of coconut oil
from a high pressure expeller.
A6.8 Fermentation cabinet

One way of ensuring that the right temperature is maintained during the fermentation process is to make
a properly designed fermentation cabinet with electric light bulbs placed in strategic positions that can
raise the temperature inside as needed. A small electric heater with built-in thermostat control can also
be installed in the fermentation cabinet (Note: Use incandescent bulbs, not the energy-saving compact
fluorescent lamp (CFL) for warming the air in the fermentation box or cabinet. CFL bulbs give more light
but very little heat.)
Annex 127
Figure 99. Mini plate and frame filter press from Australia (left) and standard plate and frame filter press at Wainiyaku Estate Plantation,
Fiji (right)
Figure 100. Vertical pressure filter at Wainiyaku Estate Plantation, Fiji
Annex 7
Production data sheet and other relevant record
forms in a VCO processing facility
DAILY PRODUCTION DATA SHEET

MODIFIED KITCHEN METHOD
Date of production:
A. Selection of nuts
No. of nuts selected No. of nuts rejected (if any) No. of nuts actually processed
B. Grating
Time started Time finished Total grating time, hours/minutes
Weight of grated nut kgs

C. Milk extraction
Time started Time finished Total extraction time hours/

minutes
1st extraction
2nd extraction
Weight of first milk extract kgs

Weight of water added kgs
Weight of second milk extract kgs
Weight of wet coconut milk residue kgs
D. Settling for two hours
Weight of cream, kgs Weight of skim milk, kgs
E. Heating of cream
Time started Time finished Total heating time, hours/minutes
Weight of wet proteinaceous residue kgs
Wt. of premium oil, Wt. of premium oil, Wt. of residual oil, Wt. of residual oil,
unfiltered filtered unfiltered filtered
Weight of toasted residue kgs

Reprinted with permission from Bawalan, D.D. and K.R. Chapman, 2006. Virgin coconut oil production
manual for micro- and village-scale processing. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO Regional Office for Asia and
the Pacific.
Annex 129
MODIFIED NATURAL FERMENTATION METHOD
Date of production:
B. Grating
Weight of grated kernel kgs

C. Milk extraction
Time started Time finished Total extraction time hours/

minutes
1st extraction
2nd extraction
Weight of first milk extract kgs

Weight of water added kgs
Weight of second milk extract kgs
Weight of wet coconut milk residue kgs
D. Settling/fermentation of coconut milk
Time started Time finished Total fermentation time, hours/minutes
E. Harvesting of separated oil

Time started Time finished Total harvesting time, hours/minutes
Weight of wet fermented curd kgs
Wt. of premium oil, Wt. of premium oil, Wt. of residual oil, Wt. of residual oil,
unfiltered filtered unfiltered filtered
Weight of toasted curd kgs

the Pacific.
LOW PRESSURE EXTRACTION METHOD
Date of production:
B. Grating
Weight of grated kernel kgs

C. Drying of grated kernel
Time started Time finished Total drying time, hours/minutes
Weight of dried kernel kgs

D. Extraction of oil
Time started Time finished Total extraction time, hours/minutes
Weight of extracted oil, unfiltered kgs

Weight of coconut meal kgs
E. Settling of oil
Date/Time started Date/Time finished Total settling time, hours/minutes
F. Filtration of oil
Time started Time finished Total filtration time, hours/minutes
Weight of filtered oil kgs

Weight of “foots’ kgs
the Pacific.
Annex 131
HIGH PRESSURE EXPELLER PROCESS
Date of production:
B. Shelling of coconut kernel
Time started Time finished Total shelling time, hours/minutes
Weight of coconut kernel kgs

C. Grinding of coconut kernel
Time started Time finished Total grinding time, hours/minutes
Weight of ground/granulated kernel kgs

D. Drying of granulated kernel
Time started Time finished Total drying time, hours/minutes
Weight of dried granulated kernel kgs

E. Extraction of oil
Time started Time finished Total extraction time, hours/minutes
Weight of extracted oil, unfiltered kgs

Weight of coconut meal kgs
F. Settling of oil
Date/Time started Date/Time finished Total settling time, hours/minutes
G. Filtration of oil
Time started Time finished Total filtration time, hours/minutes
Weight of filtered oil kgs

Weight of “foots’ kgs
the Pacific.
PRODUCTION DATA SUMMARY
MODIFIED KITCHEN AND NATURAL FERMENTATION METHOD
Production Batch No. of Nuts No. of Nuts Weight Lot Weight Weight of Weight of
Date No. Processed Rejected of VCO Identification of Wet Wet Latik Residual
Recovered, No. for VCO Residue, or Curd, Oil, kgs
kgs kgs kgs
the Pacific.
Annex 133
PRODUCTION DATA SUMMARY
LOW PRESSURE OIL EXTRACTION AND HIGH PRESSURE EXPELLER PROCESS
Production Batch No. No. of Nuts No. of Nuts Weight Lot Weight of Weight of
Date Processed Rejected of VCO Identification Coconut Foots, kgs
Recovered, No. for VCO Meal, kgs
kgs
the Pacific.
Annex 8
Coconut shell processing technologies
and quality grading
A8.1 Charcoal processing technologies

There are two methods that are generally used for small scale production of charcoal in the Philippines,
the pit method and the kiln method.
A8.1.1 Pit method

Pits for charcoal making are made by digging holes in the ground to the desired size. Guarte (1993)
mentions that circular or rectangular pits (Figure 101) are generally used. The size of the pit varies
according to the availability of shells and the capacity desired. He adds that most rectangular pits in
the Philippines are approximately one metre wide, two metres long and one metre deep, and circular
pits are a minimum size of one metre in diameter and one and a quarter metres deep. Rectangular pits
should have rounded sides on the bottom part to minimise the amount of air that might be trapped there
which could cause over-burning of charcoal in that part.
Figure 101. A rectangular pit for charcoal making
The steps for making charcoal by the rectangular pit method are given below.
a. Place 100 coconut shell halves at three equidistant points in the pit leaving a space in between
the groups of shells.
b. Start the burning of three or four shells outside the pit and drop them in the space at the bottom
of the pit to initiate burning.
c. Once the other shells start burning, cover them with additional shells. The aim is to prevent the
shells from breaking out into flame as this will turn the shell to ashes.
d. Additional shells are added progressively as the fire spreads upward until eventually the heap
reaches the top of the pit. At this point, large volumes of dark smoke are generated.
e. Cover the pit with a metal sheet or any material that will not burn and allow the carbonisation to
continue.
f. Once the smoke becomes clear and transparent, completely seal the cover of the pit by putting
clay soil over the cover and sides. Ensure that the seal is airtight to prevent the charcoal from
turning into ash.
g. Allow two or three days for the charcoal to completely cool.
h. Remove the charcoal and store it in bags.
Annex 135
The pit method has both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages Disadvantages
Zero or very low capital investment Fixed position
Low maintenance cost Removing the charcoal from the pit is troublesome
Flexible size Charcoal is normally contaminated with dirt
A8.1.2 Kiln method

