TECHNICAL ANSWERS FOR REAL WORLD PROBLEMS

(MEE3999) ASSESSMENT-4

SUBMITTED TO- PROF. SITARAM DASH

NAME - HIMANSHU KHANDELWAL
REGISTRATION NO. - 16BME0897
SLOT- TF1 (MB-110)

1. Discuss thermal spray processes used in Industry to meet Surface Engineering needs.
Discuss the role of turbulent momentum transfer in coating formation?

Ans) In the simplest terms possible, thermal spray coating involves heating a material in powder or
wire form to a molten or semi-molten state. The material is propelled using a stream of gas or
compressed air to deposit it, creating a surface structure on a given substrate. The coating material
may consist of a single element, but is often an alloy or composite with unique physical properties
that are only achievable through the thermal spray process.

Generally speaking, thermal sprayed coatings are a highly cost effective way to add superior
performance qualities to a given substrate. The variations on this technical theme are virtually
limitless. Coatings can be metallic, ceramic, plastic, or any combination desired to meet a broad
range of physical criteria.
Thermal sprayed coatings can be the most cost-effective means of protecting substrate surfaces from
wear or corrosion. Other primary uses of thermal sprayed coatings include dimensional restoration,
maintaining precise clearances, and modifying thermal and electrical properties.

The coating materials can be applied using several different processes. Thermal coating methods
utilize fuel combustion, plasma spray and electric arc delivery systems. Coatings can be applied
under standard atmospheric conditions or in specialized, highly controlled atmospheric
environments – even under water! Coatings can be applied manually or with the automated
precision of software-driven robotics. Many industries use our coatings to extend product life,
increase performance and reduce production and maintenance costs.

Thermal spray processes are classified through:

 Feed stock material
 Thermal Energy source
 Kinetic Energy produce
Different types of Thermal spray processes used for surface engineering needs are-

I. Flame Powder Spray

Flame Powder Spray has been serving industries for decades with economical, reliable surfaces.
Relatively low initial investment cost makes this an ideal process for entry level thermal spray
coating.

Theory of Operation:

The Powder Flame Spray process is similar to the Wire Flame Spray process except that is has the
advantage of using powdered materials as the coating feedstock. This offers a much wider range of
coating material options than the Wire Flame Spray process. In addition, the use of powder allows
for a greater degree of freedom for spray gun manipulation. The spray material in powdered form
is fed continually into a fuel gas oxygen flame where it is typically melted by the heat of
combustion. A powder feed carrier gas transports the powder particles into the combustion flame,
and the mixed gases transport the material towards the prepared work piece surface. Typical
choices for fuel gases are acetylene or hydrogen.

II. Flame Wire Spray

Wire Flame Spray is the earliest thermal spray processes to be developed, with its usefulness
enduring even today. A low initial investment cost makes this an ideal process for entry level
thermal spray coating. Easily transported for on-site applications makes wire flame spray a
favorite for infrastructure corrosion applications, such as bridgework.
Theory of Operation:

The spray material in wire form is fed continually into a fuel gas-oxygen flame where it is melted
by the heat of that combustion. Compressed air surrounds the flame and atomizes the molten tip of
the wire. This accelerates the spray of molten particles towards the prepared work piece surface.
Typical choices for fuel gases are acetylene, propane, hydrogen or MAPP.

III. Arc wire spray

Simple, Fast and Economical. The simplicity of this process, which uses electricity and compressed
air, and the speed at which is applies coatings without fuel gas are the hallmarks of electric wire
arc spraying.

Theory of Operation:
Arc Wire Spray uses two metallic wires as the coating feedstock. The two wires are electrically
charged with opposing polarity and are fed into the arc gun at matched, controlled speeds. When
the wires are brought together at the nozzle of the (spray gun), the opposing charges on the wires
create enough heat to continuously melt the tips of the wires. Compressed air is used to atomize
the now molten material and accelerate it onto the workpiece surface to form the coating. In arc
wire spray, the weight of coating that can be deposited per unit of time is a function of the
electrical power (amperage) of the system and the density and melting point of the wire.

IV. Air (atmospheric) Plasma Spray

Versatile. Only one word is necessary to describe what plasma spray apply the widest variety of
coating materials, by far, of any thermal spray process for an unlimited number of applications.
Plasma spray performs where other processes cannot and is the best choice for facilities where
many different surfaces must be applied. A superb choice for high-quality ceramic coatings. Plasma
spray produces high-performance coatings that deliver workhorse durability and reliability.

