Type to Learn: Agents of Information

Research-Based Keyboarding Instruction

for the 21st Century

White Paper

Leigh E. Zeitz, Ph.D.

University of Northern Iowa
[email protected] @zeitz

November, 2016

White Paper updated for Sunburst Digital

 Executive Summary

Keyboarding is an essential skill. Even during preschool years, children use

computers and must be guided towards efficient keyboarding habits. Appropriate
placement of keyboarding instruction in the elementary curriculum and reinforcement
throughout their school years can provide the necessary foundation for the rest of our
students’ lives.
Typically taught at the middle school and high school levels, Rogers’ study
(2006) of Wisconsin schools showed that 85% of their schools introduce keyboarding at
the elementary level. While the most popular grade levels are 3 rd and 4th grade, recent
years have seen successful introduction into even kindergarten classes. This early
introduction reduces bad habit development and provides additional benefits that
include improvements in spelling, writing, and reading comprehension.
While business teachers are primarily responsible for teaching keyboarding at
the secondary levels, in 2005 over half of the keyboarding teachers at the elementary
level were classroom teachers (Rogers, 2006). This can be a problem because only a
small proportion of classroom teachers have any formal preparation for teaching
keyboarding (Sormunen, 1991).
Keyboarding is a life-long skill. It has evolved from a transcription typing skill
where secretaries typed handwritten letters into a generative typing skill involving
composing original thought at the keyboard (Cooper, 1983). Student writing develops
faster through word processing because it facilitates the review and revision learning
process. Efficient keyboarding skills allow students to emphasize concept development
instead of focusing on key location.
Mastering keyboarding involves learning technique (physical positioning and
movement), ergonomics (safe and comfortable keyboard interaction), and key location.
Learning key location requires a sequential introduction of the keys along with a great
deal of repetition and reinforcement to develop the kinesthetic memory traces leading to
keyboarding automaticity. Efficiency is expanded if keyboarders type short letter
clusters and words as single units instead of groups of individual letters (e.g., er, ing,
the, my).
Sunburst Technology’s Type to Learn: Agents of Information software provides a
research-based interactive learning environment for K-12 keyboarding learners. It is
designed to guide the student and support the classroom teacher through the
keyboarding skill development process. Technique and ergonomics are addressed from
the beginning and reinforced throughout the curriculum. Students are placed in skill-
appropriate lessons and given individualized goals and remediation based upon initial
pretests and formative testing as they progress through the program. Key location is
taught in cumulative sequence where new keys are integrated with previously learned
2
skills and highly motivational activities are provided to encourage and reinforce practice.
Quick-Words and Quick-Blends are letter combinations taught to optimize keyboarding
efficiency. Original composition skills are developed through the many original-writing
opportunities provided for the learner. Diverse student needs are addressed through
multiple teacher-selected settings throughout the program. Spanish ESL students are
supported through an option to provide instructions in Spanish to complete typing
lessons in English. Teachers can add original content to align keyboarding subject
matter with the classroom curriculum. Visual and auditory adaptations are included to
extend accessibility to visually and hearing impaired students. An extensive data
management system enables instructors to monitor student achievement and facilitate
student progress.

3
 Table of Contents

Introduction
Keyboarding Overview
Keyboarding Instruction in Schools
Life Long Skill
Keyboarding Education Issues
What Needs to be Taught?
Technique
Ergonomics
Key Locations
Letter Combinations
When Should Keyboarding be Taught?
Who Should Teach Keyboarding?
How Should Keyboarding be Taught?
Sequence of Introduction
Motivation
Practice
Application
Customizing Program Presentation to Meet Students’ Needs
Accessibility for Disabled Learners
Spanish ESL
Teacher-Added Content
Managing Student Data
Standards Alignments
Funding Opportunities
Title III Grant Funding
21st Century Community Learning Centers Grant (Title IV, Part B)
Enhancing Education Through Technology Grant (Title II, Part D)
Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act of 2006
Conclusion
References

4
 Introduction

Keyboarding Overview
Computing is a way of life today. In 2016, there are over 2 billion personal
computers in use. (Worldometers, 2016). We live much of our technological lives
through the keyboard. The key to success when living in such a computer-centric world
is to be able to interact with computers effectively and efficiently through well-developed
keyboarding skills.
Keyboarding is the penmanship of the computer age. As a fundamental skill in
today’s society, keyboarding provides our connection with the rest of the world through
electronic communication. Students who become efficient keyboarders “compose
better, are prouder of their work, produce documents with a neater appearance, and
have better motivation,” (Nieman, 1996).
Technology has become an active part of children’s lives even at very young
ages. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) supports
children as young as three years old using developmentally-appropriate computer
software (NAEYC, 1998). However, when children begin confronting the keyboard
without guidance at this formative time in their lives, they tend to develop their own
methods for pressing the keys which often develop into “bad habits” that hinder later
typing skills. It is critical, therefore, to introduce students to efficient keyboarding
strategies as soon as it is developmentally-advisable, to limit the number of behaviors
that need to be unlearned to develop effective and efficient keyboarders.
Beyond the benefit derived from students being able to enter their thoughts into
the dynamic world of word processing and communication through the keyboard, there
are a variety of studies that document additional benefits that accompany increased
keyboard proficiency. These benefits include:
● Improvement in feeling of self efficacy (Blazek, 2015)
● Improvement in language arts (Cooper, 1983; Wetzel, 1985;)
● Improved quality of writing (Bangert-Drowns, 1993; Goldberg, Russell, & Cook,
2003; Graham, McKeown, Kiuhara & Harris, 2012; Owsten and Wideman, 1997;)
● Improvement in reading comprehension (Hoot, 1986; Wronkovich, 1988)
● Improvement in collaboration (Roblyer & Doering, 2010)
● Improvement in visual-motor abilities (Chwirka, Gurney & Burtner, 2002)

