Engineering Materials and Metallurgy: 2017 Solved Question (Apr/May) and (Nov/Dec)

ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY
2017 Solved Question (Apr/May) and (Nov/Dec)
UNIT - 1
PART – A
1. What are the types of solid solutions? (Apr/May 2017)
Interstitial and substitutional are the types of solid solutions.
2. Why is carbon solubility more in austenite? (Apr/May 2017)

Inter atomic space for FCC is larger when compared to BCC. So, in
FCC more carbon atom can occupy the larger space between atoms.
That is why solubility in austenite is higher.
3. Draw a typical Isomorphous phase diagram (Nov/Dec 2017)
4. Why carbon content in Austenite is higher than ferrite

(Nov/Dec 2017)
Austenite has face centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure and fer-
rite has body centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure. Due to its larger
size, carbon atoms occupy octahedral interstitial sites in these crystals.
Octahedral interstitial site of BCC ferrite is much smaller for carbon
than that of FCC austenite. This is why solubility of carbon in ferrite is
much smaller than solubility of carbon in austenite.
22017 Unit Wise Solved Question Papers
PART – B
5. (a) (i) explain the following invariant reactions with reference to a
phase diagram: (Apr/May 2017)
1. Eutectic
A eutectic system describes a homogeneous solid mix of atomic and/or
chemical species, forming a joint super-lattice, by striking a unique atomic
percentage ratio between the components - as each pure component has its
own distinct bulk lattice arrangement. It is only in this atomic/molecular
ratio that the eutectic system melts as a whole, at a specific temperature
(the eutectic temperature) the super-lattice releasing at once all its
components into a liquid mixture. The eutectic temperature is the lowest
possible melting temperature over all of the mixing ratios for the involved
component species.
Upon heating any other mixture ratio, and reaching the eutectic
temperature - see the adjacent phase diagram - one component›s lattice will
melt first, while the temperature of the mixture has to further increase for
(all) the other component lattice(s) to melt. Conversely, as a non-eutectic
mixture cools down, each mixture›s component will solidify (form its
lattice) at a distinct temperature, until all material is solid.
The coordinates defining a eutectic point on a phase diagram are the
eutectic percentage ratio (on the atomic/molecular ratio axis of the diagram)
and the eutectic temperature (on the temperature axis of the diagram).
Not all binary alloys have eutectic points because the valence electrons of
the component species are not always compatible,[ in any mixing ratio,
to form a new type of joint crystal lattice. For example, in the silver-gold
system the melt temperature (liquidus) and freeze temperature (solidus)
“meet at the pure element endpoints of the atomic ratio axis while slightly
separating in the mixture region of this axis”.
The eutectic reaction is defined as follows.
{\displaystyle {\text{Liquid}}{\xrightarrow[{\text{cooling}}]{\
text{eutectic temperature}}}\alpha \,\,{\text{solid solution}}+\beta
\,\,{\text{solid solution}}}
This type of reaction is an invariant reaction, because it is in thermal

equilibrium; another way to define this is the Gibbs free energy equals
zero. Tangibly, this means the liquid and two solid solutions all coexist
at the same time and are in chemical equilibrium. There is also a thermal
Engineering Materials and Metallurgy 3
arrest for the duration of the change of phase during which the temperature
of the system does not change.
The resulting solid macrostructure from a eutectic reaction depends on
a few factors. The most important factor is how the two solid solutions
nucleate and grow. The most common structure is a lamellar structure, but
other possible structures include rodlike, globular, and acicular.
2. Eutectoid reaction
When the solution above the transformation point is solid, rather than
liquid, an analogous eutectoid transformation can occur. For instance,
in the iron-carbon system, the austenite phase can undergo a eutectoid
transformation to produce ferrite and cementite, often in lamellar structures
such as pearlite and bainite. This eutectoid point occurs at 727 °C (1,341
°F) and about 0.76% carbon.
Eutectic – liquid in equilibrium with two solids
cool
 α + β
L 
heat
Eutectoid – solid phase in equation with two solid phase

 S1 + S3
S2 
cool
← Intermetallic compound
 α + Fe3 C
γ 
heat
– cementite (727oC)
Peritectic – liquid + solid 1 ® solid 2(Fig 9.21)

 S2
S1 + L 
 γ
δ + L 
heat
cool
(1493 C )

5. a) (ii) Draw iron-iron carbide phase diagram and mark on it all
salient temperatures and composition fields. (Apr/May 2017)
Refer Question Bank Page No.12, Question No.3.
5. b) What are the micro constituents of iron carbon alloys? Explain

the general characteristic of each. (Apr/May 2017)
Austenite (γ-iron): It is solid solution of ferrite iron carbide in gamma
iron which is formed when steel contains carbon up to 1.8% at 1130°C.
On cooling below 723°C it starts transforming into pearlite and ferrite.
Austenite is non-magnetic and soft. It exists in FCC crystal structure.
Ferrite: It is a BCC iron phase with very limited solubility of carbon.
The solubility of carbon in ferrite is 0.08% at 723°C. Ferrite does not
harden when cooled rapidly. It is very soft and highly magnetic. At room
temperature ferrite contains maximum 0.0025% C only.
Cementide: Cementide is actually Fe3C, which contains 6.67%C by
weight, which is extremely hard and brittle in nature. Cementide increases
gradually with increase in carbon percentage. it is magnetic at below
200°C. Cementide contains orthorhombic crystal structure.
Pearlite: Pearlite is a combination of ferrite and 13% of Cementide. Steel
with 0.8% carbon is wholly Pearlite, less than 0.8% carbon is wholly
Pearlite, less than 0.8% is hypo eutectoid contains ferrite and Pearlite and
is soft. More than 0.8% is hyper eutectoid steel which contains Pearlite and
Cementide which is hard and brittle. It is having a pearl like lusture when
viewed through microscope.
Bainite: Bainite is the product of isothermal decomposition of Austenite
and it cannot be produced by continuous cooling Banite is aggregated of
ferrite and carbide. Also it is tougher.
Martenite: This is obtained by rapid cooling of Austenite. It is extremely
hard and posses articular needle like structure. It is magnetic and has carbon
content up to 2%. It is extremely hard and brittle. The decomposition of
Austenite below 320°C starts the formation of Martensite.
Troostite: Troostite differs from Pearlite only in the degree of fitness of
structure and carbon content. It is produced by transformation of tempered
Martensite. Troosite is weaker than Martensite.
Sorbite: Sorbite micro structure constitute a mixture of ferrite and finely
divided cementide produced on tempering martensite above 450°C.
Pearlite, Troostite and Sorbite all are ferrite cementide mixture having a
lamellar structure.
Ledeburite: Ledeburite is the product of eutectic reaction. Thus Ledebruite
is a euctectic mixture; consists of alternative layers of Austenite and
Cementide. It contains 4.3% carbon and is formed at about 1130°C
6. a) i) Draw Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram , name the various

field , line and reactions (Nov/Dec 2017)
Iron -Carbon Diagram
A study of the constitution and structure of all steels and irons

must first start with the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram. Many of the basic
features of this system influence the behavior of even the most complex
alloy steels. For example, the phases found in the simple binary Fe-C
system persist in complex steels, but it is necessary to examine the effects
alloying elements have on the formation and properties of these phases.
The iron-carbon diagram provides a valuable foundation on which to
build knowledge of both plain carbon and alloy steels in their immense
variety. It should first be pointed out that the normal equilibrium diagram
really represents the metastable equilibrium between iron and iron carbide
(cementite).
Cementite is meta stable, and the true equilibrium should be between iron
and graphite. Although graphite occurs extensively in cast irons(2-4 wt %
C), it is usually difficult to obtain this equilibrium phase in steels (0.03-
1.5 wt% C).Therefore, the meta stable equilibrium between iron and iron
carbide should be considered, because it is relevant to the behavior of most
steels in practice.
The much larger phase field of γ-iron (austenite) compared with that of
α-iron (ferrite) reflects the much greater solubility of carbon in γ-iron,
with a maximum value of just over 2 wt % at 1147°C (E,Fig.1). This high
solubility of carbon in γ-iron is of extreme importance in heat treatment,
when solution treatment in the γ-region followed by rapid quenching to
room temperature allows a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in iron
to be formed.
The α-iron phase field is severely restricted, with a maximum carbon
solubility of 0.02 wt% at723°C (P), so over the carbon range encountered
in steels from 0.05 to 1.5 wt%, α-iron is normally associated with iron
carbide in one form or another. Similarly, the δ-phase field is very restricted
between 1390 and 1534°C and disappears completely when the carbon
content reaches 0.5 wt% (B).There are several temperatures or critical
points in the diagram, which are important, both from the basic and from
the practical point of view.
Firstly, there is the A1, temperature, at which the eutectoid reaction occurs
(P-S-K), which is723°C in the binary diagram. Secondly, there is the A3,
temperature when α-iron transforms to γ-iron. For pure iron this occurs at
910°C, but the transformation temperature is progressively lowered along
the line GS by the addition of carbon. The third point is A4 at which γ-iron
transforms to δ-iron, 1390°C in pure iron, hut this is raised as carbon is
added. The A2, point is the Curie point when iron changes from the ferro
to the paramagnetic condition.
This temperature is 769°C for pure iron, but no change in crystal structure is
involved. The A1, A3 and A4 points are easily detected by thermal analysis
or dilatometry during cooling or heating cycles, and some hysteresis is
observed. Consequently, three values for each point can be obtained. Ac for
heating, Ar for cooling and Ae (equilibrium}, but it should be emphasized
that the Ac and Ar values will be sensitive to the rates of heating and
cooling, as well as to the presence of alloying elements.
The great difference in carbon solubility between γ- and α-iron leads
normally to the rejection of carbon as iron carbide at the boundaries of
the γ phase field. The transformation of γ to α – iron occurs via a eutectoid
reaction, which plays a dominant role in heat treatment. The eutectoid
temperature is 723°C while the eutectoid composition is 0.80% C(s). On
cooling alloys containing less than 0,80% C slowly, hypo-eutectoid ferrite
is formed from austenite in the range 910-723°C with enrichment of the
residual austenite in carbon, until at 723°C the remaining austenite, now
containing 0.8% carbon transforms to pearlite, a lamellar mixture of ferrite
and iron carbide (cementite).
In austenite with 0,80 to 2,06% carbon, on cooling slowly in the temperature
interval 1147°C to 723°C, cementite first forms progressively depleting the
austenite in carbon, until at 723°C, the austenite contains 0.8% carbon and
transforms to pearlite. Steels with less than about 0.8% carbon are thus
hypo-eutectoid alloys with ferrite and pearlite as theprime constituents, the
relative volume fractions being determined by the lever rule which states
that as the carbon content is increased, the volume percentage of pearlite
increases, until it is 100% at the eutectoid composition.
Above 0.8% C, cementite becomes the hyper-eutectoid phase, and a
similar variation in volume fraction of cementite and pearlite occurs on
this side of the eutectoid composition. The three phases, ferrite, cementite
and pearlite are thus the principle constituents of the infrastructure of plain
carbon steels, provided they have been subjected to relatively slow cooling
rates to avoid the formation of meta stable phases.
Eutectic reaction
Liquid ------------------------ Solid 1+ Solid 2
Euctectoid reaction
Solid ------------------------- Solid 1+ Solid 2
Peritectic reaction
Solid1 + Liquid --------------------- Solid 2
The austenite- ferrite transformation:
Under equilibrium conditions, pro-eutectoid ferrite will form in
iron-carbon alloys containing up to0.8 % carbon. The reaction occurs at
910°C in pure iron, but takes place between 910°C and 723°Cin iron-carbon
alloys. However, by quenching from the austenitic state to temperatures
below the eutectoid temperatureAe1, ferrite can be formed down to
temperatures as low as 600°C. There are pronounced morphological
changes as the transformation temperature is lowered, which it should be
emphasized apply in general to hypo-and hyper-eutectoid phases, although
in each case there will be variations due to the precise crystallography of the
phases involved. For example, the same principles apply to the formation
of cementite from austenite, but it is not difficult to distinguish ferrite from
cementite morphologically.
The austenite-cementite transformation:

