Double bass

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search
For the contrabass voice, see Basso profondo; for the frequency range in general,
see Sub-bass. For the album by Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen and Sam Jones, see
Double Bass (album). For other instruments, see Double bass drum, Acoustic bass
guitar or Contrabass violin.
Double bass
AGK bass1 full.jpg
Side and front views of a modern double bass with a French-style bow
String instrument
Other names Bass, upright bass, string bass, acoustic bass, acoustic string bass,
contrabass, contrabass viol, bass viol, standup bass, bull fiddle and bass fiddle
Classification String instrument (bowed or plucked)
Hornbostel–Sachs classification 321.322-71
(Composite chordophone sounded by a bow)
Developed 15th–19th century
Playing range
Range contrabass.png
Related instruments
Viol
Viola
Cello
Bass guitar
Acoustic bass guitar
Electric upright bass
Diyingehu
Bazantar
Musicians
List of double bassists
The double bass, or simply the bass (and numerous other names), is the largest and
lowest-pitched bowed string instrument in the modern symphony orchestra.

It is a standard member of the orchestra's string section,[1] as well as the

concert band, and is featured in concertos, solo, and chamber music in Western
classical music.[2] The bass is used in a range of other genres, such as jazz,
1950s-style blues and rock and roll, rockabilly, psychobilly, traditional country
music, bluegrass, tango and many types of folk music.

The bass is a transposing instrument and is typically notated one octave higher
than tuned to avoid excessive ledger lines below the staff. The double bass is the
only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a viol), rather
than fifths, with strings usually tuned to E1, A1, D2 and G2.

The instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, with scholars
divided on whether the bass is derived from the viol or the violin family. However
the body shape especially where it curves into the neck matches the viol family
whereas in the rest of the violin family, the body meets the neck with no blending
curve.

The double bass is played with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato).
In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed. In
jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm. Classical music uses the
natural sound produced acoustically by the instrument, as does traditional
bluegrass. In jazz, blues, and related genres, the bass is frequently amplified.
Contents
1 Description
2 Playing style
3 History
4 Terminology
5 Design
5.1 Construction
5.1.1 Travel instruments
5.2 Strings
5.3 Bows
5.3.1 German bow
5.3.2 French bow
5.3.3 Bow construction and materials
5.3.4 Rosin
6 Pitch
7 Tuning
7.1 Regular tuning
7.2 C extension
7.3 Other tuning variations
7.3.1 Five strings
8 Playing and performance considerations
8.1 Body and hand position
8.2 Physical considerations
8.3 Volume
8.4 Transportation
8.5 Accessories
9 Classical repertoire
9.1 Solo works for double bass
9.1.1 1700s
9.1.2 1800s
9.1.3 1900s–present
9.2 Chamber music with double bass
9.3 Orchestral passages and solos
9.4 Double bass ensembles
10 Use in jazz
11 Use in bluegrass and country
11.1 Slap-style bass
12 Use in popular music
13 Modern playing styles
14 Double bassists
14.1 Historical
14.2 Modern
14.3 Contemporary (1900s)
14.3.1 Classical
14.3.2 Jazz
14.3.3 Other popular genres
15 Pedagogy and training
15.1 Formal training
15.2 Informal training
16 Careers
16.1 Classical music
17 See also
18 References
19 External links
Description

Ellen Andrea Wang performing at the Oslo Jazz Festival.

The double bass stands around 180 cm (6 feet) from scroll to endpin.[3] However,
other sizes are available, such as a 1⁄2 or 3⁄4, which serve to accommodate a
player's height and hand size. These sizes do not reflect the size relative to a
full size, or 4⁄4 bass; a 1⁄2 bass is not half the length of a bass but is only
slightly smaller.[4] It is typically constructed from several types of wood,
including maple for the back, spruce for the top, and ebony for the fingerboard. It
is uncertain whether the instrument is a descendant of the viola da gamba or of the
violin, but it is traditionally aligned with the violin family. While the double
bass is nearly identical in construction to other violin family instruments, it
also embodies features found in the older viol family.

Playing style
Like other violin and viol-family string instruments, the double bass is played
either with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato). In orchestral
repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed. In jazz, blues,
and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm, except for some solos and also occasional
written parts in modern jazz that call for bowing.

In classical pedagogy, almost all of the focus is on performing with the bow and
producing a good bowed tone; there is little work done on developing significant
pizzicato skills. Bowed notes in the lowest register of the instrument produce a
dark, heavy, mighty, or even menacing effect, when played with a fortissimo
dynamic; however, the same low pitches played with a delicate pianissimo can create
a sonorous, mellow accompaniment line. Classical bass students learn all of the
different bow articulations used by other string section players (e.g., violin and
cello), such as détaché, legato, staccato, sforzato, martelé ("hammered"-style),
sul ponticello, sul tasto, tremolo, spiccato and sautillé. Some of these
articulations can be combined; for example, the combination of sul ponticello and
tremolo can produce eerie, ghostly sounds. Classical bass players do play pizzicato
parts in orchestra, but these parts generally require simple notes (quarter notes,
half notes, whole notes), rather than rapid passages.

Double bass is a standard instrument in bluegrass groups.

Classical players perform both bowed and pizz notes using vibrato, an effect
created by rocking or quivering the left hand finger that is contacting the string,
which then transfers an undulation in pitch to the tone. Vibrato is used to add
expression to string playing. In general, very loud, low-register passages are
played with little or no vibrato, as the main goal with low pitches is to provide a
clear fundamental bass for the string section. Mid- and higher-register melodies
are typically played with more vibrato. The speed and intensity of the vibrato is
varied by the performer for an emotional and musical effect.

In jazz, rockabilly and other related genres, much or all of the focus is on
playing pizzicato. In jazz and jump blues, bassists are required to play extremely
rapid pizzicato walking basslines for extended periods. As well, jazz and
rockabilly bassists develop virtuoso pizzicato techniques that enable them to play
rapid solos that incorporate fast-moving triplet and sixteenth note figures.
Pizzicato basslines performed by leading jazz professionals are much more difficult
than the pizzicato basslines that Classical bassists encounter in the standard
orchestral literature, which are typically whole notes, half notes, quarter notes,
and occasional eighth note passages. In jazz and related styles, bassists often add
semi-percussive "ghost notes" into basslines, to add to the rhythmic feel and to
add fills to a bassline.

The double bass player stands, or sits on a high stool, and leans the instrument
against their body, turned slightly inward to put the strings comfortably in reach.
This stance is a key reason for the bass's sloped shoulders, which mark it apart
from the other members of the violin family—the narrower shoulders facilitate
playing the strings in their higher registers.[3]
History

Some early basses were conversions of existing violones. This 1640 painting shows a
violone being played.
The double bass is generally regarded as a modern descendant of the string family
of instruments that originated in Europe in the 15th century, and as such has been
described as a bass Violin.[5] Before the 20th century many double basses had only
three strings, in contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments in the
viol family or the four strings of instruments in the violin family. The double
bass's proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin and cello; for example, it
is deeper (the distance from front to back is proportionally much greater than the
violin). In addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders, most double basses
have shoulders carved with a more acute slope, like members of the viol family.
Many very old double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing
with modern techniques.[citation needed] Before these modifications, the design of
their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family.