Keyboarding Instruction in Schools

Keyboarding is a staple in school curricula. In the past, it has been taught at the
middle school and high school levels by business teachers. It has been a separate
course which involved learning the motoric skills of typing as well as formatting skills in
writing reports and various forms of correspondence (Erthal, 1998; Rogers, 2006).
5
Today the majority of school districts introduce students to keyboarding basics in
elementary school. The Common Core Standards even expect students to demonstrate
their ability to keyboard in grades 3, 4 and 5.
Keyboarding success increases as a student’s opportunity to practice
keyboarding skills increases. In today’s classroom, one-to-one computing is becoming
more common. In a one-to-one environment, each student has her own laptop or tablet
for personal use. It was estimated that by calendar year 2016, 54 percent of K-12 US
students and teachers will have access to school-issued personal computing devices.
This growing personal access to mobile computing underscores the necessity for
students to master keyboarding. (Molnar, 2015)
A comprehensive keyboarding software program such as Sunburst’s Type to
Learn: Agents of Information, which is developmentally appropriate for learners at
various grade levels and abilities (Kindergarten to grade 12), is an important tool for
developing necessary keyboarding skills. Beginning with alphabetic keyboard
awareness at the earlier grades and progressing through a sequential, interactive series
of touch-typing lessons, Type to Learn provides much-needed continuity for students as
they achieve a district’s keyboarding requirements. The web-based Type to Learn
program provides students with the opportunity to practice keyboarding outside of the
classroom.

Life-Long Skill
Keyboarding is a life-long skill. Unlike the days-gone-by when transcription typing
(Cooper, 1983) was considered a talent that ensured a secretarial position for typing
someone else's letters, keyboarding has become an integral part of our daily lives.
Keyboarding is no longer a routine for transferring ideas from scribble to print. Most
keyboardists today are involved in generative typing (Cooper, 1983) which involves
composing original thought directly into electronic documents and email. It is estimated
that about 130 billion emails are sent daily from about 3.5 billion email users (Internet
Live Stats, 2016). Few of these emails were typed from a hand-written copy. They were
keyed from original thought which is less hindered when keyboarding skills do not
interfere with this thought process. Computer-based communication is an important part
of our daily communication and efficient keyboarding skills enable individuals to prosper
in this environment.

Keyboarding Education Issues

What Needs to be Taught?

Mastering keyboarding involves more than just learning the locations of keys.
The foundation for masterful keyboarding is technique. Technique involves the
6
positioning and action of the body and fingers as the student is keyboarding.
Ergonomics is an important aspect of keyboarding that students need to learn from the
beginning of their keyboarding instruction. Learning key location involves a sequential
process beginning with letters followed by punctuation, numbers, and symbols. Mastery
develops through practice.

Technique
Effective and efficient keyboarding begins with learning proper technique.
Students should be provided with models of keyboarders assuming good posture as
they type. More specifically, correct hand placement should be demonstrated and
explicitly discussed. This should be followed by instruction on proper key stroking. Key
stroking is more than pressing keys. Rapid keyboarding requires that the keys are
addressed with a quick finger-action. If the finger-action is quick, then keyboarding
speed will increase as the time between keystrokes is reduced. Speed and accuracy
are built upon well-developed technique, which should be taught at the beginning and
then developed through on-going reinforcement (Crews, North, & Erthal, 2006).
On-going reinforcement of technique is a challenge for teachers because it
requires them to be ever-vigilant so that they can recognize and reward proper
technique in the classroom or lab. The Type to Learn software supports teachers in
teaching proper technique by providing visual and auditory instruction on proper
posture, body and hand positions, and finger striking techniques. Detailed explanations
of the home row position, posture, and key stroking technique are provided in the earlier
lessons, and shorter reminders are provided throughout the rest of the program. 3D
model reference hands on the keyboard demonstrate the proper location for each
finger, key press, or reach.

Ergonomics
An important part of learning technique is learning ergonomically-sound
behaviors that support proper body posture and placement. It is important for students
(and teachers) to learn and follow these guidelines. Once students have an
ergonomically-sound foundation and have learned about the proper way to tap the keys,
they can work to achieve their maximum efficiency in keyboarding.
A series of international studies found that "up to 60% of the students across the
globe reported eye strain, neck & shoulder pain, wrist and back discomfort, headaches
and fatigue," (Hajic, 2008, para. 4). Children as young as fourth grade reported these
symptoms. Posture patterns begin developing as young as seven years old so it is
imperative that students are taught the proper way to sit when keyboarding and that it is
reinforced by both teachers and parents (Hajic, 2008).

7
 Beyond sitting position, a variety of healthy practices should be followed to
reduce potential problems:
● Students should rest their eyes by looking away from the screen and blinking
rapidly while focusing on distant objects approximately every 15 minutes to
reduce eye strain (CUErgo, 2000).
● A rest from typing should be taken at least every 30 minutes. Students should
use different muscles during this break (SAU 16, 2007).

Type to Learn directly addresses these ergonomic concerns through modeling

and monitoring. All lessons begin with auditory and visual cues demonstrating how to
sit, how to address the keyboard, and how to place the hands, wrists and arms in the
safest and most productive positions. Ergonomic standards are further supported by
monitoring each student’s progression though the lessons.
● Eye Breaks, which ask the student to change focus from the computer screen to
across the room to rest their eyes, are introduced every 5-10 minutes
(customizable by the teacher) directly before the student takes a game break.
● Every 20 minutes (adjustable by the teacher), Type to Learn reminds the student
that it is time to take a 30 – 90 second (adjustable) Ergonomic Break during
which the software program cannot be accessed. This Ergonomic Break provides
a variety of exercises and stretches for the eyes, arms, wrists, and back to avoid
injury.

These exercises not only loosen the body and prepare the student for continuing
with the lesson, but they also model positive and safe computer usage. Instead of just
telling students about these safeguards, Type to Learn actually initiates these breaks so
that they become “part of the routine” and students will be more likely to actually take
breaks when they are working on their own.

