Cold Preservation and Processing

I. History
A. Freezing and refrigeration among the oldest methods to preserve food.
B. Mechanical ammonia refrigeration systems for food preservation
developed in 1875.
C. In 1920s, Clarence Birdseye pioneered work in the production of frozen
foods.
D. Mechanical refrigeration in transient makes world trade of perishable
food commodities possible.
II. Freezing versus refrigeration
A. Cool storage (refrigeration): Usually from about 16?C to about -2?C
(most commercial and household refrigerators between 4.5 to 7?C).
Most foods do not freeze until about –2°C or lower.
B. Good frozen storage requires –18°C or lower.
III. Refrigeration and cool storage
A. The “gentlest methods” of food preservation, but works well with
perishable foods for only a short time period.
At 0?C, the shelf-life of perishable foods is usually <2 weeks.
At 5.5?C (more realistic temp. for home refrigerators), the shelf-life
is often <1 week.
At 22?C (~room temp.) these foods may spoil in a day or less.
B. Ideally, refrigeration is continuous from harvest/slaughter until
consumer purchase.
Most metabolically active fruits & vegetables require refrigeration to
remove “field heat” and slow down metabolism.
C. Principle requirements for effectiveness of refrigerated storage
1. Low temperature
Refrigerated storage rooms require sufficient refrigeration
capacity and insulation to maintain temp. ±1?C.
# of doors and factors causing the generation of heat are
important.
Different fruits & vegetables generate different levels of heat.
2. Air circulation and humidity control
Air circulation required to move heat away from food surface.
 Air too moist, surface condensation and mold growth are
possible; air too dry, and foods will dry out.
Each food has a characteristic optimal temperature and
relative humidity (RH) for storage; usually the best RH is
equivalent to the moisture content of the food itself.
Packaging can be used to lessen transfer of water into or out
of a food for prolonged storage periods.
3. Modification of gaseous atmospheres
Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage - modification of
storage or packaging atmosphere by vacuum, addition of
nitrogen or CO2, or any departure from composition of air.
Warehouses/truck trailers
Packages
Example: McIntosh apples are stored at 3?C, 87% RH and
an atmosphere of 3% oxygen & 3% CO2 for 1 month, then
5% CO2 (nitrogen makes up the balances). [On the other
hand, Delicious apples prefer storage at 0?C.]
Hypobaric storage - refrigerated storage under reduced
pressure and high RH (reduced pressure lowers oxygen
levels and high RH prevents product dehydration).
Such specialized storage conditions must be cost effective.
IV. Freezing and frozen storage
A. Freezing was a major factor in bringing convenience foods to the home
and restaurant; freezing offers maximal convenience and (if properly
done) minimal quality changes to the food.
B. Initial freezing point
1. Increasing the solute concentration of a solution lowers its
freezing point.
2. Thus different foods will freeze at different temperature and
different rates (heat transfer out of the food).
3. Food does not freeze uniformly (e.g., “water component” of food
freezes first and then the more concentrated solutions (higher and
higher in dissolved solids).
C. Changes during freezing
1. Concentration effects
For best quality, most foods must be solidly frozen,
otherwise may get:
lactose crystallization
broken fat emulsions
concentrated salts can denature proteins
 2. Ice crystal damage
When water freezes slowly, large ice crystals form (and
small crystals coalesce to create larger ones) that cause
physical rupture and separation of cells in food tissue.
Large ice crystals can also destabilize emulsions.
D. Rate of freezing - fast freezing is required for high quality.
The smaller the size of the ice crystal, the better.
Fast freezing minimizes concentration effects by decreasing the
time concentrated solutes are in contact with food tissues.
Commercial freezers designed for rapid freezing; plate freezers and
liquid-nitrogen freezers are very efficient.
Home freezers usually have the slowest freezing rates.
E. Final temperature
1. The factors affecting the choice of final temperature of freezing
are
textural changes, enzymatic and nonenzymatic chemical reactions,
microbiological changes, and costs.
2. These factors dictates an internal temperature of -18?C (0?F) or
lower and kept there throughout transport and storage; costs
generally makes transport and storage temperatures below -30?C
impractical.
3. A temperature of -18?C is well below the lowest growth
temperature for pathogens (3.3?C) and spoilage organisms (-9.5?
C).
4. Some enzymes retain activity down to -73?C, but reaction rates
are extremely slow; -18?C usually works well although for fruits and
vegetables, blanching may be done to inactivate stubborn enzymes
prior to freezing.
5. Frozen fish not very stable; at temperatures of -9 to -7?C, quality
may be retained for only days or weeks (depending on the product).

