ABSTRACT

The main aim of this project is to produce the applications of differential

equations of Higher order with constant coefficient method which we studied in

first semester.

This project is divided into three chapters.

Chapter 1 is introduction , in which we discuss the existing literature that is

needed to develop the project.

In chapter 2 we discuss the working rule and workout examples which support

to the chapter 3

In chapter 3, we produce the Diabetes is disease of metabolism whose

essential feature is excessive sugar in the blood and urine. Second order

differential

equation has been formulated to describe the performance of BGRS during GTT

and its solution has been shown over here using differential equations

Keywords: differential equations, diabetes.

1
 CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

2
 Chapter-1
Introduction
In mathematics, the history of differential equations traces the

development of "Differential Equations" from calculus, which itself was

independently invented by English physicist Isaac Newton and German

mathematician Gottfried Leibniz. The history of the subject of differential

equations, in concise form, from a synopsis of the recent article “The History of

Differential Equations, 1670-1950”.

In this project we deal with differential equations and their

applications. It is well known that differential equations are very useful to

students of applied sciences. It may be worthwhile to list the various differential

equations which have arisen in the different fields of engineering and sciences.

Such listing is intended to indicate to students that differential equations can be

applied to many practical fields, even though it must be emphasized that the

subject is of great interest in itself. The differential equations have been

compiled from those occurring in advanced textbooks and research journals.

3
Some of these equations are as follows:

xy"+y'+xy=0 (1)

Equation (1) arises in the field of mechanics, heat, electricity, aerodynamics,

stress analysis, and so on

𝑑2𝑙
= −𝑘𝑥 (2)
𝑑𝑡 2

Equation (2) has a wide range of applications in the field of mechanics, in

relation to simple harmonic motion, as in small oscillations of a simple

pendulum. It could, however, arise in many other allied areas.

𝑑2𝑙 𝑑𝑙
+5 + 8𝐼 = 100 sin(20 𝑡) (3)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Equation (3) determines the current I as a function of time t in an alternating

current circuit.

𝐸𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑤(𝑥) (4)

Equation (4) is an important equation in civil engineering the theory of bending

and deflection of beams.

𝑤
𝑦 ′′ = √1 + 𝑦′2 (5)
𝐻

Equation (5) arises in problems concerning suspension cables.

𝑑𝑣
𝑣+𝑚 = 𝑣2 (6)
𝑑𝑚

4
Equation (6) occurs in problems on rocket flight.

𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
2
+ 2
+ =0 (7)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

Equation (7) is the famous Laplace’s equation which occurs in heat, electricity,

aerodynamics, potential theory, gravitation and many other fields.

𝜕𝑉 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
= 𝑘( 2
+ ) (8)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2

Equation (8) is found in the theory of heat conduction as well as in diffusion of

neutrons in atomic pile for the production of nuclear energy. It also occurs in the

study of Brownian motion.

𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
= 𝑎2 (9)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2

Equation (9) is used in connection with the vibration of strings, bars,

membranes, as well as in the propagation of electric signals and nuclear

reactors.

𝜕4 ∅ 𝜕4 ∅ 𝜕4 ∅
4
+4 + = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) (10)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 4

Equation (10) is widely used in the theory of stress analysis (in the theory of

slow motion of viscous fluid and the theory of an elastic body).

These are a few of the many equations which could occur and few of the fields

from which they are taken. Studies of differential equations such as these by

5
pure mathematicians, applied mathematicians, theoretical and applied

physicists, chemists, engineers and other scientists throughout the years have

led to the conclusion that they are certain definite methods by which many of

these equations can be solved. The history of these discoveries is, in itself,

extremely interesting. However, there are many unsolved equations; some of

them are of great importance. The use of modern giant calculating machines in

determining the solutions of such equations which are vital for research

involving national defence as well as many other endeavors, is still in progress.

Definition and terminology:

Definition:

An equation involving differentials or one dependent variable

and its derivatives with respect to one or more independent variables is called a

differential equation. A differential equation is a mathematical equation

functions usually represent physical quantities, the derivatives represent their

rates of change, and the equation defines a relationship between the two.

Because such relations are extremely common,differential equations

including engineering, physics, economics, and biology play a prominent role in

many disciplines.

Apart from equations (1) -(10), are some of the examples of

differential equations.

6
There are two main classes of differential equations:

(i) Ordinary differential equations.

(ii) Partial differential equations.

Ordinary differential equations:

A differential equation which involves derivatives with respect to a single

independent variable is known as an ordinary differential equation.

Equations (1) -(6) are examples of ordinary differential equations.