The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths
(like a viol), rather than fifths (see Tuning below). The issue of the instrument's
exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, and the supposition that the double
bass is a direct descendant of the viol family is one that has not been entirely
resolved.

In his A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun asserts, with many references,
that the double bass has origins as the true bass of the violin family. He states
that, while the exterior of the double bass may resemble the viola da gamba, the
internal construction of the double bass is nearly identical to instruments in the
violin family, and very different from the internal structure of viols.[6]

Double bass professor Larry Hurst argues that the "modern double bass is not a true
member of either the violin or viol families." He says that "most likely its first
general shape was that of a violone, the largest member of the viol family. Some of
the earliest basses extant are violones, (including C-shaped sound holes) that have
been fitted with modern trappings."[7] Some existing instruments, such as those by
Gasparo da Salò, were converted from 16th-century six-string contrabass violoni.[8]

Terminology

Jazz bassist Ron Carter pictured playing with his Quartet at "Altes Pfandhaus" in
Cologne
A person who plays this instrument is called a "bassist", "double bassist", "double
bass player", "contrabassist", "contrabass player" or "bass player". The names
contrabass and double bass refer to the instrument's range and use in the contra
octave below the cello, also called the 16' octave relative to the church pipe
organ.[9] The terms for the instrument among classical performers are contrabass
(which comes from the instrument's Italian name, contrabbasso), string bass (to
distinguish it from brass bass instruments in a concert band, such as tubas), or
simply bass.

In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres outside of classical music, this
instrument is commonly called the upright bass, standup bass or acoustic bass to
distinguish it from the electric bass guitar. In folk and bluegrass music, the
instrument is also referred to as a "bass fiddle" or "bass violin" (or more rarely
as "doghouse bass" or "bull fiddle"). The upright bass is different from the
acoustic bass guitar, which is a guitar-family instrument that is built like an
acoustic guitar (although the acoustic bass guitar typically has four strings,
tuned E–A–D–G and a sturdier construction).

The double bass is sometimes confusingly called the violone, bass violin or bass
viol. Other colourful names or nicknames are found in other languages. In
Hungarian, the double bass is called nagybőgő, which roughly translates as "big
crier", referring to its large voice. In Brazil, specifically the northeast region,
it is also called rabecão, meaning "big rabeca". The rabeca (or rabeca chuleira) is
a type of fiddle from northeastern Brazil and northern Portugal used in Brazilian
forró music. The rabeca is descended from the medieval rebec. In English, the
instrument is sometimes called a bull fiddle.[10]

Design

Example of a Busetto-shaped double bass: remake of a Matthias Klotz (1700) by

Rumano Solano

Principal parts of the double bass

In general, there are two major approaches to the design outline shape of the
double bass: the violin form (shown in the labelled picture to the right); and the
viola da gamba form (shown in the header picture). A third less common design,
called the busetto shape, can also be found, as can the even more rare guitar or
pear shape. The back of the instrument can vary from being a round, carved back
similar to that of the violin, to a flat and angled back similar to the viol
family.

The double bass features many parts that are similar to members of the violin
family, including a wooden, carved bridge to support the strings, two f-holes, a
tailpiece into which the ball ends of the strings are inserted (with the tailpiece
anchored around the endpin mount), an ornamental scroll near the pegbox, a nut with
grooves for each string at the junction of the fingerboard and the pegbox and a
sturdy, thick sound post, which transmits the vibrations from the top of the
instrument to the hollow body and supports the pressure of the string tension.
Unlike the rest of the violin family, the double bass still reflects influences
from, and can be considered partly derived, from the viol family of instruments, in
particular the violone, the lowest-pitched and largest bass member of the viol
family. As with the other violin and viol family instruments that are played with a
bow (and unlike mainly plucked or picked instruments like guitar), the double
bass's bridge has an arc-like, curved shape. This is done because with bowed
instruments, the player must be able to play individual strings. If the double bass
were to have a flat bridge, it would be impossible to bow the A and D strings
individually.

The double bass also differs from members of the violin family in that the
shoulders are typically sloped and the back is often angled (both to allow easier
access to the instrument, particularly in the upper range). Machine tuners are
always fitted, in contrast to the rest of the violin family, where traditional
wooden friction pegs are still the primary means of tuning. Lack of standardization
in design means that one double bass can sound and look very different from
another.

Construction
The double bass is closest in construction to violins, but has some notable
similarities to the violone (literally "large viol"), the largest and lowest-
pitched member of the viol family. Unlike the violone, however, the fingerboard of
the double bass is unfretted, and the double bass has fewer strings (the violone,
like most viols, generally had six strings, although some specimens had five or
four). The fingerboard is made of ebony on high-quality instruments; on less
expensive student instruments, other woods may be used and then painted or stained
black (a process called "ebonizing"). The fingerboard is radiused using a curve,
for the same reason that the bridge is curved: if the fingerboard and bridge were
to be flat, then a bassist would not be able to bow the inner two strings
individually. By using a curved bridge and a curved fingerboard, the bassist can
align the bow with any of the four strings and play them individually. Unlike the
violin and viola, but like the cello, the bass fingerboard is somewhat flattened
out underneath the E string (the C string on cello). The vast majority of
fingerboards cannot be adjusted by the performer; any adjustments must be made by a
luthier. A very small number of expensive basses for professionals have adjustable
fingerboards, in which a screw mechanism can be used to raise or lower the
fingerboard height.

An important distinction between the double bass and other members of the violin
family is the construction of the pegbox and the tuning mechanism. While the
violin, viola, and cello all use friction pegs for tuning adjustments (tightening
and loosening the string tension to raise or lower the string's pitch), the double
bass has metal machine heads and gears. One of the challenges with tuning pegs is
that the friction between the wood peg and the peg hole may become insufficient to
hold the peg in place, particularly if the peg hole become worn and enlarged. The
key on the tuning machine of a double bass turns a metal worm, which drives a worm
gear that winds the string. Turning the key in one direction tightens the string
(thus raising its pitch); turning the key the opposite direction reduces the
tension on the string (thus lowering its pitch). While this development makes fine
tuners on the tailpiece (important for violin, viola and cello players, as their
instruments use friction pegs for major pitch adjustments) unnecessary, a very
small number of bassists use them nevertheless. One rationale for using fine tuners
on bass is that for instruments with the low C extension, the pulley system for the
long string may not effectively transfer turns of the key into changes of string
tension/pitch. At the base of the double bass is a metal rod with a spiked or
rubberized end called the endpin, which rests on the floor. This endpin is
generally thicker and more robust than that of a cello, because of the greater mass
of the instrument.

