Tracing Heteroglossia in Sarat Chandra Chattopdhyay's 'Srikanta' (Vol. 1)
Tracing Heteroglossia in Sarat Chandra Chattopdhyay's 'Srikanta' (Vol. 1)
Tracing Heteroglossia in Sarat Chandra Chattopdhyay's 'Srikanta' (Vol. 1)
Bakhtin, in his Discourse in the Novel discusses as to what constitutes the individual and
the society as well as the interaction between the two which lead to the formation of
communities and nations. He sees the idea of the individual as being constructed within a
network of social materiality, looking at social relations and language as circumscribed within
this contract. This is clearly reflected in the birth of the heteroglossic novel form reflecting the
complexities of speech laden with cultural baggage. Variations in language may be based on
class, caste, gender, culture, dialects, economics, professions, passing trends etc. which lead to
multitude of discourses and cultural ideologies go into the making of languages. Heteroglossia
portrays how different people speak in different ways and appropriate the ideologies of others
into their own through speech variations. A heteroglossic work strives to skillfully portray this
immensely complex web of influences and impacts upon language, ranging from a highly
aristocratic one to a casual, daily discourse. The significance of such a work lies in the depiction
of various voices through variations across languages or within the same language, trying to
compete with one another and establishing their own existences. Instead of a single, objective,
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monoglossic voice of the author or narrator, scope is given for the expression of a multiplicity of
The modern Bengali language of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with
innumerable borrowings from foreign languages, was characterized by a strong influence of the
west-central dialect of the Nadia region, bifurcating itself into the standard/literary (original and
proper) form known as ‘sadhu-bhasha’ and the colloquial, slightly-inflected speech known as
‘cholito-bhasha’. However, there may be marked differences in the regional usages of the same
specific variations. Although mostly fluent in the standard colloquial Bengali language, many
Bengali people exhibit notable dialectical variations, often due to the aspect of religion with the
Hindu man borrowing from Sanskrit vocabulary and the Muslim man preferring Persian, Arabic
or ‘deshi’ words more. Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, who was considered as one of the greatest
prose writers of colonial India, was writing at a time when Bengal was undergoing tremendous
unnerving historical developments such as the Renaissance and humanist movements, religious
reformation, etc. that were bewildering the youth of this age. The tone of his works is incredibly
materialistic, uncompromisingly humanistic, youthful and militant, providing evidence for the
progressive growth and development of the proletarian culture in India. Although Chattopadhyay
does not indulge in excessive philosophizing, theorizing or use of lofty, erudite vocabulary
unknown to the common people, yet it is his lucid aesthetic rendition of the complexities of
human relationships, emotions, life and social problems that have a more profound impact upon
the minds of the readers. His celebrated work Srikanta which is a magnum-opus in four volumes
takes the form of a picaresque and bildungsroman novel written in an episodic, autobiographical
mode. The utterances, verbiage, behaviour, social customs, interactions and family relations of
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these characters wonderfully portray the moods of this time and a subtle rather than radical
criticism of society without the usage of high-sounding speeches. In this paper, focus has been
made upon the first volume of the series so as to show how an amalgam of characters coming
Using the flashback technique, the first part of the novel recounts the childhood,
adolescence and youth of the main protagonist, Srikanta who is also the first-person narrator.