There are three types of kiln that are currently being used in the Philippines, the drum kiln (Figure 102)
which is the most popular for individual farmers, the fabricated metal kiln or Pag-Asa kiln (Figure 103)
for a bigger scale of operation and the PCA brick kiln (Figure 104) for long term usage.
Drum method
A 200 litre, used petrol or steel drum is used as a kiln. The top is cut off and used as a cover during
carbonisation. The drum is cleaned and washed thoroughly, especially if it was used as container
for corrosive materials. The capacity of a drum is 450 to 500 whole shells (900 to 1000 half shells)
depending on the size. The procedure takes six hours plus overnight cooling. A skilled worker can
operate eight or nine drum kilns at the same time. Charcoal recovery is 27.5% of the total weight of
shells, provided the shells are properly dried and come from fully mature nuts.
Figure 102. Two versions of the drum kiln for charcoal making
There are different versions of drum kiln: one type with four equidistant holes at the bottom, another
type with several equidistant holes along the sides of the drum at different heights, and a very simple
type that has no holes at all. Procedures vary depending on the type of drum kiln. The charcoal making
steps for the drum without any holes are described below.
a. Place the drum on flat, clean ground.
b. Ignite two pieces of coconut husk or three or four pieces of coconut shell, and carefully drop
them into the bottom of the drum. Arrange them evenly around the bottom by poking them with
a stick, and allow them to burn vigorously.
c. When these husks or shells are burning vigorously, add about 20 half coconut shells. Loosely
cover the drum with the top portion which was removed before. Allow the shells to carbonise.
The start of carbonisation is signified by the release of heavy dark smoke.
d. Add more shells whenever the smoke becomes lighter or when you see flames. Replace the
cover after each addition.
e. Continue putting in fresh batches of shells until the pile reaches the top of the drum.
f. When the smoke coming out of the loosely covered drum becomes clear, fit the cover on the lid
of the drum.
g. Turn the covered drum upside down. (The bottom of the drum becomes cooler as the
carbonisation moves towards the top, which allows the worker to hold the bottom portion.)
h. Seal the kiln by pressing relatively wet soil around the lid. The absence of smoke indicates that
the drum is completely sealed.
It should be noted that some charcoal makers do not turn the drum kiln upside down. The lid is sealed
with wet clay when the smoke becomes transparent and clear. Sealing of the lid is easier when the
drum is turned upside down but it takes a lot of skill to turn the drum upside down without spilling the
contents.
Fabricated metal kiln (Pag-Asa kiln)
The best known charcoal kiln designed in the Philippines is the Pag-Asa kiln (Figure 103), which is
normally used by commercial charcoal producers. It is a fabricated metal kiln composed of two parts:
a cylindrical base and a conical top part. Unlike the drum kiln with only the top open, the Pag-Asa kiln
is open at the top and the bottom. The size of the kiln depends on the capacity that is desired and
needed by the user. A kiln with a cylindrical base diameter of 46”, a height of 41” and a conical top with
a diameter of 16” can take about 3000 half shells. The procedure takes 7 to 8 hours with a cooling time
of 16 to 17 hours. A skilled worker can operate three Pag-Asa kilns at the same time. Charcoal recovery
is 25–27 % based on the weight of input.
The steps for making charcoal using the Pag-Asa kiln are
described below.
a. Pile on the ground about 50 shell halves, leaving a
space in the middle.
b. Ignite two to three pieces of dry coconut shell or
husk and place them in the central space.
c. Once the other shells in the pile are burning
strongly, place the Pag-Asa kiln over the pile of
shells, completely containing or enveloping them.
d. Add more shells whenever the smoke becomes
lighter or when flames break out.
e. Continue adding shells until the kiln is full.
f. When the smoke coming out of the kiln becomes
lighter and transparent, seal around the bottom of
the kiln with soil, cover the top with a metal sheet
and seal it with clay or any material that will make it
airtight.
g. Allow the charcoal to cool for 16 to 17 hours.
h. Collect the charcoal after removing the soil and Figure 103. Fabricated metal kiln (Pag-Asa kiln)
tilting the kiln to expose the charcoal inside.
i. If the charcoal is intended for delivery to a charcoal
granulation or activated carbon plant, separate small particles by passing the charcoal through
a mesh screen sieve.
j. If the charcoal is intended for delivery to the local market, pack it in sacks without screening it.
Annex 137
PCA brick kiln
The PCA brick charcoal kiln (Figure 104) was developed by the Philippine-German Coconut Project
(PGCP)1 and was evaluated and popularised by the Philippine-Korea Cooperation project to provide
coconut farmers and charcoal manufacturers with an alternative device for charcoal making. The kiln
is intended for a centralised type of operation since it is constructed on site and not moveable like the
drum and Pag-Asa kilns. It is constructed using bricks which do not corrode and are resistant to heat
so it is expected to have a longer service life than metal kilns. The capacity of the kiln is approximately
3,000 half shells. The kiln is mainly made of 2”x 4”x 8” standard rectangular fire bricks. It is dome-
shaped to optimise the carbonisation process. The dimensions of the kiln are: base diameter (inside):
1.20 m., height (net): 1.10 m., volume: 0.73 cu. m. A total of 24 air inlet ports, each with a diameter of
one inch, are placed in four rows around the circumference of the kiln. Each row has six air intake ports
equidistant from each other. The first row is positioned at the base of the kiln. The distance between
each row is equivalent to the height of five bricks (i.e. the succeeding rows of air intake ports are made
after the addition of five layers of bricks during construction).
A skilled charcoal maker can operate four kilns at a time for an average of eight hours from ignition to
covering. The operating time depends on the moisture content of the shells (using dry shells shortens
carbonisation time and ultimately reduces cost) and on how well the procedures are followed. Proper
operating procedures should be followed to produce good quality charcoal. The average charcoal
recovery rate is 28.4% based on dry weight of input.
The procedure for making charcoal using the PCA brick kiln
is described below.
a. Start by igniting about 50 dry coconut shells or husks
and wait for about five minutes to allow them to burn
strongly.
b. Close the brick door and then add another batch of
dry coconut shells, usually about 500 shells.
c. Seal all joints of the brick door with wet ash.
d. Wait until the colour of the smoke changes from
blackish to whitish and then add another batch of
coconut shells. Repeat this procedure until the kiln is
full.
e. Close the air inlet ports at the base with wet ash
when embers are visible or on the level of the second
row of air inlets. Repeat this procedure on the third
row. The fourth row of air inlets is closed at the same
time as the removable kiln cover (similar to a clay pot
cover) is placed on top.
f. The number of coconut shells added in each batch
Figure 104. PCA brick kiln charcoal making (Pag-
decreases near the end of the operation. Asa kiln)
g. Close the kiln after the last batch is fully burned. Seal
the top cover first with dry pulverised ash or fine sand and finish with wet ash.
h. Check for any leaks.
i. Unload the charcoal on the following day by opening the top cover and brick door. Use a spade
to transfer the charcoal from the kiln to the containers.
j. Check for live embers on the surface of the charcoal. Ignition sometimes happens due to the
high charcoal temperature and sudden exposure to air.
k. Store the charcoal in a well-ventilated warehouse away from passageways to prevent and/or
reduce fire risk.
1The Philippine-German Coconut Project is a technology transfer and self-help type of project involving R and D on coconut post-harvest technologies and
strengthening of farmers’ capabilities. It was co-funded by GTZ and was implemented by PCA from 1992–2000.
A8.2 Quality parameters and grading of coconut shell charcoal
Coconut shell charcoal contains the highest percentage of fixed carbon of all ligneous charcoal.
Accordingly, a good charcoal has the following average composition: 3% moisture, 10% volatiles, 2%
ash, and 85% fixed carbon. The following are the quality parameters of coconut shell charcoal when
analysed quantitatively:
Fixed carbon content – is the amount of carbon contained in a particular type of charcoal. The fixed
carbon content of charcoal ranges from a low of about 50% to a high of around 95%. Thus charcoal
consists mainly of carbon. The carbon content is usually estimated as a ‘difference’, i.e. all the other
constituents are deducted from 100 as percentages and the remainder is assumed to be the percentage
of ‘pure’ or ‘fixed’ carbon.
Ash – is determined by heating a weighed sample to red heat to burn away all combustible matter. The
residue is the ash. It consists of mineral matter, such as clay and silica, and calcium and magnesium
oxides, which were present in the original wood and picked up as contaminants from the earth during
processing.
Moisture content – is the water that is physically bound in the charcoal. Quality specifications for
charcoal usually limit the moisture content to around 5–15% of the gross weight of the charcoal.
Moisture content is determined by oven-drying a weighed sample of the charcoal. It is expressed as a
percentage of the initial wet weight.
Volatile combustible matter content – is defined as the water and other organic matter that is
released as a result of various chemical reactions that occur when biomass is heated in the presence of
limited air. The volatile matter content in charcoal (other than water) is composed of all those liquid and
tarry residues not fully driven off in the process of carbonisation. The amount can vary from a high of
40% to a of 5% or less. It is measured by heating away from air, a weighed sample of dry charcoal at
90°C to constant weight. The weight loss is the volatile matter. Volatile matter (VM) is usually specified
free of the moisture content, i.e. volatile matter minus moisture content.
Foreign matter content – refers to any material mixed in the batch of charcoal, e.g. pebbles, stones,
metals, bits of wood, husk, etc.
A8.2.1 Grades and standards of charcoal