The materials most often used in double bass construction for fully carved basses
(the type used by professional orchestra bassists and soloists) are maple (back,
neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece). The tailpiece may be
made from other types of wood or non-wood materials. Less expensive basses are
typically constructed with laminated (plywood) tops, backs, and ribs, or are hybrid
models produced with laminated backs and sides and carved solid wood tops. Some
2010-era lower- to mid-priced basses are made of willow, student models constructed
of Fiberglass were produced in the mid-20th century, and some (typically fairly
expensive) basses have been constructed of Carbon fiber.

This photo shows the thick soundpost on a double bass (circled in green).
Laminated (plywood) basses, which are widely used in music schools, youth
orchestras, and in popular and folk music settings (including rockabilly,
psychobilly, blues, etc.), are very resistant to humidity and heat, as well to the
physical abuse they are apt to encounter in a school environment (or, for blues and
folk musicians, to the hazards of touring and performing in bars). Another option
is the hybrid body bass, which has a laminated back and a carved or solid wood top.
It is less costly and somewhat less fragile (at least regarding its back) than a
fully carved bass. In 2015, the least expensive entry-level new, fully carved
basses range from $2,750[11] to $4,950[12] USD, although a higher-end new carved
instrument may cost from $9,000 to US$24,000.[13] In 2015, bassists in top
professional orchestras may have antique carved instruments valued at hundreds of
thousands of dollars. In 2015, new fully laminated basses are sold for about
$1,350[11] to $4,500[14] USD. New hybrid basses range from $3,000[12] to $6,400[14]
USD.

The soundpost and bass bar are components of the internal construction. All the
parts of a double bass are glued together, except the soundpost, bridge, and
tailpiece, which are held in place by string tension (although the soundpost
usually remains in place when the instrument's strings are loosened or removed, as
long as the bass is kept on its back. Some luthiers recommend changing only one
string at a time to reduce the risk of the soundpost falling). If the soundpost
falls, a luthier is needed to put the soundpost back into position, as this must be
done with tools inserted into the f-holes; moreover, the exact placement of the
soundpost under the bridge is essential for the instrument to sound its best. Basic
bridges are carved from a single piece of wood, which is customized to match the
shape of the top of each instrument. The least expensive bridges on student
instruments may be customized just by sanding the feet to match the shape of the
instrument's top. A bridge on a professional bassist's instrument may be ornately
carved by a luthier.

Professional bassists are more likely to have adjustable bridges, which have a
metal screw mechanism. This enables the bassist to raise or lower the height of the
strings to accommodate changing humidity or temperature conditions. The metal
tuning machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with metal screws. While
tuning mechanisms generally differ from the higher-pitched orchestral stringed
instruments, some basses have non-functional, ornamental tuning pegs projecting
from the side of the pegbox, in imitation of the tuning pegs on a cello or violin.

Famous double bass makers come from around the world and often represent varied
national characteristics. The most highly sought (and expensive) instruments come
from Italy and include basses made by Giovanni Paolo Maggini, Gaspar da Salò, the
Testore family (Carlo Antonio, Carlo Giuseppe, Gennaro, Giovanni, Paulo Antonio),
Celestino Puolotti, and Matteo Gofriller. French and English basses from famous
makers are also sought out by players.[citation needed]

Travel instruments
As of 2016, several manufacturers[who?] make travel instruments, which are double
basses that have features which reduce the size of the instrument so that the
instrument will meet airline travel requirements. Travel basses are designed for
touring musicians. One type of travel bass has a much smaller body than normal,
while still retaining all of the features needed for playing. While these smaller-
body instruments appear similar to electric upright basses, the difference is that
small-body travel basses still have a fairly large hollow acoustic sound chamber,
while many EUBs are solid body, or only have a small hollow chamber. A second type
of travel bass has a hinged or removable neck and a regular sized body. The hinged
or removable neck makes the instrument smaller when it is packed for
transportation.

Strings

Detail of the bridge and strings

Gut strings
The history of the double bass is tightly coupled to the development of string
technology, as it was the advent[9] of overwound gut strings, which first rendered
the instrument more generally practicable, as (over-) wound strings attain low
notes within a smaller overall string diameter than non-wound strings.[15]
Professor Larry Hurst argues that had "it not been for the appearance of the
overwound gut string in the 1650s, the double bass would surely have become
extinct."[7] because thicknesses needed for regular gut strings made the lower-
pitched strings almost unplayable and hindered the development of fluid, rapid
playing in the lower register.

Prior to the mid-20th century,[citation needed] double bass strings were usually
made of Catgut, (which despite its name is made from sheep intestine, not cats)
but, since that time, steel has largely replaced it, because steel strings hold
their pitch better and yield more volume when played with the bow.[16] Gut strings
are also more vulnerable to changes of humidity and temperature, and break more
easily than steel strings.

Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by bassists who perform in baroque ensembles,
rockabilly bands, traditional blues bands, and bluegrass bands. In some cases, the
low E and A are wound in silver, to give them added mass. Gut strings provide the
dark, "thumpy" sound heard on 1940s and 1950s recordings. The late Jeff Sarli, a
blues upright bassist, said that, "Starting in the 1950s, they began to reset the
necks on basses for steel strings."[17] Rockabilly and bluegrass bassists also
prefer gut because it is much easier to perform the "slapping" upright bass style
(in which the strings are percussively slapped and clicked against the fingerboard)
with gut strings than with steel strings, because gut does not hurt the plucking
fingers as much. A less expensive alternative to gut strings is nylon strings; the
higher strings are pure nylon, and the lower strings are nylon wrapped in wire, to
add more mass to the string, slowing the vibration, and thus facilitating lower
pitches. (For more information on slapping, see the sections below on Modern
playing styles, Double bass in bluegrass music, Double bass in jazz, and Double
bass in popular music).

The change from gut to steel has also affected the instrument's playing technique
over the last hundred years. Steel strings can be set up closer to the fingerboard
and, additionally, strings can be played in higher positions on the lower strings
and still produce clear tone. The classic 19th century Franz Simandl method does
not use the low E string in higher positions because older gut strings, set up high
over the fingerboard, could not produce clear tone in these higher positions.
However, with modern steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher
positions on the low E and A strings, particularly when they use modern lighter-
gauge, lower-tension steel strings. For information on the strings used in regular
and solo tuning (F♯-B-E-A) and with different types of basses (e.g., four-string
and five-string), see the section below on tuning.

Bows
The double bass bow comes in two distinct forms (shown below). The "French" or
"overhand" bow is similar in shape and implementation to the bow used on the other
members of the orchestral string instrument family, while the "German" or "Butler"
bow is typically broader and shorter, and is held in a "hand shake" (or "hacksaw")
position.