Partial differential equations:

A differential equation which contains more independent variables and

partial derivatives with respect to them is called a partial differential equation.

Equation (7) -(10) is examples of partial differential equations.

Order of a deferential equation: -

Definition: -a differential equation is said to be of order n, if the nth derivative

is the highest derivative in that equation.

dy
E.g.:- (x2 + 1) + 2xy = 4x2
dx

dy
The first derivative is the highest derivative in the above equation.
dx

The order of the above differential equation is (1)

7
A differential equation of order one is of the form

dy
F(x,y, ) =0
dx

A differential equation of order two is of the form

dy d2 y
F(x,y, , )=0
dx dx2

In general, differential equation of order ‘n’ is of the form

dy d2 y dn y
F(x,y, , 2
,…… )=
dx dx dxn

Degree of a Differential Equation: -

Definition:- let F (x,y,y′,y′′,……y (n) )=0 are differential equation of order n. If

the given differential equation is a polynomial in y (n) . Then the highest degree

ofy (n) isdefined as the degree of the differential equation.

Note:

If in the given equation y (n) enters in the denominator or has a fractional index,

then it may be possible to free it form radicals by algebraic operation so that

y n has the least positive integral index and the equation is written as a

polynomial in y n .

8
The above definition of degree does not require variables x, t, u etc. to be free

form a radicals and fractions.

If it is not possible to express the differential equation as a polynomial y n , then

the degree of the differential equation is not defined

dy dy
e.g.:- y = x + √1 + ( ) 2
dx dx

dy 2 dy 2
(y-x ) = 1+( )
dx dx

dy 2 dy
(1+x2) ( ) + 2xy+ +(1-y2) =0
dx dx

dy dy
This is a polynomial equation in the highest degree of is two. Hence the
dx dx

degree of the above differential equation is (2).

Formation of a differential equation: -

Let ∅ (x,y, y (1) , c1, c2, …………….cn ) =0

Where c1, c2, ………., cn, are n arbitrary constants differential (1) successively n

times w.r.t.x, we get

f1, (x,y, y (1) , c1, c2, …………….cn ) =0 (1)

𝑓2 (x,y, y (1) , y (2) , c1, c2, …………….cn ) =0 (2)

𝑓𝑛 (x,y, y (1) , y (2) … … … … … . y (n) , c1, c2, …………….cn ) =0 (n+1)

9
Solutions of a differential equation:

A relation between the dependent and independent variables when

substituted in the differential equation reduces it to an identity, is called a

solution or integral or primitive of the differential equation.

The solution of a differential equation does not involve the derivatives of

dependent variable with respect to the independent variable.

Types of solution of a differential equation:

a)General solution of a differential equation:

Definition:

Let F(x,y, y (1) ,y (2) ……….y (n) )=0 be a differential equation of order n.

If ∅ (x,y, , c1, c2, …………….cn ) =0 where c1, c2, …………….cn are n

independent arbitrary constants, is a solution of the given differential equation,

then it is called the general solution of the given deferential equation.

b) Particular solution of a differential equation:

Definition: -

The solution obtained by giving particular values to arbitrary constants in

the general solution of the differential equation F(x,y, y (1) ,y (2) ……….y (n) )=0

is called a particular solution of the given differential equation.

10
 c) Singular solution of a differential equation:

Definition:

An equation Ψ (x,y)=0 is called singular solution of the differential

equation F(x,y, y (1) ,y (2) ……….y (n) )=0 if

I. Ψ (x, y) =0 is a solution of the given deferential equation

II. Ψ (x, y) =0 does not contain arbitrary constant ad

III. Ψ (x, y) =0 is not obtained by giving particular values to arbitrary constants in

the general solution.

11
 CHAPTER-2
HIGHER ORDER WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENT

12
 Chapter-2

Higher order with constant coefficient

Classification of differential equation based on order and degree:

(1)First order first degree

(2)First order but not first degree

(3)Higher order with constant coefficient

(4)Higher order with non constant coefficient

𝑑𝑦
1.First order first degree:An equation of =f(x,y) is called a differential
𝑑𝑥

equation of the first order and of the first degree

* Variables separable

*.Homogeneous equations and equations reducible to homogeneous form

*.Exact equations and which can be made exact by the use of integrating factors

*.Linear equations and Bernoulli’s form

𝑑𝑦
Example: ( )tany=sin(x+y)+sin(x-y)
𝑑𝑥

13
(2)First order but not first degree

So far we have discussed differential equations of first order and of first

degree.In this chapter we will discuss the differential equation of first order in

which

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
the degree of is not of first degree.For convience we denote by p.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example: 𝑝2 -5p+6=0