Key Locations
Keyboarding is a psychomotor activity that needs to be taught through
introduction, repetition, and reinforcement. Key/letter locations should be introduced two
at a time in a sequential format with repetitive activities that begin to build the
kinesthetic memory traces that will link each letter with the appropriate finger movement
and key. These activities must be designed to guide the learner toward successful
completion and reinforce accomplishment.
Type to Learn introduces the letters/symbols in pairs in most of the lessons. Each
lesson begins with a warm-up review where students practice the home row to locate
their home base and prepare for the lesson’s exercises. Once students are warmed up,
the Security Check provides an opportunity to practice all of the letters learned so far by
8
typing character clusters and words. New keys are introduced in the next section,
following a pattern of using the same fingers on either hand. These new keys are
practiced alone and then through a series of lesson exercises using the other keys
learned so far. Exercises provide varying levels of scaffolding and instruction, such as:
▪ hints as to which side of the keyboard the character is on,
▪ 3D animated hands on a lettered reference keyboard to provide guidance when
incorrect keys are pressed,
▪ presenting full lines of text so students can discover a comfortable typing rhythm,
▪ instruction for typing letter combinations.

Letter Combinations
Facility with letter combinations is the key to rapid keying. Leonard West (1983)
proposed that mastering digraphs (two-letter combinations) was the key to maximum
typing speed and accuracy. This aligns with earlier research showing that expert typists
were greatly facilitated when typing text that contained “frequent letter combinations or
common words,” (Fendrick, 1937, p. 620). For example, the common word “me” can be
considered two single letters, “m” and “e”. The keyboarder must read the letter “m”,
identify that the right index finger must be used to type the “m”, and then send the
command to the finger to type it. The same process is used to type the “e” using the left
middle finger. If, however, the word “me” is considered a single unit that requires using
the right index and left middle fingers, then the processing time to type it is reduced.
This process of “chunking” letter combinations together works well with blends like “th”
or “at” as well. As a student becomes more proficient in keyboarding, the task becomes
one of keying letter groups rather than single letters and the processing time is thereby
dramatically shortened. This means that keyboarding mastery will be augmented when
digraphs, frequent letter combinations, and common words are taught to students as
units. This decreases response time and improves keyboarding speed (Zeitz, 2005).
Type to Learn teaches letter combinations in the form of Quick-Blends and
Quick-Words. Quick-Blends are common letter combinations that appear frequently in
the English language. They were identified based upon phonogram frequency lists (Fry,
1998) and lists of the most common prefixes and suffixes (Honig, Diamond & Gutlohn,
2000). Quick-Words are common short words. They were identified through lists of
commonly used words in the English language (World-English, 2003). Quick-Blends
and Quick-Words are introduced in the seventh lesson in Type to Learn. This lesson
introduces the concepts behind learning these keyboarding tricks as well as the letter
combinations that can be constructed from the characters that have already been
learned (J, F, U, R, K, D, I , E, H, G, L, & S). Throughout this lesson and in many of the
ensuing lessons, the Quick-Combos (Quick-Blends and Quick-Words) are emphasized
to reinforce how often they can be found in words. Beginning with Lesson 8, an entire
9
exercise is dedicated to practicing the Quick-Combos learned to that point.
The level of complexity for the letter combinations used in these lessons is based
upon grade levels. K-2 students only encounter Quick-Blends of two letters in length.
About half of the Quick-Words that these younger keyboarders encounter are also two
letters in length. The longer Quick-Words used with this age group are listed in the
Dolch Sight Word list (Dolch, 1936) so learners should have some familiarity with them.
Quick-Blends and Quick-Words for older students in grades 3-12 increase in length and
complexity appropriate to each grade level. Quick-Combos are the basis of more
efficient keyboarding and are an important part of the Type to Learn curriculum.

When Should Keyboarding be Taught?

Educators generally agree that students have developed the proper level of
dexterity and eye-hand coordination for efficient keyboarding by third or fourth grade.
Their hands have grown to fit the standard-sized keyboard and their attention span has
developed enough to last the length of a typical keyboarding lesson which is 20-to-40
minutes (Lockhart & Zeitz, 2012; Boyce & Whitman, 1987; McLean, 1994; Russell,
1994). At this level, students’ writing requirements have also developed enough to have
a need for efficient written communication.
This does not mean that keyboarding should be ignored at the earlier grades.
Developing keyboard familiarity at earlier ages will facilitate students' later success in
computing. As soon as students begin using computers for more than simple
responses, familiarity with the keyboard and keyboarding techniques will enable
younger learners to interact faster and lessen the probability of developing bad
keyboarding habits. Bartholome and Long (1986) describe how they were able to
successfully introduce first and second graders to keyboarding through half-hour
instructional sessions three days a week. At the end of the semester, the students were
able to type 15 – 30 words per minute. Introducing the computer keyboard to primary
students can facilitate computer interaction and build a foundation for later development
of keyboarding skills (Bernazza, Bloomer & Cline, 1971; Hoot, 1985; Rogers, 1997;
Troutner, 1983).
Type to Learn has been developed to accommodate students of all ages. The
lessons, activities, and assessments have been written at three levels: Grades K-2, 3-6,
and 7 -12, with content and pedagogy designed to address each of these levels.
Content is controlled for word length and subject interest level. Younger learners have
shorter lessons, while older learners are expected to key longer and more complex text.
The program also provides differing design interfaces for the various grade levels, and
can be further customized to fit individuals’ personal scholastic needs.
Type to Learn is designed to address the specific needs of K-2 students as well.
Their content begins with two pre-lessons developed to build familiarity with the
10
keyboard, conducted as an alphabetical tour of the letters on the keyboard. Students
practice keyboarding using the appropriate hands to press keys. They continue to
explore by typing short words and sentences. Capital letters, numbers, and common
punctuation are also introduced in these earlier lessons. These K-2 lessons are shorter
to accommodate the younger learners’ shorter attention spans.

Who Should Teach Keyboarding?