Theory of Operation:

Plasma Spray is perhaps the most flexible of all of the thermal spray processes as it can develop
sufficient energy to melt any material. Since it uses powder as the coating feedstock, the number of
coating materials that can be used in the plasma spray process is almost unlimited. The plasma
gun incorporates a cathode (electrode) and an anode (nozzle) separated by a small gap forming a
chamber between the two. DC power is applied to the cathode and arcs across to the anode. At the
same time, gases are passed through the chamber. The powerful arc is sufficient to strip the gases
of their electrons and the state of matter known as plasma is formed. As the unstable plasma
recombines back to the gaseous state thermal energy is released.

V. High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF) Spray

Tenacious. Durable. Tough. HVOF produces premium quality hard, dense coatings exhibiting high
adhesion to the substrate and excellent wear resistance for extended component longevity and
profitability.
Theory of Operation:
The HVOF process efficiently uses high kinetic energy and controlled thermal output to produce
dense, very low porosity coatings that exhibit very high bond strengths (some exceeding 12,000
PSI or 83 MPa), low oxides and extremely fine as-sprayed finishes. The coatings have low residual
internal stresses and can be sprayed to thicknesses not normally associated with dense, thermal
sprayed coatings. The process uses an oxygen-fuel mixture. Depending on user requirements,
propylene, propane, hydrogen, natural gas or liquid fuel may be used as the fuel.

VI. Cold Spray

Cold spray can be considered as a new “HVOF” technology were the kinetic energy is increased
while the thermal energy is lowered. With Cold Spray is possible to spray virtually oxide free
coatings. The coating material particles are being accelerated in a heated gas stream
(600°C/1112°F), up to a particle velocity of >1000 m/s. The extreme high particle velocity in
combination with the low particle temperature results in very dense and oxide free coatings.
Applications are found in the automotive industry, corrosion protection and electronics industry.

Theory of Operation:
The cold spray process efficiently uses high kinetic gas jet with limited thermal output to produce
dense, very low porosity coatings that exhibit very high bonding and lowest oxides levels. Cold gas
spraying is a coating deposition method using a supersonic gas jet to accelerate a ductile spherical
 powder to velocities up to 500–1000 m/s. During impact with the substrate, particles undergo
plastic deformation and adhere to the surface.

 The role of turbulent momentum transfer in coating formation is-

In contrast to plasma spraying, the role of momentum and mass transfer is-
• Fast cameras showing the transient behavior of plasma jets that act like a piston flow. This
behavior is mainly controlled by the arc root fluctuations at the anode wall. They depend on the
thickness of the boundary layer between the plasma column and the anode-nozzle internal
diameter. Even if this piston flow is not taken into account in the k–ε models used to model plasma
jets they give a good trend of the jet behavior with the torch working parameters. The agreement
is especially good if the inlet velocity and temperature profiles are measured.

• Devices to measure in flight the key microscopic parameters: particle trajectory, velocity,
temperature and diameter. It is worth underlining that such devices use more and more imaging
techniques. Such set-ups have been simplified to determine the same parameters in the harsh
environment of spray booths. They are now the basis of on-line monitoring of the spray process
and works are in progress to transform them in on-line control with a feedback to the input
macroscopic parameters (arc current, gas flow rates and composition, etc.).

2. Briefly describe thermal barrier coating (TBC) architecture in low bypass turbofan
engines? Suggest a technique to deposit TBC overlay.

Ans) Thermal barrier coating-

Thermal barrier coatings (TBC) are advanced materials systems usually applied to metallic surfaces,
such as on gas turbine or aero-engine parts, operating at elevated temperatures, as a form of exhaust
heat management. These 100 μm to 2 mm coatings serve to insulate components from large and
prolonged heat loads by utilizing thermally insulating materials which can sustain an
appreciable temperature difference between the load-bearing alloys and the coating surface.[1] In
doing so, these coatings can allow for higher operating temperatures while limiting the thermal
exposure of structural components, extending part life by reducing oxidation and thermal fatigue. In
conjunction with active film cooling, TBCs permit working fluid temperatures higher than the
melting point of the metal airfoil in some turbine applications. Due to increasing demand for higher
engine operation (efficiency increases at higher temperatures), better durability/lifetime, and
thinner coatings to reduce parasitic weight for rotating/moving components, there is significant
motivation to develop new and advanced TBCs.