(3)Higher order with constant coefficient

𝑑𝑛𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦
Definition:An equation of the form 𝑎𝑛 𝑛
+𝑎𝑛−1 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑎0 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1

𝑄(𝑥)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 … … 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 real constant and Q(X,) iscontinuous real

functions in xdefined on an interval I is called a linear differential equation of

order n over the interval I

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example: + 𝑥2 +2x𝑦 2 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

(4)Higher order with non-constant

𝑑𝑛𝑦 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑦
An equation of the form 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑛
+𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) + ⋯ . . +𝑎0 (𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑛−1

14
 Where 𝑎0 ,𝑎1 ,…….,𝑎𝑛−1 ,𝑎𝑛 and Q(x)are continuous real functions in x

defined on an interval I is called a linear differential equation of order n over the

interval I .

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example : + 𝑝(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑅(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

General Solution of f(D)y=0

There are two ways to solve this equation they are

(i) If y = yP(x) be a particular solution of f(D)y=Q an interval I and

y=𝑦𝑐 (𝑥) 𝑏𝑒 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝐷) = 0,

(ii) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑦𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 𝑄

(iii) Complementary function and particular integral of f(D)y =Q(x)

Solutions of homogeneous linear differential equations of order n with constant

coefficient

We know that y = y1,y = y2,……..y= yn are linear independent

solution of the nth order homogeneous linear differential equation f(D)y=0 with

constant coefficients, then y=c1y1+c2y2+……..+cnyn are arbiteary constants, is

the general solution of f(D)y =0. We also know that if

𝑒 𝑚𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝐷)𝑦 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑚) = 0

15
Auxiliary Equation (A.E)

Definition: consider the differential equation

(𝐷𝑛 + 𝑝1 𝐷𝑛−1 + 𝑝2 𝐷𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑛 )y=Q(x) =>f(D)y=Q(x)

The algebraic equation f(m)=0

=>𝑚𝑛 +𝑝1 𝑚𝑛−1 +…….+pn=0 where 𝑝1 ,𝑝2 ……𝑝𝑛 are real constants , is called

the auxiliary equation of f(D)y=0.since the auxiliary equation f(m)=0 is an

algebraic equation of degree n,it will have n roots .then three cases arise.

(i) Case 1: f(m)=0 may have real and distinct roots

(ii) Case 2: f(m)=o may have real and equal roots

(iii) Case 3: f(m)=0 may have real and complex roots

Case (i) : when the auxiliary equation has and distinct roots

The examples of this auxiliary equation’s are

𝑑2𝑦
Example : (i) − 𝑎2 𝑦 = 0 where a≠0
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example : (ii) 3
+6 + 11 + 6𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
Example : (iii) (𝐷2 − 2𝐷2 − 3𝐷)𝑥 = 0where D=
𝑑𝑡

Example: (iv) (𝐷2 − 3𝐷 + 2)𝑦 = 0

16
Case (ii) : when ae has some equal roots

𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1. −3 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

2 . (𝐷2 − 2𝐷3 − 3𝐷2 + 4𝐷 + 4)𝑦 = 0

Case(iii) When the Auxilary Equation has only a pair of conjugate roots

Example:

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1. + +𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

2. (𝐷2 − 8𝐷2 + 16)𝑦 = 0

𝟏
Working rule to find 𝒙𝒌 :
𝑭(𝑫)

(i) Take out common the lowest degree term from f(D)

(ii) Let the remaining factor in the denominator be of the form

[1+∅(𝐷)]𝑜𝑟[1 − ∅(𝐷)]

(iii) Take this factor to numerator as [1 + ∅(𝐷)]−1 𝑜𝑟[1 − ∅(𝐷)]−1

(iv) Now expand [1 ± ∅(𝐷)]−1

(v) 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑘

And operate up on 𝑥 𝑘 using each term of the expansion .

17
 CHAPTER – 3

APPLICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

DETECTION OF DIABETES

18
 Chapter-3

DETECTION OF DIABETES

Diabetes mellitus is disease of metabolism which is characterized by

excess of sugar in the blood and urine.in diabetes,the blood is unable to burn off

all its sugar,starches and carbohydrates due to insufficient supply of

insulin.Diabetes is usually diagnosed by fasting and post periodical blood test or

by glucose tolerance test(GTT).in GTT, the patient after fasting overnight is

given a large dose of glucose,and during the next three to five hours several

measurements are made of the concentration of glucose in the patient’s blood.in

the mid-sixties,Dr.Rosevear and Dr.Molnar of the Mayo clinic(USA) and

Dr.Ackerman and Dr.Gatewood of the University of Minnesota(USA)

discovered a criterion for interpreting the results of GTT.Their model is based

on the following simple and well-known facts of elementary biology.