While business teachers or technology teachers are still the primary keyboarding
instructors at the high school and middle school levels, the most frequently seen
keyboarding instructor at the elementary level is the classroom teacher. National
statistics are difficult to find, however a 15-year longitudinal study of keyboarding in
Wisconsin (Rogers, Laehn, Lang, O’Leary, & Sommers, 2003; Rogers, 2006) found that
in 2005, elementary classroom teachers were the primary keyboarding instructors
(51%) with business teachers responsible for this instruction only 27% of the time. The
remaining teaching load was accommodated by teacher-librarians and technology
coordinators. Today, keyboarding is taught primarily by classroom teachers, tech
teachers or teacher-librarians. This drop in supervision by business teachers means
that classroom teachers need a system that can provide students with the necessary
instruction, scaffolding, motivation and reinforcement to learn keyboarding. While not a
replacement for a business teacher’s knowledge and experience, well-designed
keyboarding software such as Sunburst’s Type to Learn can assist in supporting
classroom teachers in teaching keyboarding (Russin, 1995).

How Should Keyboarding be Taught?

Having identified what needs to be taught and by whom, we must next consider
How this curriculum should be brought to students. This consideration includes a variety
of areas including: sequence of introduction, motivation, practice, and application.

Sequence of Introduction
The development of keyboarding skills is a cumulative process. New skills must
be introduced in a consistent sequence that builds upon previously learned skills.
Crews, North, & Erthal (2006) describe three stages of learning that a keyboarding
student experiences. These three stages include: Cognitive Phase (Key Introduction),
Associative Stimulus Phase (Kinesthetic Memory Traces), and Autonomous Muscle
Response Phase (Automaticity). Benjamin Bloom (1986) supports this sequence of
learning for touch typing.

Cognitive Phase (Key Introduction): This initial stage involves the students
deliberately thinking about the rules of technique (body, arm, and hand position; key
11
stroking; and ergonomics). The beginning typist is also consciously thinking about the
position of each individual key. Entering lines of text involves seeing, processing, and
tapping strings of characters separated periodically by spaces. Learners are also
purposely working to accomplish key combinations like the proper use of shift keys.
In this phase it is important to introduce the keys in a sequence that will foster
student success. The learner’s progression while learning the keyboard should be a
cumulative process. Pairings of characters should be introduced together with sufficient
practice activities in a variety of contexts to afford the learner a certain amount of
mastery before moving to the next set of keys. The following lesson should introduce a
new set of characters and provide fresh practice activities that incorporate the first set of
characters as well as the newly-learned keys. This collective process should be
continued throughout the entire keyboard.
Type to Learn introduces the keys mainly in pairs in a logical sequence beginning
with the index fingers. These fingers are the strongest and most often used so students
will have the greatest amount of immediate control for their initial venture into touch
keyboarding. After introducing the J and F keys, U and R are introduced using the index
fingers as well. This sequence continues to use the strongest fingers and introduces a
vowel to allow the learner to begin typing actual words in the second lesson. The
sequence then progresses to the middle fingers, ring fingers, and finally the little fingers,
which are the weakest and most difficult to use when keyboarding. Each of the 34
lessons involves a series of exercises that provide students with engaging tasks using
the new keys as well as all of the previously-learned keys.

Associative Stimulus Phase (Kinesthetic Memory Traces): On-going practice

through exercises and activities that are of high interest, high motivation, and high
activity can motivate learners to engage in the repetition necessary for “kinesthetic
memory traces” to develop. Through this process, students learn to connect the
recognition of the character with the action of striking the corresponding key.
Developing kinesthetic memory traces is part of the psychomotor learning process
(Starr, 2001).

This stage of learning is the longest of the phases and involves developing a
sense of continuity and rhythm in keyboarding. Continuity is cultivated through
practicing and mastering common character combinations and words, and acquiring the
aforementioned kinesthetic memory traces. Rhythm is developed through a steady
repetition of keystrokes. At this stage accuracy is not as important as speed and rhythm.
Support during this phase could begin with a consistent rhythm as with a metronome.
However, as the learner masters keyboarding an individualized cadence will naturally

12
develop based upon how the typist addresses groups of letters, rather than from an
external musical beat.
Type to Learn is specifically designed to ensure that the practice and repetition
necessary to achieve this phase of learning is amply present, interesting, and
motivational:
● The game-based format provides an active learning environment that turns
ordinary practice drills into engaging activities with purpose and relevance to the
student’s success as Agents of Information.
● Quick-Blends and Quick-Words provide an emphasis on building continuity
through mastering character combinations. This increases efficiency because
students develop the mindset to type groups of characters when possible instead
of processing and tapping individual characters one at a time.
● Speed can be emphasized throughout Type to Learn since learners are not
required to perform at 100% accuracy all the time. Performance goals are based
upon their own level of expertise rather than perfect performance. This allows the
keyboarder to forge ahead to the next character instead of cautiously making
sure each key is correct, or frequently using the backspace key to correct a
possible mistake.
● Building a keyboarding rhythm and cadence is developed through a teacher-
controlled metronome that accompanies one of the practice activities. Available
with every lesson, this activity provides a variable-speed beat to which students
can type along.

Autonomous Muscle Response Phase (Automaticity): The goal of teaching

keyboarding is to familiarize students with the keyboard to a point where they develop
automaticity (Bloom, 1986). Automaticity is a level of proficiency where the learner is
able to complete a task as a whole without devoting attention to each individual
component task. Keyboarding automaticity requires facility in typing to the point where
the operator is keying without thinking of the individual keys. In fact, if an accomplished
keyboarder tries to think about what each finger is doing, “the entire typing process
would collapse,” (Bloom, 1986, p. 73).
Type to Learn fosters automaticity by encouraging ongoing practice through a
series of varied and motivating activities. Keyboarding proficiency is further facilitated by
mastering keyboarding shortcuts (i.e., Quick-Blends and Quick-Words). While the
motivation for keyboarding at the previous learning stages may have been to succeed at
challenges presented by Type to Learn’s activities (extrinsic reward), success in
keyboarding becomes its own reward in this phase as students feel empowered by their
keyboarding acumen (intrinsic reward).