6. Most refrigerated trucks for transportation of frozen foods are not

capable of holding -18?C.
7. Supermarket display cases are usually above -18?C near the
top, but may be colder below.
F. Damage from intermittent thawing
1. Repeated freezing and thawing cycles are very detrimental to
stored foods.
2. Complete thawing not necessary to cause damage.
3. All commercial freezers have a measurable temperature cycle;
cycles are part of the control system.
 Not uncommon for a frozen storage chamber to go from its
maximum to its minimum and back again on a 2-h cycle.
4. A 3?C fluctuation above and below -18?C can be damaging to
many foods.
At -12?C thawing intensifies the concentration effect; upon
refreezing, water melted from small ice crystals tends to bathe
unmelted crystals, causing them to grow.
5. In the thawing of frozen foods, if thawing is slow, quality can
again suffer.
Eutectic mixture - is a solution of such composition that it freezes
(or thaws) as a complete mixture, rather than becoming more
concentrated due to further separation of pure ice.
Eutectic temperature (or eutectic point) - the temperature at which a
eutectic mixture is formed.
For example, a dilute solution of NaCl in water will first freeze out
pure water concentrating the NaCl. At -21?C, the mixture of 23%
NaCl and 77% water will freeze solid.
If thawing is slow, food components have more time to be in
contact with concentrated eutectic mixtures (which is not good).
V. Refrigeration requirements
A. Product’s refrigeration load = the quantity of heat that must be removed
to reduce the temperature of the product from its initial temperature to the
temperature consistent with good frozen food storage.
B. Load made up of three parts:
1. Heat removed to cool the food from its initial temperature to its
freezing point.
2. Cause a state of change at the freezing point.
3. Lower the temperature of the frozen product to the specified
storage temperature.
Can be calculated in calories, joules or British Thermal Units
(BTUs)
C. Heat
1. Different substances can absorb different amounts of heat =
different heat capacities.
2. Specific heat = ratio of heat capacity to that of water.
3. Two types of heat:sensible heat and latent heat.
a. Sensible heat is readily perceived by the sense of touch.
b. Latent heat is the quantity of heat required to change the state or
condition which a substance exists.
4. The specific and latent heats of foods are used to determine
refrigeration requirements for cooling, freezing, and storage.
D. Factors determining freezing rate = the driving force divided by the sum
of resistances to heat transfer.
Driving force is the temperature difference between the product and the
cooling medium.
E. Resistances that are dependent upon:
1. Air velocity (greater the velocity or degree of mixing, the greater
the degree of heat transfer).
2. Thickness of product.
3. Resistance to heat transfer of the food package - different
packaging materials have different degrees of resistance to heat
transfer.
4. Geometry/design of system
Degree of contact of cooling medium with food.
Extent of agitation.
Counter-current or same direction circulation of food and
cooling medium
5. Composition of the product
Food components have different thermal conductivities that
change with temperature.
The greater the conductivity, the greater the cooling and
freezing rates.
In the cooling and freezing temperature range, heat
conductivities change little until the phase change from water
to ice occurs.
Since the thermal conductivity of ice is far greater than that
of water, the thermal conductivity of food increases rapidly
as it passes from the unfrozen to the frozen state.
[Rates of cooling and freezing are not constant since thermal
conductivities change as water changes to ice.]
Fat and air have much lower thermal conductivities than
water, therefore high levels of fat or entrapped air reduce the
freezing rate.
An example showing how the physical structure of food
influences freezing rates.
If two food systems both contain 50% water and 50% fat; it
does matter if it’s an oil-in-water emulsion or a water-in-oil
emulsion (i.e., which one is the continuous phase).
[The oil-in-water emulsion (water is the continuous phase)
should have a greater thermal conductivity (should freeze at
a faster rate) than the corresponding water-in-oil emulsion
(oil is the continuous phase) of the same chemical
composition.]
 F. So in summary, the basic principles of freezing are:
1. Greater the temperature difference between food and refrigerant,
the faster the freezing rate.
2. Thinner the food piece or greater the heat transfer rate of the
food package, the faster the freezing rate.
3. Greater the velocity of refrigerated air or circulating refrigerant,
the faster the freezing rate.
4. More intimate the contact between food and cooling medium, the
faster the freezing rate.
5. Greater the refrigerating effect or heat capacity of the refrigerant,
the faster the freezing rate.
G. Examples of how substantial major variables on freezing rate can be.
1. Lowering air temperature in a tunnel-type freezer from -18 to
-30?C can shorten freezing time of small cakes from 40 min to ~20
min.
Spraying cakes with liquid nitrogen (at -196?C) cuts freezing time to
<2 min.
2. Small fish fillets or individual fruits will freeze in 3 h in still air at
-18?C, but increasing air velocity to 250 ft/min (1.25 m/sec) will
decrease freezing time to ~1 h.
Increasing air velocity further to 1,000 ft/min (5 m/sec) will drop the
freezing time to about 40 min.
[These variables do not affect freezing rate in a linearly.]
VI. Freezing Methods - Three basic freezing methods.
A. Freezing in air - Cold air with various degrees of velocity.
1. Types include:
a. Still-air “sharp” freezing to high-velocity blast freezer
tunnels.
b. Fluidized-bed freezing: Placement of high-velocity nozzles
underneath food on conveyor belt or tray whereby small food
portions are subdivided and moved by cold air.
2. Oldest and least expensive air freezing method (equipment-wise)
is still-air sharp freezing.
a. Food placed in cold, insulated room usually of -23 to -30?
C.
b. Originated in 1860.
c. Air circulation is mild (i.e., slow convection current).
3. Blast-air freezing operate at -30 to -45?C with forced air
velocities of 2,000-3,000 ft/min (10-15 m/sec).
 a. In comparison, a 30-pound container of eggs can take 72
h
to be frozen in a sharp freezer, but 12-18 h in a blast freezer.