There are vivid descriptions of nature, his lodging at a paternal aunt’s home, his adventurous
meeting with the daring Indranath and subsequent fascination for him, his acquaintance with
Annada didi and her snake-charmer husband, his chance encounter with a long-lost childhood
friend Rajlakshmi who has now turned into a ‘nauch girl’ named Pyari baiji as well as his
reckless wandering across various places. This entire part is set in Muzzarfarpur and therefore
the existence of a Bengali population amidst the ‘hindustani’ culture of Bihar proves to be very
interesting. Although majority of the characters belong to the Bengali community yet there are
quite a few occasional glimpses of the differences in lifestyles, habits and customs between the
two cultures. Language and dialectical differences emerge most palpably in the space of
interaction between the two cultures, which also try to appropriate and adjust each other in their
own ways. Chattopadhyay takes up the diglossic Bengali language and works it out extensively
the standard, literary ‘sadhu bhasha’ form of the West-Central Bengali dialect throughout the
entire course of the novel. The values, ideologies, perspectives of the narrator, who is also the
main protagonist Srikanta, are presented in this very form which is why some instances of his
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emotion and depth of passion is perhaps expressed more profoundly through an aesthetic,
polished, literary language over a more easy-flowing, colloquial one, thereby giving the text its
literary appeal. The literary effect is heightened by longer inflections in the verbs and the usage
of words borrowed from the ‘Tatsama’ vocabulary. Within the framework of the narrative
however, the characters speak in the standard colloquial Bengali or ‘cholito-bhasha’ which was
by shortened verb forms and the liberal use of colloquial idioms. Since the characters hail from
variations occur in the spoken dialect and accents. It leads to a reflection of a complex web of
The dialogues among the characters betray their social and cultural identities, depicting a
multiplicity of voices within the narrative framework. At the very outset of the novel, Srikanta
has gone to watch a football match between Hindu and Muslim students where a brawl breaks
out and he gets cornered by an angry mob of the latter community. They hurl abusive shouts at
him such as “Dhoro sala ke, maaro sala ke!” (Catch the wretched fellow, beat him up!), typical
for their age, temperament and colloquialism. When Indranath rescues Srikanta and they get
acquainted with each other, the readers realize that they speak in the colloquial dialect
appropriated by the middle class bourgeoisie. This dialect is seen to be used by Srikanta’s kin as
well as the majority of the middle class village folk. Most of the characters appropriate the
grammatical usage of consonants in their daily speech such as the use of /chô/ in place of /chhô/
‘chaichi’, etc. or using /e/ instead of /a/ in conjugating words like ‘jashne’ (don’t go),
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‘khashne’(don’t eat), etc. There are also instances of the usage of idiolectic words like ‘kôshe’
(speedily), ‘thukechi’ (beat up), ‘chhôra’ (lad), ‘bôi ki’ (obviously), ‘bamun’ (Brahmin), ‘khôtta’
(non-Bengali people), ‘nabbô’ (get down), ‘ret’ (night), ‘ujôn’ (tide), ‘nimônia’ (pneumonia),
etc. which belong typically to a suburban Bengali culture and is characteristic of the individuals
of Bihar appointed as night-guards of Srikanta’s village. They hum Tulsidasi tunes and speak in
their native Bhojpuri dialect, which is appropriated by some people of the Bengali community as
well. For instance, Srikanta’s ‘pishemoshai’ (husband of paternal aunt) gets furious during the
‘Srinath bahurupi’ episode and utters shouts in Hindi such as “Aaur maaro, sala ko maar daalo!”
or “Sarki lao, banduk lao!” or “Sala ko kaan pakar ke lao”, etc. Even the local priest named
Bhattacharjee-moshai slips into a terrible jargon of Bengali-Hindi mixture in his fury: “Ei
haramjada bojjatke baste amar gotor churno ho giya. Khotta salar betara amake jeno kilayke
kanthal pakay diya!” (“Due to this wretched moron, my health has degenerated. These wretched
non-Bengali people have beaten my wits out!”). The character of Srinath speaks in an extremely
pedestrian idiolect, using the epithet of ‘babu-moshai’ while respectfully addressing members
belonging to upper classes. This reveals his proletariat status based on his occupation as a
‘bahurupi’ or a travelling, quick-change artist with a meager income. When Srikanta meets
Annada didi and her husband Shah-ji for the first time, he is given to believe that they are
charmers and their marginalized, penury-stricken position in society. Shah-ji even talks in
colloquial Hindi, uttering Bengali only on one particular occasion but his wife prefers speaking
in the latter throughout her appearance in the novel. However, the actual fact that they are a
converted Brahmin couple is revealed only after Shah-ji’s death and the readers realize how
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language use can become a façade for concealing true identities and donning on disguises. This
becomes all the more prominent in the letter that Annada didi leaves for Srikanta, written in the
standard ‘sadhu bhasha’ and thereby reflecting the literary, educated and refined mindset of a
woman who had the courage to trespass against society’s norms in choosing a man thought to be
unworthy of her despite its severe repercussions. Socio-economic circumstances play a crucial
role in the relegation of language to different groups in society. The anti-pathetic attitude of the
clearly reflected in their dialogic exchanges and this repugnance heightens all the more in the
case of Muslims who are treated as outsiders due to religious biases. This is an indirect
contestation on the part of the Bengali cultural ideologies to carve out a niche for themselves in
The readers also get a glimpse of the idiosyncratic Natun-da, the ‘bhayankar babu’ (terrific
gentleman) from Kolkata who is Indranath’s maternal cousin. His appearance, outfit, manners,
speech, etc. all are tremendously affected and betray the petty snobbery in his mind. His speech
Bengalis), etc. He has the same bent of mind as the other middle-class people, sharing the same
ideologies and prejudices but ironically, he considers himself superior to them since he hailed
from the main city of Kolkata and dismisses Srikanta and Indranath as ‘chasha’ (uncivilized
rustics).