13
Motivation
Motivation has a great deal to do with novelty, excitement, and challenge.
Prolonged activities will bore learners into inaction. While all students tend to be drawn
to computer-based activities, these activities also need be interesting and provide
feedback about students’ rates of progress to retain their interest. Students learn best
when they have immediate indications of their ongoing success (Olinzock, 1998). Such
immediate feedback of results supports both performance and motivation (Garris,
Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002). Activities should be challenging but not overwhelming. This
means that students will perform best if the activities are presented at their individual
skill levels. Matching the tasks’ requirements with the learners’ skills makes the learning
experience more enjoyable. It promotes a sense of flow that engages learners to work
beyond their typical skill level. (Csikszentimihalyi, 1990). It is important that students
feel a sense of accomplishment as they master the keyboard. The most effective
challenges are ones where the expected level of accomplishment rises as the learner’s
skill levels improve. Contextualizing learning in a fantasy world can also enhance
students’ interest and engagement (Hamari, Shernoff, Rowe, Coller, ASbell-Clarke &
Edwards, 2016). The task-oriented gaming world of Type to Learn provides a highly
motivational learning environment in a variety of ways that would not be possible using
a typing textbook:

Gaming World: Type to Learn: Agents of Information is designed to provide a

novel learning environment that is both challenging and motivational. The program
takes place in a futuristic world where information is in danger of coming to a disastrous
halt. This is a task-oriented gaming world where learners use their newly developing
keyboarding skills to achieve their missions. As Agents of Information, the students are
given the tools of their trade: the communicator device where they will perform their
keyboarding, and the sequential training on all keys to help them ascend the ranks from
Recruit to Master Agent. They are taught the necessary skills: recognizing, finding, and
striking specific keys. These agents must then accomplish missions that range from
saving ideas from being lost, to piloting drones, to uncovering long lost information.
Completing each of these missions successfully is dependent upon accurate and rapid
keying. Their newly-found keyboarding world is an adventure in success.

Placement Test: Students begin their adventures by completing a placement

test. This test assesses each student’s skill level and places the student at the lesson
that best fits his/her needs. The placement test also identifies the learner’s beginning
keyboarding speed (WPM) and accuracy percentage, and uses this information to
identify a goal speed and expected accuracy level for upcoming lessons. This
moderately increasing goal creates challenges that encourage students to succeed. As
14
students proceed through each lesson, they are continuously informed of their WPM
performance and level of accuracy. This ongoing immediate feedback is necessary to
place the learner in control.

Individualized Remediation: As students progress, they must pass a Final

Challenge at the end of each lesson to prove that they can meet their individualized
speed and accuracy goals before continuing to the next sequential lesson. If the student
does not pass the Final Challenge, or fails to meet speed or accuracy goals at any time
during the lesson, remediation is automatically provided. Type to Learn analyzes the
student’s errors and provides a remediation task on the specific keys with which he/she
is struggling. These remediation exercises are specifically developed to address the
individual’s weaknesses, ensure that students gain the skills needed to continue in the
program, and that they remain motivated to succeed.

Acceleration: The Final Challenge can also be used to accelerate a learner’s

progress through the Type to Learn sequence of lessons. If the supervising teacher
allows it, students may try to “test out” of a lesson by attempting the Final Challenge
before going through the lesson and its exercises. If the student performs at his/her
individualized level of accomplishment, the lesson is considered complete and the
student may progress to the next lesson. This allows capable students to skip lessons
teaching skills they have already mastered, thereby sustaining interest and motivation.

Game Breaks: Optional Game Breaks within Type to Learn present students
with an opportunity to break from the lesson and engage in one of the program’s
keyboarding-based gaming activities. These breaks are presented at teacher-adjustable
intervals to enhance motivation and avoid boredom or restlessness. Game Breaks
specifically support younger students or those with shorter attention spans. These
Game Breaks always encourage resting the eyes before continuing, which is a
necessary ergonomic inclusion.

Practice
Perfecting keyboarding skills requires a great deal of practice. The typical
elementary school spends 10 - 20 hours per year teaching students to keyboard. This
might be in a compressed format (i.e., 30 minutes a day for four weeks = ten hours) or
spaced (i.e., 30 minutes per week for 36 weeks = 18 hours) (Fleming, 2002). Either
way, this is not enough time to reach a level of competence or automaticity with
keyboarding. Crews, North, & Erthal (2006) provide a table of “Speed Expectations”
where they indicate that it is reasonable to expect students to type at 10 – 15 WPM after
15 – 18 hours of instruction. Secondary schools typically spend a whole period teaching
15
typing. Intermingled with the correspondence activities that are used to contextualize
learning to type, a 15-week class might engage students in 45 hours of keyboarding
instruction and practice. This would yield a typing speed of 45-60 WPM on the Speed
Expectations table.

Instructional Hours Timing Length* Speed Expectations

15 - 18 hours One Minute 10 - 15 words a minute

30 - 35 hours Two Minutes 25 - 30 words a minute

45 - 60 hours Two Minutes 30 - 45 words a minute

*Speed expectations may be adjusted for three-minute timings

Table of Speed Expectations: Crews, North, & Erthal (2006)

As mentioned earlier, the goal of learning to keyboard is to develop automaticity

in one’s keyboarding skills. This level of expertise is not seen until one is keyboarding at
least 50 WPM. Such proficiency requires practice beyond that available in the typical
school classroom or computer lab. While an avid learner might practice skills through
answering email or writing a report, these activities do not provide the guided practice
that leads to developing an effective and efficient keyboarding technique. In fact, bad
keyboarding habits may reemerge during such unsupervised activities.
Students are able to continue their instruction/practice at home using the web-
based Type to Learn keyboarding program. They can continue their Type to Learn
instruction on weekends and in the evenings as homework. This important extension of
the instruction not only bridges the school and home, but also enables struggling
students to engage in the additional practice time they need, and advanced students to
progress at their accelerated pace. The typically limited classroom time does not
sufficiently allow for either.