Good quality charcoal must conform to the standard grade set by the industry on export. Charcoal is
classified into metallurgical grade A, and commercial grades A and B under the Philippine standard for
shell charcoal. The limits for each parameter are shown in Table 14.
Table 14. Grading parameters for coconut shell charcoal
Parameters Metallurgical Grade A Commercial Grade A Commercial Grade B

Fixed carbon 80% max. 75% max. 65% max.
Ash 3% max. 3% max. 3% max.
Moisture Volatile 10% max. 10% max. 10% max.
Combustible matter 10% max. 10% max. 20% max.
Sieve analysis Not more than 5% shall Not more than 5% shall Not more than 5% shall
pass a ¼ inch mesh pass a ¼ inch mesh pass a ¼ inch mesh
sieve sieve sieve
Annex 139
A8.2.2 Physical grading
On a farm, quantitative analysis of charcoal can never be done, simply because it is not practical to
do so. However, farmer producers may conduct their own quality assessment based on the physical
attributes of their produce. The following quality assessment guide can be used (Table 15).
Table 15. Charcoal quality assessment guide
Parameters Attributes of good quality What to do

charcoal
Colour Uniformly bluish-black colour. Get a piece of charcoal and allow
Glistens in sunlight. the sunlight to touch the surface.
Observe the colour.
Appearance Clean, shining fracture and free of Get a piece of charcoal and
fibres. observe it under light. Tap it
on top of a piece of paper and
observe the amount of dust/fibres
that fall out.
Sound Produces a high, metallic sound Drop a piece of charcoal on a
when snapped or dropped on a hard surface and listen to the
hard surface. sound of the fracture.
Foreign matter Should be free of dust, fibres, Screen the charcoal using a ¼
pebbles and other materials. inch mesh screen.
Under-burnt shells do not give a metallic sound when snapped, while over-burnt shells are friable and
a fracture sounds dull.
Source of Information: Engr. Evelyn T. Caro
Agriculturist 1 and Technology Transfer Specialist
PCA Region XI, Davao City, Philippines.
A8.3 Processing of coconut shell charcoal briquettes

Equipment
Binder cooker This is used for binder preparation. The size and type of cooker largely
depends on the plant capacity and mode of operation. A biomass-fired
(coconut husk or shell) cooker is necessary to have a continuous supply
of boiling water during operation.
Mixer This is used to evenly distribute the binder with the charcoal fines. Good
mixers are characterised by their ability to achieve a homogenous mixture
in the shortest time possible.
Briquettor (Figure 105) This equipment converts the charcoal fine-binder mixture into a solid
substance with defined shape. Briquettes can be made into various
shapes (egg-shaped, oblong, hexagonal, cylindrical, circular and pillow-
shaped) depending on the type of mould and briquetting machine used.
The pillow-shaped briquette is commonly produced. For home scale
production and use, a manually operated briquetting machine can be
used.
Dryer This is necessary to immediately dry and harden newly formed briquettes.
Tray type mechanical and natural draught indirect dryers can be used
for drying. Sundrying can be done but, due to unpredictable weather
condition, it is not recommended for large scale production.
Figure 105. Briquetting machine (left) and manual briquetting press (right)
Raw materials
Charcoal fines The best raw material for making charcoal briquettes is coconut shell charcoal
fines due to their high heating value compared to charcoal fines from other
biomass materials. Charcoal fines are generated as a waste product in granulating
charcoal intended for activated carbon production. Another way of obtaining
charcoal fines is by segregating and grinding small particles of shell charcoal from
carbonisation operation.
Binder Cassava starch is commonly used as binder because this is the cheapest and
most readily available material.
Water This is used for dissolving starch prior to cooking it. Any clean and chemical-free
water can be used.
Steps in charcoal briquette making

1. Weigh exact amounts of charcoal fines, water and binder — just enough for one mixing. The
recommended ratio is 1:10:20 (starch:water:charcoal fines).
2. Dissolve the starch in a small amount of water until the solution is homogenous. Pour in boiling
water. Stir until cooked or gelatinised.
3. Place charcoal fines in the mixer and pour in the binder while still hot. Stir until all particles are
coated by the binder.
4. Pour freshly prepared mixture into the briquettor mould and press or feed it into a motorised
briquetting machine (Figure 105).
5. Arrange freshly moulded briquettes in the drying trays to allow circulation of air and operate the
dryer when all the trays are full.
6. Remove deformed and cracked briquettes. Pack good briquettes in plastic bags and seal.
Source of Information: Engr. Evelyn T. Caro
Agriculturist 1 and Technology Transfer Specialist
PCA Region XI, Davao City, Philippines.
Annex 141
Annex 9
Simple processing technologies for
coconut water utilisation
A9.1 Coconut water vinegar

Vinegar is generally defined as an alcoholic liquid that Table 16. Average composition of coconut water
has been allowed to sour. It is considered one of the
oldest fermentation products known to man (Banzon Sugars (levulose and dextrose) 2.6 %
et al, 1990). Chlorides 0.17%
Coconut water vinegar uses coconut water as starting Protein 0.55%
material. Coconut water is the liquid endosperm Oil 0.74 %
found inside a coconut. It is one of the by-products
generated during the processing of coconut kernel. Total solids 4.71 %
In its natural form, coconut water contains micro Ash 0.46 &
minerals which are beneficial to human health, as Specific gravity 1.02
shown in Tables 16 and 17.
pH 5.6
Source: Anzaldo et al. (1985)
Table 17. Electrolyte composition of coconut water from coconuts of various ages (milliequivalent per litre)
AGE Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Chlorine pH

(months) (mEq/litre) (mEq/litre) (mEq/litre) (mEq/litre) (mEq/litre)
4 43.86 1.11 13.23 6.46 44.00 4.90
5 40.13 1.68 10.20 5.87 38.16 4.87
6 35.53 1.58 9.60 4.27 33.00 4.92
7 36.40 2.06 10.67 4.27 35.83 4.92
8 36.73 2.20 10.80 5.14 45.67 5.17
9 42.67 2.47 11.20 5.34 30.34 5.40
10 44.26 3.05 17.07 6.13 37.67 5.40
Source: Anzaldo , (1987)
The composition of coconut water vinegar as analysed by the Philippine Food and Nutrition Research
Institute and reported by Banzon et al. (1990) is shown below:
Food energy value 3 calories/gram
Moisture 98%
Fat 0.1%
Total carbohydrates 1.4%
Ash 0.3%
Calcium 24 mg/100 grams
Phosphorous 34 mg/100 grams
Iron 0.1 mg/100 grams
Riboflavin 0.01 mg/100 grams
Protein trace
Thiamine trace
Niacin trace
Source: Banzon et al, 1990
Vinegar is primarily used to flavour and preserve foods and as an ingredient in salad dressings and
marinades. It has also been used as a medicine and a preservative. A dilute solution of vinegar has been
found to be an effective rinse for fresh salad vegetables to remove traces of pesticide.
In the Philippines, coconut water vinegar is used as a table condiment and sauce for some Filipino
dishes. It is used as a seasoning for meat, fish and vegetables during cooking; as an ingredient in the
manufacture of vegetable pickles, catsup and other tomato products, mayonnaise, mustard, dressing
and sauces; and as additive in many manufactured foods to enhance flavour (Banzon et al, 1990). In
addition, it is used as a cleaning agent.
There are two methods for making coconut water vinegar on a home and micro scale production. These
are:
• by using yeast and microbial culture (e.g. acetobacter acetii) as fermenting medium (Table 18)
• by using three-day-old coconut toddy as a starter (Table 19).
The yeast and microbial culture process
Table 18. The yeast and microbial culture process for coconut water vinegar production
Process Steps Critical Control Points/Remarks