French (upper) and German bows compared

These two bows provide different ways of moving the arm and distributing force and
weight on the strings. Proponents of the French bow argue that it is more
maneuverable, due to the angle at which the player holds the bow. Advocates of the
German bow claim that it allows the player to apply more arm weight on the strings.
The differences between the two, however, are minute for a proficient player, and
modern players in major orchestras use both bows.

German bow

German-style bow
The German bow (sometimes called the Butler bow) is the older of the two designs.
The design of the bow and the manner of holding it descend from the older viol
instrument family. With older viols, before frogs had screw threads to tighten the
bow, players held the bow with two fingers between the stick and the hair to
maintain tension of the hair.[18] Proponents of the use of German bow claim that
the German bow is easier to use for heavy strokes that require a lot of power.

Compared to the French bow, the German bow has a taller frog, and the player holds
it with the palm angled upwards, as with the upright members of the viol family.
When held in the traditionally correct manner, the thumb applies the necessary
power to generate the desired sound. The index finger meets the bow at the point
where the frog meets the stick. The index finger also applies an upward torque to
the frog when tilting the bow. The little finger (or "pinky") supports the frog
from underneath, while the ring finger and middle finger rest in the space between
the hair and the shaft.

French bow

French-style bow
The French bow was not widely popular until its adoption by 19th-century virtuoso
Giovanni Bottesini. This style is more similar to the traditional bows of the
smaller string family instruments. It is held as if the hand is resting by the side
of the performer with the palm facing toward the bass. The thumb rests on the shaft
of the bow, next to the frog while the other fingers drape on the other side of the
bow. Various styles dictate the curve of the fingers and thumb, as do the style of
piece; a more pronounced curve and lighter hold on the bow is used for virtuoso or
more delicate pieces, while a flatter curve and sturdier grip on the bow sacrifices
some power for easier control in strokes such as detaché, spiccato, and staccato.

A bassist holding a French bow; note how the thumb rests on the shaft of the bow
next to the frog.
Bow construction and materials
Double bass bows vary in length, ranging from 60 to 75 cm (24–30 in). In general, a
bass bow is shorter and heavier than a cello bow. Pernambuco, also known as
Brazilwood, is regarded as an excellent quality stick material, but due to its
scarcity and expense, other materials are increasingly being used. Inexpensive
student bows may be constructed of solid fiberglass, which makes the bow much
lighter than a wooden bow (even too light to produce a good tone, in some cases).
Student bows may also be made of the less valuable varieties of brazilwood.
Snakewood and carbon fiber are also used in bows of a variety of different
qualities. The frog of the double bass bow is usually made out of ebony, although
snakewood and buffalo horn are used by some luthiers. The frog is movable, as it
can be tightened or loosened with a knob (like all violin family bows). The bow is
loosened at the end of a practice session or performance. The bow is tightened
before playing, until it reaches a tautness that is preferred by the player. The
frog on a quality bow is decorated with mother of pearl inlay.

Bows have a leather wrapping on the wooden part of the bow near the frog. Along
with the leather wrapping, there is also a wire wrapping, made of gold[citation
needed] or silver in quality bows. The hair is usually horsehair. Part of the
regular maintenance of a bow is having the bow "rehaired" by a luthier with fresh
horsehair and having the leather and wire wrapping replaced. The double bass bow is
strung with either white or black horsehair, or a combination of the two (known as
"salt and pepper"), as opposed to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of
other string instruments. Some bassists argue that the slightly rougher black hair
"grabs" the heavier, lower strings better.[citation needed] As well, some bassists
and luthiers believe that it is easier to produce a smoother sound with the white
variety.[citation needed] Red hair (chestnut) is also used by some bassists.
[citation needed] Some of the lowest-quality, lowest cost student bows are made
with synthetic hair. Synthetic hair does not have the tiny "barbs" that real
horsehair has, so it does not "grip" the string well or take rosin well.

Rosin

A variety of rosin types.

String players apply rosin to the bow hair so it "grips" the string and makes it
vibrate. Double bass rosin is generally softer and stickier than violin rosin to
allow the hair to grab the thicker strings better, but players use a wide variety
of rosins that vary from quite hard (like violin rosin) to quite soft, depending on
the weather, the humidity, and the preference of the player. The amount used
generally depends on the type of music being performed as well as the personal
preferences of the player. Bassists may apply more rosin in works for large
orchestra (e.g., Brahms symphonies) than for delicate chamber works.[citation
needed] Some brands of rosin, such as Wiedoeft or Pop's double bass rosin, are
softer and more prone to melting in hot weather. Other brands, such as Carlsson or
Nyman Harts double bass rosin, are harder and less prone to melting.[citation
needed]

Pitch

The bass (or F) clef is used for most orchestral double bass music.
The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string basses) at
approximately 41 Hz or a C1 (≈33 Hz), or sometimes B0 (≈31 Hz), when five strings
are used. This is within about an octave above the lowest frequency that the
average human ear can perceive as a distinctive pitch. The top of the instrument's
fingerboard range is typically near D5, two octaves and a fifth above the open
pitch of the G string (G2), as shown in the range illustration found at the head of
this article. Playing beyond the end of the fingerboard can be accomplished by
pulling the string slightly to the side.

Double bass symphony parts sometimes indicate that the performer should play
harmonics (also called flageolet tones), in which the bassist lightly touches the
string–without pressing it onto the fingerboard in the usual fashion–in the
location of a note and then plucks or bows the note. Bowed harmonics are used in
contemporary music for their "glassy" sound. Both natural harmonics and artificial
harmonics, where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other harmonic is
activated by lightly touching the string at the relative node point, extend the
instrument's range considerably. Natural and artificial harmonics are used in
plenty of virtuoso concertos for the double bass.

Orchestral parts from the standard Classical repertoire rarely demand the double
bass exceed a two-octave and a minor third range, from E1 to G3, with occasional
A3s appearing in the standard repertoire (an exception to this rule is Orff's
Carmina Burana, which calls for three octaves and a perfect fourth). The upper
limit of this range is extended a great deal for 20th- and 21st-century orchestral
parts (e.g., Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kijé Suite (c.1933) bass solo, which calls for
notes as high as D4 and E♭4). The upper range a virtuoso solo player can achieve
using natural and artificial harmonics is hard to define, as it depends on the
skill of the particular player. The high harmonic in the range illustration found
at the head of this article may be taken as representative rather than normative.

Five-string instruments have an additional string, typically tuned to a low B below

the E string (B0). On rare occasions, a higher string is added instead, tuned to
the C above the G string (C3). Four-string instruments may feature the C extension
extending the range of the E string downwards to C1 (sometimes B0).

Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument. Since much of the

double bass's range lies below the standard bass clef, it is notated an octave
higher than it sounds to avoid having to use excessive ledger lines below the
staff. Thus, when double bass players and cellists are playing from a combined
bass-cello part, as used in many Mozart and Haydn symphonies, they will play in
octaves, with the basses one octave below the cellos. This transposition applies
even when bass players are reading the tenor and treble clef (which are used in
solo playing and some orchestral parts). The tenor clef is also used by composers
for cello and low brass parts. The use of tenor or treble clef avoids excessive
ledger lines above the staff when notating the instrument's upper range. Other
notation traditions exist. Italian solo music is typically written at the sounding
pitch, and the "old" German method sounded an octave below where notation except in
the treble clef, where the music was written at pitch.

Tuning
Regular tuning

Double bass player Vivien Garry playing a show in New York City in 1947.
The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other members of the
orchestral string family, which are tuned in fifths (for example, the violin's four
strings are, from lowest-pitched to highest-pitched: G-D-A-E). The standard tuning
(lowest-pitched to highest-pitched) for bass is E–A–D–G, starting from E below
second low C (concert pitch). This is the same as the standard tuning of a bass
guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest-pitched strings of standard
guitar tuning. Prior to the 19th-century, many double basses had only three
strings; "Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) favored the three-stringed instrument
popular in Italy at the time",[7] because "the three-stringed instrument [was
viewed as] being more sonorous."[19] Many cobla bands in Catalonia still have
players using traditional three-string double basses tuned A–D–G.[20]

Throughout classical repertoire, there are notes that fall below the range of a
standard double bass. Notes below low E appear regularly in the double bass parts
found in later arrangements and interpretations of Baroque music. In the Classical
era, the double bass typically doubled the cello part an octave below, occasionally
requiring descent to C below the E of the four-string double bass. In the Romantic
era and the 20th century, composers such as Wagner, Mahler, Busoni and Prokofiev
also requested notes below the low E.

There are several methods for making these notes available to the player. Players
with standard double basses (E–A–D–G) may play the notes below "E" an octave higher
or if this sounds awkward, the entire passage may be transposed up an octave. The
player may tune the low E string down to the lowest note required in the piece: D
or C. Four-string basses may be fitted with a "low-C extension" (see below). Or the
player may employ a five-string instrument, with the additional lower string tuned
to C, or (more commonly in modern times) B, three octaves and a semitone below
middle C. Several major European orchestras use basses with a fifth string.[21]

C extension

A low-C extension with wooden mechanical "fingers" that stop the string at C♯, D,
E♭, or E. For orchestral passages which only go down to a low E, the "finger" at
the nut is usually closed.
In Britain, the US and Canada, most professional orchestral players use four-string
double basses with a C extension. This is an extra section of fingerboard mounted
on the head of the bass. It extends the fingerboard under the lowest string and
gives an additional four semitones of downward range. The lowest string is
typically tuned down to C1, an octave below the lowest note on the cello. More
rarely this string may be tuned to a low B0, as a few works in the orchestral
repertoire call for such a B, such as Respighi's The Pines of Rome. In rare cases,
some players have a low B extension, which has B as its lowest note. There are
several varieties of extensions:

In the simplest mechanical extensions, there are no mechanical aids attached to the
fingerboard extension except a locking nut or "gate" for the E note. To play the
extension notes, the player reaches back over the area under the scroll to press
the string to the fingerboard. The advantage of this "fingered" extension is that
the player can adjust the intonation of all of the stopped notes on the extension,
and there are no mechanical noises from metal keys and levers. The disadvantage of
the "fingered" extension is that it can be hard to perform rapid alternations
between low notes on the extension and notes on the regular fingerboard, such as a
bassline that quickly alternates between G and D.

The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use of wooden "fingers" or "gates" that
can be closed to press the string down and fret the C♯, D, E♭, or E notes. This
system is particularly useful for basslines that have a repeating pedal point such
as a low D because once the note is locked in place with the mechanical finger the
lowest string sounds a different note when played open (e.g., a low D).

The most complicated mechanical aid for use with extensions is the mechanical lever
system nicknamed the machine. This lever system, which superficially resembles the
keying mechanism of reed instruments such as the bassoon, mounts levers beside the
regular fingerboard (near the nut, on the E-string side), which remotely activate
metal "fingers" on the extension fingerboard. The most expensive metal lever
systems also give the player the ability to "lock" down notes on the extension
fingerboard, as with the wooden "finger" system. One criticism of these devices is
that they may lead to unwanted metallic clicking noises.

Once a mechanical "finger" of the wooden "finger" extension or the metal "finger"
machine extension is locked down or depressed, it is not easy to make microtonal
pitch adjustments or glissando effects, as is possible with a hand-fingered
extension.

While the most common type of extension is the C extension, in rare cases, owners
of five-string basses, in which the lowest string is normally a low B, may use
either a two semitone extension, providing a low A, or the very rare low G
extension.

Other tuning variations

A small number of bass players tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an
octave lower (C–G–D–A low to high). This tuning was used by the jazz player Red
Mitchell and is used by some classical players, notably the Canadian bassist Joel
Quarrington. Advocates of tuning the bass in fifths point out that all of the other
orchestral strings are tuned in fifths (violin, viola, and cello), so this puts the
bass in the same tuning approach. Fifth tuning provides a bassist with a wider
range of pitch than a standard E–A–D–G bass, as it ranges (without an extension)
from C1 to A2. Some players who use fifths tuning who play a five-string bass use
an additional high string (thus, from lowest to highest: C–G–D–A–E). Some fifth
tuning bassists who only have a four string instrument and who are mainly
performing soloistic works use the G–D–A–E tuning, thus omitting the low C string
but gaining a high E. Some fifth tuning bassists who use a five-string use a
smaller scale instrument, thus making fingering somewhat easier. The Berlioz–
Strauss Treatise on Instrumentation (first published in 1844) states that "A good
orchestra should have several four-string double-basses, some of them tuned in
fifths and thirds." The book then shows a tuning of (E–G–D–A) from bottom to top
string. "Together with the other double-basses tuned in fourths, a combination of
open strings would be available, which would greatly increase the sonority of the
orchestra."

In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher (F♯–
B–E–A). This higher tuning is called "solo tuning", whereas the regular tuning is
known as "orchestral tuning". Solo tuning strings are generally thinner than
regular strings. String tension differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning
that a different set of strings is often employed that has a lighter gauge. Strings
are always labelled for either solo or orchestral tuning and published solo music
is arranged for either solo or orchestral tuning. Some popular solos and concerti,
such as the Koussevitsky Concerto are available in both solo and orchestral tuning
arrangements. Solo tuning strings can be tuned down a tone to play in orchestra
pitch, but the strings often lack projection in orchestral tuning and their pitch
may be unstable.

Some contemporary composers specify highly specialized scordatura (intentionally

changing the tuning of the open strings). Changing the pitch of the open strings
makes different notes available as pedal points and harmonics. Berio, for example,
asks the player to tune their strings E–G♯–D–G in Sequenza XIVb and Scelsi asks for
both F–A–D–E and F–A–F–E in Nuits. A variant and much less-commonly used form of
solo tuning used in some Eastern European countries is (A–D–G–C), which uses three
of the strings from orchestral tuning (A–D–G) and then adds a high "C" string. Some
bassists with five-string basses use a high "C" string as the fifth string, instead
of a low "B" string. Adding the high "C" string facilitates the performance of solo
repertoire with a high tessitura (range). Another option is to utilize both a low C
(or B) extension and a high C string.

