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Attention and imagery in sport

definitions and types of attention and Kahneman (1973) The capacity

imagery theory of attention

Nideffer (1976) Attentional Styles

Model
attention: measures, styles and
strategies

Nideffer Test of Attentional and

Interpersonal Style (TAIS)

imagery and mental practice Hall et al (1990) The use of imagery

by athletes
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(i) Definitions and types of attention and imagery

When investigating sporting performance it is essential to consider the role of

mental processes or ‘cognitive skills’. These include skills such as attentional
style, selective attention and imagery. Sports psychologists are interested in
exploring how these skills are different in athletes of different skill levels. The
differences suggest that cognitive skills are an important influence on
performance.

Attention is the concentration of mental effort.

There is a vast amount of sensory information coming into the brain at any one
time. It is not possible for the human brain to fully process all this information at
once.

Sports psychologists have researched two types of attention – selective

attention and attentional capacity.

Selective Attention refers to the process of picking out and focussing on

information. Information not selected is filtered out. It seems that we cannot
attend to two lots of similar information when presented at a time. Our ability to
be able to select or focus is useful in the sport situation.

Attentional Capacity refers to the amount of information that we can attend to at

any one time. This is described by Kahneman below.

Kahneman (1973) developed the capacity theory of attention. He proposed

that there is a limited amount of attentional capacity available at any one time.
He proposed the notion of a central allocation policy, which divides attention so it
can meet the demands being made on it at any one time. This allocation of
attentional resources occurs continuously, because demands, and their
importance to us, are constantly changing.

The attentional capacity that we have at any one time is related to our level of
arousal. Kahneman proposed that when we are lethargic our capacity is low, but
it increases as arousal increases. This partly explains the value of arousal to
effective performance. However, if arousal continues to increase it begins to
have a damaging effect and research within sport psychology has contributed to
our understanding of what happens.
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For example research suggests into arousal, attention and performance, has
found that at a low level of arousal the performer picks up both appropriate and
inappropriate cues. At this level, the performer has a broad attentional field,
and will not perform well. As arousal increases, the athletes attention narrows
and the irrelevant cues are ignored. This attentional narrowing enables the
athlete to focus on relevant cues and therefore performs well.

However if arousal continues, attention continues to narrow and performance will

deteriorate.

However we need to be aware that although the effects of narrowing creates a

handicap say for a footballer, who needs to be aware of all that is happening
around her, it is advantageous to the gymnast because a narrow attentional
focus enables him to shut out distractions.

Imagery

Imagery can be defined as the use of visualisation to imagine situations.

Two types of imagery have been identified – internal imagery and external
imagery.

Internal imagery is when you imagine yourself doing something and thus
experience the sensations involved in carrying out that act, for example, athletes
preparing themselves for field events such as javelin.

External imagery is imagining seeing yourself doing something as though you are
watching yourself carrying out the act on film, for example, Formula 1 racing
drivers rehearsing the route before a race.
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(ii) Attention: measures, styles and strategies;

In order to investigate attentional style further and identify any individual

differences between attentional styles, Nideffer developed an Attentional Styles
Model (1976). He proposed that attentional style varied along two dimensions:

• width (broad or narrow)

• direction (internal or external)

According to Nideffer, width ranged from broad (taking in a wide range of cues
from the surrounding environment) to narrow (focusing upon only a limited range
of factors). Direction varied from internal (attention is focused on factors/feelings
within your own body) to external (attention is more focused on events or objects
outside of the body).

Nideffer, therefore, was suggesting that there are four types of attentional style,
which are shown in the table below.

External Internal
Broad Broad-external Broad-internal

(can be used in any sport (would be used by

to check the positions of coaches and can be used
other player) for planning tactics or
strategies)

Narrow Narrow-external Narrow-internal

(a style that is useful for (Often used for

sports requiring endurance sports players
concentration e.g. golf) such as weightlifters.
Good for controlling
anxiety)

A broad-external attentional style is useful when players want to take in a large

amount of information, while having a broad-internal attentional style is useful for
planning and analysing previous performances. A narrow-external attentional
style is appropriate for activities that require concentration, possibly on an object
or ball, and a narrow-internal attentional style is useful for mental rehearsal or for
performing strength or endurance tasks.
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All of these attentional focuses can be useful on different occasions and relying
on only one can lead to problems. Therefore, ideally, a sports player should be
able to switch between the different attentional styles, depending on the
requirements of each particular situation.

Nideffer also introduced the notion of cognitive overload, which occurs when an
individual has too much information to process at any one time. He argues that
changes in arousal levels can lead to changes in attention and concentration.
Consequently, performance may be affected in a number of ways. For example,
the sports player scans the field less often and other players may then take that
player by surprise; a player may attend to the wrong cues, such as the crowd,
which will again lead to a decrease in performance.
Nideffer also classified people as either effective or ineffective attenders.

Effective attenders:
• do not become overloaded
• can deal with several pieces of information simultaneously
• can easily switch between the different attentional styles.