Structure-

An effective TBC needs to meet certain requirements to perform well in aggressive thermo-
mechanical environments.[2] To deal with thermal expansion stresses during heating and cooling,
adequate porosity is needed, as well as appropriate matching of thermal expansion coefficients with
the metal surface that the TBC is coating. Phase stability is required to prevent significant volume
changes (which occur during phase changes), which would cause the coating to crack or spall. In air-
breathing engines, oxidation resistance is necessary, as well as decent mechanical properties for
rotating/moving parts or parts in contact. Therefore, general requirements for an effective TBC can
be summarize as needing: 1) a high melting point. 2) no phase transformation between room
temperature and operating temperature. 3) low thermal conductivity. 4) chemical inertness. 5)
similar thermal expansion match with the metallic substrate. 6) good adherence to the substrate. 7)
low sintering rate for a porous microstructure. These requirements severely limit the number of
materials that can be used, with ceramic materials usually being able to satisfy the required
properties.
Thermal barrier coatings typically consist of four layers: the metal substrate, metallic bond coat,
thermally-grown oxide (TGO), and ceramic topcoat. The ceramic topcoat is typically composed
of yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) which is desirable for having very low conductivity while
remaining stable at nominal operating temperatures typically seen in applications. This ceramic
layer creates the largest thermal gradient of the TBC and keeps the lower layers at a lower
temperature than the surface. However, above 1200 °C, YSZ suffers from unfavorable phase
transformations, going from t'-tetragonal to tetragonal to cubic to monoclinic. Such phase
transformations lead to crack formation within the top coating. Recent advancements in finding an
alternative for YSZ ceramic topcoat identified many novel ceramics (rare earth zirconates) having
superior performance at temperatures above 1200 °C, however with inferior fracture toughness
compared to that of YSZ. In addition, such zirconates may have a high concentration of oxygen ion
vacancies, which may facilitate oxygen transport and exacerbate the formation of the TGO. With a
large enough TGO, spalling of the coating may occur, which is a catastrophic mode of failure for
TBCs. The use of such coatings would require addition coatings that are more oxidation resistant,
such as alumina or mullite.
The bond-coat is an oxidation-resistant metallic layer which is deposited directly on top of the metal
substrate. It is typically 75-150 μm thick and made of a NiCrAlY or NiCoCrAlY alloy, though other
bond coats made of Ni and Pt aluminides also exist. The primary purpose of the bond-coat is to
protect the metal substrate from oxidation and corrosion, particularly from oxygen and corrosive
elements that pass through the porous ceramic top-coat.
At peak operating conditions found in gas-turbine engines with temperatures in excess of 700 °C,
oxidation of the bond-coat leads to the formation of a thermally-grown oxide (TGO) layer. Formation
of the TGO layer is inevitable for many high-temperature applications, so thermal barrier coatings
are often designed so that the TGO layer grows slowly and uniformly. Such a TGO will have a
structure that has a low diffusivity for oxygen, so that further growth is controlled by diffusion of
metal from the bond-coat rather than the diffusion of oxygen from the top-coat.
The TBC can also be locally modified at the interface between the bondcoat and the thermally grown
oxide so that it acts as a thermographic phosphor, which allows for remote temperature
measurement.
 Some techniques to deposit TBC overlay by giving example of material type-
YSZ
YSZ is the most widely studied and used TBC because it provides excellent performance in
applications such as diesel engines and gas turbines.

Additionally, it was one of the few refractory oxides that could be deposited as thick films using the
then-known technology of plasma spraying.As for properties, it has low thermal conductivity, high
thermal expansion coefficient, and low thermal shock resistance. However, it has a fairly low
operating limit of 1200C due to phase instability, and can corrode due to its oxygen transparency.
Mullite
Mullite is a compound of alumina and silica, with the formula 3Al2O3-2SiO2. It has a low density,
along with good mechanical properties, high thermal stability, low thermal conductivity, and is
corrosion and oxidation resistant.

However, it suffers from crystallization and volume contraction above 800C, which leads to cracking
and delamination. Therefore, this material is suitable as a zirconia alternative for applications such
as diesel engines, where surface temperatures are relatively low and temperature variations across
the coating may be large.
Alumina
Only α-phase Al2O3 is stable among aluminum oxides. With a high hardness and chemical inertness,
but high thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion coefficient, alumina is often used as an
addition to an existing TBC coating. By incorporating alumina in YSZ TBC, oxidation and corrosion
resistance can be improved, as well as hardness and bond strength without significant change in
the elastic modulus or toughness.