Five strings
When choosing a bass with a fifth string, the player may decide between adding a
higher-pitched string (a high C string) or a lower-pitched string (typically a low
B). Six-stringed instruments are generally regarded as impractical. To accommodate
the additional fifth string, the fingerboard is usually slightly widened, and the
top slightly thicker, to handle the increased tension. Some five-stringed
instruments are converted four-string instruments. Because these do not have wider
fingerboards, some players find them more difficult to finger and bow. Converted
four-string basses usually require either a new, thicker top, or lighter strings to
compensate for the increased tension.

Playing and performance considerations

Body and hand position

French double-bass player and composer Renaud Garcia-Fons during a performance.

Double bassists either stand or sit to play the instrument. The instrument height
is set by adjusting the endpin such that the player can reach the desired playing
zones of the strings with bow or plucking hand. Bassists who stand and bow
sometimes set the endpin by aligning the first finger in either first or half
position with eye level, although there is little standardization in this regard.
Players who sit generally use a stool about the height of the player's pants inseam
length.

Traditionally, double bassists stood to play solo and sat to play in the orchestra
or opera pit. Now, it is unusual for a player to be equally proficient in both
positions, so some soloists sit (as with Joel Quarrington, Jeff Bradetich, Thierry
Barbé, and others) and some orchestral bassists stand.

When playing in the instrument's upper range (above G3, the G below middle C), the
player shifts the hand from behind the neck and flattens it out, using the side of
the thumb to press down the string. This technique—also used on the cello—is called
thumb position. While playing in thumb position, few players use the fourth
(little) finger, as it is usually too weak to produce reliable tone (this is also
true for cellists), although some extreme chords or extended techniques, especially
in contemporary music, may require its use.

Physical considerations

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
(May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

The upright bass player of the rockabilly band Lucky Dados. Rockabilly style can be
very demanding on the plucking hand, due to rockabilly's use of "slapping" on the
fingerboard.
Performing on bass can be physically demanding, because the strings are large and
thick. Also, the space between notes on the fingerboard is large, due to scale
length and string spacing, so players must hold their fingers apart for the notes
in the lower positions and shift positions frequently to play basslines. As with
all non-fretted string instruments, performers must learn to place their fingers
precisely to produce the correct pitch. For bassists with shorter arms or smaller
hands, the large spaces between pitches may present a significant challenge,
especially in the lowest range, where the spaces between notes are largest.
However, the increased use of playing techniques such as thumb position and
modifications to the bass, such as the use of lighter-gauge strings at lower
tension, have eased the difficulty of playing the instrument.

Bass parts have relatively fewer fast passages, double stops, or large jumps in
range. These parts are usually given to the cello section, since the cello is a
smaller instrument on which these techniques are more easily performed.

Until the 1990s, child-sized double basses were not widely available, and the large
size of the bass prevented children from playing the instrument until they grew to
a height and hand size that allowed them to play a 3⁄4-size model (the most common
size). Starting in the 1990s, smaller 1⁄2, 1⁄4, 1⁄8, and even 1⁄16-sized
instruments became more widely available, so children could start younger.

Volume
Despite the size of the instrument, it is not as loud as many other instruments,
due to its low range. In a large orchestra, usually between four and eight bassists
play in the same bassline in unison to produce enough volume. In the largest
orchestras, bass sections may have as many as ten or twelve players, but modern
budget constraints make bass sections this large unusual.

When writing solo passages for the bass in orchestral or chamber music, composers
typically ensure the orchestration is light so it does not obscure the bass. While
amplification is rarely used in classical music, in some cases where a bass soloist
performs a concerto with a full orchestra, subtle amplification called acoustic
enhancement may be used. The use of microphones and amplifiers in a classical
setting has led to debate within the classical community, as "...purists maintain
that the natural acoustic sound of [Classical] voices [or] instruments in a given
hall should not be altered."[22]

Psychobilly bassist Jimbo Wallace onstage with Reverend Horton Heat; note his large
bass stack consisting of a 1x15" cabinet, a 4x10" cabinet, and an amplifier "head".
In many genres, such as jazz and blues, players use amplification via a specialized
amplifier and loudspeakers. A piezoelectric pickup connects to the amplifier with a
1⁄4-inch patch cable. Bluegrass and jazz players typically use less amplification
than blues, psychobilly, or jam band players. In the latter cases, high overall
volume from other amplifiers and instruments may cause unwanted acoustic feedback,
a problem exacerbated by the bass's large surface area and interior volume. The
feedback problem has led to technological fixes like electronic feedback eliminator
devices (essentially an automated notch filter that identifies and reduces
frequencies where feedback occurs) and instruments like the electric upright bass,
which has playing characteristics like the double bass but usually little or no
soundbox, which makes feedback less likely. Some bassists reduce the problem of
feedback by lowering their onstage volume or playing further away from their bass
amp speakers.

In rockabilly and psychobilly, percussively slapping the strings against the

fingerboard is an important part of the bass playing style. Since piezoelectric
pickups are not good at reproducing the sounds of strings being slapped against the
fingerboard, bassists in these genres often use both piezoelectric pickups (for the
low bass tone) and a miniature condenser mic (to pick up the percussive slapping
sounds). These two signals are blended together using a simple mixer before the
signal is sent to the bass amp.

Transportation
The double bass's large size and relative fragility make it cumbersome to handle
and transport. Most bassists use soft cases, referred to as gig bags, to protect
the instrument during transport. These range from inexpensive, thin unpadded cases
used by students (which only protect against scratches and rain) to thickly padded
versions for professional players, which also protect against bumps and impacts.
Some bassists carry their bow in a hard bow case; more expensive bass cases have a
large pocket for a bow case. Players also may use a small cart and end pin-attached
wheels to move the bass. Some higher-priced padded cases have wheels attached to
the case. Another option found in higher-priced padded cases are backpack straps,
to make it easier to carry the instrument.

Hard flight cases for double basses.

Hard flight cases have cushioned interiors and tough exteriors of carbon fiber,
graphite, fiberglass, or Kevlar. The cost of good hard cases–several thousand US
dollars–and the high airline fees for shipping them tend to limit their use to
touring professionals.

Accessories

A wooden mute attached to the bass bridge to make the tone darker
Double bass players use various accessories to help them to perform and rehearse.
Three types of mutes are used in orchestral music: a wooden mute that slides onto
the bridge, a rubber mute that attaches to the bridge and a wire device with brass
weights that fits onto the bridge. The player uses the mute when the Italian
instruction con sordino ("with mute") appears in the bass part, and removes it in
response to the instruction senza sordino ("without mute"). With the mute on, the
tone of the bass is quieter, darker, and more somber. Bowed bass parts with a mute
can have a nasal tone. Players use a third type of mute, a heavy rubber practice
mute, to practice quietly without disturbing others (e.g., in a hotel room).