The Dube classification applies equally well to the various morphologies of
cementite formed at progressively lower transformation temperatures. The
initial development of grain boundary allotriomorphs is very similar to that
of ferrite, and the growth of side plates or Widmanstaten cementite follows
the same pattern. The cementite plates are more rigorously crystallographic
inform, despite the fact that the orientation relationship with austenite
is a more complex one. As in the case of ferrite, most of the side plates
originate from grain boundary allotriomorphs, but in the cementite reaction
more side plates nucleate at twin boundaries in austenite.
The austenite-pearlite reaction:

Pearlite is probably the most familiar micro structural feature in
the whole science of metallography. It was discovered by Sorby over 100
years ago, who correctly assumed it to be a lamellar mixture ofiron and iron
carbide. Pearlite is a very common constituent of a wide variety of steels,
where it provides a substantial contribution to strength. Lamellar eutectoid
structures of this type are widespread in metallurgy and frequently pearlite
is used as a generic term to describe them.
6. a) ii) Find the wt.fraction of ferrite and cementite of eutectoid steel

(Nov/Dec 2017)
Pearlite is a two-phased, lamellar (or layered) structure composed of
alternating layers of ferrite (88 wt%) and cementite (12 wt%) that occurs
in some steels and cast irons. During slow cooling of an iron-carbon
alloy, pearlite forms by a eutectoid reaction as austenite cools below 727
°C (1,341 °F) (the eutectoid temperature). Pearlite is a microstructure
occurring in many common grades of steels.
The eutectoid composition of austenite is approximately 0.76%
carbon; steel with less carbon content (hypoeutectoid steel) will contain
a corresponding proportion of relatively pure ferrite crystallites that do
not participate in the eutectoid reaction and cannot transform into pearlite.
Likewise steels with higher carbon content (hypereutectoid steels) will
form cementite before reaching the eutectoid point. The proportion of
ferrite and cementite forming above the eutectoid point can be calculated
from the iron/iron—carbide equilibrium phase diagram using the lever
rule.
Amount of Ferrite and Cementite in Pearlite
Amount of ferrite Wα = 6.70-0.76/6.7-0,022 = 0.89
Wα = 0.89
6. b) Compare the microstructure and properties of various cast

irons (Nov/Dec 2017)
White cast iron:

Very hard but brittle.
High wear and abrasion resistance
Extremely difficult to machine
Is used to produce malleable cast iron
Heat treatment to 800-900 deg C causes decomposition of Fe3C to
graphite clusters.
Applications: Rollers in rolling mills, brake shoes, extrusion nozzles.
Malleable iron is cast as white iron, the structure being a metastable

carbide in a pearlitic matrix. Through an annealing heat treatment, the
brittle structure as first cast is transformed into the malleable form. Carbon
agglomerates into small roughly spherical aggregates of graphite leaving
a matrix of ferrite or pearlite according to the exact heat treatment used.
Three basic types of malleable iron are recognized within the casting
industry: blackheart malleable iron, white heart malleable iron and pearlitic
malleable iron
Ductile iron
It is not a single material but part of a group of materials which can
be produced with a wide range of properties through control of their
microstructure. The common defining characteristic of this group of
materials is the shape of the graphite. In ductile irons, graphite is in the
form of nodules rather than flakes as in grey iron. Whereas sharp graphite
flakes create stress concentration points within the metal matrix, rounded
nodules inhibit the creation of cracks, thus providing the enhanced ductility
that gives the alloy its name, Nodule formation is achieved by adding
nodulizing elements, most commonly magnesium (mag-nesium boils at
1100 °C and iron melts at 1500 °C) and, less often now, cerium (usually
in the form of mischmetal). Tellurium has also been used. Yttrium, often
a component of mischmetal, has also been studied as a possible nodulizer.
“Austempered Ductile Iron» (ADI) was discovered in the 1950s but was
commercialized and achieved success only some years later. In ADI, the
metallurgical structure is manipulated through a sophisticated heat treating
process. The “Aus” portion of the name refers to austenite.
Nodular Cat Iron:

Nodular cast iron can be identified on the basis of its structure that
differentiates it from the other types of cast iron. Ductile iron or nodular
cast iron can be identified into different grades depending upon the
microstructure, chemical composition, mechanical properties and physical
properties.
This type of ductile iron is mainly used for the manufacture of pipes
used for water supply lines. Ductile iron is also used in manufacturing
various automotive components. Other uses include agricultural vehicles,
trucks, tractors, oil pumps and sewage lines. They are also used in the
production of durable propeller shafts.
The ductile iron and malleable iron have high strength, ductility, heat-
resistance and toughness, so a wider application, in some cases can replace
the carbon steel. However, its production technology is high, production
process is more complex, and production cost is higher than normal
grey cast iron and cast steel, therefore, there are more casting defects for
ductile iron. There are many fields that ductile iron are using for, such as
Pressure pipes and fittings, Automotive applications, Agriculture, road and
construction applications, general engineering applications.
Nodular cast iron otherwise popularly known as ductile cast iron varies
from the rest of the cast iron varieties with its nodular graphite spherical
structures. These graphite spheres differ in their size, quantity and the
arrangement pattern. The main difference is the spherical shape of these
graphite molecules unlike the graphite flakes found in grey iron.
Ductile iron or nodular cast iron differs in its chemical composition due
to the presence of these graphite inclusions formed by the influence of
magnesium, cerium and other particles. Therefore nodular cast iron or
ductile iron has more tensile strength, high elasticity and toughness than
any other cast iron types. Since it has a high stiffness equal to that of a
cast steel, it serves as a suitable choice for the manufacturing of parts like
propeller shafts.
Nodular cast iron is produced by melting the metal initially. This molten
metal is then inoculated with smaller quantities of magnesium and cerium.
The free carbons present in the final product form a surface of the round
graphite nodules or spheres which are surrounded by ferrite. This adds to
the elasticity of the metal.
UNIT - 2
PART – A
7. What are the principal advantages of austempering over conven-
tional quenching and temper method? (Apr/May 2017)
Less distortion, greater ductility, uniform/ consistent hardness, good
wear resistance and resistance to hydrogen embrittlement.
8. Mention few applications of induction hardening system?

(Apr/May 2017)
Surface hardening of railway suspension springs, metallic conveyers,
earth moves parts and slurry pumps.
9. What is the difference between stress relief and recrystallization

heat treatment process (Nov/Dec 2017)
Stress Relieving consists of heating the steel to a temperature
below the critical range to relieve the stresses resulting from cold
working, shearing, or gas cutting. It is not intended to alter the micro-
structure or mechanical properties significantly also a process for mak-
ing material softer.
However stress relieving does not change the material properties as
does annealing and normalizing. On the other hand, recrystallization
heat treatment is the process that alters the physical and sometimes
chemical properties of a material to increase its ductility and to make
it more workable. It involves heating a material to above its recrys-
tallization temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature, and then
cooling.
10. Which has higher critical cooling rate: euctectoid steel or hypereu-
tectoid steel? (Nov/Dec 2017)
As hypereutectoid steel has higher carbon content than the eutectoid
steel, hypereutectoid steel will have higher critical cooling rate.
PART – B
11. (a) Compare and contrast the process of full annealing, stress relief
annealing, recrystallization annealing and spheroidise annealing.
(Apr/May 2017)
Annealing is one of the heat treatment processes, which is done to steels
for obtaining some properties. Annealing plays a predominant role in
deciding the strength toughness and various other physical factors of the
steel produced. In general annealing is of different types. Each type plays
a significant role in forming the steel with the required properties. Some of
the annealing processes are
1) Full annealing
2) Bright annealing
3) Box annealing
4) Isothermal annealing
5) Spherodize annealing
6) Sub critical annealing
a. Stress relief annealing
b. Re crystallization annealing
c. Process annealing
Full annealing
In general full annealing is one of the most commonly used annealing
process. The purpose behind employing this heat treatment process is
1) To relieve internal stresses
2) To reduce hardness and increase ductility
3) For refining of grain size
4) To make isotropic in nature in mechanical aspects
5) For making the material having homogeneous chemical composition
6) For making the material suitable for high machining processes
7) To make steel suitable for undergoing other heat treatment processes
like hardening, normalizing etc.
Full annealing is done by heating the steels to A3 temperature for hypo
eutectoid steels and A1¬ for hyper eutectoid steels and then allowed to stay
there for a time period and then subjected to slow cooling.
Bright annealing
In some cases surface brightness of the component is highly desired in such
cases this process is used. In this process the heating process is done in the
presence of inert media so as to prevent oxidation of the surface metal. In
general the materials used to provide inert environment around the body
are either argon, nitrogen. In addition to these any reducing media acts as
a protective shield around the object. In this process even the color of the
surface is retained.
Box annealing
This annealing process can be called by various names such as black
annealing, pot annealing, close annealing. In this process keeping the
steel to be annealed in a closed medium carries the annealing process. The
surroundings of the steel material are covered with cast iron chips, sand,
and charcoal. The final annealing process is same as that of full annealing
but the only difference is the medium used for doing this process. The
background of this process is to prevent oxidation of the steel metal.
Isothermal annealing
This process is other wise called as cycle annealing. In this process the
material is heated to just above the temperature of A3¬ and then faster
cooling rates are adopted than that of a normal annealing processes till
the temperature reaches just below A1¬ temperature. The steel material is
kept at that temperature for obtaining uniformity and then cooled to normal
room temperature.
Isothermal annealing seems to be more advantageous over the
conventional annealing processes some of the advantages of this process
are
1) When slower cooling required materials are to be annealed then this
process seems to be advantageous than the normal process. This pro-
cess is even effective when the reduction of hardness is required.
2) Due to the generation of intermediate equalization of temperature ho-
mogeneity is more comparatively
3) The parts, which are annealed by this process, have high machinability
and improved surface finish of the machined part can be obtained.
In general this process is used for low and medium carbon steels. This
process is even used for some of the alloy steels for obtaining improved
machinability. This improvement in the machinability is due to the
formation of spheroidized structure.
Spheroidized annealing
Any methods through which spheroids are formed are called as spheroidized
annealing. If an annealed product contains globules of cementite in the matrix
of ferrite in the microstructure then it is termed as a spheroid. In general this
microstructure is formed by various ways some of them are
1) Hardening and high temperature tempering
2) Holding the product at the temperature just below the A1¬ temperature
3) Thermal cycling around A1
Subcritical annealing
This process is done over cold worked steels. In this process the cold worked
steel is heated to a temperature just above the lower critical temperature.
Due to the heating of the steel to lower critical temperature this process is
named as sub critical temperature. In general this process is done to
1) To relieve internal stresses developed due to cold working process
2) To refine the grain structure
3) To reduce hardness and to improve ductility of the material
Sub critical annealing is done by three processes for obtaining various

varieties of properties on cold worked steels.
1) Stress relief annealing
2) Re crystallization annealing
3) Process annealing (intermediate annealing)
Stress relief annealing

In this process the cold worked steel is heated to a temperature around
5250C i.e. just below the recrystallization temperature. So due to this
heating there arises no change in the microstructure of the material. The
body is kept at that temperature for around two to three hours and then
subjected to air-cooling. As there is no change in the microstructure this
heating process has no adverse affect on the hardness and strength of the
material. This annealing process reduces the risk of deformation of the
product during machining.
Recrystallization annealing
In this annealing process the cold worked steel material is heated to a
temperature above A1 i.e. around 625 to 6500C. During this annealing
process the cementite present in the microstructure starts converting in to
spheroids and hence high machining ability is obtained. Due to heating
of temperature up to A¬1¬ the grain structure changes and not only this
internal stresses developed in the cold working process is removed.
11. (b) Define Hardenability. Describe the test procedure to determine

hardenability of steel. (Apr/May 2017)
12. a) Brief of hardening and tempering of steel (Nov/Dec 2017)