One challenge with alumina is applying the coating through plasma spraying, which tends to create a
variety of unstable phases, such as γ-alumina. When these phases eventually transform into the
stable α-phase through thermal cycling, a significant volume change of ~15% (γ to α) follows, which
can lead to microcrack formation in the coating.
CeO2 + YSZ
CeO2 (Ceria) has a higher thermal expansion coefficient and lower thermal conductivity than YSZ.
Adding ceria into a YSZ coating can significantly improve the TBC performance, especially in thermal
shock resistance. This is most likely due to less bond coat stress due to better insulation and a better
net thermal expansion coefficient. Some negative effects of the addition of ceria include the decrease
of hardness and accelerated rate of sintering of the coating (less porous).
Rare-earth zirconates
La2Zr2O7, also referred to as LZ, is an example of a rare-earth zirconate that shows potential for use
as a TBC. This material is phase stable up to its melting point and can largely tolerate vacancies on
any of its sublattices.

Along with the ability for site-substitution with other elements, this means that thermal properties
could potentially be tailored. Although it also has very low thermal conductivity compared to YSZ, it
also has a low thermal expansion coefficient and low toughness.
Rare earth oxides
The mixture of rare earth oxides is readily available, cheap, and may have promise as effective TBCs.
The coatings of rare earth oxides (ex: La2O3, Nb2O5, Pr2O3, CeO2 as main phases) have lower
thermal conductivity and higher thermal expansion coefficients when compared to YSZ.

The main challenge to overcome is the polymorphic nature of most rare earth oxides at elevated
temperatures, as phase instability tends to negatively impact thermal shock resistance.
Metal-Glass Composites
A powder mixture of metal and normal glass can be plasma-sprayed in vacuum, with a suitable
composition resulting in a TBC comparable to YSZ. Additionally, metal-glass composites have
superior bond-coat adherence, higher thermal expansion coefficients, and no open porosity, which
prevents oxidation of the bond-coat.

In order to improve the hot corrosion resistance of conventional YSZ TBC system, the overlay of
Al2O3 coating was deposited on the TBC by EB-PVD techniques. Hot corrosion tests were carried out
on the TBC with and without Al2O3 coating in molten salts mixtures (Na2SO4 + 5%V2O5) at 950o C
for 10h. The microstructures of TBC and overlay before and after exposure were examined by means
of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX) and X-ray
diffraction (XRD).

3. How is particle propulsion achieved in Detonation Gun Sprayed coatings? Give an

example of application of D-Gun sprayed coatings?

ANS) Detonation Gun Spraying

D-gun spray process is a thermal spray coating process, which gives an extremely good adhesive
strength, low porosity and coating surface with compressive residual stresses . A precisely measured
quantity of the combustion mixture consisting of oxygen and acetylene is fed through a tubular
barrel closed at one end. In order to prevent the possible back firing a blanket of nitrogen gas is
allowed to cover the gas inlets. Simultaneously, a predetermined quantity of the coating powder is
fed into the combustion chamber.

The gas mixture inside the chamber is ignited by a simple spark plug. The combustion of the gas
mixture generates high pressure shock waves (detonation wave), which then propagate through the
gas stream. Depending upon the ratio of the combustion gases, the temperature of the hot gas
stream can go up to 4000 dig C and the velocity of the shock wave can reach 3500m/sec. The hot
gases generated in the detonation chamber travel down the barrel at a high velocity and in the
process heat the particles to a plasticizing stage (only skin melting of particle) and also accelerate
the particles to a velocity of 1200m/sec.

These particles then come out of the barrel and impact the component held by the manipulator to
form a coating. The high kinetic energy of the hot powder particles on impact with the substrate
result in a buildup of a very dense and strong coating. The coating thickness developed on the work
piece per shot depends on the ratio of combustion gases, powder particle size, carrier gas flow rate,
frequency and distance between the barrel end and the substrate.