A quiver is an accessory for holding the bow. It is often made of leather and it
attaches to the bridge and tailpiece with ties or straps. It is used to hold the
bow while a player plays pizzicato parts.

A wolf tone eliminator is used to lessen unwanted sympathetic vibrations in the

part of a string between the bridge and the tailpiece which can cause tone problems
for certain notes. It is a rubber tube cut down the side that is used with a
cylindrical metal sleeve which also has a slot on the side. The metal cylinder has
a screw and a nut that fastens the device to the string. Different placements of
the cylinder along the string influence or eliminate the frequency at which the
wolf tone occurs. It is essentially an attenuator that slightly shifts the natural
frequency of the string (and/or instrument body) cutting down on the reverberation.
[23] The wolf tone occurs because the strings below the bridge sometimes resonate
at pitches close to notes on the playing part of the string. When the intended note
makes the below-the-bridge string vibrate sympathetically, a dissonant "wolf note"
or "wolf tone" can occur. In some cases, the wolf tone is strong enough to cause an
audible "beating" sound. The wolf tone often occurs with the note G♯ on the bass.
[24][25]

In orchestra, instruments tune to an A played by the oboist. Due to the multiple

octaves between the oboist's tuning A and the open A string on the bass (for
example, in an orchestra that tunes to 440 Hz, the oboist plays an A at 440 Hz and
the open A of the bass is 55 Hz) it can be difficult to tune the bass by ear during
the short period that the oboist plays the tuning note. Violinists, on the other
hand, tune their A string to the same frequency as the oboist's tuning note. To
ensure the bass is in tune, some bassists use an electronic tuner that indicates
pitch on a small display. Bassists who play in styles that use a bass amp, such as
blues, rockabilly, or jazz, may use a stompbox-format electronic tuner, which mutes
the bass pickup during tuning.

A double bass stand is used to hold the instrument in place and raise it a few
inches off the ground. A wide variety of stands are available, and there is no one
common design.

Classical repertoire
Solo works for double bass
1700s
The double bass as a solo instrument enjoyed a period of popularity during the 18th
century and many of the most popular composers from that era wrote pieces for the
double bass. The double bass, then often referred to as the Violone, used different
tunings from region to region. The "Viennese tuning" (A1–D2–F♯2–A2) was popular,
and in some cases a fifth string or even sixth string was added (F1–A1–D2–F♯2–A2).
[26] The popularity of the instrument is documented in Leopold Mozart's second
edition of his Violinschule, where he writes "One can bring forth difficult
passages easier with the five-string violone, and I heard unusually beautiful
performances of concertos, trios, solos, etc."

The Italian bass virtuoso Domenico Dragonetti helped to encourage composers to give
more difficult parts for his instrument.
The earliest known concerto for double bass was written by Joseph Haydn c.1763, and
is presumed lost in a fire at the Eisenstadt library. The earliest known existing
concertos are by Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, who composed two concertos for the
double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola and double bass. Other composers
that have written concertos from this period include Johann Baptist Vanhal, Franz
Anton Hoffmeister (3 concertos), Leopold Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio
Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl (2 concertos), and Johannes Matthias Sperger (18 concertos).
While many of these names were leading figures to the music public of their time,
they are generally unknown by contemporary audiences. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's
concert aria, Per Questa Bella Mano, K.612 for bass, double bass obbligato, and
orchestra contains impressive writing for solo double bass of that period. It
remains popular among both singers and double bassists today.

The double bass eventually evolved to fit the needs of orchestras that required
lower notes and a louder sound. The leading double bassists from the mid-to-late
18th century, such as Josef Kämpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes Mathias
Sperger employed the "Viennese" tuning. Bassist Johann Hindle (1792–1862), who
composed a concerto for the double bass, pioneered tuning the bass in fourths,
which marked a turning point for the double bass and its role in solo works.
Bassist Domenico Dragonetti was a prominent musical figure and an acquaintance of
Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven. His playing was known all the way from his homeland
Italy to the Tsardom of Russia and he found a prominent place performing in
concerts with the Philharmonic Society of London. Beethoven's friendship with
Dragonetti may have inspired him to write difficult, separate parts for the double
bass in his symphonies, such as the impressive passages in the third movement of
the Fifth Symphony, the second movement of the Seventh Symphony, and last movement
of the Ninth Symphony. These parts do not double the cello part.

Dragonetti wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo works for bass and
piano. During Rossini's stay in London in the summer of 1824, he composed his
Duetto for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and the cellist David Salomons.
Dragonetti frequently played on a three string double bass tuned G–D–A from top to
bottom. The use of only the top three strings was popular for bass soloists and
principal bassists in orchestras in the 19th century, because it reduced the
pressure on the wooden top of the bass, which was thought to create a more resonant
sound. As well, the low E-strings used during the 19th century were thick cords
made of gut, which were difficult to tune and play.

1800s

The virtuoso nineteenth-century bassist and composer Giovanni Bottesini with his
1716 Carlo Antonio Testore bass.
In the 19th century, the opera conductor, composer, and bassist Giovanni Bottesini
was considered the "Paganini of the double bass" of his time, a reference to the
violin virtuoso and composer. Bottesini's bass concertos were written in the
popular Italian opera style of the 19th century, which exploit the double bass in a
way that was not seen beforehand. They require virtuosic runs and great leaps to
the highest registers of the instrument, even into the realm of natural and
artificial harmonics. Many 19th century and early 20th century bassists considered
these compositions unplayable, but in the 2000s, they are frequently performed.
During the same time, a prominent school of bass players in the Czech region arose,
which included Franz Simandl, Theodore Albin Findeisen, Josef Hrabe, Ludwig Manoly,
and Adolf Mišek. Simandl and Hrabe were also pedagogues whose method books and
studies remain in use in the 2000s.

1900s–present
The leading figure of the double bass in the early 20th century was Serge
Koussevitzky, best known as conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, who
popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument. Because of
improvements to the double bass with steel strings and better set-ups, the bass is
now played at a more advanced level than ever before and more and more composers
have written works for the double bass. In the mid-century and in the following
decades, many new concerti were written for the double bass, including Nikos
Skalkottas's Concerto (1942), Eduard Tubin's Concerto (1948), Lars-Erik Larsson's
Concertino (1957), Gunther Schuller's Concerto (1962), Hans Werner Henze's Concerto
(1966) and Frank Proto's Concerto No. 1 (1968).