b. Blast freezers range from rooms to tunnels (with conveyor

belts or cart racks moving food through).
c. Design can be horizonal or vertical.
d. IQF = individual quick frozen (food frozen individually,
usually with fluidized bed freezing, clusters are
disaggregated, and food packaged under cold air, such as
shrimp or peas).
e. Counter-current air flow often used: Coldest air first
contacts already frozen food as it leaves freezer; this makes
freezing progressive.
f. Freezer burn and high-velocity blast freezers:
Unwrapped food in cold blast zone will lose moisture
(whether in process of freezing or already frozen) that
results in frosting over of refrigerated coils or plates
requiring defrosting, or freezer burn.
Freezer burn = sublimation or a form of freeze-drying;
producing undesirable food surfaces, nutrient loss,
and other defects.
To minimize freezer burn:
Method One - Food is prechilled (with high-
humidity air at ~ -4?C), thus partially frozen
food undergoes minimum moisture loss; then
prechilled food is quickly finish-frozen allowing
only minimum time for food to lose more
moisture.
Method Two - Wet unpackaged food pieces
prechilled to freeze a thin ice glaze around
each piece; then glazed food quickly finish-
frozen, the glaze protecting underlying food
from freezer burn.
[Packaged frozen foods minimize freezer burn
and frosted coils.]
B. Freezing by indirect contact with the refrigerant.
1. Food or food package is in contact with a surface (e.g.,
plates, trays, belts, or other cold walls) that is cooled by a
refrigerant, but there is no direct contact between food and
refrigerant.
2. Example: Liquid foods and purees that are pumped
through a cold wall heat exchanger and frozen to a slush
 condition, and preformed hamburger patties.
3. Efficiency is dependent on the degree of contact between
the plates and food (e.g., small air spaces will slow rate of
freezing).
4. Tubular scraped-surface heat exchangers used (see Fig.
8.12), with refrigerant rather than steam on the side of the
wall opposite the food; normally frozen to a slush then
pumped to a package, sealed, and hard-frozen in an blast or
immersion-type freezer.
C. Freezing by direct immersion in a refrigerating medium.
1. Done by submerging the food or spraying cold liquid onto
the food or package surface, resulting in:
a. intimate contact and effective heat transfer (good
for irregularly shaped foods, e.g., mushrooms and
shrimp),
b. minimum contact with air which is desirable for
foods sensitive to oxidation,
c. high-speed freezing and extremely high quality.
2. Refrigerants must be nontoxic, pure, clean, and free from
foreign tastes, odors, colors or bleaching agents; for
packaged foods, the package should not be damaged.
3. Two types of immersion refrigerants are:
a. Low-freezing-point liquids, such as solutions of
sugars, NaCl, and glycerol.
Must be used at a sufficient concentration to
stay liquid at -18?C or lower; 23% brine can
reach -21?C (which is used for freezing fish at
sea).
These are chilled by indirect contact with
another refrigerant.
Immersion freezing is usually limited to
packaged foods due to problems of
undesirable flavor transfer or other sensory
issues.
b. Cryogenic liquids, such as compressed liquid
nitrogen and liquid carbon dioxide (-79?C).
Liquid nitrogen preferred because of its
extremely low temperature, nontoxic and inert
nature to foods, and displacement of air that
can minimize oxidation effect; major
 disadvantage is its cost.
When used, liquid nitrogen usually sprayed
onto food and final desirable temperature of
food is -45?C which is normally attainable in 1-
3 min.
For cryogenic freezing with carbon dioxide,
powdered dry ice (CO2) can be mixed with the
food to be frozen, or liquid carbon dioxide can
be sprayed under high pressure onto the food.
Although not as cold as liquid nitrogen, carbon
dioxide can offer economic advantages.
VII. Packaging considerations.
A. Packaging for frozen foods should prevent the passage of water vapor.
B. Due to expansion of foods with freezing (as much as 10% of volume),
packages should be strong and flexible.
C. Since foods may be stored for years, packaging should prevent transfer
of light and air.
D. Since frozen foods are commonly thawed in their package, the
packaging should be liquid-tight to avoid leakage.