An example of application of D-Gun sprayed coatings-

Depending on the required coating thickness and the type of coating material the detonation
spraying cycle can be repeated at the rate of 1-10 shots per second. The chamber is finally flushed
with nitrogen again to remove all the remaining “hot” powder particles from the chamber as these
can otherwise detonate the explosive mixture in an irregular fashion and render the whole process
uncontrollable. With this, one detonation cycle is completed above procedure is repeated at a
particular frequency until the required thickness of coating is deposited.
 Detonation Gun process. The chamber is finally flushed with nitrogen again to remove all the
remaining “hot” powder particles from the chamber as these can otherwise detonate the explosive
mixture in an irregular fashion and render the whole process uncontrollable. With this, one
detonation cycle is completed above procedure is repeated at a particular frequency until the
required thickness of coating is deposited.

4. Comment upon microstructure of coatings formed by air plasma spray (APS). Discuss the
mechanism of coating formation.

ANS) Thermal spraying techniques are coating processes in which melted (or heated) materials are
sprayed onto a surface. The "feedstock" (coating precursor) is heated by electrical (plasma).

Thermal spraying can provide thick coatings approx. thickness range is 20 microns to several mm,
over a large area at high deposition rate as compared to other coating processes such
as electroplating, physical and chemical vapor deposition.

In plasma spraying process, the material to be deposited (feedstock) — typically as a powder,

sometimes as a liquid,[2] suspension [3] or wire — is introduced into the plasma jet, emanating from
a plasma torch. In the jet, where the temperature is on the order of 10,000 K, the material is melted
and propelled towards a substrate. There, the molten droplets flatten, rapidly solidify and form a
deposit. Commonly, the deposits remain adherent to the substrate as coatings; free-standing parts
can also be produced by removing the substrate. There are a large number of technological
parameters that influence the interaction of the particles with the plasma jet and the substrate and
therefore the deposit properties. These parameters include feedstock type, plasma gas composition
and flow rate, energy input, torch offset distance, substrate cooling, etc.

Deposit properties
The deposits consist of a multitude of pancake-like 'splats' called lamellae, formed by flattening of
the liquid droplets. As the feedstock powders typically have sizes from micrometers to above 100
micrometers, the lamellae have thickness in the micrometer range and lateral dimension from
several to hundreds of micrometers. Between these lamellae, there are small voids, such as pores,
cracks and regions of incomplete bonding. As a result of this unique structure, the deposits can have
properties significantly different from bulk materials. These are generally mechanical properties,
such as lower strength and modulus, higher strain tolerance, and lower thermal and electrical
conductivity. Also, due to the rapid solidification, metastable phases can be present in the deposits.
During the spray process, feed powder particles are injected into a plasma flame, melted and
accelerated towards a substrate where they impact to form a coating.

Such processes are used to achieve surface modification of substrates.

The high particle temperatures and speeds achieved result in significant droplet deformation on
impact at a surface, producing thin layers or lamellae, often called “splats,” that conform and adhere
to the substrate surface. Solidified droplets build up rapidly, particle by particle, as a continuous
stream of droplets impact to form continuous rapidly solidified layers. Individual splats are
generally thin (~1 to 20 µm), and each droplet cools at very high rates (>106 K/s for metals) to form
uniform, very fine-grained, polycrystalline coatings or deposits.Sprayed deposits usually contain
some level of porosity, typically between 0 and ~10%, some unmelted or partially melted particles,
fully melted and deformed “splats,” metastable phases, and oxidation from entrained air.

Feedstock is usually in powdered form with a distribution of particle sizes. When these powdered
materials are fed into the plume, portions of the powder distribution take preferred paths according
to their inertia. As a result, some particles may be completely unmelted and can create porosity or
become trapped as “unmelts” in the coating.

The microstructure includes partially melted particles and dark oxide inclusions that are
characteristic of many metallic coatings sprayed in air. Such coatings exhibit characteristic lamellar
microstructures, with the long axis of the impacted splats oriented parallel to the substrate surface,
together with a distribution of similarly oriented oxides. Coating oxide content varies with the
process—wire arc, plasma, or HVOF.

Oxides may increase coating hardness and wear resistance and may provide lubricity. Conversely,
excessive and continuous oxide networks can lead to cohesive failure of a coating and contribute to
excessive wear debris. Oxides can also reduce corrosion resistance.