Indranath moves into the domain of youth and joins the ‘shikar party’ (hunting troop) of
Kumar-ji, the son of a Bengali zamindar as an attendant. There he comes across another mixed
group belonging to different cultures and socio-economic backgrounds. The zamindar’s son is
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addressed through as ‘rajputrô’, ‘rajkumar’ or ‘kumar-shaheb’ (prince) by the rest of the troop on
account of his elevated socio-economic position as compared to the others. Probably belonging
to the class of landed gentry or zamindars, he is always treated with exaggerated flattery and
praise while he himself has a typical manner of addressing others as “Ki he!” (Hey!). His
attendants are presupposed to have a sycophantic attitude towards him whilst he deigns to
interact with them out of his graciousness. However, it can be estimated from the very few
dialogic exchanges that he holds with others that he is actually a very insubstantial person
exploiting the power of his status and indulging in frivolous luxury— characteristic of most men
belonging to his class. The readers also get a glimpse of the ‘babu-baiji’ culture and the ‘majlish’
(performance) customs prevalent at that time through this episode. Most of Kumar-ji’s attendants
like Surju, the unnamed old gentleman, etc. belong to the ‘hindustani’ background of Bihar
except for Srikanta and another man named Purushottam. They address each other as ‘Babu-ji’
and their dialogic exchanges depict an interesting mixture of Bengali and Hindi dialects. For
instance, Surju once questions Srikanta on his lack of interest in bird-hunting: “Chiriya shikar-
me kuchh sharam hain?” (Is it shameful to hunt birds?), wherein the latter replies in an idiolectic
manner: “Shôbaikar nehi hain, kintu amar hain!” (Everyone does not have shame, but I have).
This is not unusual in a space where members from different cultural backdrops come together
and interact with each other— it is the sense conveyed through words that seems to be solely
important.
It is the character of Pyari ‘baiji’ (courtesan) that comes across as most striking and
fascinating to the readers across ages. Though she is introduced as hailing from Patna yet it
becomes clear from her gestures of ‘prônam’ rather than ‘salaam’, her clear, fluent Bengali
speech and her habit of uttering “Durga! Durga!” that she is native from Bengal. Later, Srikanta
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himself as well as the readers get to know that her real name is Rajlakshmi, she is a Brahmin and
that she had been sold off by her husband at a very tender age into the prostitution market.
However she had managed to fight against all odds and establish herself as a renowned ‘baiji’,
much acclaimed for her singing and dancing skills. Inspite of her profession, she considers
herself socially equal to Srikanta as she hails from the same class as him which is why she does
not use any extraneous verbiage to address him; only once out of overwhelming emotion does
she call him “Thakur!” (Lord). Typical to her identity as a Bengali woman, she uses some
feminine idiolects which can be traced in Annada didi’s speech-mannerisms as well such as
‘mathar dibbi dewa’ (swearing by the head), ‘paaye pôra’ (falling at the feet), etc. The servants
attending on her as well as Kumar-ji speak almost in a similar fashion, addressing their social
superiors as ‘babu’ or ‘babu-saab’ (master) or ‘maa’ (mistress). Pyari’s man-servant Ratan even
reveals his caste as that of ‘Paramanik’ to Srikanta, which is usually relegated to barbers. All of
them belong to the same proletariat class as Srinath who had appeared earlier in the novel,
conversing in a particular way with respect to their socio-economic positions and occupations. It
can also be deduced from their dialogic exchanges that their actions and words are subject to a
profit (basically monetory) motive as well as communal biases within their minds.