Part A: Alcoholic Fermentation
1) Collect three litres fresh coconut water. Coconut water should come from ungerminated,
Strain through cheese cloth. unspoiled and newly opened nuts.
2) Dissolve 1/4 kg sugar in the coconut water. This is to increase sugar concentration of the
coconut water.
3) Pasteurise by heating at 65°C for 20 minutes or Avoid overheating as this may spoil the flavour.
boil for five minutes. Cool at 40°C.
4) Dissolve half a teaspoon Fleischmann dry yeast IMPORTANT: Make sure that the yeast is still
in one cup of sterilised coconut water and pour into active. This is indicated by bubbles while the
the mixture. yeast is being dissolved and after it is dissolved.
5) Pour the mixture into a sterilised narrow-mouth
jar (preferably glass).
6) Cover the narrow mouth with clean brown paper IMPORTANT: Do not use cellophane or plastic.
or newsprint and seal it with a rubber band. Keep the cover slightly loose, not tight.
7) Allow the mixture to ferment for four to seven
days or until there are no more bubbles of carbon
dioxide formed.
8) Transfer into wide-mouthed jar using rubber IMPORTANT: Be careful not to disturb the
tubing to siphon out the solution. sediments.
Part B : Acetic Acid Fermentation
1) To the alcoholic solution prepared in procedure Mother vinegar is started from a microbial culture
A above, add 1.5 litres of mother vinegar. Mix of selected fermenting micro organisms, e.g.
thoroughly. Acetobacter aceti, and is generated for every batch
of coconut water vinegar produced.
In the Philippines, there are government agencies

producing mother vinegar for sale to would-be
producers of coconut water vinegar.
2) Loosely cover the container with clean IMPORTANT: Do not use cellophane or
brown paper or newsprint and seal with a plastic.
rubber band.
3) Allow to ferment for 30 days or until
maximum sourness is obtained.
Annex 143
4) Set aside 1.5 litres to be used as mother
vinegar for the next batch.
5) Pasteurise at 65°–80°C to kill the IMPORTANT: Pasteurisation is needed at
fermenting micro-organism before bottling the right time to kill the micro-organisms
the product. responsible for fermentation. Otherwise,
fermentation will continue and the vinegar
will be converted into water and carbon
dioxide. Use a stainless steel vessel during
pasteurisation. Do not use aluminum, copper or
brass containers.
6) Cool and pack in sterilised bottles.
Considering the situation where PICTs will start from zero base in coconut water vinegar processing,
it is recommended to use the simple process where three-day-old coconut toddy is used as starter
and will be mixed with coconut water The other process for making coconut water vinegar requires
the addition of sugar and yeast to coconut water to ferment it into alcohol, then a suitable microbial
culture is added to the alcoholic mixture to ferment it into vinegar. It should be noted that coconut toddy
contains a natural fermenting enzyme. Three-day-old coconut toddy is actually an alcoholic mixture
already and if it is distilled off, it will yield coconut liquor. Mixing three-day-old toddy with coconut water
as the fermenting medium actually shortens the fermentation time into vinegar since there is no longer
any need to ferment the coconut water into alcohol. Processing of coconut water into vinegar using
three-day-old toddy as starter can be easily done in Cook islands, Rabi Island (Fiji), Kiribati, Marshall
Islands, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu, where coconut toddy collection is regularly done.
Table 19. Processing of coconut water vinegar using three-day-old coconut toddy
Process Steps Critical Control Points/ Remarks

1) Collect five litres of fresh coconut water. The coconut water should come from
Strain through cheese cloth. ungerminated, unspoiled, newly opened nuts.
2) Pasteurise by heating at 65°C for 20 minutes or Avoid overheating as this may spoil the flavour of
boil for five minutes. the product.
Use stainless steel container during

pasteurisation.
Do not use aluminum, copper or brass
containers.
3) Pour into fermenting containers. Food grade plastic containers can be used.
They should be washed properly with soap and
water and rinsed with hot water before use.
4) Add five litres of the three–day-old coconut The sugar content of the toddy has already been
toddy. naturally converted to alcohol.
Note: Three-day old coconut toddy is the toddy

which is left to stand for 72 hours after collection
from the coconut tree.
5) Loosely cover the mouth of the container with IMPORTANT: Do not use cellophane.
cheesecloth or muslin. A cloth diaper for babies can Keep the cover slightly loose.
also be used.
6) Allow the mixture to ferment for seven days.
7) Collect by siphoning. IMPORTANT: Be careful not to disturb the
sediment.
8) Pasteurise at 65°–80°C to kill the fermenting Important: pasteurisation is needed at the
micro-organisms before bottling right time to kill micro-organisms responsible
for fermentation. Otherwise, fermentation will
continue and the vinegar will be converted into
water and carbon dioxide.
Use a stainless steel container during
pasteurisation.
Do not use aluminum, copper or brass
containers.
9) Cool and pack in sterilised bottles.
A9.2 Coconut sauce

Ingredients
2 cups coconut water
½ cup brown sugar
½ cup salt
MSG (optional)
Procedure
1. Heat pan
2. Heat sugar until dark brown. Adjust stove flame to medium.
3. Add coconut water, salt and MSG if desired.
4. Stir and boil for 15 minutes
5. Remove from heat and strain.
Source : Philippine Coconut Authority
Region VIII (Davao City), Philippines
Annex 145
Annex 10
Food products from
coconut milk residue
These recipes were selected from the coconut recipes developed by staff of the Philippine Coconut
Authority and tested by the author.
Coconut Burger
Ingredients
1 cup fresh coconut milk residue
1 cup minced beef or minced chicken or canned tuna flakes
2 eggs, well beaten
¼ cup onions, chopped
1 tbsp garlic, minced
½ tsp ground pepper plus other spices to taste
fresh green chilli, chopped (optional)
3 tbsp soy sauce
6 tbsp corn starch
1/2 tsp salt
cooking oil for frying
tomato catsup for garnish
Procedure
1. Beat the eggs. Completely dissolve the cornstarch in the beaten eggs. Set aside.
2. Mix the fresh coconut residue thoroughly with the minced beef/chicken or tuna flakes, onions,
garlic, ground pepper, soy sauce, salt, chopped fresh green chili (if desired).
3. Add the egg mixture and mix thoroughly.
4. Shape into thin patties (two tablespoons per patty).
5. Heat cooking oil in a frying pan. Deep-fry the patties until done.
6. Drain off excess oil. Serve with catsup while hot.
Note: The addition of fresh coconut residue (from coconut milk extraction) to the usual burger recipe
provides dietary fibre which helps to prevent constipation, lowers cholesterol. It also provides coconut
dietary fat, which has been shown to have antimicrobial properties and boosts the immune system,
aside from providing food energy. It also utilises coconut residue (which is normally thrown away or used
as animal feed) thereby reducing the cost of the food as well.
Source of basic recipe: Product Development Department
Philippine Coconut Authority
Diliman, Quezon City
Coconut Okoy
Ingredients
½ cup all-purpose wheat flour
½ tsp baking powder
½ cup matured pumpkin/squash, grated together with skin
1 cup fresh coconut milk residue
1 cup shrimps or minced chicken
1 egg, well beaten
½ cup onions, chopped
½ tbsp ground pepper plus other spices to taste
½ tsp salt
MSG to taste (optional)
Cooking oil for frying
Vinegar seasoned with salt and garlic
Procedure
1. Mix all ingredients.
2. Shape into patties.
3. Deep fry in oil until golden brown.
4. Serve hot with vinegar seasoned with salt and garlic.
Source of basic recipe: Philippine Coconut Authority
Region IV-A (Lucena)
Macaroons
Ingredients
1 can (big) condensed milk
3 eggs, well beaten
1/2 cup butter
1/4 cup sugar
½ cup all-purpose flour
2 cups dried/toasted coconut milk residue
1 tsp vanilla
2 tsp baking powder
Procedure
1. Preheat the oven to 350ºF.
2. Mix all ingredients well.
3. Spoon mixture into paper cups. Fill the cups only half full to avoid overflow of mixture during baking.
4. Place on baking sheets or muffin pans and bake at 350ºF for 15–20 mins.
Source: Product Development Department
Annex 147
Peanut Sapal Cookies
Ingredients
3/4 cup sifted all purpose wheat flour
1 cup toasted coconut residue
1/2 tsp baking powder
1/2 tsp baking soda
1/4 tsp salt
1/2 cup margarine or butter
3/4 cup sugar
1/4 cup peanut butter
1 egg
1/2 cup finely chopped peanuts
Procedure
1. Pre-heat oven to 350°F.
2. Sift together flour, baking soda, baking powder and salt. Set aside.
3. Cream butter, peanut butter, sugar and egg.
4. Blend in the dry ingredients and toasted coconut residue.
5. Cover and chill.
6. Shape dough into 1-inch balls. Roll in peanuts. Place three inches apart on slightly greased baking
sheet. Press thumb in centre of each cookie.
7. Bake for 15 minutes or until set but not hard.
Cinnamon Sapal Cookies