Coating Characterization

Depending on the application of the coating, different characteristics are important but there are
some characteristics which are the same for all applications: coating thickness, porosity, structure,
presence of unmelted particles and oxide inclusions, microhardness and bond strength. Coating
characteristics are very dependent on spray parameters. According to some researchers [12], there
are more than 50 macroscopic parameters that influence the quality of the coating and the
production of coating is still based on trial and error approach. The resultant coating is a composite
of the alloy with oxides formed during deposition. Presence of the FeO (wustite) and Fe3O4
(magnetite) oxides, as solid lubricants, improves the tribological properties of the coating. The
formation of Fe2O3 (hematite) oxide should be avoided, because it is abrasive. The residual porosity
of the plasma coating should help to reduce the coefficient of friction through a micro-cavity
lubrication system, where micro-cavity serves as a lubricant reservoir allowing improved
lubrication process.

Porosity may be beneficial in tribological applications through retention of lubricating oil films.
Porosity also is beneficial in coatings on biomedical implants. Lamellar oxide layers can also lead to
lower wear and friction due to the lubricity of some oxides. The porosity of thermal spray coatings is
typically 5% by volume. The retention of some unmelted and/or resolidified particles can lead to
lower deposit cohesive strengths, especially in the case of “as-sprayed” materials with no
postdeposition heat treatment or fusion.
Other key features of thermal spray deposits are their generally very fine grain structures and
columnar orientation (Fig. 1b). Thermal-sprayed metals, for example, have reported grain sizes of
less than 1 µm prior to postdeposition heat treatment. Grain structure across an individual splat
normally ranges from 10 to 50 µm, with typical grain diameters of 0.25 to 0.5 µm, owing to the high
cooling rates achieved (~106 K/s).

Tensile Strength

The tensile strengths of as-sprayed deposits can range from 10 to 60% of those of cast or wrought
materials, depending on the spray process used. Spray conditions leading to higher oxide levels and
lower deposit densities result in the lowest strengths. Controlled-atmosphere spraying leads to
~60% strength, but requires postdeposition heat treatment to achieve near 100% values. Low as-
sprayed strengths are related somewhat to limited intersplat diffusion and limited grain
recrystallization during the rapid solidification characteristic of thermal spray processes. The
primary factor limiting adhesion and cohesion is residual stress resulting from rapid solidification of
the splats. Accumulated residual stress also limits thickness buildup.

The conventional plasma spray process is commonly referred to as air or atmospheric plasma spray
(APS). Plasma temperatures in the powder heating region range from about 6000 to 15,000 °C
(11,000 to 27,000 °F), significantly above the melting point of any known material. To generate the
plasma, an inert gas—typically argon or an argon-hydrogen mixture—is superheated by a dc arc.
Powder feedstock is introduced via an inert carrier gas and is accelerated toward the workpiece by
the plasma jet. Provisions for cooling or regulating the spray rate may be required to maintain
substrate temperatures in the 95 to 205 °C (200 to 400 °F) range.

Commercial plasma spray guns operate in the range of 20 to 200 kW. Accordingly, spray rates
greatly depend on gun design, plasma gases, powder injection schemes, and materials properties,
particularly particle characteristics such as size, distribution, melting point, morphology, and
apparent density. Vacuum Plasma. Vacuum plasma spraying (VPS), also commonly referred to as
low-pressure plasma spraying (LPPS, a registered trademark of Sulzer Metco), uses modified plasma
spray torches in a chamber at pressures in the range of 10 to 50 kPa (0.1 to 0.5 atm). At low
pressures the plasma becomes larger in diameter and length, and, through the use of
convergent/divergent nozzles, has a higher gas speed. The absence of oxygen and the abil-ity to
operate with higher substrate temperatures produce denser, more adherent coatings with much
lower oxide contents.

5. Both cold spray and HVOF utilize supersonic acceleration of gases. How is this
acceleration achieved?

ANS) The process of Cold Spraying is “a kinetic spray process utilizing supersonic jets of a
compressed gas to accelerate, at or near-room temperature, powder particles to ultra-high velocities
(up to 1,500 m/s). The unmolten particles traveling at speeds between 500 and 1,500 m/s plastically
deform and consolidate on impact with their substrate to create a coating”.
The basis of the cold spray process is the gas-dynamic acceleration of particles to supersonic
velocities and hence high kinetic energies. This is achieved using convergent–divergent Laval
nozzles. The upstream pressure is between 2 and 2.5 MPa for typical nozzle throat internal
diameters in the range of 2–3 mm. Gases used are N2, He, or their mixtures at very high flow rates
(up to 5 m3 /min). For stable conditions, typically the mass flow rate of the gas must be ten times
that of the entrained powder. For a powder flow rate of 6 kg/h, this means a volumetric flow rate of
336 m3 /h for helium and 52.3 m3 /h for nitrogen. Gases introduced (nitrogen or helium) are
preheated up to 700–800 C to avoid their liquefaction under expansion and increase their velocity.
With the highest gas flow rate this means that the heating device must be capable of heating 90 m3
/min to temperatures up to 700–800 C. As particles are injected upstream of the nozzle throat, the
powder feeder has to be at a slightly higher pressure compared to the upstream chamber pressure.
Especially when spraying with He, the spray is performed within an enclosure in order to recycle the
gas. Particles adhere to the substrate only if their impact velocity is above a critical value, depending
on the sprayed material varying between about 500 and 900 m/s.