Srikanta’s momentary turn towards an ascetic life leads him to encounter the ‘sadhu’
(hermit) community in Bihar’s Baanr district. They speak in a typical Bhojpuri dialect,
occasionally reciting verses from Bharadwaj Muni which Srikanta has to acquire on account of
his association with them. He even comfortably slips into their lifestyle of daily begging and
meditative practices for the attainment of salvation. A rather satirical picture of the ‘sadhus’ and
‘sanyasis’ come up in this context whereby Srikanta reveals the materialistic, comfort-seeking
and worldly nature of this group of people despite their totally different claims. During this
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period of his life, Srikanta has a chance encounter with a Bengali child-bride who had been
married off in a ‘hindustani’ household. She comes across as a strikingly pathetic victim of child-
abuse and a misfit in totally alien surroundings. She herself claims that she can neither
understand the language of her in-laws nor consume their food. Her voice comes out as
delineating her precarious, marginalized existence in a rigid, patriarchal social set-up. Her voice
serves as a critique upon the narrow, religion-bound, casteistic ideologies of the Bengali
community that provide no scope for the independence or emancipation of women. Srikanta
happens to meet several other Bengali people, both men and women who are struggling to
survive in an unfamiliar cultural set-up and establish their own identities. Whenever they come
across a Bengali-speaking person, they are filled with relief and a sense of immense ease because
they can palpably relate and feel at home with them. They have an ethnocentric attitude in
defining their own cultural identity as uniquely distinct from others. When Srikanta is rescued
from a terrible fit of illness and isolation by Pyari ‘baiji’, he gets acquainted with her stepson,
Banku and their home in Patna. Though their conversational exchange, Srikanta gets a view of a
different aspect of Pyari’s life— she shares a precious mother-son relationship with Banku who
adores her despite not being her own flesh-and-blood. Banku strives to defend Pyari on all
grounds, even to Srikanta who is totally a stranger to him. He is aware of the morality-ridden
values and principles of the society to which he belongs where the position of ‘fallen’ women
was seen as highly problematic. This can be linked to an earlier interaction between Srikanta and
Pyari where both are uncomfortable to be alone in each other’s presence due to societal
stringencies.
Some readers might argue that although this novel reflects the cultural and ethical
standards as well as the humanist values emerging in society at that point of time, yet it does not
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give adequate space for the proletariat voice to speak which had been a major concern for
Chattopadhyay throughout his literary career. The people of the lower class are not given enough
scope to express their ideologies or thoughts within the narrative framework despite a few
glimpses into their dialogic exchanges. There is no voice of protest or reform within this novel
that might appear as a departure from the bourgeois revolutionism that Chattopadhyay advocated
generally. However, it has to be clearly understood that he did not center this novel around the
working class although he significantly thought and discussed about them elsewhere. This novel
particularly highlights the conflict between the individual perception with that of the social with
respect to notions of purity, chastity and profanity as well as between rebellion and a submissive
attitude to orthodox notions of society. The voice of the oppressed woman is given special
consideration— despite being aware of her problematised existence in a rural Bengal society and
the fact that she never attains happiness in her personal life, the novelist deliberately writes a
discourse upon her strong-willed consciousness and sense of revolt as well as a rooted sense of
values that make her an ideal yardstick for other characters. Chattopadhyay’s characters are
mostly drawn from rural or suburban life and society in Bengal, their class-consciousness and
cultural ethics highlighted vividly through their dialogic exchanges. This contributes to the
superb aesthetic, vividly colourful and subtly artistic ‘rasa’ evoked and expressed by the
narrative. Chattopadhyay has often been criticized as a “pakshalar sahityik” (very domestic
novelist) or half-heartedly acknowledged as a “writer of sweet tales” but this is a limiting view
upon his greatness as a litterateur. Any sense of false vanity, ego or abstract, ostentatious theory
absent in his narratives, with only a realistic rendition of the true essence, tune and complexities
Works Cited :
Chattopadhyay, Sarat Chandra. Srikanta (Vol. 1). Ed. Dr. Shuddhasatwa Basu. Kolkata: Ghosh &
Chatterjee, Chandrani. Translation Reconsidered: Culture, Genre and the “Colonial Encounter”
in Nineteenth Century Bengal. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009. Print
Ghosh, Shibdas. “An Evaluation of Saratchandra.” Shibdas Ghosh Internet Archive. Marxist
S., Sreenivasarao. “Of Poverty Literature and Sarat Chandra Chatterjee”. Sulekha.com. Sulekha,