The term hardened steel is often used for a medium or high carbon
steel that has been given heat treatment and then quenching followed by
tempering. The quenching results in the formation of metastable martensite,
the fraction of which is reduced to the desired amount during tempering.
This is the most common state for finished articles such as tools and
machine parts. In contrast, the same steel composition in annealed state
is softer, as required for forming and machining. Depending on the
temperature and composition of the steel, it can be hardened or softened.
To make steel harder, it must be heated to very high temperatures. The final
result of exactly how hard the steel becomes depends on the amount of
carbon present in the metal.
Only steel that is high in carbon can be hardened and tempered. If a
metal does not contain the necessary quantity of carbon, then its crystalline
structure cannot be broken, and therefore the physical makeup of the steel
cannot be altered. Frequently, the term “hardening” is associated with
tempered steel. Both processes are used hand in hand when hardening steel.
The two part process begins with hardening the steel so that it becomes
hard and does not wear over time. However, very often, this process leaves
the steel very brittle and susceptible to breaking during use. Tempering
reduces the hardness of the forged steel very slightly but improves the
overall product as it results in steel that is much less brittle.
The two major processes of hardening and tempering can be classified
into four major steps. First, a piece of carbon steel is heated gradually until
it reaches a temperature above the alloy’s critical temperature.
The steel is then quenched, usually in water or oil (though other
quenches, such as brine or sodium hydroxide solutions, are sometimes
used to achieve a particular result). The steel is now at that given alloy’s
maximum hardness, but as discussed above, also brittle. At this point,
tempering is usually performed to achieve a more useful balance of
hardness and toughness. The steel is gradually heated until the desired
temper colours are drawn, generally at a temperature significantly lower
than the alloy’s critical point.
Different colours in the temper spectrum reflect different balances
of hardness to toughness, so different temper levels are appropriate for
different applications. The steel is then re-quenched to ‘fix’ the temper
at the desired level. A talented smith or metalworker can fine-tune the
performance of a steel tool or item to precisely what is required based
solely on careful observation of temper colours.
Tempering
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase
the toughness of iron-based alloys. Tempering is usually performed
after hardening, to reduce some of the excess hardness, and is done by
heating the metal to some temperature below the critical point for a certain
period of time, then allowing it to cool in still air. The exact temperature
determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends on both the
specific composition of the alloy and on the desired properties in the
finished product.
For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at low temperatures,
while springs are tempered to much higher temperatures. Tempering
is applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater
toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness
is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby decreasing the
brittleness of the metal.
Tempering is usually performed after quenching, which is rapid cooling
of the metal to put it in its hardest state. Tempering is accomplished by
controlled heating of the quenched work-piece to a temperature below its
“lower critical temperature”. This is also called the lower transformation
temperature or lower arrest (A1) temperature; the temperature at which
the crystalline phases of the alloy, called ferrite and cementite, begin
combining to form a single-phase solid solution referred to as austenite.
Heating above this temperature is avoided, so as not to destroy the very-
hard, quenched microstructure, called martensite.
Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering
process is crucial to achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low
tempering temperatures may only relieve the internal stresses, decreasing
brittleness while maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher tempering
temperatures tend to produce a greater reduction in the hardness, sacrificing
some yield strength and tensile strength for an increase in elasticity and
plasticity.
However, in some low alloy steels, containing other elements like
chromium and molybdenum, tempering at low temperatures may produce
an increase in hardness, while at higher temperatures the hardness will
decrease. Many steels with high concentrations of these alloying elements
behave like precipitation hardening alloys, which produces the opposite
effects under the conditions found in quenching and tempering, and are
referred to as maraging steels.
In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides
in the martensite, forming a microstructure called «tempered martensite».
Tempering is also performed on normalized steels and cast irons, to
increase ductility, machinability, and impact strength. Steel is usually
tempered evenly, called «through tempering,» producing a nearly uniform
hardness, but it is sometimes heated unevenly, referred to as «differential
tempering,» producing a variation in hardness

(a) (b)
Microstructure of (a)Hardened steel (b) Tempered steel
12. b) Compare different types of case hardening process
(Nov/Dec 2017)
Nitriding :
Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the
surface of a metal to create a case-hardened surface. These processes
are most commonly used on low-carbon, low-alloy steels. They are
also used on medium and high-carbon steels, titanium, aluminium and
molybdenum.
Typical applications include gears, crankshafts, camshafts, cam
followers, valve parts, extruder screws, die-casting tools, forging dies,
extrusion dies, firearm components, injectors and plastic mold tools.
Carburizing:
Carburizing is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs carbon
while the metal is heated in the presence of a carbon-bearing material, such
as charcoal or carbon monoxide. The intent is to make the metal harder.
Depending on the amount of time and temperature, the affected area can
vary in carbon content.
Longer carburizing times and higher temperatures typically increase
the depth of carbon diffusion. When the iron or steel is cooled rapidly by
quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard
due to the transformation from austenite to martensite, while the core
remains soft and tough as a ferritic and/or pearlite microstructure.
This manufacturing process can be characterized by the following key
points: It is applied to low-carbon work pieces; work pieces are in contact
with a high-carbon gas, liquid or solid; it produces a hard work piece
surface; work piece cores largely retain their toughness and ductility; and
it produces case hardness depths of up to 0.25 inches (6.4 mm).
In some cases it serves as a remedy for undesired decarburization that
happened earlier in a manufacturing process.
Cyaniding:
Cyaniding is a case-hardening process that is fast and efficient; it is
mainly used on low-carbon steels. The part is heated to 871-954 °C (1600-
1750 °F) in a bath of sodium cyanide and then is quenched and rinsed, in
water or oil, to remove any residual cyanide.
2NaCN + O2 → 2NaCNO
2NaCNO + O2 → Na2CO3 +CO + N2
2CO → CO2 + C
This process produces a thin, hard shell (between 0.25 - 0.75 mm, 0.01
and 0.03 inches) that is harder than the one produced by carburizing, and
can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes compared to several hours so the
parts have less opportunity to become distorted. It is typically used on small
parts such as bolts, nuts, screws and small gears. The major drawback of
cyaniding is that cyanide salts are poisonous.
Carbonitriding:
Carbonitriding is a metallurgical surface modification technique
that is used to increase the surface hardness of a metal, thereby reducing
wear.
During the process, atoms of carbon and nitrogen diffuse interstitially
into the metal, creating barriers to slip, increasing the hardness and
modulus near the surface. Carbonitriding is often applied to inexpensive,
easily machined low carbon steel to impart the surface properties of
more expensive and difficult to work grades of steel. Surface hardness of
carbonitrided parts ranges from 55 to 62 HRC.
Certain pre-industrial case hardening processes include not only
carbon-rich materials such as charcoal, but nitrogen-rich materials such as
urea, which implies that traditional surface hardening techniques were a
form of carbonitriding
Flame or Induction Hardening:

Flame or induction hardening are processes in which the surface of
the steel is heated very rapidly to high temperatures (by direct application
of an oxy-gas flame, or by induction heating) then cooled rapidly, generally
using water; this creates a “case” of martensite on the surface. A carbon
content of 0.3–0.6 wt% C is needed for this type of hardening.
Typical uses are for the shackle of a lock, where the outer layer is
hardened to be file resistant, and mechanical gears, where hard gear mesh
surfaces are needed to maintain a long service life while toughness is
required to maintain durability and resistance to catastrophic failure.
Flame hardening uses direct impingement of an oxy-gas flame onto a
defined surface area. The result of the hardening process is controlled by
four factors:
Design of the flame head.
Duration of heating.
Target temperature to be reached.
Composition of the metal being treated.
UNIT - 3
PART – A
13. What are the effects of adding Si in steels? (Apr/May 2017)
Deoxidize, fine grain size, increases fatigue strength and increase wear
properties.
14. Differentiate bras from bronze? (Apr/May 2017)

Alloy Composition Uses Advantages
Brass 70% Cu, 30% House hold Appearance, limited
Zn and nautical corrosion, harder than
fittings, musical pure copper
instrument
Bronze 95% Cu, 5% Status, Appearance, little
Sn ornaments, corrosion, harder than
bells brass, sonorous (rings
well when struck)
15. Which type of stainless steel is non magnetic? (Nov/Dec 2017)
Austenitic steels are non magnetic in nature
16. What is the role of boron in steel alloying? (Nov/Dec 2017)

The role of boron in steel is to enhance the hardness level through
enhancing the hardenability.
PART – B
17. (a) discuss the influence of various alloying elements in steel.
(Apr/May 2017)
Effects of Alloying Elements in Steel
Alloying elements are added to effect changes in the properties of steels.
The basis of this section is to cover some of the different alloying elements
added to the basic system of iron and carbon, and what they do to change
the properties or effectiveness of steel.
Carbon
As I’ve already stated, the presence of carbon in iron is necessary to
make steel. Carbon is essential to the formation of cementite (as well as
other carbides), and to the formation of pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, and
iron-carbon martensite, with martensite being the hardest of the micro-
structures, and the structure sought after by knifemakers.
The hardness of steel (or more accurately, the hardenability) is increased
by the addition of more carbon, up to about 0.65 percent. Wear resistance
can be increased in amounts up to about 1.5 percent. Beyond this amount,
increases of carbon reduce toughness and increase brittleness. The steels
of interest to knifemakers generally contain between 0.5 and 1.5 percent
carbon. They are described as follows:
Low Carbon: Under 0.4 percent
Medium Carbon: 0.4 - 0.6 percent
High Carbon: 0.7 - 1.5 percent
Carbon is the single most important alloying element in steel.
Manganese
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases
the hardness penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical
quenching speed. This also makes the steel more stable in the quench. Steels
with manganese can be quenched in oil rather than water, and therefore
are less susceptible to cracking because of a reduction in the shock of
quenching. Manganese is present in most commercially made steels.
Chromium
As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase hardness
penetration. This element has many interesting effects on steel. When 5
percent chromium or more is used in conjunction with manganese, the
critical quenching speed is reduced to the point that the steel becomes air
hardening. Chromium can also increase the toughness of steel, as well
as the wear resistance. Probably one of the most well known effects of
chromium on steel is the tendency to resist staining and corrosion. Steels
with 14 percent or more chromium are referred to as stainless steels. A
more accurate term would be stain resistant. Stainless tool steels will in
fact darken and rust, just not as readily as the nonstainless varieties. Steels
with chromium also have higher critical temperatures in heat treatment.
Silicon
Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel. It slightly
increases the strength of ferrite, and when used in conjunction with other
alloys can help increase the toughness and hardness penetration of steel.
Nickel
Nickel increases the strength of ferrite, therefore increasing the strength
of the steel. It is used in low alloy steels to increase toughness and
hardenability. Nickel also tends to help reduce distortion and cracking
during the quenching phase of heat treatment.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum increases the hardness penetration of steel, slows the critical
quenching speed, and increases high temperature tensile strength.
Vanadium
Vanadium helps control grain growth during heat treatment. By inhibiting
grain growth it helps increase the toughness and strength of the steel.
Tungsten
Used in small amounts, tungsten combines with the free carbides in steel
during heat treatment, to produce high wear resistance with little or no
loss of toughness. High amounts combined with chromium gives steel a
property known as red hardness. This means that the steel will not lose its
working hardness at high temperatures. An example of this would be tools
designed to cut hard materials at high speeds, where the friction between
the tool and the material would generate high temperatures.
Copper
The addition of copper in amounts of 0.2 to 0.5 percent primarily improves
steels resistance to atmospheric corrosion. It should be noted that with
respect to knife steels, copper has a detrimental effect to surface quality
and to hot-working behavior due to migration into the grain boundaries of
the steel.
Niobium
In low carbon alloy steels Niobium lowers the transition temperature and
aids in a fine grain structure. Niobium retards tempering and can decrease
the hardenability of steel because it forms very stable carbides. This can
mean a reduction in the amount of carbon dissolved into the austenite
during heat treating.
Boron
Boron can significantly increase the hardenability of steel without loss of
ductility. Its effectiveness is most noticeable at lower carbon levels. The
addition of boron is usually in very small amounts ranging from 0.0005 to
0.003 percent.
Titanium
This element, when used in conjunction with Boron, increases the
effectiveness of the Boron in the hardenability of steel.
17. (b) Discuss the composition, properties and typical applications of