Application
Learning to keyboard using a software package can be quite successful, but will
it transfer to the “real world?” In most software, students read or hear words that they
then key into the computer as quickly and accurately as possible. But how will this
process of reading and typing text translate into their lives where most keyboarding time
involves original composition?
Salomon and Perkins (1989) identified behavioral transfer like keyboarding as
low-road transfer. They found that low-road transfer is facilitated through automatization
16
and varied practice. Automatization is the result of extensive practice, whereby the skill
being practiced becomes fast and effortless. New environments or conditions do not
adversely affect the level of transfer because the behavior is executed automatically,
regardless of the situation. Crews, North, & Erthal (2006) say that automaticity, and by
extension skill transfer, is not certain until one is keyboarding at least 50 WPM.
Varied practice describes practice that occurs in a variety of contexts. This, too,
facilitates low-road skill transfer. Performing a behavior in multiple situations requires
one to adapt to subtle differences in those contexts. Performing despite these
differences increases the actor’s repertoire and makes functioning in an unfamiliar
situation easier to accomplish. Considering the level of keyboarding sophistication
necessary to reach automatization, varied practice is the method of choice to facilitate
transfer from transcription to generative keyboarding, and from the world of a software
application to real-world typing situations. It only requires the instructional program to
place the learner in a variety of original composition situations to provide transferable
experiences to later situations.
Type to Learn successfully promotes skill transfer from transcription to generative
keyboarding by providing a variety of original writing opportunities for the learner. One
entire activity, Message Master, includes opportunities for imaginative writing in
response to grade-appropriate prompts. Furthermore, one full lesson at the end of the
scope and sequence is dedicated to students’ original responses to writing prompts.
Another way Type to Learn promotes real-world skill transfer is by including
keyboarding of literature passages, poems, historical documents, menus, and recipes –
real world examples of writing.

Computer-Based Testing
The Common Core State Standards require students to be tested to assess their
performance levels. The majority of the states will use the Smarter Balanced online
assessments. Students as young as 3rd grade will be expected to have sufficient
keyboard, computer and navigational skills to complete the tests successfully. Lack of
keyboarding skills and computing background may create a barrier for our students to
perform to a level that is representative of their true level of understanding. Moreover,
poor keyboarding skills will hinder writing performance if students are not competent
keyboarders and they have to worry as much about the tapping the correct keys as they
have to care about what they have to express. (Kröhne & Martens, 2011; Udesky, 2015)
Type to Learn prepares your students for succeeding on computer-based tests. It
develops their keyboarding skills as well as provides the computing experience needed
for optimum performance on these assessments.

Customizing the Program Presentation to Meet Students’ Needs

17
 Teachers today face an incredibly diverse group of students in their classrooms.
Instructional methods, including software programs, must allow for individualization of
the learning and differentiated instruction appropriate for: remedial learners, advanced
learners, mentally challenged learners, and those with hearing or visual impairment.
Type to Learn provides extensive customization options and settings for all types of
learners.
All options can be set for an entire class or individual students, and allow
customization of lessons, activities, and assessments. The teacher can customize the
vocabulary level and difficulty of material, based on grade ranges (K-2, 3-6, or 7-12).
The learning environment can be further customized by controlling the design interface,
availability of music and sound effects, narration, and visual 3D reference hand support.
Additional useful settings include: allowing or preventing activities before lessons have
been completed, controlling access to the top scores list, and assessing students using
printed text or on screen text. Game Breaks and Ergonomic Breaks can also be
controlled in length and frequency to fit the class work cycle.

Accessibility for Disabled Learners

Type to Learn provides extended accessibility for visual and hearing impaired
learners. Closed captioning, rollover text, and adjustable volume can accommodate the
needs of hearing impaired students. The visually impaired are assisted through both
audio and visual accommodations:
● Auditorily, the software can be set to automatically read aloud all instructions,
messages and text to be typed. Navigational buttons can also be set to
verbally identify themselves when a mouse rolls over them.
● Type to Learn can read characters to visually-impaired students as they type
and provide audible feedback when the wrong key is pressed.
● Partially-sighted learners can use customized text with adjusted size, color,
contrast, and background color.

These adaptations fulfill the federal requirements (American Disabilities Act and
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) for accommodating the special needs of
learners with disabilities (U.S. Department of Justice, 2016; NecTac, 2004). Type to
Learn also contains multi-modal opportunities that address many of the Universal
Design for Learning Guideline checkpoints 2.0 to align with the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 2004.

Spanish ESL
Another teacher setting allows switching the instructional presentation between
English and Spanish. Spanish ESL content provides instructions, navigation, support,
18
and reinforcement in Spanish, while the keyboarding lessons themselves remain in
English. This unique feature provides valuable support to Spanish-speaking students as
they learn to keyboard in English. English language learners can participate equally in
the keyboarding class, bolstering students’ confidence and language skills.

Teacher-Added Content
A valuable feature for teachers allows them to add their own original material into
the Type to Learn program for students to type. This teacher-added content is then
presented to students and automatically scored for accuracy and speed the same way
as system content. This feature fosters greater integration of the classroom curriculum
with the keyboarding curriculum, as spelling lists, vocabulary words, and even science
or social studies content can be imported into Type to Learn as it is being covered in the
classroom.

Managing Student Data

Instructor utilities in Type to Learn provide important class and individual
progress reports that enable the teacher to monitor and facilitate student progress. This
reporting capability is recommended throughout the literature (Olinzock, 1998). Type to
Learn offers an enhanced, user-friendly teacher management system that enables
educators to administer their learners’ progress throughout the curriculum. The program
is designed to automatically take students through the sequence of lessons based upon
their performance against pre-determined goals. With every goal in speed or accuracy
that they reach, the program rewards the student for success and uses predetermined
formulas to present an increasingly higher goal to keep the experience challenging, yet
attainable. In special cases, the teacher can use the data management system to easily
move a student forward or back in the lessons when necessary. Speed Goals (WPM) as
well as Accuracy Goals (% correct) can be manually increased or reduced depending
upon the teacher’s recommendations.
Robust reports can be generated to detail progress, scores, and areas of
challenge for an individual, group of individuals, class, group of classes, or the whole
school. These reports include tables, charts, and graphs to provide the data in the most
easily usable format. Individual narrative reports highlighting areas of strength and
weakness can be generated as well. A unique parent report, accessible through the
student’s login, allows parents to participate in the learning process and track their
child’s progress and scores throughout the program.

Standards Alignments
It is critical in today’s landscape of educational legislation and accountability that
instructional software aligns directly to relevant state and national curriculum standards.
19
Type to Learn is no exception. The program has been directly correlated to keyboarding
and technology standards in all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and Ontario,
Canada.
Type to Learn also aligns with the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) as well as
those of the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE).