1. Glucose is source of energy for all tissues and organs.For each individual there

isan optimal blood glucose concentration.

2. Blood glucose levels are influenced and controlled by a variety of hormones

and metabolism such as the following:

19
(i) Insulin, a hormone secreted by 𝛽 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 of the pancreas.After absorbing

carbohydrates, the pancreas secretes more insulin. In addition, the glucose in the

blood directly stimulates the β cells to secrete insulin.

(ii) Glucagon. it is a hormone secreted by the α cells of the pancreas. Any

excess glucose is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen and when needed

this glycogen in converted back in to glucose.

(iii)Epinephrine(adrenalin). This is hormone secreted by the adrenalin medulla,

and is a part of the emergency mechanism to quickly increase the concentration

of glucose in the blood in case of extreme hypoglycaemia.

(iv)Glucocorticoids are hormones, such as cortisol, which are secreted by the

adrenal cortex. These hormones play an important role in the metaboliSosm of

carbohydrates.

(v)Thyroxin is a hormones secreted by the thyroid gland. It helps the liver to

form glucose from noncarbohydrate sources such as glycerol, lactate and amino

acids.

(vi)Growth hormone (somatotropin).This is a harmone secreted by the anterior

pituitary gland.This harmone not only effects glucose level in a direct manner,

but also tends to block insulin.

20
This harmone decreses the sensitivity of muscles and adipose membrane to

insulin, thereby reducing the effectiveness of insulin in promoting glucose

uptake.

The model postulated in a simple one, requiring only a limited number of blood

sample during a GTT and it centres on two concentrations.

(a)G (glucose in the blood)

(b)H(net harmonal concentration)

The letter represents the commutative effect of all the important

harmones.Insulin is considered to increase H while cortisone decreases H.Then

the basic model is described by the equations

𝑑𝐺
=f1(G,H)+j(t) (1)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐻
= 𝑓2 (𝐺, 𝐻) (2)
𝑑𝑡

Where j(t) is the external rate at which the blood glucose concentration is being

increased.

We assume that by the time a fasting patient arrive in the hospital,G and H have

achieved the equilibrium value G0 and H0(say)

i.e,. F1(𝐺0 ,𝐻0 )=0=F2(G0,𝐻0 )

21
We are now interested in deviations of G and H from there equilibrium values,

so we take

G=𝐺0 +g, H=𝐻0 +h

Where g and h are small as compared to G0 and H0. Then

𝑑𝑔
=f1(𝐺0 +g,𝐻0 +h)+j(t)
𝑑𝑡

=f1(g,h)+j(t) (say)

𝑑ℎ
=f2(g,h) (say)
𝑑𝑡

We assume also that f1 and f2 have alinear from. Thus

𝑑𝑔
= −𝑎𝑔 − 𝑏ℎ + 𝑗(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑ℎ
= −𝑐ℎ + 𝑒𝑔
𝑑𝑡

Now, a>0, since dg/dt<0 for h=0 through tissue uptake of glucose, and b>o,

sinceℎ >0tends to decrease blood glucose levels. Also, c>0 since the

concentration of hormones in the blood decreases through hormone metabolism

and e>0 for g >0 cause the endocrine glands to secrete those hormones that

tend to increase h.

From equation (3)

1 𝑑𝑔
h= (−𝑎𝑔 + 𝑗 − )
𝑏 𝑑𝑡

22
substituting this equation in (4),we get

2
𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑗
+ (𝑎 + 𝑐) + (𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑒)𝑔 = + 𝑐𝑗 (5)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The right-hand side of equation (5) is zero except over a small interval of time.

let time t=0 be the glucose load has been intgested so that for t>0

2
𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑔
+(a+c) +(ac+be)=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

and can be written a

2
𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑔
+2A +𝐵2 g
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

The solutions of this equation are of three different types,depending upon

whether

𝐴2 − 𝐵2 Is a positive , negative or zero. These three types corresponding to the

overdamped, critically damped and underdamped case discussed earlier. We

shall take here the case 𝐴2_ 𝐵2 <0 (the other cases may be dealt in a similar

manner)

And the solution is

g=𝑒 −𝐴𝑡 [C cos(𝐵0 t)+D sin(𝐵0 t)]

where 𝐵0 =B-A thus , the complte solution is

G=𝐺0 +𝑒 −𝐴𝑡 [C cos(𝐵0 t)+D sin(𝐵0) t)]

23
This contains five arbitrarycontents 𝐺0 ,A,𝐵0 ,C,D.One way of finding them is as

follows.The patient’s blood glucose concentration before the glucose load is

ingested is 𝐺0 .Hence ,we can determine by 𝐺0 by measuring the patient’s blood

immediately upon his arrival at the hospital. Next, we take four additional

measurements G1 ,G2 ,G3,and G4at times t1,t2,t3 and t4. We can then determine A,

B0,C and D from the four equations.