any four copper alloys. (Apr/May 2017)
Brass- Brass is formed out of copper mixed with 45% zinc, a little
percentage of lead to provide machinability and tin for strength. Where
the zinc component is extra, the strength of the alloy increases. There are
mainly three types of copper-zinc alloy- copper zinc alloy, Copper-zinc-tin
alloy and copper-zinc-lead alloy.
Typical uses of brass are electrical components, fittings, locks, door
handles, architecture etc.
Bronze- Bronzes are one brazing alloy of copper made out of amalgamating
tin and one of the phosphorous elements- aluminum, nickel, magnesium
etc. It is sued for its properties of corrosion resistance, strength etc and
generally used for architecture, manufacturing springs, fittings, connectors,
terminals etc.
Nickel silvers- This kind of metal has a very misleading appearance, much
like silver which leads to its confusing name. They are a mixture of copper
with nickel, zinc and sometimes lead.
They are used to fashion coins, jewelry, name plates, keys etc.
Copper nickel- Copper mixed with nickel forms this variant and is
generally what is sued for pipes, boat sheathing etc.
18. a) Brief on the influence of alloying elements in steel under clas-
sification of alpha and gamma stabilizers: (Nov/Dec 2017)
Carbon: Carbon is alloyed with base metal Iron to make steel which
affects the hardness and strength of material. Thus the addition of carbon
enables a wide range of hardness and strength.
Manganese:Manganese is added to improve hot working properties and
increase strength, toughness and hardenability. Manganese, like nickel, is
an austenite forming element and can been used as a substitute for nickel.
Chromium: Chromium is added to the steel to increase corrosion resistance.
The resistance increases as more chromium is added. ‘Stainless Steel’
has approximately 11% chromium and a very marked degree of general
corrosion resistance when compared with steels with a lower percentage
of chromium. When added to low alloy steels, chromium can increase the
response to heat treatment, thus improving hardenability and strength.
Nickel: Nickel is added in large amounts, over about 8%, to high chromium
stainless steel to form the most important class of corrosion and heat
resistant steels. These are the austenitic stainless steels, where the tendency
of nickel to form austenite is responsible for a great toughness and high
strength at both high and low temperatures. Nickel also improves resistance
to oxidation and corrosion. It increases toughness at low temperatures
when added in smaller amounts to alloy steels.
Molybdenum: Molybdenum, when added to chromium-nickel steels,
improves resistance to pitting corrosion especially by chlorides and
sulphur chemicals. When added to low alloy steels, molybdenum improves
high temperature strengths and hardness. When added to chromium steels
it greatly diminishes the tendency of steels to decay in service or in heat
treatment.
Titanium: Used as stabilizing elements in stainless steels. Each has a
high affinity for carbon and forms carbides, which are uniformly dispersed
throughout the steel. Thus, localized precipitation of carbides at grain
boundaries is prevented. Compared to chromium, carbon has higher affinity
to titanium to form inter-granular carbides and hence accompanying loss of
corrosion resistance at the grain boundaries.
Phosphorus: Phosphorus is usually added with sulphur to improve
machinability in low alloy steels, phosphorus, in small amounts, increases
strength and corrosion resistance. Experimental work shows that
phosphorus present in steel increases strength. Phosphorus additions are
known to increase the tendency to cracking during welding.
Sulphur: When added in small amounts sulphur improves machinability
but does not cause hot shortness. Hot shortness is reduced by the addition of
manganese, which combines with the sulphur to form manganese sulphide.
As manganese sulphide has a higher melting point than iron sulphide,
which would form if manganese were not present, the weak spots at the
grain boundaries are greatly reduced during hot working.
Selenium: Selenium is added to improve machinability.
Niobium (Columbium): Niobium is added to steel in order to stabilise
carbon, and as such performs in the same way as described for titanium.
Niobium also has the effect of strengthening steels and alloys for high
temperature service.
Nitrogen: Nitrogen has the effect of increasing the austenitic stability of
stainless steels and is, as in the case of nickel, an austenite forming element.
Yield strength is greatly improved when nitrogen is added to austenitic
stainless steels.
Silicon: Silicon is used as a deoxidizing (killing) agent in the melting of
steel, as a result, most steels contain a small percentage of silicon. Silicon
contributes to hardening of the ferritic phase in steels and for this reason
silicon killed steels are somewhat harder and stiffer than aluminum killed
steels.
Cobalt: Cobalt becomes highly radioactive when exposed to the intense
radiation of nuclear reactors, and as a result, any stainless steel that is in
nuclear service will have a cobalt restriction, usually approximately 0.2%
maximum. This problem is emphasized because there is residual cobalt
content in the nickel used in producing these steels.
Tantalum: Chemically similar to niobium and has similar effects.
Copper: Copper is normally present in stainless steels as a residual
element. However it is added to a few alloys to produce precipitation-
hardening properties.
Vandium: Increases strength, hardness, wear resistance and resistance
to shock impact. It retards grain growth, permitting higher quenching
temperatures. It also enhances the red-hardness properties of high-speed
metal cutting tools
Tungsten: Increases strength, wear resistance, hardness and toughness.
Tungsten steels have superior hot-working and greater cutting efficiency
at elevated temperatures.
18. b i) What are the classification of aluminium alloys and state the
applications of any THREE alloy. (Nov/Dec 2017)
Aluminium alloys can be classified into the following types
(i) Aluminium -Copper alloy
(ii) Aluminium - Silicon alloy
(iii) Aluminium - Magnesium alloy
(iv) Aluminium - Manganese alloy
(v) Aluminium- Magnesium- Silicon alloy
(i) Aluminium- Copper alloy:

Copper has been the most common alloying element almost since
the beginning of the aluminum industry, and a variety of alloys in which
copper is the major addition were developed. In the cast alloys the basic
structure consists of cored dendrites of aluminum solid solution, with a
variety of constituents at the grain boundaries or interdendritic spaces,
forming a brittle, more or less continuous network of eutectics. Wrought
products consist of a matrix of aluminum solid solution with the other
soluble and insoluble constituents dispersed within it. Copper has been the
most common alloying element almost since the beginning of the aluminum
industry, and a variety of alloys in which copper is the major addition were
developed. Most of these alloys fall within one of the following groups:
a. Cast alloys with 5% Cu, often with small amounts of silicon and
magnesium.
b. Cast alloys with 7-8% Cu, which often contain large amounts of
iron and silicon and appreciable amounts of manganese, chromium,
zinc, tin, etc.
c. Cast alloys with 10-14% Cu. These alloys may contain small
amounts of magnesium (0.10-0.30% Mg), iron up to 1.5%, up to
5% Si and smaller amounts of nickel, manganese, chromium.
d. Wrought alloys with 5-6% Cu and often small amounts of
manganese, silicon, cadmium, bismuth, tin, lithium, vanadium
and zirconium. Alloys of this type containing lead, bismuth, and
cadmium have superior machinability.
e. Durals, whose basic composition is 4-4.5% Cu, 0.5-1.5% Mg, 0.5-
1.0% Mn, sometimes with silicon additions.
f. Copper alloys containing nickel, which can be subdivided in two
groups: the Y alloy type, whose basic composition is 4% Cu, 2% Ni,
1.5% Mg; and the Hyduminiums, which usually have lower copper
contents and in which iron replaces 30me of the nickel.
(ii) Aluminium- Silicon alloy

Castings are the main use of aluminum-silicon alloys, although some
sheet or wire is made for welding and brazing, and some of the piston alloys
are extruded for forging stock. Often the brazing sheet has only a cladding
of aluminum-silicon alloy and the core consists of some other high melting
alloy. The copper-free alloys are used for low- to medium-strength castings
with good corrosion resistance; the copper-bearing for medium- to high-
strength castings, where corrosion resistance is not critical. Because of
their excellent castability, it is possible to produce reliable castings, even in
complex shapes, in which the minimum mechanical properties obtained in
poorly fed sections are higher than in castings made from higher-strength
but lower-castability alloys.
Silicon is the main alloying element; it imparts high fluidity and
low shrinkage, which result in good castability and weldability. The low
thermal expansion coefficient is exploited for pistons, the high hardness of
the silicon particles for wear resistance. The maximum amount of silicon
in cast alloys is of the order of 22-24% Si, but alloys made by powder
metallurgy may go as high as 40-50% Si.
(iii) Aluminium-Magnesium alloy

The magnesium in the commercial alloys ranges all the way from 0.5 to 12-
13% Mg, the low-magnesium alloys having the best formability, the high-
magnesium reasonably good castability and high strength. It is normal
practice to prepare these alloys from the higher grades of aluminum (99.7
or better) to obtain maximum corrosion resistance and reflectivity; thus the
iron and silicon contents are usually lower than in other aluminum alloys.
Iron and zirconium are sometimes added to increase the recrystallisation
temperature; silicon to improve the fluidity; manganese or chromium to
correct for the corroding effect of iron. Copper is added to reduce pitting
corrosion by enhancing general corrosion; zinc has little or no effect on
corrosion but enhances castability and strength.
In the early days antimony was added, and to its oxide was attributed
the corrosion resistance to seawater but later experiments disproved
antimony`s effectiveness. Titanium and titanium plus boron are often added
as grain refiners; beryllium and sometimes lithium to reduce oxidation of
magnesium at high temperature, and especially in the molten state. Lead
has been added to improve machinability, supposedly without loss of
strength or corrosion resistance.
In the aluminum-magnesium commercial alloys solidification starts
with the aluminum as primary crystals and usually growing as dendrites,
with the other constituents segregating at the grain boundaries or between
the dendrite arms. In alloys with more than 10% Mg and more than 0.5% Si,
Mg2Si crystals may be primary, in the form of cubes or hexagons. If iron,
iron plus manganese or iron plus chromium is above 1-2% (depending on
magnesium content), primary crystals of FeAl3, (FeMn)Al6, (FeMn)3Si2Al15,
(FeCr)Al7, or (FeCr)4Si4Al13 may form. These primary crystals do not have
a substantial effect on strength but affect appreciably the formability,
fatigue resistance and surface finish. The claim that magnesium additions
reduce the size of FeAl3, and Co2Al9 primary crystals is doubtful.
The solid solubility of magnesium in commercial alloys ranges from
2% Mg at room temperature up to 14-15% at 720K. Therefore most
magnesium is in solution and only non equilibrium conditions or annealing
produces Mg5Al8 as divorced eutectic at the boundaries in cast alloys, as
globules in annealed or age hardened material.
Silicon usually forms Mg2Si, mostly insoluble, especially in the
alloys with more than 3-4% magnesium. Iron may form Fe2SiAl8 in low-
magnesium, high-silicon alloys; FeAl3 in the absence of chromium or
manganese; (FeMn)Al6 or (FeMn)3Si2Al15 when manganese is present;
(FeCr)Al7 or (FeCr)4Si4Al13 when chromium is present. Copper has been
detected as CuMgAl2 and Cu2FeAl7. Zinc is seldom out of solution and then
forms Mg3Zn3Al2; titanium, boron and beryllium are mostly in solution.
In most of the commercial alloys other elements are present only in
small amounts, and their effect on physical properties is submerged by
that of magnesium, so that the properties of the commercial alloys are
within error of testing of those of the binary alloys.Magnesium is the main
factor that controls mechanical properties, but all other alloying elements
contribute to it.
18. b) ii) Brief on the mechanism of ageing treatment of Al-Cu alloy.