Common Core State Standards

The CCSS begins to require keyboarding at the 3rd grade level when it stipulates in
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.W.3.6 that “With guidance and support from adults, use
technology to produce and publish writing (using keyboarding skills) as well as to
interact and collaborate with others.”

This is followed in fourth and fifth grade where CCSS.ELA-LITERACY standards

state that the student must “Demonstrate sufficient command of keyboarding skills to
type a minimum of one page in a single sitting.” This is the fifth grade requirement
as well, except it requires two pages in a single sitting. (CCSS, 2016)

ISTE Standards for Students

International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) 2016 ISTE Standards for
Students, outlined below (ISTE, 2016):

1. Empowered Learner
Students leverage technology to take an active role in choosing, achieving
and demonstrating competency in their learning goals, informed by the
learning sciences. Students will:
d. Understand the fundamental concepts of technology operations,
demonstrate the ability to choose, use and troubleshoot current
technologies and able to transfer their knowledge to explore technologies.

6. Creative Communicator
Students communicate clearly and express themselves creatively for a
variety of purposes using the platforms, tools, styles, formats and digital
media appropriate to their goals. Students will:
b. create original works or responsibly repurpose or remix digital resources
into new creations.
d. publish or present content that customizes the message and medium for
their intended audiences

20
Conclusion

Efficient keyboarding skills clear the path toward effective expression. Learning
to keyboard accurately and efficiently requires more than being taught location of the
characters on the keyboard. It requires a sequential curriculum that integrates technique
with key location and encourages a great deal of practice to build the automatic skills for
transcribing ideas onto the computer screen. Keyboarding instruction succeeds based
upon content, pedagogy, and individualization.
Sunburst Technology’s Type to Learn: Agents of Information is based upon an
adventure theme where learners are tasked with preserving information for the entire
world. The game-based content provides exercises and activities corresponding to the
“secret agent” theme. This thematic direction provides relevance and purpose for the
learner and encourages students to spend time completing the activities to develop the
skills necessary to master keyboarding. Content is differentiated between grade levels
to address the specific needs of various groups of students.
The pedagogical design is based upon decades of research concerning effective
keyboarding instruction. It integrates proven instructional procedures with the immediate
feedback that computer-based instruction makes possible. Teaching and promoting
technique and ergonomics are at the foundation of the program. Keyboard characters
are introduced through a pairing sequence that optimizes motoric strengths and asks
students to type actual words as soon as possible. Keyboarding continuity is promoted
through the instruction of Quick-Blends and Quick-Words as letter-combination units
rather than individual letters. Rhythm is developed through auditory stimuli. A plethora
of strategies are combined to support students in developing the keyboarding
automaticity that is necessary to become accomplished keyboarders.
The Type to Learn curriculum has been designed to individualize to student
needs. A pretest and periodic formative assessments are used to begin each student at
the proper level of difficulty and expectation, as well as to modify the expected levels of
accomplishment or to provide remediation throughout the program. The rich reporting
system provides teachers with a wealth of information about student progress so that
educators can modify settings to address students’ personal needs. Visual and sound
adaptations have been included to provide accessibility for visually and hearing
impaired students. Spanish ESL students can have directions provided in Spanish while
completing lessons in English.
Type to Learn: Agents of Information synthesizes research-based design with
proven pedagogy to create a highly motivating learning environment that challenges
learners and promotes success.

21
 References
Bangart-Drowns, R. (1993). The word processor as an instructional tool: A meta
analysis of word processing in writing instruction. Review of Educational
Research, 63(1), 69-93.

Bartholome, L. & Long, I. (1986). Teaching keyboarding to elementary school

students. National Association of Laboratory Schools Journal. 10 (2).

Bernazza, A., Bloomer, R., & Cline, M. (1971). An experimental test of a first-
grade reading-typewriting program. In G. Schick and M. May (Eds.),
Reading process and pedagogy (pp. 224-236). Nineteenth Yearbook of
the National Reading Conference. Milwaukee, WI: National Reading
Conference.

Blazek, L. A. (2015). An evaluation of two approaches for developing

keyboarding skills in children with cognitive disabilities.

Bloom, B. (1986). Automaticity: The hands and feet of genius. Educational

Leadership. 43(5). 70-77.

Boyce, B. & Whitman, P.H. (1987). Facilitator handbook for elementary

keyboarding. Pomona, CA: California State Polytechnic University at
Pomona, Business Education Center.

Chwirka, B., Gurney, B., & Burtner, P. A. (2002). Keyboarding and visual-motor
skills in elementary students: A pilot study. Occupational Therapy in
Health Care, 16(2-3), 39-51.

Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSS). (2016) English language arts
standards - writing. Retrieved on November 19, 2016, from
http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy/W/introduction/

Cooper, W. (1983). Cognitive aspects of skilled typewriting. New York: Springer-

Verlag.

Crews, T., North, A.., and Erthal, M. (2006). Elementary/middle school

keyboarding strategies guide (3rd edition). National Business Education
Association: Reston, VA.

Csikszentimihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal performance. New

York: Cambridge University Press.

CUErgo (2000). Cornell university ergonomics web. Retrieved on November 11,

2016, from http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/MBergo/schoolguide.html

22
Dolch, E. (1936) A basic sight vocabulary. The Elementary School Journal. 36(6),
456-460.

Erickson, L. (1960). “The typewriter-a tool of learning in the elementary grades.

Balance Sheet.

Erthal, M. (1998). Who should teach keyboarding and when should it be taught?
Retrieved November 17, 2016 from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.585.4719&rep=
rep1&type=pdf

Fendrick, P. (1937). Hierarchical skills in typewriting. Journal of Educational

Psychology, 28(8), 609-620.

Fleming, S. (2002) When and how should keyboarding be taught in elementary

schools? Unpublished masters thesis., University of Northern Iowa,
Cedar Falls, Iowa.

Fry, E. (1998). The most common phonograms. The Reading Teacher. 51(7),
620-622.