Ingredients
½ cup shortening or butter
1 cup sugar
1 egg, well beaten
½ cup evaporated milk
1 cup toasted coconut residue
1½ cups sifted flour
½ tsp salt
1 tsp cinnamon powder
2½ tsp baking powder
Procedure
1. Cream the butter or shortening and sugar together until light and fluffy.
2. Add the egg, then stir in the milk.
3. Add the toasted coconut residue.
4. Sift the flour, salt, cinnamon and baking powder and add to the mixture. Mix well.
5. Drop by teaspoonful onto a greased baking sheet.
6. Bake in a moderate oven 375°F until brown, about 15 minutes.
Coconut Burger
Macaroons
Figure 106. Coconut burgers (left) and macaroons (right)
Annex 149
Annex 11
Production of coconut flour and VCO from
coconut milk residue using the Bawalan-Masa process
The Bawalan-Masa Process (Figure 43) has the following major steps:
Blanching – blanching coconut milk residue is done through the injection of live steam using a blanching
machine at a minimum temperature of 85°C for about seven minutes or immersion in boiling water for
1½ minutes in order to kill harmful micro-organisms which might have contaminated the milk residue
during handling. Blanching is a necessary step in coconut flour production, although it increases the
moisture content of the coconut milk residue.
Drying – the wet coconut residue is dried using a tray type mechanical dryer to a specified moisture
content. The dryer could be gas fired, electrically heated or steam heated. For large scale operation,
the conveyor type dryer, similar to the one used in a desiccated coconut plant, is more practical to use.
Defatting – the dried coconut residue is passed through a high pressure screw press with a cooling
system under a specified expeller setting to reduce oil content of the flour to 9% or less. A co-product
of this process is another type of VCO with very mild coconut scent, easily absorbed by the skin. It
is important to reduce the oil content of the coconut flakes to the lowest possible level to prolong the
shelf-life of the coconut flour.
It should be noted that conventional designs of oil expellers as used in the coconut industry are not
suitable for VCO and coconut flour production. Conventional expellers generate too much heat during
operation, which destroys the nutritive value and affects the colour of the flakes.
Re-drying – the defatted coconut flakes are re-dried to reduce their moisture content to 2.5–3.0%.
Grinding – the dried coconut flakes are then ground to reduce particle size to a fine mesh (at least 100
mesh) as required in food product formulation.
Filtration of Oil – the VCO produced when it leaves the defatting equipment has entrained very fine
particles of dried coconut milk residue which should be removed to clarify the oil. This is done through
the use of a plate and frame filter press similar to what is done in copra oil milling operations.
The Bawalan-Masa Process is patented under the Philippine Patent Office in the name of the Philippine
Coconut Authority. The process was developed by the author while working as Senior Science Research
Specialist and Ms Dina B. Masa, Manager, Product Development Department, Philippine Coconut
Authority.
Annex 12
Formulations and procedures for
downstream products from VCO
A12.1 Toilet/bath soap
Weighing scale Stick blender SS wire whisk Heat resistant plastic container
Eye goggles, gloves and mask Plastic basin
Figure 161. Soap-making tools and equipment
Soap moulds
Annex 151
Notes on soap-making tools and equipment
1. All equipment should be stainless steel, plastic or glass. Never use aluminium as this
will react with caustic soda.
2. Soap moulds can be a fabricated wood with formica lamination or heat-resistant
plastic. If non-heat resistant plastic is used, the desired shape of the soap plastic
mould will not be retained.
Additives in soap-making
Additives are substances that not only alter the overall appearance of a given soap but which also lend
their own special qualities to it ([email protected], 2004).
Additives include:
Colouring materials – can be food grade dyes, spices (such as turmeric) that have the pigment for
a specific colour, or any non-allergy-causing substance that provides colour to the soap. The author
found that children’s crayons are a cheap alternative to commercial dyes for home-scale soap-making.
Essential oils or fragrance oils – give the soap the desired scent; they should not contain any alcohol.
Chelating agent – this is either citric acid or ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA), which acts as
a sort of metal scavenger or water softener, preventing the formation of bathtub rings when the soap is
used in hard water.
Mineral oil or glycerine – this is added to enhance the emollient properties of soap and prevents its
skin-drying effect. For special moisturising effect, cocoa butter or avocado oil or jojoba oil can be added
instead of mineral oil.
Basic formulation for moisturising herbal bath soap are shown in Table 20.
Table 20. Basic formulation for moisturising herbal bath soap
Coconut oil 1,000 grams

Caustic soda solution, 35°Be 578 grams
OR
Coconut oil 550 grams
Palm oil 300 grams
Sunflower oil 200 grams
OR
Canola oil 200 grams
OR
Notes on soap-making tools and equipment
Sunflower oil 200 grams
Caustic Soda Solution, 35°Be 548 grams
Essential oil (optional) 20 grams
Colour (optional) children’s crayon or oil soluble dye, amount
depends on desired intensity of colour
For special effects to convert formula into herbal soap
Add at trace:
Aloe vera extract 50 grams
or lemon extract 50 grams
or green papaya extract 50 grams
Soap-making procedure
The preparation of caustic soda is shown in Table 21 and the preparation of soap is shown in Table 22.
Table 21. Processing steps and safety measures for the preparation of caustic soda solution
Process Steps Safety Measures/Remarks

a. Put on rubber gloves. Caustic soda flakes should be of high purity and
free from metal content. Buy them from chemical
b. Weigh 1 kg caustic soda flakes. suppliers. Do not use caustic soda for cleaning
drains.
Use rubber gloves when handling caustic soda

flakes.
Special care should be taken in handling caustic

soda flakes as they are highly irritating to the skin.
c. Using a graduated cylinder, measure 2.3 litres The water should be as pure as possible. Distilled
of water and place in a heat-resistant plastic or or filtered rain water is best.
stainless steel container.
d. Place the container of purified water over a basin When caustic soda flakes are dissolved in water,
of cold water. they generate a lot of heat so this reaction should
be counteracted by the basin of cold water.
e. Put on eye goggles, gas mask and rubber gloves Caustic soda solution is a very corrosive substance
before mixing the caustic soda solution. and can burn the skin and irritate the eyes. It also
emits a lot of fumes in the initial stage of dissolving.
f. Place vinegar and water nearby to neutralise
caustic soda in case of an accidental spill or if the
solution comes in contact with the skin.
g. ADD CAUSTIC SODA FLAKES TO WATER — The mixing of the caustic soda solution should be
NOT WATER TO CAUSTIC SODA FLAKES — and done in a well-ventilated, open area.
mix thoroughly until all the crystals or flakes are
dissolved.
h. When cool, store the solution in a plastic Lye flakes or crystals and lye solution can be
container. Label it properly. fatal if swallowed so put them out of reach
and sight of small children and animals. Keep
containers of lye properly labelled and sealed.
Annex 153
Table 22. Processing steps and critical control points for soap-making
Process Steps Critical Control Points/Remarks

a. Weigh the required amount of oil or fat and place The oil or fat can be one kind only (e.g. coconut oil,
in a mixing bowl. palm oil, beef tallow) or a mixture of different kinds.
The fatty acid composition of oil determines the

quality of soap with regard to cleaning efficiency,
lathering properties and moisturising effect. Hence,
it is best to mix oils to get the special properties
one wants in a soap.
Always remember that in making soap, weight and