The spray pattern covers an area of roughly 20–60 mm2 , and spray rates are about 3–6 kg/h. Feed
stock particle sizes are typically between 1 and 50 μm and deposition efficiencies reach easily 70–
90%. Only ductile metals or alloys are sprayed (Zn, Ag, Cu, Al, Ti, Nb, Mo, Ni–Cr, Cu–Al, Ni alloys,
MCrAlYs, and polymers), owing to the impact-fusion coating build-up. Blends of ductile materials
(>50 vol. %) with brittle metals or ceramics are also used. It is also important to emphasize that the
substrate is not really heated by the gas exiting the gun (up to 200 C at the maximum). Current and
expected applications for cold spray coatings are electronic and electrical coatings (Cu, Fe–NdFeB),
and coatings for the aircraft (superalloy) and automotive industries for localized corrosion
protection (Al, Zn), rapid tooling repair, etc
In HVOF the combustion is achieved in a pressurized chamber, water-cooled or not, followed by a
Laval-type nozzle . The combustion at pressures higher than atmospheric pressure (between 0.2 and
1 MPa) increases slightly the combustion temperature. For example, stoichiometric combustion of
methane with oxygen at atmospheric pressure results in a temperature of 3,030 K, while at 2 MPa it
is 3,733 K.

But the main advantage is the high gas velocity (up to 2,000 m/s) achieved due to the hot gas
expansion through the Laval nozzle. Such velocities are supersonic as shown by shock diamonds
observed downstream of the nozzle
Two types of guns exist characterized by the chamber pressure. The low-pressure HVOF uses a gun
at pressures between 0.24 and 0.6 MPa with heat inputs below 600–700 MJ, while the high-pressure
guns are operated in the pressure range of 0.62–0.82 MPa, generally fueled with kerosene burning
either with oxygen or air with heat inputs over 1 GJ. These guns are often termed “hyper velocity
guns.” The “low” pressure guns are fed with hydrogen, propylene, methane, propane, heptane, and a
few trademark gases together with oxygen, or also kerosene with air.

The first HVOF gun was introduced in the early eighties by Browning and Witfield. Particles are
injected either axially upstream of the nozzle (a pressurized powder feeder is required), as shown in
or radially downstream of the nozzle (with a conventional powder feeder). Compared to flame
spraying, HVOF guns are fed with high fuel gas flow rates of 60–120 slm, and oxygen flow rates
ranging from 280 to 600 slm, which corresponds to power levels of a few hundreds of kW. With
kerosene the liquid is fed between 20 and 30 slm with oxygen flows in the order of 1 m3 /min, or air
up to 5 m3 /min. In flame spraying, the gas-specific mass is about one-tenth of that of the cold gas.
The coupling of having highly plasticized particles impacting with high inertia allows achieving very
dense coatings.
The flame mixing with surrounding air can be delayed and the particles can be kept accelerating by
extending the gun nozzle using a barrel . For the spraying of wires, special HVOF guns have been
developed. The principle is the same as that of wire flame spraying. The flame (propane–oxygen) is
positioned at the nozzle face and the molten tip of the wire is atomized both by the pressurized
flame and the airflow. Under such conditions, the gas temperature reaches values of 3,100 K, and the
velocities reach values of up to 1,600 m/s, and particle velocities are much higher than with wire
flame spraying. The initial success of HVOF was in spraying dense and wear-resistant WC–Co
coatings, almost as good as those sprayed by the D-gun, which at that time was only available as a
service. The HVOF coatings (metals, alloys, and cermets) are dense, adherent with low-oxide
content, compared to flame spraying, and they compare favorably with high-energy plasma-sprayed
coatings. Typically with WC + Co (WC + NiCr or CrCo are also used) and dependent on the
applications hardness values between 1,100 and 1,400 150 HV5N are obtained.