Garris, R., Ahlers, R. and Driskell, J. (2002). Games, motivation and learning: A
research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 441-467.

Goldberg, A., Russell, M., and Cook, A. (2003). The effect of computers on
student writing: A meta-analysis of studies from 1992-2002. Journal of
Technology, Learning and Assessment, 2(1). Retrieved on November
19, 2016 from http://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/jtla/article/view/1661

Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis
of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 104(4), 879.

Hajic, M. (2008). Kids & computers - children at risk for rsis. Retrieved on May
20, 2016, from http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art50174.asp

Hamari, J., Shernoff, D. J., Rowe, E., Coller, B., Asbell-Clarke, J., & Edwards, T.
(2016). Challenging games help students learn: An empirical study on
engagement, flow and immersion in game-based learning. Computers in
Human Behavior, 54, 170-179.

Honig, B., Diamond, L., and Gutlohn, L. (2000). Teaching Reading Sourcebook:
For Kindergarten though Eighth Grade.

Hoot, J. (1985). Computer keyboarding instruction in the elementary school:

Directions for curriculum design. Paper presented at the annual meeting
23
 of the Southwest Educational Research Association, Austin, Texas.

Hoot, J. (1986). Keyboarding instruction in the early grades: Must or mistake?

Childhood Education, 63(2), 95-101.

International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), (2016). International

Standards for Students Retrieved on November 10, 2016 from
https://www.iste.org/standards/standards/for-students-2016

Internet Live Stats. (2016). Internet Live Stats. Retrieved on November 20, 2016
from http://www.internetlivestats.com/

Lockhart, A. & Zeitz, L. (2012). Keyboarding camp!: Identifying the effects of 4 th-
grader characteristics on keyboarding proficiency. Journal for Computing
Teachers. Retrieved on November 12, 2016 from
https://www.iste.org/resources/product?id=2523&name=Keyboarding+Ca
mp!%3a+Identifying+the+Effects+of+4th-
Grader+Characteristics+on+Keyboarding+Proficiency

McLean, G. (1994). Teaching keyboarding. Little Rock, AR: Delta Pi Epsilon.

Molnar, M. (Feb. 24, 2015). Half of K-12 students to have access to 1-to-1
computing by 2015-2016. EdWeek Market Brief. Retrieved on November
17, 2016, from https://marketbrief.edweek.org/marketplace-k-
12/half_of_k-12_students_to_have_access_to_1-to-
1_computing_by_2015-16_1/

National Association for the Education of Young Children (1998). Technology and
young children – ages 3 through 8. Retrieved on November 19, 2016
from http://www.naeyc.org/content/technology-and-young-children

NecTac (2004) The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Retrieved
on November 19, 2016, from http://www.nectac.org/idea/idea.asp.

Nieman, P. (1996). Introducing early keyboarding skills. Business Education

Forum, 51 (1), 27-30.

Olinzock, A. (1998). Computer skill building – the answer to keyboarding

instruction? Business Education Forum 51, 24-26.

Owston, R. & Wideman, H. (1997). Word processors and children’s writing in a

high-computer-access setting. Journal of Research on Computing in
Education, 20(2), 202-220.

Roblyer, M. & Doering, A. (2010). The impact of word processing in education.

Retrieved on November 1, 2016, from
24
 http://www.education.com/reference/article/impact-word-processing-
education/

Rogers, H. (1997). A longitudinal study of elementary keyboarding computer

skills. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 1(2), 55-57.

Rogers, H., Laehn, J., Lang, A., O’Leary, D., & Sommers, M. (2003). The status
of elementary keyboarding: A longitudinal study. Retrieved November
18, 2016 http://balancesheet.swlearning.com/1103/1103d.html

Rogers, H. (2006). The status of elementary keyboarding: A longitudinal study.

Retrieved on May 18, 2008, from http://facstaff.uww.edu

Russell, R. (1994). Teaching keyboarding to elementary children. In A. McEntee

(Ed.), Expanding Horizons in Business Education, Yearbook No. 32.
Reston, VA: National Business Education Association.

Russin, I. (1995). A comparison of the effect of teacher-directed instruction (and

textbook use) and interactive computer software instruction on the
development of touch-keyboarding skills in two sixth grade classes.
Unpublished masters thesis, Kean College, New Jersey.

SAU 16 (2007). Keyboarding ergonomics – health and safety. Retrieved on May

11, 2008 from
http://www.sau16.org/resources/keyboarding/kbergonomics.htm

Salomon, G., & Perkins, D. (1989). Rocky roads to transfer: Rethinking

mechanism of a neglected phenomenon. Educational Psychologist,
24(2), 113-142.

Sornunen, C. (1991) Keyboarding research. Retrieved on May 1, 2008 from

http://www.usoe.k12.ut.us/ate/keyboarding/Articles/EKcase.htm

Starr, L. (2001). Teaching keyboarding – when? why? where? Education World.

Retrieved on May 11, 2008, from
http://www.educationworld.com/a_tech/tech/tech072.shtml

Troutner, J. (1983). The issue of teaching typing. Educational Computer, 3(7),

14.

Udesky, L. (2015). Third-graders take on keyboard challenge. EdSource.

Retrieved on November 20, 2016 from https://edsource.org/2015/third-
graders-take-on-keyboard-challenge/74704

U.S. Department of Justice (2016). ADA homepage. Retrieved on November 2,

2016, from http://www.ada.gov
25
West, L. (1983). Acquisition of typewriting skill in teaching typewriting and word
processing (2nd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill.

Wetzel, K. (1985). Keyboarding skills: Elementary my dear teacher? The

Computing Teacher, 12(9), 15-19.

World-English (2003). The 500 most commonly used words in the English
language. Retrieved on May 11, 2008, from http://www.world-
english.org/english500.htm

Worldometers (2016). Retrieved on November 10, 2016, from

http://www.worldometers.info/computers/

Wronkovich, M. (1988). The relationship of early keyboard instruction to

computer proficiency. Educational Technology, 28, 42-47.

Zeitz, L. (2005). Keyboarding made simple: Learn the best techniques for
keyboarding like a pro. New York: Broadway Books.

26