(Nov/Dec 2017)
Age hardenabale alloys are one of the most important classes of alloys
both from the practical and scientific points of view: from a practical
view point, they are important because they show that by a suitable heat
treatment of solutionizing and aging, it is possible to improve mechanical
properties; from a scientific viewpoint, in age hardenable alloys, the
correlation between microstructure and mechanical properties as well as the
methodology of manipulation of the microstructures through appropriate
phase transformation is very clearly seen.
In Figure we show the Al-rich portion of the Al-Cu phase diagram
(schematically). From the phase diagram, it is clear that the Al with a few
percent copper is cooled from high temperature leads to the formation of
a microstructure in which the phase precipitates out of the supersaturated
matrix. However, if an alloy of composition Al - 4 wt.% Cu is solutionized
at say, 540οC, and the resultant phase is rapidly quenched to room
temperature, the solid solution is largely retained; if this alloy is kept at
room temperature (or at any temperature below 180οC), a meta stable phase
known as Guinier-Preston zones (GP zones) is formed.
UNIT - 4
PART – A
19. Differentiate between composite and an alloy? (Apr/May 2017)
Alloy is a mixture of two or Composite is a mixture of non
more metallic components with – metallic components
other elements
Always have at least one metal Do not have any metal atoms
element
Can be either homogeneous of Are always heterogeneous
heterogeneous
Have a luster due to presence of Do not have a luster
a metal
Most can conducted electricity Polymeric composites can
due to the presence of a metal conduct electricity whereas
others cannot
20. Write a short note on pet. (Apr/May 2017)
PET (also abbreviated PETE) is short for polyethylene terephthalate,
the chemical name for polyester. PET is a clear, strong, and lightweight
plastic that is widely used for packaging foods and beverages, espe-
cially convenience-sized soft drinks, juices and water. Polyethylene
terephthalate polyester (PETP) is a hard, stiff, strong, dimensionally
stable material that absorbs very little water. It has good gas barrier
properties and good chemical resistance except to alkalis (which hy-
drolyse it). Its crystallinity varies from amorphous to fairly high crys-
talline.
21. What are outstanding properties of PTFE? (Nov/Dec 2017)

The outstanding properties of PTFE are its high flexural strength, even
in low temperatures, high electrical resistance and dielectric strength,
resistance to water and low coefficient of friction. PTFE’s density is
also very high, at 2200 kg/m3.
22. List the typical applications of SiC. (Nov/Dec 2017)

Silicon carbide is used as an abrasive in many industrial applications.
In the electronics industry, the main use is in lapping films which are
used for polishing the ends of fiber-optic strands prior to splicing.
PART – B
23. (a) What is meant by ‘Polymers’? discuss the properties,
applications and chemical structure of any four types of polymers.
(Apr/May 2017)
i) PET
The majority of the world’s PET production is for synthetic fibers (in
excess of 60%), with bottle production accounting for about 30% of global
demand.[5] In the context of textile applications, PET is referred to by its
common name, polyester, whereas the acronym PET is generally used in
relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world polymer
production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer; polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are first, second and
third, respectively.
PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate,
with repeating (C10H8O4) units. PET is commonly recycled, and has the
number “1” as its recycling symbol.
Depending on its processing and thermal history, polyethylene terephthalate
may exist both as an amorphous (transparent) and as a semi-crystalline
polymer. The semicrystalline material might appear transparent (particle
size < 500 nm) or opaque and white (particle size up to a few micrometers)
depending on its crystal structure and particle size.
The monomer bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate can be synthesized by
the esterification reaction between terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol
with water as a byproduct, or by transesterification reaction between
ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate with methanol as a byproduct.
Polymerization is through a polycondensation reaction of the monomers
(done immediately after esterification/transesterification) with water as the
byproduct.
PET in its natural state is a colorless, semi-crystalline resin. Based on how
it is processed, PET can be semi-rigid to rigid, and it is very lightweight.
It makes a good gas and fair moisture barrier, as well as a good barrier to
alcohol (requires additional “barrier” treatment) and solvents. It is strong
and impact-resistant. PET becomes white when exposed to chloroform and
also certain other chemicals such as toluene.
About 60% crystallization is the upper limit for commercial products, with
the exception of polyester fibers. Clear products can be produced by rapidly
cooling molten polymer below Tg glass transition temperature to form an
amorphous solid. Like glass, amorphous PET forms when its molecules
are not given enough time to arrange themselves in an orderly, crystalline
fashion as the melt is cooled. At room temperature the molecules are frozen
in place, but, if enough heat energy is put back into them by heating above
Tg, they begin to move again, allowing crystals to nucleate and grow. This
procedure is known as solid-state crystallization.
When allowed to cool slowly, the molten polymer forms a more crystalline
material. This material has spherulites containing many small crystallites
when crystallized from an amorphous solid, rather than forming one large
single crystal. Light tends to scatter as it crosses the boundaries between
crystallites and the amorphous regions between them. This scattering means
that crystalline PET is opaque and white in most cases. Fiber drawing is
among the few industrial processes that produce a nearly single-crystal
product.
Because PET is an excellent water and moisture barrier material, plastic
bottles made from PET are widely used for soft drinks(see carbonation).
For certain specialty bottles, such as those designated for beer containment,
PET sandwiches an additional polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) layer to further
reduce its oxygen permeability.
Biaxially oriented PET film (often known by one of its trade names,
«Mylar») can be aluminized by evaporating a thin film of metal onto it
to reduce its permeability, and to make it reflective and opaque (MPET).
These properties are useful in many applications, including flexible food
packaging and thermal insulation. See: “space blankets”. Because of its
high mechanical strength, PET film is often used in tape applications, such
as the carrier for magnetic tape or backing for pressure-sensitive adhesive
tapes.
Non-oriented PET sheet can be thermoformed to make packaging trays and
blister packs. If crystallizable PET is used, the trays can be used for frozen
dinners, since they withstand both freezing and oven baking temperatures.
As opposed to amorphous PET, which is transparent, crystallizable PET or
CPET tends to be black in colour.
When filled with glass particles or fibres, it becomes significantly stiffer
and more durable.
PET is also used as a substrate in thin film solar cells.
Terylene (a trademark formed by inversion of (polyeth)ylene ter(ephthalate))
is also spliced into bell rope tops to help prevent wear on the ropes as they
pass through the ceiling.
ii) PC
Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing
carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in
engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically
transparent. They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because
of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications. Polycarbonates
do not have a unique resin identification code (RIC) and are identified as
«Other», 7 on the RIC list. Products made from polycarbonate can contain
the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA). Polycarbonate is also known by
a variety of trademarked names, including Lexan, Makrolon, Hammerglass
and others.
Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance,
it has low scratch-resistance. Therefore, a hard coating is applied to
polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive
components. The characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger
and will hold up longer to extreme temperature. Polycarbonate is highly
transparent to visible light, with better light transmission than many kinds
of glass.
Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about 147 °C (297
°F), so it softens gradually above this point and flows above about 155 °C
(311 °F). Tools must be held at high temperatures, generally above 80 °C
(176 °F) to make strain-free and stress-free products. Low molecular mass
grades are easier to mold than higher grades, but their strength is lower as a
result. The toughest grades have the highest molecular mass, but are much
more difficult to process.
Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo large plastic
deformations without cracking or breaking. As a result, it can be processed
and formed at room temperature using sheet metal techniques, such as
bending on a brake. Even for sharp angle bends with a tight radius, heating
may not be necessary. This makes it valuable in prototyping applications
where transparent or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, which
cannot be made from sheet metal. PMMA/Acrylic, which is similar
in appearance to polycarbonate, is brittle and cannot be bent at room
temperature.
Main transformation techniques for polycarbonate resins:
Extrusion into tubes, rods and other profiles including multiwall
Extrusion with cylinders (calenders) into sheets (0.5–20 mm (0.020–
0.787 in)) and films (below 1 mm (0.039 in)), which can be used
directly or manufactured into other shapes using thermoforming
or secondary fabrication techniques, such as bending, drilling, or
routing. Due to its chemical properties it is not conducive to laser-
cutting.
Injection molding into ready articles
Polycarbonate may become brittle when exposed to ionizing radiation
above 25 kGy (J/kg).
iii) ABS
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) (chemical formula (C8H8)x·
(C4H6)y·(C3H3N)z) is a common thermoplastic polymer. Its glass transition
temperature is approximately 105 °C (221 °F). ABS is amorphous and
therefore has no true melting point.
ABS is a terpolymer made by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in
the presence of polybutadiene. The proportions can vary from 15 to 35%
acrylonitrile, 5 to 30% butadiene and 40 to 60% styrene. The result is a long
chain of polybutadiene criss-crossed with shorter chains of poly(styrene-
co-acrylonitrile). The nitrile groups from neighboring chains, being polar,
attract each other and bind the chains together, making ABS stronger than
pure polystyrene. The styrene gives the plastic a shiny, impervious surface.
The polybutadiene, a rubbery substance, provides toughness even at low
temperatures. For the majority of applications, ABS can be used between
−20 and 80 °C (−4 and 176 °F) as its mechanical properties vary with
temperature. The properties are created by rubber toughening, where fine
particles of elastomer are distributed throughout the rigid matrix.
The most important mechanical properties of ABS are impact resistance
and toughness. A variety of modifications can be made to improve impact
resistance, toughness, and heat resistance. The impact resistance can be
amplified by increasing the proportions of polybutadiene in relation
to styrene and also acrylonitrile, although this causes changes in other
properties. Impact resistance does not fall off rapidly at lower temperatures.
Stability under load is excellent with limited loads. Thus, by changing the
proportions of its components, ABS can be prepared in different grades.
Two major categories could be ABS for extrusion and ABS for injection
moulding, then high and medium impact resistance. Generally ABS would
have useful characteristics within a temperature range from −20 to 80 °C
(−4 to 176 °F).
Lego bricks are made from ABS.

The final properties will be influenced to some extent by the conditions
under which the material is processed to the final product. For example,
molding at a high temperature improves the gloss and heat resistance of the
product whereas the highest impact resistance and strength are obtained by
molding at low temperature. Fibers (usually glass fibers) and additives can
be mixed in the resin pellets to make the final product strong and raise the
operating range to as high as 80 °C (176 °F). Pigments can also be added,
as the raw material original color is translucent ivory to white. The aging
characteristics of the polymers are largely influenced by the polybutadiene
content, and it is normal to include antioxidants in the composition. Other
factors include exposure to ultraviolet radiation, for which additives are
also available to protect against.
ABS polymers are resistant to aqueous acids, alkalis, concentrated
hydrochloric and phosphoric acids, alcohols and animal, vegetable and
mineral oils, but they are swollen by glacial acetic acid, carbon tetrachloride
and aromatic hydrocarbons and are attacked by concentrated sulfuric and
nitric acids. They are soluble in esters, ketones, ethylene dichloride and
acetone.
Even though ABS plastics are used largely for mechanical purposes, they
also have electrical properties that are fairly constant over a wide range
of frequencies. These properties are little affected by temperature and
atmospheric humidity in the acceptable operating range of temperatures.
ABS is flammable when it is exposed to high temperatures, such as a wood
fire. It will melt then boil, at which point the vapors burst into intense,
hot flames. Since pure ABS contains no halogens, its combustion does
not typically produce any persistent organic pollutants, and the most toxic
products of its combustion or pyrolysis are carbon monoxide and hydrogen
cyanide. ABS is also damaged by sunlight. This caused one of the most
widespread and expensive automobile recalls in US history due to the
degradation of the seatbelt release buttons.
ABS can be recycled, although it is not accepted by all recycling
facilities.
A Super Nintendo Entertainment System with its outer casing made of

ABS. Over time, the casing changed colour from light grey to yellow as a
result of oxidation.
When exposed to sunlight for a prolonged period of time, ABS will
sometimes experience yellowing as a result of oxidation. This yellow
colour can be cleaned through the use of hydrogen peroxide and UV light.
iv) Phenol formaldehydes