not volume is used as a unit of measure.
b. Weigh the required amount of caustic soda Please remember all the safety precautions
solution prepared as described above. mentioned above when handling caustic soda
solution.
c. Slowly add the caustic soda solution to the oil This is done to ensure that the oil and caustic
in the mixing bowl and stir in one direction using a soda solution are mixed properly to undergo the
large stainless steel egg whisk or an electric stick saponification reaction.
blender or an electric hand mixer. Set the speed to
1 or low.
d. Stir continuously for 15 minutes, then stop for 5 The amount of time required for the soap mixture
minutes. Stir for 5 minutes then stop for 5 minutes. to reach the ‘trace’ stage depends on the fatty acid
Do this sequence of alternate stirring and resting composition of the oil.
until the mixture reaches a ‘light trace’ consistency. Saturated oils like coconut and palm oil reach the
It is like the consistency of condensed milk. ‘trace’ stage more quickly than polyunsaturated oils
Mixing should be done in one direction only. like soybean and sunflower oils, which take longer
to ‘trace’. Coconut oil takes about 45 minutes.
‘Trace’ is a term in soap-making to describe the

consistency (thickness) of soap when it is ready to
pour into moulds. When caustic soda solution and
fat/oil first combine, the mixture is thin and watery.
Gradually, the caustic soda and fat/oil react to form
soap. The mixture thickens to a trace consistency
and turns opaque.
e. Add colour to the desired intensity. (The colour The oil used for dissolving dye or melting with
can come from crayons melted in oil over a water crayons should be taken from the previously
bath or from oil-soluble dye dissolved in oil. Stir for weighed oil for making the soap.
5 minutes.
f. Add the desired additives (emollients and scents) Fragrance oils or essential oils used as scents
and stir. should be added at a time when the soap mixture is
very near the ‘full trace’ stage to prevent the caustic
soda from destroying the scent.
If synthetic fragrance is used to scent the soap,

please make certain that the fragrance is oil-
based and has no alcohol content. The addition of
alcohol-based fragrance to the soap mixture will
cause it to curdle.
g. Test the soap mixture to see if it has reached the Drip some soap mixture from a spoon across the
‘full trace’ stage. surface of the mixture. It should leave a ‘trace’ or a
small mound.
Draw a line in the surface of the soap mixture with

a spoon or rubber spatula. If a ‘trace’ of the line
remains for a few seconds, the soap has traced
(Figure 162).
Figure 162. Appearance of soap mixture at ‘full trace’
h. Pour the soap mixture into the soap mould, cover Covering the surface of the soap mixture will
the surface of the soap with plastic or wax paper prevent it from having white spots on the surface
and allow to stand at room temperature for 24 hrs. when the soap solidifies.
24 hours is needed for complete saponification and

solidification.
i. Remove the soap from the mould and cut into For smoothly-cut soap, a fabricated soap cutter
desired sizes. using guitar chords as the cutting medium can be
used (Figure 163).
j. Stamp, dry and age the soap for at least two
weeks.
k. Pack the soap in desired packaging material and
label.
Figure 163. Soap cutter for rectangular (left) and for circular (right) shaped soaps
Annex 155
Quality control in soap-making
Soap cannot be made without any alkali solution. The two most common alkali solutions in use for
soap making today are caustic soda, or sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and potassium hydroxide (KOH).
For bar soap, it is always sodium hydroxide that is used. Potassium hydroxide is mostly used for liquid
soap because it produces very soft soap and is slow to trace. Caustic soda is a chemical classified as a
strong base; it is highly corrosive and burns the skin. Hence, the amount of caustic soda solution added
to oil to form soap should be computed and measured accurately, as any amount in excess will result
in soap that has an irritating effect on the skin. The main reason a cold-processed soap is allowed to
age for at least two weeks is to make certain that all caustic soda in the soap has reacted completely
with the oil.
Based on the foregoing, quality control of soap is always made by measuring its pH value. In layman’s
term, pH is defined as a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance where the values
are measured on a range of one to fourteen. A neutral substance (neither acidic nor basic), such as
water, is given a value of seven. A pH below seven means the substance is an acid and pH above seven
means the substance is a base (alkaline). The greater the pH difference from seven, the stronger the
acidity or alkalinity of the substance. The strength of an acid or base can be measured by means of a
pH meter or (and more quickly) by litmus paper, special paper with chemicals in it that change the colour
of the paper depending on the pH of the substance being tested.
To test a bar of soap’s pH, wet the bar in running water and rub the bar with your hands until you
get some bubbles or a thin film of liquid soap on the outside of the bar. Wet the litmus paper on it,
observe the change in the colour of the paper and compare it to the colour chart that is provided by the
manufacturer to determine the pH value. Soap as a general rule is alkaline in nature. However, the pH
should not be more than ten. A pH of nine or less is better. If the pH of the soap is more than ten, it will
probably cause a burning sensation on the skin. As the soap ages, the pH drops, so it is better to test
the pH at the end of the two weeks’ ageing period (for cold processed soap).
A12.2 Aromatherapy/massage oils

This section deals with some formulations for aromatherapy oil that were prepared and tested by
the author. All prepared aromatherapy and massage oils should be stored in dark coloured bottles.
Thoroughly cleaned and dried cough syrup bottles can be used.
a. Massage oils for relaxation or to relieve stress
Formulation a1 Formulation a2
Lavender oil – 3 ml Ylang Ylang Oil – 2 ml
Virgin coconut oil – 97 ml Virgin Coconut Oil – 98 ml
b. Deodorising body oil
Lemongrass oil – 2.5 ml
Virgin Coconut oil – 97.5 ml
Author’s Note: The same formulation has also been tested for the prevention of smelly feet; the oil is
massaged into the foot and in between the toes before putting on socks.
c. Massage oil for respiration (easy breathing in case of colds)
Eucalyptus oil – 1.5 ml (about 30 drops)
Peppermint oil – 1.0 ml (about 20 drops)
Virgin coconut oil – 97.5 ml
d. Massage oil for rheumatism and muscle pain
Eucalyptus oil – 1 ml
Ginger oil infused virgin coconut oil – 99 ml
Note: Do the oil infusion with ginger by following the procedure discussed in Section 7.2 of the manual.
A12.3 Skin care products
In all of the formulations listed below, it is advisable to do the mixing in thoroughly cleaned and dried
heat-resistant glass beakers.
Coconut moisturising jelly (substitute for petroleum jelly)
Ingredients
Virgin coconut oil 1/2 cup (120 ml)
Grated beeswax 30 grams
Essential oil of choice 2 ml or depending on desired intensity of scent
Procedure
Melt the beeswax slowly in a double boiler or put the container of beeswax in a pan with heated water.
Heat the VCO in the same way as the beeswax. Mix the oil and melted beeswax together. Cool to 50°C
while stirring constantly. Add the essential oil and stir thoroughly. Put into cosmetic jars and allow to
cool.
Note: Wait for the VCO-beeswax mixture to cool to at least 50°C (warm feel) before adding the essential
oil. Otherwise, the scent will be destroyed by heat.
Lip balm
Ingredients
Cocoa butter 15 grams
Grated beeswax 15 grams
Virgin coconut oil 30 grams
Procedure
Heat the VCO and cocoa butter in the same way as the beeswax. Mix the oil cocoa butter and melted
beeswax together. Cool to 50°C while stirring constantly. Add a few drops of peppermint flavouring oil.
Put into cosmetic jars and let cool. If you want a softer balm, add more VCO. If you want a harder balm,
add more beeswax.
Moisturising body butter