G=G0+𝑒 −𝐴𝑡 I [C cos (B0ti+D sin(B0ti)] where i=1,2,3,4

The second way the better way is to take, say n measurements, use the “least
squares”techniquesto find the best fit for the parameters. However, this has to
be solved on a computer.
Observation has shown that slight errors in measuring G can produce large
errors in the value of A. However, the value of the parameter B 0 , was relatively
in sensitive to experimental error in G.

The auxillary equation is 𝑚2 + 2𝐴𝑚 + 𝐵2

−2𝑎±√4𝐴2 −4.1𝐵2
𝑚=
2.1

1
m=-A± √4𝐴2 − 4𝐵2
2

m=-A±√𝐴2 + 𝐵2

If 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 ˂0 .Then m takes conjugate complex.

If 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 ˃0 .Then m takes positive.

If 𝐴2 − 𝐵2 ˂0 .Then m takes real and repeated.

24
Results

Since there is not a universal criterion to diagnose diabetes two doctors

evaluating a certain patient’s GTT

results can result in two different diagnoses. Therefore, we want to determine an

objective approach to

analyze Glucose Intolerance Test (GTT) that can help improve a criterion to

diagnose a Diabetes condition.

In the model proposed by E. Ackerman (1969), the pseudo period

was used as an indicator for a

diabetic condition. Using data from a variety of sources they found that a value

of less than four hours for

the indicator indicated normalcy, while appreciably more than four hours

implied mild diabetes. In this

paper we use the same indicator to test for diabetes. We used data (provided by

the Oriental Clinic

Laboratory in Humacao) from patients of the Humacao area. The data includes

the fasting glucose levels at

t=0 and all others glucose levels every hour. We evaluated 15 patients whose

name, sex, or age we did not

know and compare each of the results to a single diagnosis of a certain doctor.

Our results are given in

25
Conclusion

The Oriental Clinic Laboratory provided our data. The results include the

fasting glucose levels at t=0 and

all others glucose levels every hour. We evaluated 15 patients whose name,

sex, or age we did not know

with our GUI and compare each of those results to a single diagnosis of a

certain doctor.

We encounter that our model was correct in 8 of 15 tests. That gives us a 53%

of success. Since our

model only considers evaluation between normal or diabetic patients it fails to

evaluate pre-diabetic

patients. From the 7 patients that were misdiagnosing 5 were pre-diabetic

patients and our model diagnosed

them as either normal or diabetic. Also the four hour indicator threshold might

need to be reevaluated for

the Puerto Rican population due to differences in eating habits and preferences.

It is important to note that large deviations of G from G 0 usually indicate

severe diabetes or pre-diabetes.

Our model precludes by our assumption of small perturbations and the use of

the linearization about an

equilibrium point.
26
REFERENCES

27
References

1.zafar ahsan ,"Differentail eqations and their applications ", in differential

eqations .

2. M. Braun, “A mathematical model for the detection of diabetes”, in

Differential Equations Models,

Vol. 1, Edited by M. Braun, C. Coleman, and D. Drew, Spreinger-Verlag,

pp.101-108, 1983.

3. E. Ackerman, I. Gatewood, J. Rosevear, and G. Molnar, “Blood glucose

regulation and diabetes”,Concepts and Models of Biomathematics, F. Heinmets,

Ed., Marcel Decker, pp. 131-156, 1969.

4 P. Wu, “Thyroid disease and diabetes”, Journal:

http://journal.diabetes.org/clinicaldiabetes/v18n12000/Pg38.html

5. L.S. Pontryagin, Ordinary Differenti++al Equations, Addison-Wesle 1962.

6. Gradshteyn, I. S. and Ryzhik, I. M. "Routh-Hurwitz Theorem." §15.715 in

Tables of Integrals, Series,

and Products, 6th ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, p. 1076, 2000.

7. C. Landersdorfer and W. Jusko, “Pharmacokinetic/ Pharmacodynamic

Modelling in Diabetes

Mellitus”. Clin Pharmacokinet 2008; 47(7), pp. 417-448.

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