Phenol formaldehyde resins (PF) or phenolic resins are synthetic
polymers obtained by the reaction of phenol or substituted phenol with
formaldehyde. Used as the basis for Bakelite, PFs were the first commercial
synthetic resins (plastics). They have been widely used for the production
of molded products including billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and as
coatings and adhesives. They were at one time the primary material used
for the production of circuit boards but have been largely replaced with
epoxy resins and fiberglass cloth, as with fire-resistant FR-4 circuit board
materials.
There are two main production methods. One reacts phenol and
formaldehyde directly to produce a thermosetting network polymer, while
the other restricts the formaldehyde to produce a prepolymer known as
novolac which can be moulded and then cured with the addition of more
formaldehyde and heat. There are many variations in both production and
input materials that are used to produce a wide variety of resins for special
purposes.
Phenolic resins are found in myriad industrial products. Phenolic
laminates are made by impregnating one or more layers of a base material
such as paper, fiberglass or cotton with phenolic resin and laminating
the resin-saturated base material under heat and pressure. The resin fully
polymerizes (cures) during this process. The base material choice depends
on the intended application of the finished product. Paper phenolics are used
in manufacturing electrical components such as punch-through boards, in
household laminates, and in paper composite panels. Glass phenolics are
particularly well suited for use in the high speed bearing market. Phenolic
micro-balloons are used for density control. Snooker balls as well as balls
from many table-based ball games are also made from phenol formaldehyde
resin. The binding agent in normal (organic) brake pads, brake shoes and
clutch disks are phenolic resin. Synthetic resin bonded paper, made from
phenolic resin and paper, is used to make countertops.
Phenolic resins are also used for making exterior plywood commonly
known as WBP (Weather & boil proof) Plywood because phenolic resins
have no melting point but only a decomposing point in the temperature
zone of 220 degree Celsius and above.
Phenolic resin is used as a binder in loudspeaker driver suspension
components which are made of cloth.
Sometimes people select phenolic resin parts because their coefficient
of thermal expansion closely matches that of the aluminum used for other
parts of a system, as in early computer systems\ and Duramold.
The Dutch forger Han van Meegeren mixed phenol formaldehyde with
his oil paints before baking the finished canvas in order to fake the drying
out of the paint over the centuries.
23. (b) Give any two important properties of ceramics. Write short
notes on any four ceramic materials. (Apr/May 2017)
Ceramic materials are inorganic, nonmetallic materials. Most ceramics
are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements for which the
interatomic bonds are either totally ionic or predominantly ionic but having
some covalent character. The term ceramic comes from the Greek word
keramikos, which means burnt stuff, indicating that desirable properties
of these materials are normally achieved through a high-temperature heat
treatment process called firing. Ceramic materials are important in today’s
society. Consider the ceramic engine and what advantages it offers in terms
of fuel economy, efficiency, weight savings and performance. Below are
three gif’s showing a montage of a prototype ceramic engine and some of
the internal automotive components made from ceramics.
Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3

Alumina is the most cost effective and widely used material in the family of
engineering ceramics. The raw materials from which this high performance
technical grade ceramic is made are readily available and reasonably
priced, resulting in good value for the cost in fabricated alumina shapes.
With an excellent combination of properties and an attractive price, it is no
surprise that fine grain technical grade alumina has a very wide range of
applications.
Key Properties
Hard, wear-resistant
Excellent dielectric properties from DC to GHz frequencies
Resists strong acid and alkali attack at elevated temperatures
Good thermal conductivity
Excellent size and shape capability
High strength and stiffness
Available in purity ranges from 94%, an easily metallizable
composition, to 99.5% for the most demanding high temperature
applications.
Typical Uses
Gas laser tubes
Wear pads
Seal rings
High temperature electrical insulators
High voltage insulators
Furnace liner tubes
Thread and wire guides
Electronic substrates
Ballistic armor
Abrasion resistant tube and elbow liners
Thermometry sensors
Laboratory instrument tubes and sample holders
Instrumentation parts for thermal property test machines
Grinding media
General Information
Aluminum oxide, commonly referred to as alumina, possesses strong ionic
interatomic bonding giving rise to it’s desirable material characteristics. It
can exist in several crystalline phases which all revert to the most stable
hexagonal alpha phase at elevated temperatures. This is the phase of
particular interest for structural applications and the material available from
Accuratus. Alpha phase alumina is the strongest and stiffest of the oxide
ceramics. Its high hardness, excellent dielectric properties, refractoriness
and good thermal properties make it the material of choice for a wide range
of applications. High purity alumina is usable in both oxidizing and reducing
atmospheres to 1925°C. Weight loss in vacuum ranges from 10–7 to 10–6
g/cm2.sec over a temperature range of 1700° to 2000°C. It resists attack by
all gases except wet fluorine and is resistant to all common reagents except
hydrofluoric acid and phosphoric acid. Elevated temperature attack occurs
in the presence of alkali metal vapors particularly at lower purity levels.
The composition of the ceramic body can be changed to enhance
particular desirable material characteristics. An example would be additions
of chrome oxide or manganese oxide to improve hardness and change color.
Other additions can be made to improve the ease and consistency of metal
films fired to the ceramic for subsequent brazed and soldered assembly.
Silicon Carbide
Background
Sintered alpha silicon carbide is produced by initially mixing fine (sub-
micron) and pure silicon carbide powder with non-oxide sintering aids.
The powdered material is formed or compacted by using most of the
conventional ceramic forming processes such as die pressing, isostatic
pressing and injection moulding. Following the forming stage the material
is sintered in an inert atmosphere at temperatures above 2000°C. The
sintered silicon carbide can then be machined to precise tolerances using a
range of precision diamond grinding or lapping techniques. As with most
advanced ceramics the cost of the component is reduced if the amount
of diamond grinding is reduced i.e. either the material manufacturer can
achieve the required tolerances “as sintered” or the designer removes
unnecessary tolerances.
Key Properties
The major properties of sintered silicon carbide of interest to the engineer
or designer, are as follows:
High hardness (second only to diamond)
Low density 40% the density of steel – approximately the same as
aluminium
Low porosity
Good wear resistance in sliding and abrasive environments
Excellent corrosion resistance in most chemical environments
Low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity leading to
excellent thermal shock resistance.
Applications
Automotive Components and Seal Faces
Due to their greater resistance to both wear and thermal shock, sintered
silicon carbide seal faces for automotive water pumps are replacing seal
faces made of materials such as aluminium oxide. In many cases the
material has proven more suitable in meeting the performance demands of
U.S. and European vehicles – i.e. lasting the lifetime of the vehicle without
leaking. These components are manufactured by conventional high volume
pressing and injection moulding methods to meet the economic constraints
of the application.
Armour
Sintered Silicon Carbide has demonstrated an excellent performance record
as ceramic material in composite armour protection systems. The properties
of sintered silicon carbide, such as its high hardness, compressive strength
and elastic modulus, provide superior ballistic capability.
Fused Silica, SiO2

Fused silica is a noncrystalline (glass) form of silicon dioxide (quartz,
sand). Typical of glasses, it lacks long range order in its atomic structure.
It’s highly cross linked three dimensional structure gives rise to it’s high
use temperature and low thermal expansion coefficient.
Key Properties
Near zero thermal expansion
Exceptionally good thermal shock resistance
Very good chemical inertness
Can be lapped and polished to fine finishes
Low dielectric constant
Low dielectric loss
Good UV transparency
Typical Uses
High temperature lamp envelopes
Temperature insensitive optical component supports
Lenses, mirrors in highly variable temperature regimes
Microwave and millimeter wave components
Aeronautical radar windows
Silicon Nitride, Si3 N4

Silicon nitride is a man made compound synthesized through several
different chemical reaction methods. Parts are pressed and sintered by well
developed methods to produce a ceramic with a unique set of outstanding
properties. The material is dark gray to black in color and can be polished
to a very smooth reflective surface, giving parts with a striking appearance.
High performance silicon nitride materials were developed for
automotive engine wear parts, such as valves and cam followers and
proven effective. The cost of the ceramic parts never dropped enough to
make the ceramics feasible in engines and turbochargers. The very high
quality bodies developed for these demanding high reliability applications
are available today and can be used in many severe mechanical, thermal
and wear applications.
Key Properties
High strength over a wide temperature range
High fracture toughness
High hardness
Outstanding wear resistance, both impingement and frictional
modes
Good thermal shock resistance
Good chemical resistance
Typical Uses
Rotating bearing balls and rollers
Cutting tools
Engine moving parts - valves, turbocharger rotors
Engine wear parts - cam followers, tappet shims
Turbine blades, vanes, buckets
Metal tube forming rolls and dies
Sialon
Sialon, a fine grain nonporous technical grade engineering material, is a
silicon nitride ceramic with a small percentage of aluminum oxide added.
Sialon is outstanding in nonferrous metal contact. It is highly thermal
shock resistant, strong, and is not wet or corroded by aluminum, brass,
bronze, and other common industrial metals.
Key Properties
Excellent thermal shock resistance
Not wetted or corroded by nonferrous metals
High strength
Good fracture toughness
Good high temperature strength
Low thermal expansion
Good oxidation resistance
Typical Uses
Thermocouple protection tubes for nonferrous metal melting
Immersion heater and burner tubes
Degassing and injector tubes in nonferrous metals
Metal feed tubes in aluminum die casting
Welding and brazing fixtures and pins
Precision shafts and axles in high wear environments
24. a) i) Classify composite materials based on the type of reinforce-

ment and state an example of each. (Nov/Dec 2017)
Composite materials can be classified into the following types
a) Metal Matrix Composite
b) Fibre reinforced Composite
c) Laminate Composite
a) Metal Matrix Composite:
A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with
at least two constituent parts, one being a metal necessarily, the other
material may be a different metal or another material, such as a ceramic or
organic compound. When at least three materials are present, it is called a
hybrid composite. An MMC is complementary to a cermets. Metal Matrix
Composites are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal
matrix.
The reinforcement surface can be coated to prevent a chemical
reaction with the matrix. For example, carbon fibers are commonly used in
aluminium matrix to synthesize composites showing low density and high
strength. However, carbon reacts with aluminium to generate a brittle and
water-soluble compound Al4C3 on the surface of the fibre. To prevent this
reaction, the carbon fibres are coated with nickel or titanium boride.
The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement
is embedded, and is completely continuous. This means that there is a
path through the matrix to any point in the material, unlike two materials
sandwiched together. In structural applications, the matrix is usually a
lighter metal such as aluminum, magnesium, or titanium, and provides a
compliant support for the reinforcement. In high-temperature applications,
cobalt and cobalt–nickel alloy matrices are common.
The reinforcement material is embedded into a matrix. The
reinforcement does not always serve a purely structural task (reinforcing
the compound), but is also used to change physical properties such as wear
resistance, friction coefficient, or thermal conductivity. The reinforcement
can be either continuous, or discontinuous. Discontinuous MMCs can
be isotropic, and can be worked with standard metalworking techniques,
such as extrusion, forging, or rolling. In addition, they may be machined
using conventional techniques, but commonly would need the use of
polycrystaline diamond tooling (PCD).
Continuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such as
carbon fiber or silicon carbide. Because the fibers are embedded into the
matrix in a certain direction, the result is an anisotropic structure in which
the alignment of the material affects its strength. One of the first MMCs
used boron filament as reinforcement. Discontinuous reinforcement uses
«whiskers», short fibers, or particles. The most common reinforcing
materials in this category are alumina and silicon carbide.
b) Fibre reinforced composite

A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a composite building material
that consists of three components: (i) the fibers as the discontinuous or
dispersed phase, (ii) the matrix as the continuous phase, and (iii) the fine
interphase region, also known as the interface. This is a type of advanced
composite group, which makes use of rice husk, rice hull, and plastic as
ingredients.
This technology involves a method of refining, blending, and
compounding natural fibers from cellulosic waste streams to form a high-
strength fiber composite material in a polymer matrix. The designated waste
or base raw materials used in this instance are those of waste thermoplastics
and various categories of cellulosic waste including rice husk and saw dust.
FRC is high-performance fiber composite achieved and made possible
by cross-linking cellulosic fiber molecules with resins in the FRC material
matrix through a proprietary molecular re-engineering process, yielding a
product of exceptional structural properties. Through this feat of molecular
re-engineering selected physical and structural properties of wood are
successfully cloned and vested in the FRC product, in addition to other
critical attributes to yield performance properties superior to contemporary
wood.
This material, unlike other composites, can be recycled up to 20 times,
allowing scrap FRC to be reused again and again. The failure mechanisms
in FRC materials include delamination, intralaminar matrix cracking,
longitudinal matrix splitting, fiber/matrix debonding, fiber pull-out, and
fiber fracture.
c) Laminate Composites
A laminate composite is an assembly of layers of fibrous composite
materials which can be joined to provide required engineering properties,
including in-plane stiffness, bending stiffness, strength, and coefficient of
thermal expansion. The individual layers consist of high-modulus, high-
strength fibers in a polymeric, metallic, or ceramic matrix material. Typical
fibers used include cellulose, graphite, glass, boron, and silicon carbide,
and some matrix materials are epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium,
and alumina.
Layers of different materials may be used, resulting in a hybrid
laminate. The individual layers generally are orthotropic (that is, with
principal properties in orthogonal directions) or transversely isotropic
(with isotropic properties in the transverse plane) with the laminate then
exhibiting anisotropic (with variable direction of principal properties),
orthotropic, or quasi-isotropic properties.
Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit isotropic (that is, independent of
direction) in plane response but are not restricted to isotropic out-of-
plane (bending) response. Depending upon the stacking sequence of the
individual layers, the laminate may exhibit coupling between in plane and
out-of-plane response. An example of bending-stretching coupling is the
presence of curvature developing as a result of in-plane loading.
24. a) ii) State the properties and applications of two ceramics from
the list: PSZ, Si3N4, Al2O3 and SAILON (Nov/Dec 2017)
PSZ:
Zirconia (ZrO2) may look like a an excellent engineering ceramic
on paper due to its desirable physical properties such as extremely high
melting temperature, high strength and fracture toughness. However the
phase changes that it undergoes during sintering are deleterious to these
properties and hence pure zirconia is not a useful engineering material.
Zirconia Phase Transformations