Ingredients
Beeswax 20 grams
Cocoa butter 60 grams
Sesame oil (deodorised) 20 grams
Virgin coconut oil 30 grams
Olive oil 10 grams
Essential oil of choice 2 ml or depending on the preferred intensity of the scent
Note: Use deodorised or odourless sesame oil. Virgin sesame oil has a very strong odour which will
destroy the scent of the product. Remove from the formulation if you cannot find an odourless sesame
oil.
Procedure
Add the cocoa butter and blend with the beeswax without removing from the heat. Slowly blend in the
oils, one at a time. Let the mixture cool to 50°C and add the essential oil. Blend well. Pour into moulds
and cool to solidify.
Annex 157
Glossary
Alkali – is a primary ingredient in soap making. This is either caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) or caustic
potash (potassium hydroxide). Soap produced using caustic soda is much harder than soap produced
using potassium hydroxide. This is why potassium hydroxide is normally used when making liquid soap.
Alkali used for soap making should be pure and free from any metal content.
Ash – is the residue that remains when a substance is subjected to high heat in the presence of air and
all combustible matter is burned.
Ball copra – is a dehydrated whole kernel, an edible copra unique to India and certain parts of Sri
Lanka. Fully mature, unhusked coconuts are placed in specially constructed ball copra stores or on a
wooden platform above the kitchen fire-place just below the roof and allowed to dry for eight to twelve
months (Ranasinghe et al. 1980).
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) – is the quantity of oxygen used by aerobic microorganisms and
reducing compounds in the stabilisation of decomposable matter during a selected time at a certain
temperature (Frazier and Westhoff 1988). A period of five days at 20°C is generally used and results
are expressed in five-day BOD (BOD5). It is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed to decompose the
organic matter in waste water; a high BOD indicates heavy pollution with little oxygen remaining for fish
(Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 2010).
Charcoal briquette – also called patent fuel - is a compacted mass of fuel material made from a
mixture of very small charcoal pieces (fines) and a binder and moulded under pressure (FPRDI 1992).
Chelating agents – include citric acid, or ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA), and are used as
soap-making additives. They act as metal scavengers or water softeners, preventing the formation of
tub rings when soap is used in hard water.
Choke – is the very small opening at the end section of a high pressure expeller which the dried,
milled kernel is forced to pass through to effect the extraction of oil. The dried kernel is pushed to this
opening through the rotation/movement of a worm shaft, or screw. Adjustment in the choke clearance
determines the oil extraction efficiency and the thickness of the coconut flakes.
Cochin oil – the coconut oil industry term for semi-refined, copra-derived coconut oil which is generally
used for inedible or industrial applications (e.g. raw material for the production of coconut chemicals).
Coconut flour – is the ground, solid residue/flakes obtained after extraction of virgin coconut oil from
dried, comminuted coconut kernel, or coconut milk residue that is processed under sanitary conditions.
Coconut milk – is the white opaque fluid, an emulsion of oil and water, obtained when freshly grated
or comminuted coconut kernel is pressed either by manual or mechanical means with or without the
addition of water.
Coconut milk residue – is the solid material that is left behind when coconut milk is extracted from
fresh grated or shredded coconut kernel. It represents approximately 40–52% of the weight of freshly
grated kernel on a wet basis, depending on the coconut milk extraction process that is used.
Coconut shell – or endocarp - is the hard, stony, dark brown, thin layer between the coconut husk
(mesocarp) and the kernel of the mature coconut. It is soft and dark cream in colour when the nut is
immature. This is where the coconut kernel is attached.
Coconut shell charcoal – is the product derived from carbonisation of coconut shell from fully matured
nuts under a limited or controlled amount of air. It contains the highest percentage of fixed carbon of all
ligneous charcoal.
Coconut skim milk – is the watery phase which separates out from the coconut cream when coconut
milk is allowed to stand for two hours or when it is passed through a two-phase (liquid-liquid) centrifuge.
In the centrifuge process of VCO production, coconut skim milk is generated as a by-product, since
it is only the separated cream that is processed into VCO. Coconut skim milk has a sweetish flavour
characteristic of young coconut. It can be pasteurised, frozen or packed in cans or tetrabrik or passed
through a spray dryer to produce coconut skim milk powder.
Coconut water – is the liquid endosperm contained in a central almost spherical hollow of the coconut
fruit. This is one of the by-products generated during the processing of coconut kernels. In its natural
form, coconut water contains micro minerals and vitamins which are beneficial to human health.
Copra – is the dehydrated/dried coconut kernel, the primary product known in all coconut growing
countries of the world. It is the oldest known coconut product and the principal commodity by which
farmers normally convert their coconuts into income. Copra-making prevents the spoilage of fresh
coconut kernel by greatly reducing its moisture content.
Cup copra – is dehydrated kernel halves, the most common type of copra available in the market. It
is produced by drying coconut kernels in their shell (husked or unhusked) by sun drying, kiln drying or
a combination of both, and removing them from the shell either after the kernel has partially dried or at
the end of the drying operation.
Desiccated coconut – is the pure white, shredded, dehydrated food product obtained from fresh,
pared coconut kernel which is processed under very strict sanitary conditions.
Fatty acid – is a term given to substances in which the chemical formula is represented by RCOOH
where R is essentially chains of carbon and hydrogen of varying length (e.g. CH3CH2COOH). For a
detailed discussion on fatty acids, please refer to Annex 1.
Filled Milk – also known as evaporated or reconstituted milk, a liquid milk formulation in which the
butterfat in dairy milk is removed and substituted with coconut oil to make the product cheaper, i.e. it is
dairy skim milk that is homogenised with coconut oil. It is normally available in Asian supermarkets as
canned liquid milk.
Finger copra – is dried kernel in small pieces; the fresh kernel is removed from split unhusked coconuts
and dried by kiln drying (direct or indirect) and by sun drying.
Fixed carbon content – the amount of carbon contained in a particular type of charcoal.
FOB – stands for freight on board. A commercial term, it is used in exporting products and means that
the quoted price is based on the place of origin, and does not include shipping and insurance costs.
Food safety – is the assurance that food will not cause any harm to the consumer when it is prepared
and/or eaten according to it is intended use. It is the achievement of all conditions and the implementation
of all measures that are necessary during production, processing, storage, distribution and preparation
of food so that it does not present an appreciable risk to health when consumed.
Free fatty acid – is the amount of fatty acid in oil which is not bonded to glycerol. It exists in an
uncombined state as a definable chemical unit. The acid content in an edible fat or oil is given by the
quantity of free fatty acids derived from the hydrolytic breakdown of the triglycerides which gives the oil
the rancid smell. In most vegetable oils, free fatty acids are expressed as percentage acidity calculated
as oleic acid (a mono-unsaturated fat). The uncombined fatty acid comes from the breakdown of fat
(as triglycerides) into a unit of fatty acid and glyceride. However, for virgin coconut oil, it is expressed in
terms of its predominant fatty acid, i.e lauric acid. The higher the free fatty acid content, the lower the
quality of oil.
Foreign matter content – refers to any materials mixed in a batch of specific products which by
properties and characteristics of the substance should not be there.
Functional food – refers to any edible substance which provides health benefits aside from the nutrients
that it gives to the human body.
Glossary 159
Good manufacturing practices – is a set of guidelines and procedures that must be followed to ensure
that the food products manufactured in a particular plant are free from rubbish, dirt, contaminants and
pathogenic microorganisms so as to be safe for human consumption.
Green copra – refers to the fresh coconut kernel in PICTs in finger-size pieces which are normally taken
out from split coconuts by means of a knife or a special tool.
Haustorium – is the creamy/light yellow spongy structure that grows inside the coconut kernel when
germination starts ( known as vara in Fiji). The longer the germination growth, the bigger the haustorium.
The coconut kernel becomes thinner, slimy and rancid as the haustorium grows.
Herbal soap – is a cold-processed soap with added natural plant material/extracts that are known to
have a therapeutic or beneficial effect on the skin.
Hot air dryer – is the general term for dryers in which the medium that picks up the moisture from the
wet material to be dried is hot air with blower (forced draught) or without blower (natural draught). The
technical term is convection type dryers. Heating of the air is done either through steam or a biomass-
fired or gas-fired burner attached to a heat exchanger. On the other hand, the DME dryer is an example
of a conduction or direct type dryer where heat is directly transferred from the hot metal surface to the
wet material.
Hydrogenation – is a process in which hydrogen gas is bubbled through unsaturated oil in the
presence of nickel as a catalyst. The resulting reaction forces unsaturated fatty acids to accept additional
hydrogen atoms and become partially saturated. Full hydrogenation converts liquid oil into solid fat.
Partial hydrogenation limits the time exposure of the unsaturated vegetable oil to the stream of hydrogen
gas, thereby converting it either into a semi-solid state similar to butter or retaining its liquid state.
Low fat desiccated coconut – is actually coconut milk residue which is dried under strict sanitary
condition. Its protein, fat and sugar content are much lower than the traditionally known full fat desiccated
coconut. Its selling value is its lower fat and high dietary fibre content.
Moisture content – is a measure of the amount of water that is physically bound in a particular solid or
substance and that can be removed to a certain extent by directly or indirectly heating the substance.
Moisture content in coconut oil – is a measure of the amount of water expressed as a percentage
that is left adhering or entrained in the oil molecules after extraction and post processing of oil. It has
to be kept at the lowest level possible and preferably totally removed because it causes deterioration in
the shelf-life or keeping quality of the oil.
Monolaurin – the monoglyceride of lauric fatty acid (i.e. lauric acid linked glycerol on a 1:1 ratio). It is
available commercially in pellets and capsule form in the United States. It is produced by reacting lauric
fatty acid crystals with glycerol under specified conditions. The resulting product is then purified using
a molecular distillation process.
Nutraceuticals – are natural food components that provide health benefits or reduce the risk of
chronic disease above and beyond their basic nutritional function. In layman’s term, nutraceuticals are
substances which not only nourish but also heal.
Peroxide value – is a measure of the extent of oxidative absorption and entrainment of oxygen in a fat
or oil. The peroxide content present in an edible fat or oil indicates its state of primary oxidation and its
tendency to go rancid. The lower the peroxide value, the higher the quality of the oil.
pH – is defined as a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance where the values are
measured on a range of 1–14. A neutral substance (neither acidic nor basic), like water, is given a value
of 7. A pH below 7 means the substance is an acid and a pH above 7 means the substance is a base.
The greater the pH difference from 7, the stronger is the acidity or alkalinity of the substance.
RBD coconut oil – refers to refined, bleached and deodorised coconut oil derived from copra. The
crude coconut oil is subjected to chemical refining, bleaching and deodorisation processes after oil
extraction to make it fit for human consumption. RBD coconut oil is generally used as cooking oil in the
Philippines.
Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures – is a set of activities related to the sanitary handling of
raw materials, food products, work areas and equipment. It ascertains that conditions prescribed by
GMPs are met by plant facilities and operations.
Sinusinu – is the Fijian term for the proteinaceous residue or coagulated coconut protein that forms
when coconut milk is boiled. It is a by-product of the traditional process of producing coconut oil, and
currently does not have market value but is used as toppings for rice cakes and as an extender for
meat-based food recipes.
Soap – is the solid material obtained when an alkali reacts with the fatty acids in animal, vegetable and
seed oils and fats under a process known as saponification. The type of oil or fats used defines the
characteristics of the resulting soap, i.e. whether it is mild or drying to the skin, whether it will form good
lather, whether it will have good detergency or cleaning properties, etc.
Soap noodle – is a semi-processed substance composed of fatty acids with carbon chains ranging
from C12–C18. It is produced by removing the glycerol component and the fatty acids with carbon chains
C6–C10 of coconut oil through a steam hydrolysis and distillation process.
Trace – is a soap-making term that describes the consistency (thickness) of soap when it is ready to
pour into moulds.
Trans fatty acids – are artificially altered, unsaturated, fatty acids in which hydrogen atoms attached
to the carbon atoms linked with the double bonds have shifted position from the same side (cis) to the
opposite side (trans). This happens when unsaturated oils like soybean and corn are subjected to the
partial hydrogenation process. This process straightens the fatty acid molecules to enable them to be
‘packed’ in solid form like saturated fats, while remaining unsaturated (www.ucap.org.ph).
Vinegar – is generally defined as an alcoholic liquid that has been allowed to sour. It is considered one
of the oldest fermentation products known to man (Banzon et al. 1990). Coconut water vinegar is one
type of vinegar that uses coconut water as starting material.
Virgin coconut oil (VCO) – is the oil obtained from the fresh, mature kernel of the coconut by mechanical
or natural means, with or without the use of heat, without undergoing chemical refining, bleaching or
deodorising, and which does not lead to the alteration of the nature of the oil. VCO is suitable for
consumption without the need for further processing. VCO is the purest form of coconut oil, water white
in colour, containing natural Vitamin E and not having undergone atmospheric or hydrolytic oxidation, as
attested by its low peroxide value and low free fatty acid content.
Volatile combustible matter content – is defined as the water and other organic matter that are
released as a result of various chemical reactions which occur when biomass is heated in the presence
of limited air. The volatile matter in charcoal (other than water) is composed of all those liquid and tarry
residues not fully driven off in the process of carbonisation.
Glossary 161
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Association of the Philippines and the Center for International Trade, Exposition and Mission (CITEM),
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the Institut fur Agrartechnik in den Tropen und Subtropen, Universitat Hohenheim and the Daimler Benz
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aflatoxin contamination of copra in the Philippines. Philippines: Philippine Coconut Authority.
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2–5 July 2000.
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Handbook No. 8, Revised. Washington D.C. Cited by Banzon et al.1990. Coconut as food. Quezon City,
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com/biochemical-oxygen-demand. Retrieved from the Internet 16 August 2010.
Websites visited
eAudrey’s Luxuriant Soap and Homemaking: www.eaudrey.com (10 February 2005)
The Asia and Pacific Coconut Community: www.apccsec.org (13August 2010)
The APCC member countries include: Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Malaysia,
Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vanuatu
and Vietnam. Jamaica is an associate member of the APCC.
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The United Coconut Associations of the Philippines: www.ucap.org.ph (20 August 2010)
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Engr. Divina D. Bawalan is a Chemical Engineer by profession and is a free lance
international consultant on coconut processing and utilisation since September
2004 to the present. She has more than 20 years’ accumulated knowledge of
the coconut industry in the Asia-Pacific Region. She has been in the forefront
of VCO technology development and transfer since 2001 when the Philippines
introduced VCO onto the world market. As early as 1990, when VCO was still
an unknown commodity, she was conducting production trials using different
processes to produce white coconut oil while still a senior science research
specialist of the Philippine Coconut Authority.