Ineffective attenders:
• do not concentrate well
• tend to become overloaded and confused
• cannot narrow their attention effectively, it is either narrowed too much or not
enough.

There are three main ways of measuring attention; behavioural observation,

physiological measures and self report methods.

1 Behavioural observation: where the measure used is generally reaction time

2 Physiological indicators: this would be carried out in the same way as the
measurement of arousal. For example, testing blood pressure, heart or
breathing rate.

3 Self-report measures: most commonly in the form of a questionnaire such as

Nideffer’s Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS).

Robert Nideffer, using college students as his subjects, developed a self-report

inventory called the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS).
This has 17 variables, of which six subscales measure attentional processes.
High scores on broad-external (BET), broad-internal (BIT) and narrow effective
focus (NAR) reflect positive attentional traits. High
scores on overload of external information (OET), overload of internal information
(OIT) and reduced attention (RED) reflect negative attentional traits.
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However the TAIS has been criticised by other psychologists as having

insufficient predictive validity (scores on the test do not enable predictions to be
made about the future performance of an individual).

Nideffer has retaliated by stating that it is a personality inventory that may

generate some useful information about attentional style. Landers (1985) found
the TAIS to be an unreliable predictor of sporting performance and suggested
that this type of research should rely less on questionnaires and make greater
use of behavioural and physiological measures.

In view of the criticisms that have been made about the TAIS, it is worth
considering why it seems not to predict performance. One possible reason is that
it is not sport- or situation-specific, thus other psychologists have since tried to
develop self-report measures of attentional style that are more directly related to
sport and in some cases specifically for one particular sport. These have been
found to have greater predictive validity than the TAIS. For example, Van Schoyk
and Grasha (1981) developed the tennis TAIS (T-TAIS) and gave both Nideffer’s
original TAIS and their T-TAIS to 90 tennis players, with an equal number of male
and female players. They found that the tennis-specific test had better predictive
validity and greater test-retest reliability.
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(iii) Imagery and mental practice.

Imagery can be defined as the use of visualisation to imagine situations.

Two types of imagery have been identified – internal imagery and external
imagery.

Internal imagery is when you imagine yourself doing something and thus
experience the sensations involved in carrying out that act, for example, athletes
preparing themselves for field events such as javelin.

External imagery is imagining seeing yourself doing something as though you

are watching yourself carrying out the act on film, for example, Formula 1 racing
drivers rehearsing the route before a race.

Imagery or mental training is particularly effective for skills with a large cognitive
component, for example, those requiring a long sequence, such as gymnastics
and those involving decision-making and strategies.

There are a number of possible reasons why this type of situation might lead to
the optimum utilisation of imagery:

• It enables the performer to try out different strategies and correct faults by
replaying the events in their own mind.
• The sportsperson is able to practice their performance without the risk of public
failure.
• Using imagery avoids the arousal caused by performing in front of others and
thus prevents this having a detrimental effect on performance.
• Imagery may allow an injured sports player to keep on top of their skills when
they are unable to perform.
• The neuromuscular system is slightly activated when using imagery and it is
therefore a weak form of physical training.

Some research indicates that imagery does improve sporting performance, for
example the study by Hall, Rodgers and Barr (1990) investigated the use of
imagery by athletes.

Hall et al. aimed too investigate the use of imagery across a variety of sports.
They studied sports players, of differing skill levels, from a range of six different
sports. In order to measure use of imagery in sport, the researchers questioned
(using the Imagery Use Questionnaire) sports players from six different sports:
football, ice-hockey, squash, gymnastics, skating and American football. The
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players were also categorised according to their skill level in an attempt to

identify any link between skill level and imagery.

The general findings were that sports players used imagery extensively,
particularly in competitions, and that they visualized themselves winning, never
losing. They found that internal and external imagery were used equally among
all players. However, as skill level increased so did the use of imagery.

This study therefore illustrates that the use of imagery in sport is widespread and
possibly improves with practice, as the more skilful players used imagery more
frequently.

Research has shown that imagery skills can be improved through training

There are a number of ways that imagery skills can be developed, these include
the following:
• Develop vivid images, using colour, and if possible draw on past experiences to
help develop the image.
• Make use of as many senses as possible. Imagine seeing the ball, feeling the
shot, hearing the crowd.
• Experiment with internal and external imagery and find which works best. It is
possible to use a combination of both.
• Believe in the usefulness of imagery and it will be more effective.
• Evaluate the use of imagery and, where necessary, make alterations to the
techniques.
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Part A

1(a) Describe one way attention has been measured in sport. [6]

(b) Evaluate the methods used to measure attention in sport. [10]

Part B

2 (a) Outline what psychologists have learned about attention and imagery in sport [10]

(b) Evaluate what psychologists have learned about attention and imagery in sport. [16]

(c) Suggest how imagery and mental practice could help high-jumpers improve their
own performance. Give reasons for your answer. [8]