At room temperature, zirconia exists on the monoclinic phase. When heated
to about 1170°C, it undergoes a phase transformation from monoclinic to
tetragonal and a volume shrinkage of more than 3-5%. Further heating
produces another change to cubic at 2370°C. The cubic phase is maintained
until the melting point or zirconia is reached 2680°C.
On cooling from sintering temperatures and/or high temperature
exposure, zirconia undergoes the tetragonal to monoclinic transformation at
950°C and an expansion similar in magnitude of the shrinkage during heat
up.The large volumetric change associated with this phase transformation
is a large enough to affect the structural integrity of the material. Repeated
heating and cooling cycles would result in further erosion of mechanical
integrity and properties.
Producing Stabilized and Partially Stabilized Zirconia

The additions of cubic oxides such as MgO, CaO, Y2O3, CeO2 and other
rare earth oxides stabilize the high temperature cubic phase all the way
back to room temperature. They also tend to decrease the transformation
temperature. In partially stabilized zirconias, similar additions are made,
except, not enough to stabilize all of the material, hence the name “partially
stabilized zirconia” or “PSZ”.
These materials typically consist of two or more of the phases cubic,
tetragonal and monoclinic. If produced properly, the resultant microstructure
consists of lens or elliptical-shaped precipitates of tetragonal zirconia within
the cubic grains. Normally the tetragonal phase would transform into the
monoclinic phase at low enough temperatures, but the high strength of the
cubic phase prevents the required expansion from happening, freezing in
the tetragonal precipitates.
Monoclinic zirconia may also be present in the cubic grains and at
the grain boundaries. The toughening mechanism comes into play when
a crack is encountered. The cubic grains are constraining the tetragonal
precipitates that want to expand and release associated energy. When
these grains are faced with a propagating crack tip, the tetragonal phase is
released and allowed to change back to the more stable monoclinic phase.
This results in the associated volumetric expansion, effectively closing
the advancing crack. This is called transformation toughening and is a
stress induced martensitic transformation to the monoclinic phase.
Transformation Toughening in Partially Stabilized Zirconias

Typical Properties of Partially Stabilized Zirconias
Typical properties of PSZ materials include:
Excellent fracture toughness
Excellent wear resistance
Excellent impact resistance
Good resistance to thermal shock
Good corrosion resistance
Applications of Partially Stabilized Zirconias
Typical application of PSZ materials include:
Dies and tooling
Knives, scissors and blades
Wear resistant components including bearings and linings
Pump parts
Grinding media
Al2O3 :
Aluminium oxide is a chemical compound of aluminium and oxygen
with the chemical formula Al2O3. It is the most commonly occurring of
several aluminium oxides, and specifically identified as aluminium(III)
oxide. It is commonly called alumina, and may also be called aloxide,
aloxite, or alundum depending on particular forms or applications.
It occurs naturally in its crystalline polymorphic phase α-Al2O3 as the
mineral corundum, varieties of which form the precious gemstones ruby
and sapphire. Al2O3 is significant in its use to produce aluminium metal, as
an abrasive owing to its hardness, and as a refractory material owing to its
high melting point.
24. b) i) List the properties and applications of any three types of
ceramics. (Nov/Dec 2017)
(i) Silicon Carbide:
The major properties of sintered silicon carbide of interest to the engineer
or designer, are as follows:
• High hardness (second only to diamond)
• Low density 40% the density of steel – approximately the same
as aluminium
• Low porosity
• Good wear resistance in sliding and abrasive environments
• Excellent corrosion resistance in most chemical environments
• Low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity leading to
excellent thermal shock resistance.
Fused Silica, SiO2

Fused silica is a noncrystalline (glass) form of silicon dioxide (quartz,
sand). Typical of glasses, it lacks long range order in its atomic structure.
It’s highly cross linked three dimensional structure gives rise to it’s high
use temperature and low thermal expansion coefficient.
Key Properties
Near zero thermal expansion
Exceptionally good thermal shock resistance
Very good chemical inertness
Can be lapped and polished to fine finishes
Low dielectric constant
Low dielectric loss
Good UV transparency
(ii) Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) :

Silicon nitride is a man made compound synthesized through several
different chemical reaction methods. Parts are pressed and sintered
by well developed methods to produce a ceramic with an unique set of
outstanding properties. The material is dark gray to black in color and can
be polished to a very smooth reflective surface, giving parts with a striking
appearance. High performance silicon nitride materials were developed
for automotive engine wear parts, such as valves and cam followers and
proven effective. The cost of the ceramic parts never dropped enough to
make the ceramics feasible in engines and turbochargers. The very high
quality bodies developed for these demanding high reliability applications
are available today and can be used in many severe mechanical, thermal
and wear applications.
Key Properties:
High strength over a wide temperature range
High fracture toughness
High hardness
Outstanding wear resistance, both impingement and frictional
modes
Good thermal shock resistance
(iii) Titanium di-oxide (TiO2):

Titanium dioxide occurs in nature as the well-known minerals rutile,
anatase and brookite, and additionally as two high pressure forms, a
monoclinic baddeleyite-like form and an orthorhombic α-PbO2-like
form. One of these is known as akaogiite and should be considered as an
extremely rare mineral. It is mainly sourced from ilmenite ore.
This is the most widespread form of titanium dioxide-bearing ore
around the world. Rutile is the next most abundant and contains around
98% titanium dioxide in the ore. The metastable anatase and brookite
phases convert irreversibly to the equilibrium rutile phase upon heating
above temperatures in the range 600–800 °C.
Titanium dioxide has eight modifications – in addition to rutile, anatase,
and brookite, three metastable phases can be produced synthetically
(monoclinic, tetragonal and orthorombic), and five high-pressure forms
(α-PbO2-like, baddeleyite-like, cotunnite-like, orthorhombic OI, and cubic
phases) also exist.
The most important application areas are paints and varnishes as well
as paper and plastics, which account for about 80% of the world’s titanium
dioxide consumption. Other pigment applications such as printing inks,
fibers, rubber, cosmetic products and food account for another 8%. The rest
is used in other applications, for instance the production of technical pure
titanium, glass and glass ceramics, electrical ceramics, catalysts, electric
conductors and chemical intermediates. It is also in most red-coloured
candy
24. b) ii) Brief on properties and applications of any two polymers

from the list. PP, PC, PEEK, ABS and PS (Nov/Dec 2017)
(i) PC:
Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing
carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in
engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically
transparent. They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because
of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications. Polycarbonates
do not have a unique resin identification code (RIC) and are identified as
«Other», 7 on the RIC list. Products made from polycarbonate can contain
the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA). Polycarbonate is also known by
a variety of trademarked names, including Lexan, Makrolon, Hammerglass
and others.
Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-
resistance, it has low scratch resistance. Therefore, a hard coating is applied
to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive
components. The characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger
and will hold up longer to extreme temperature. Polycarbonate is highly
transparent to visible light, with better light transmission than many kinds
of glass.
Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about 147 °C (297
°F), so it softens gradually above this point and flows above about 155 °C
(311 °F). Tools must be held at high temperatures, generally above 80 °C
(176 °F) to make strain-free and stress-free products. Low molecular mass
grades are easier to mold than higher grades, but their strength is lower as a
result. The toughest grades have the highest molecular mass, but are much
more difficult to process.
Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo large plastic
deformations without cracking or breaking. As a result, it can be processed
and formed at room temperature using sheet metal techniques, such as
bending on a brake. Even for sharp angle bends with a tight radius, heating
may not be necessary.
This makes it valuable in prototyping applications where transparent
or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, which cannot be made
from sheet metal. PMMA/Acrylic, which is similar in appearance to
polycarbonate, is brittle and cannot be bent at room temperature.
Main transformation techniques for polycarbonate resins:
Extrusion into tubes, rods and other profiles including multiwall
Extrusion with cylinders (calenders) into sheets (0.5–20 mm (0.020–
0.787 in)) and films (below 1 mm (0.039 in)), which can be used
directly or manufactured into other shapes using thermoforming
or secondary fabrication techniques, such as bending, drilling, or
routing. Due to its chemical properties it is not conducive to laser-
cutting.
Injection molding into ready articles
Polycarbonate may become brittle when exposed to ionizing
radiation above 25J/kg.
(ii) ABS :
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) (chemical formula (C8H8)x·(C4H6)
y
·(C3H3N)z) is a common thermoplastic polymer. Its glass transition
temperature is approximately 105 °C (221 °F). ABS is amorphous and
therefore has no true melting point.
ABS is a terpolymer made by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in
the presence of polybutadiene. The proportions can vary from 15 to 35%
acrylonitrile, 5 to 30% butadiene and 40 to 60% styrene. The result is a long
chain of polybutadiene criss-crossed with shorter chains of poly(styrene-
co-acrylonitrile).
The nitrile groups from neighboring chains, being polar, attract each other
and bind the chains together, making ABS stronger than pure polystyrene.
The styrene gives the plastic a shiny, impervious surface. The polybutadiene,
a rubbery substance, provides toughness even at low temperatures.
For the majority of applications, ABS can be used between −20 and 80
°C (−4 and 176 °F) as its mechanical properties vary with temperature.
The properties are created by rubber toughening, where fine particles of
elastomer are distributed throughout the rigid matrix.
The most important mechanical properties of ABS are impact resistance
and toughness. A variety of modifications can be made to improve impact
resistance, toughness, and heat resistance. The impact resistance can be
amplified by increasing the proportions of polybutadiene in relation
to styrene and also acrylonitrile, although this causes changes in other
properties.
Impact resistance does not fall off rapidly at lower temperatures.
Stability under load is excellent with limited loads. Thus, by changing the
proportions of its components, ABS can be prepared in different grades.
Two major categories could be ABS for extrusion and ABS for injection
moulding, then high and medium impact resistance. Generally ABS would
have useful characteristics within a temperature range from −20 to 80 °C
(−4 to 176 °F).
The final properties will be influenced to some extent by the conditions
under which the material is processed to the final product. For example,
molding at a high temperature improves the gloss and heat resistance of the
product whereas the highest impact resistance and strength are obtained by
molding at low temperature. Fibers (usually glass fibers) and additives can
be mixed in the resin pellets to make the final product strong and raise the
operating range to as high as 80 °C (176 °F). Pigments can also be added,
as the raw material original color is translucent ivory to white.
The aging characteristics of the polymers are largely influenced by
the polybutadiene content, and it is normal to include antioxidants in
the composition. Other factors include exposure to ultraviolet radiation,
for which additives are also available to protect against. ABS polymers
are resistant to aqueous acids, alkalis, concentrated hydrochloric and
phosphoric acids, alcohols and animal, vegetable and mineral oils, but
they are swollen by glacial acetic acid, carbon tetrachloride and aromatic
hydrocarbons and are attacked by concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids.
They are soluble in esters, ketones, ethylene dichloride and acetone.
Even though ABS plastics are used largely for mechanical purposes, they
also have electrical properties that are fairly constant over a wide range
of frequencies. These properties are little affected by temperature and
atmospheric humidity in the acceptable operating range of temperatures.
ABS is flammable when it is exposed to high temperatures, such as
a wood fire. It will melt then boil, at which point the vapors burst into
intense, hot flames. Since pure ABS contains no halogens, its combustion
does not typically produce any persistent organic pollutants, and the most
toxic products of its combustion or pyrolysis are carbon monoxide and
hydrogen cyanide. ABS is also damaged by sunlight. This caused one of
the most widespread and expensive automobile recalls in US history due
to the degradation of the seatbelt release buttons. ABS can be recycled,
although it is not accepted by all recycling facilities.
A Super Nintendo Entertainment System with its outer casing made of
ABS. Over time, the casing changed colour from light grey to yellow as
a result of oxidation. When exposed to sunlight for a prolonged period of
time, ABS will sometimes experience yellowing as a result of oxidation.
This yellow colour can be cleaned through the use of hydrogen peroxide
and UV light.
UNIT - 5
PART – A
25. Differentiate between ductile and brittle fracture?(Apr/May 2017)
Ductile failure Brittle failure
1) It involves large plastic 1) It is associated with minimum
deformation. plastic deformation.
2) It is always preceded by the 2) It does not involve “necking”.
localized deformation called
“necking”
3) Ductile fracture normally 3) Brittle fracture is normally
occurs in F.C.C metals. observed in B.C.C and H.C.P
metal not in F.C.C metal.
4) Ductile fracture normally 4) Brittle fracture normally
occurs through the grains. follows the gain boundaries.
5) A complete ductile fracture 5) A complete brittle fracture
present a rough dirty surface. It shows sharp facets which reflect
has rough dirty contour light.
6) It occurs by slow tearing of 6) It occurs suddenly without any
the metal with expenditure of warning.
considerable energy.
26. What is the difference between HRB and HRC? (Apr/May 2017)
Rock well Hardness Indenter Load Typical Material
Scale symbol (kg) Tested
A HRA Cone 60 Carbides, ceramic
B HRB 1.6 mm ball 100 Nonferrous
metals
C HRC Cone 150 Ferrous metals,
tool steels
27. What are the characteristic features of brittle fracture?
(Nov/Dec 2017)
There is no gross, permanent deformation of the material.
The surface of the brittle fracture tends to be perpendicular to the
principal tensile stress although other components of stress can be
factors.
28. State hardness whether corresponds to ultimate tensile strength or