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Processing Manual for Virgin Coconut Oil,

its Products and By-products

By Divina D. Bawalan BSChE, MSEgyE

Secretariat of the Pacific Community

Original text: English

Secretariat of the Pacific Community Cataloguing-in-publication data

1. Coconut oil – Oceania – Handbooks, manuals, etc.

I. Bawalan, Divina D. II. Title III. Secretariat of the Pacific Community

Secretariat of the Pacific Community

Prepared for publication at

APCC Asian and Pacific Coconut Community

1.1 Characteristics of Pacific Island countries and territories

Figure 1. Map of the Pacific region

Coconuts and Pacific Island countries and territories 1

Country 2010 Mid-year Land area

Country Coconut area Coconut production

1.2.1 Coconut harvesting, collection and husking practices in PICTs

Figure 2. Basket made of coconut leaves for carrying coconuts.

Coconuts and Pacific Island countries and territories 3

Figure 5. Splitting of whole coconuts with an axe

Coconuts and Pacific Island countries and territories 5

1.2.2 Coconut processing in the Pacific region

Coconuts and Pacific Island countries and territories 7

Figure 8. Virgin coconut oil

1.3 Socio-economic significance of VCO processing in PICTs

Coconuts and Pacific Island countries and territories 9

2.1 Characteristics of coconut oil

Coconut oil Palm oil Soybean oil Corn oil Butter

% Saturated 92.1 49.6 15.0 13.7 69.0

Source: Arranza 2001

Understanding coconut oil and its quality parameters 11

2.2 Types of edible coconut oil

Figure 9. Refined, bleached and deodorised coconut oil

Virgin coconut oil

2.3 Multifunctional uses of coconut oil

2.4 VCO as a versatile product

Understanding coconut oil and its quality parameters 13

2.5 Health benefits of VCO

Understanding coconut oil and its quality parameters 15

3.1 Pre-processing stage

3.2 Processing stage

Low pressure oil High pressure Fresh-dry centrifuge

Wet milling Desiccated Grated nut

Comminution of coconut kernel

Coconut milk Coconut milk

Further processing to Natural Fresh-wet Modified

3.2.1 Fresh-dry VCO processing technologies

3.2.1.1 The fresh-dry low pressure oil extraction method

White oil Settling and low

Manual pressing VCO

Figure 12. The fresh-dry low pressure oil extraction method

The low pressure oil extraction method (Figure

Figure 14. Motorised DME grater

Figure 15. Other types of coconut grater being used by VCO

Figure 17. Loading of dried grated kernel in the DME cylinder

VCO production technologies 21

Figure 18. Low pressure oil extraction using a DME press

Settling – The oil coming out of the DME

Figure 19. New Zealand Press