yield strength. (Nov/Dec 2017)
Hardness corresponds to ultimate tensile strength
PART-B
29. (a) Discuss the mechanisms of slip and twinning in detail.
(Apr/May 2017)
29. (b) Sketch and describe the following hardness test.

1. Brinell
2. Vickers. (Apr/May 2017)
30. a) i) Compare slip and twinning (Nov/Dec 2017)

When a metal is stressed below its elastic limit, the resulting deformation
or strain produced in the metal is temporary. This strain or deformation
vanishes after the removal of stress and the metal goes back to the original
dimensions.
When it is stressed above the elastic limit, permanent deformation takes

place and the metal does not returns to its original shape after the removal
of stress. The ability of a metal to undergo plastic deformation is one of
the important property which is utilized for shaping of metals by various
fabrication process such as rolling, forging, drawing, extrusion etc.,
Mechanism of Plastic Deformation

Plastic deformation take place by slip and twinning:
Slip is a permanent displacement of one part of crystal relative to the
other part. slip involves sliding of one plane of atoms over the other. The
plane on which the slip occurs are called slip planes and the direction in
which this occurs are called slip direction. Slip occurs when shear stress
applied exceeds a critical value.
During slip each atom usually moves same integral number of atomic
distances along the slip plane producing a step, but the orientation of the
crystal remains the same. Slip planes are usually the closest packed planes
i.e., the planes of maximum atomic density. Such planes obviously will be
widely spaced i.e., the inter planar distance between such planes is more.
Slip results from the motion of dislocations from one place to the
other place. There are two basic types of dislocations movements called
as glide and climb. In glide, the dislocation moves in a surface defined by
its line and Burger’s vector (glide is conservative motion of dislocations).
In climb, the dislocation moves out of the glide surface and therefore,
climb becomes a non conservation motion of dislocation. Slip is the most
common manifestation of glide.
Twinning:
Twinning is a process in which the atoms in a part of the crystal
subjected to stress rearrange themselves so that the orientation of the part
changes in such a way that the distorted part becomes a mirror image of
the other part. The plane across which the two parts are mirror images is
called twinning plane or composition plane. Like slip, twinning also occurs
along the certain crystallographic planes and directions. These planes and
directions are called as twin planes and twin directions. The important
role of twinning in plastic deformation is that it causes changes in plane
orientation so that further slip can occur.
30. a) ii) Draw a typical creep curve and brief on the mechanism.
(Nov/Dec 2017)
Creep Curve
Creep is high temperature progressive deformation at constant stress.
“High temperature” is a relative term dependent upon the materials involved.
Creep rates are used in evaluating materials for boilers, gas turbines, jet
engines, ovens, or any application that involves high temperatures under
load. Understanding high temperature behavior of metals is useful in
designing failure resistant systems.
A creep test involves a tensile specimen under a constant load
maintained at a constant temperature. Measurements of strain are then
recorded over a period of time.
Creep occurs in three stages: Primary, or Stage I; Secondary, or Stage II:
and Tertiary, or Stage III. Stage I, or Primary creep occurs at the beginning
of the tests, and creep is mostly transiently, not at a steady rate. Resistance
to creep increases until Stage II is reached. In Stage II, or Secondary creep,
The rate of creep becomes roughly steady. This stage is often referred to
as steady state creep. In Stage III, or tertiary creep, the creep rate begins
to accelerate as the cross sectional area of the specimen decreases due to
necking or internal voiding decreases the effective area of the specimen. If
stage III is allowed to proceed, fracture will occur.
The creep test is usually employed to determine the minimum creep
rate in Stage II. Engineers need to account for this expected deformation
when designing systems.
Like the Creep Test, Stress Rupture Testing involves a tensile specimen
under a constant load at a constant temperature. Stress rupture testing is
like creep testing aside from the stresses is being higher than those utilized
within a creep testing. Stress rupture tests are utilized to find out the
time it takes for failure so stress rupture testing is always continued until
failure of the material occurs. Data is plotted similar to the graph above.
A straight line or best fit bend is normally obtained at every temperature
of interest. The Stress Rupture test is used to determine the time to failure
and elongation.
30. b) i) Draw a typical tensile test curve for a metallic sample, mark
the different points/ regions that represent different mechanical
properties. (Nov/Dec 2017)
30. b) ii) Draw a typical S-N Curve of fatigue testing and brief on the
mechanism. (Nov/Dec 2017)
Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads.

It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a
material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values
that cause such damage may be much less than the strength of the material
typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress limit.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and
unloading. If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks
will begin to form at the stress concentrators such as the surface, persistent
slip bands (PSBs), and grain interfaces. Eventually a crack will reach
a critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly, and the structure will
fracture. The shape of the structure will significantly affect the fatigue life;
square holes or sharp corners will lead to elevated local stresses where
fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets
will therefore increase the fatigue strength of the structure.
Fatigue life
ASTM defines fatigue life, Nf, as the number of stress cycles of a
specified character that a specimen sustains before failure of a specified
nature occurs. For some materials, notably steel and titanium, there is a
theoretical value for stress amplitude below which the material will not
fail for any number of cycles, called a fatigue limit, endurance limit, or
fatigue strength. Engineers have used any of three methods to determine
the fatigue life of a material: the stress-life method, the strain-life method,
and the linear-elastic fracture mechanics method. One method to predict
fatigue life of materials is the Uniform Material Law (UML). UML was
developed for fatigue life prediction of aluminium and titanium alloys by
the end of 20th century and extended to high-strength steels, and cast iron.
Characteristics of fatigue
Fracture of an aluminium crank arm. Dark area of striations: slow
crack growth. Bright granular area: sudden fracture. In metal alloys, and
for the simplifying case when there are no macroscopic or microscopic
discontinuities, the process starts with dislocation movements at the
microscopic level, which eventually form persistent slip bands that become
the nucleus of short cracks. Macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities
(at the crystalline grain scale) as well as component design features
which cause stress concentrations (holes, keyways, sharp changes of load
direction etc.) are common locations at which the fatigue process begins.
Fatigue is a process that has a degree of randomness (stochastic), often
showing considerable scatter even in seemingly identical sample in well
controlled environments. Fatigue is usually associated with tensile stresses
but fatigue cracks have been reported due to compressive loads.
The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life. Fatigue life
scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives. Damage is cumulative.
Materials do not recover when rested. Fatigue life is influenced by a variety
of factors, such as temperature, surface finish, metallurgical microstructure,
presence of oxidizing or inert chemicals, residual stresses, scuffing contact
(fretting), etc. Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys) exhibit
a theoretical fatigue limit below which continued loading does not lead to
fatigue failure. High cycle fatigue strength (about 104 to 108 cycles) can
be described by stress-based parameters. A load-controlled servo-hydraulic
test rig is commonly used in these tests, with frequencies of around 20–50
Hz. Other sorts of machine like resonant magnetic machine can also be
used, to achieve frequencies up to 250 Hz. Low cycle fatigue (loading that
typically causes failure in less than 104 cycles) is associated with localized
plastic behavior in metals; thus, a strain-based parameter should be used
for fatigue life prediction in metals. Testing is conducted with constant
strain amplitudes typically at 0.01–5 Hz.

Engineering Materials and Metallurgy: 2017 Solved Question (Apr/May) and (Nov/Dec)

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Engineering Materials and Metallurgy: 2017 Solved Question (Apr/May) and (Nov/Dec)

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ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND

2. Why is carbon solubility more in austenite? (Apr/May 2017)

3. Draw a typical Isomorphous phase diagram (Nov/Dec 2017)

4. Why carbon content in Austenite is higher than ferrite

This type of reaction is an invariant reaction, because it is in thermal

 Eutectoid – solid phase in equation with two solid phase

 Peritectic – liquid + solid 1 ® solid 2(Fig 9.21)

5. b) What are the micro constituents of iron carbon alloys? Explain

6. a) i) Draw Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram , name the various

Iron -Carbon Diagram

A study of the constitution and structure of all steels and irons

The austenite-cementite transformation:

The austenite-pearlite reaction:

6. a) ii) Find the wt.fraction of ferrite and cementite of eutectoid steel

6. b) Compare the microstructure and properties of various cast

White cast iron:

Malleable iron is cast as white iron, the structure being a metastable

Nodular Cat Iron:

8. Mention few applications of induction hardening system?

9. What is the difference between stress relief and recrystallization

Sub critical annealing is done by three processes for obtaining various

Stress relief annealing

11. (b) Define Hardenability. Describe the test procedure to determine

12. a) Brief of hardening and tempering of steel (Nov/Dec 2017)

Flame or Induction Hardening:

14. Differentiate bras from bronze? (Apr/May 2017)

16. What is the role of boron in steel alloying? (Nov/Dec 2017)

17. (b) Discuss the composition, properties and typical applications of

(i) Aluminium- Copper alloy:

(ii) Aluminium- Silicon alloy

(iii) Aluminium-Magnesium alloy

18. b) ii) Brief on the mechanism of ageing treatment of Al-Cu alloy.

21. What are outstanding properties of PTFE? (Nov/Dec 2017)

22. List the typical applications of SiC. (Nov/Dec 2017)

Lego bricks are made from ABS.

A Super Nintendo Entertainment System with its outer casing made of

iv) Phenol formaldehydes

Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3

Fused Silica, SiO2

Silicon Nitride, Si3 N4

24. a) i) Classify composite materials based on the type of reinforce-

b) Fibre reinforced composite

Zirconia Phase Transformations

Producing Stabilized and Partially Stabilized Zirconia

Transformation Toughening in Partially Stabilized Zirconias

Fused Silica, SiO2

(ii) Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) :

(iii) Titanium di-oxide (TiO2):

24. b) ii) Brief on properties and applications of any two polymers

28. State hardness whether corresponds to ultimate tensile strength or

29. (b) Sketch and describe the following hardness test.

30. a) i) Compare slip and twinning  (Nov/Dec 2017)

When it is stressed above the elastic limit, permanent deformation takes

Mechanism of Plastic Deformation

Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads.

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4. Why carbon content in Austenite is higher than ferrite

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30. a) i) Compare slip and twinning (Nov/Dec 2017)