The Solo For Contrabass is one of the parts of John Cage's Concert For Piano And
Orchestra and can be played as a solo, or with any of the other parts both
orchestral and/or piano. Similarly, his solo contrabass parts for the orchestral
work Atlas Eclipticalis can also be performed as solos. Cage's indeterminate works
such as Variations I, Variations II, Fontana Mix, Cartridge Music et al. can be
arranged for a solo contrabassist. His work 26.1.1499 For A String Player is often
realized by a solo contrabass player, although it can also be played by a
violinist, violist, or cellist.

From the 1960s through the end of the century Gary Karr was the leading proponent
of the double bass as a solo instrument and was active in commissioning or having
hundreds of new works and concerti written especially for him. Karr was given
Koussevitzky's famous solo double bass by Olga Koussevitsky and played it in
concerts around the world for 40 years before, in turn, giving the instrument to
the International Society of Bassists for talented soloists to use in concert.
Another important performer in this period, Bertram Turetzky, commissioned and
premiered more than 300 double bass works.

Serge Koussevitzky popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument
In the 1970s, 1980 and 1990s, new concerti included Nino Rota's Divertimento for
Double Bass and Orchestra (1973), Alan Ridout's concerto for double bass and
strings (1974), Jean Françaix's Concerto (1975), Frank Proto's Concerto No. 2,
Einojuhani Rautavaara's Angel Of Dusk (1980), Gian Carlo Menotti's Concerto (1983),
Christopher Rouse's Concerto (1985), Henry Brant's Ghost Nets (1988) and Frank
Proto's "Carmen Fantasy for Double Bass and Orchestra" (1991) and "Four Scenes
after Picasso" Concerto No. 3 (1997). Peter Maxwell Davies' lyrical Strathclyde
Concerto No. 7, for double bass and orchestra, dates from 1992.

In the first decade of the 21st century, new concerti include Frank Proto's "Nine
Variants on Paganini" (2002), Kalevi Aho's Concerto (2005), John Harbison's
Concerto for Bass Viol (2006), André Previn's Double Concerto for violin, double
bass, and orchestra (2007) and John Woolrich's To the Silver Bow, for double bass,
viola and strings (2014).

Reinhold Glière wrote an Intermezzo and Tarantella for double bass and piano, Op.
9, No. 1 and No. 2 and a Praeludium and Scherzo for double bass and piano, Op. 32
No. 1 and No. 2. Paul Hindemith wrote a rhythmically challenging Double Bass Sonata
in 1949. Frank Proto wrote his Sonata "1963" for Double Bass and Piano. In the
Soviet Union, Mieczysław Weinberg wrote his Sonata No. 1 for double bass solo in
1971. Giacinto Scelsi wrote two double bass pieces called Nuits in 1972, and then
in 1976, he wrote Maknongan, a piece for any low-voiced instrument, such as double
bass, contrabassoon, or tuba. Vincent Persichetti wrote solo works—which he called
"Parables"—for many instruments. He wrote Parable XVII for Double Bass, Op. 131 in
1974. Sofia Gubaidulina penned a Sonata for double bass and piano in 1975. In 1976
American minimalist composer Tom Johnson wrote "Failing - a very difficult piece
for solo string bass" in which the player has to perform an extremely virtuosic
solo on the bass whilst simultaneously reciting a text which says how very
difficult the piece is and how unlikely he or she is to successfully complete the
performance without making a mistake.

In 1977 Dutch-Hungarian composer Geza Frid wrote a set of variations on The

Elephant from Saint-Saëns' Le Carnaval des Animaux for scordatura Double Bass and
string orchestra. In 1987 Lowell Liebermann wrote his Sonata for Contrabass and
Piano Op. 24. Fernando Grillo wrote the "Suite No. 1" for double bass (1983/2005).
Jacob Druckman wrote a piece for solo double bass entitled Valentine. US double
bass soloist and composer Bertram Turetzky (born 1933) has performed and recorded
more than 300 pieces written by and for him. He writes chamber music, baroque
music, classical, jazz, renaissance music, improvisational music and world music

US minimalist composer Philip Glass wrote a prelude focused on the lower register
that he scored for timpani and double bass. Italian composer Sylvano Bussotti,
whose composing career spans from the 1930s to the first decade of the 21st
century, wrote a solo work for bass in 1983 entitled Naked Angel Face per
contrabbasso. Fellow Italian composer Franco Donatoni wrote a piece called Lem for
contrabbasso in the same year. In 1989, French composer Pascal Dusapin (born 1955)
wrote a solo piece called In et Out for double bass. In 1996, the Sorbonne-trained
Lebanese composer Karim Haddad composed Ce qui dort dans l'ombre sacrée ("He who
sleeps in the sacred shadows") for Radio France's Presence Festival. Renaud Garcia-
Fons (born 1962) is a French double bass player and composer, notable for drawing
on jazz, folk, and Asian music for recordings of his pieces like Oriental Bass
(1997).

Two significant recent works written for solo bass include, Mario Davidovsky's
Synchronisms No.11 for double bass and electronic sounds and Elliott Carter's
Figment III, for solo double bass. The German composer Gerhard Stäbler wrote Co-wie
Kobalt (1989–90), "...a music for double bass solo and grand orchestra." Charles
Wuorinen added several important works to the repertoire, Spinoff trio for double
bass, violin and conga drums, and Trio for Bass Instruments double bass, tuba and
bass trombone, and in 2007 Synaxis for double bass, horn, oboe and clarinet with
timpani and strings. The suite "Seven Screen Shots" for double bass and piano
(2005) by Ukrainian composer Alexander Shchetynsky has a solo bass part that
includes many unconventional methods of playing. The German composer Claus Kühnl
wrote Offene Weite / Open Expanse (1998) and Nachtschwarzes Meer, ringsum… (2005)
for double bass and piano.In 1997 Joel Quarrington commissioned the American /
Canadian composer Raymond Luedeke to write his "Concerto for Double Bass and
Orchestra", a piece he performed with The Toronto Symphony Orchestra, with the
Saskatoon Symphony Orchestra, and, in a version for small orchestra, with The Nova
Scotia Symphony Orchestra.[27] Composer Raymond Luedeke also composed a work for
double bass, flute, and viola with narration, "The Book of Questions", with text by
Pablo Neruda.[28]

In 2004 Italian double bassist and composer Stefano Scodanibbio made a double bass
arrangement of Luciano Berio's 2002 solo cello work Sequenza XIV with the new title
Sequenza XIVb.

Chamber music with double bass

Since there is no established instrumental ensemble that includes the double bass,
its use in chamber music has not been as exhaustive as the literature for ensembles
such as the string quartet or piano trio. Despite this, there is a substantial
number of chamber works that incorporate the double bass in both small and large
ensembles.

There is a small body of works written for piano quintet with the instrumentation
of piano, violin, viola, cello, and double bass. The most famous is Franz
Schubert's Piano Quintet in A major, known as "The Trout Quintet" for its set of
variations in the fourth movement of Schubert's Die Forelle. Other works for this
instrumentation written from roughly the same period include those by Johann
Nepomuk Hummel, George Onslow, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Louise Farrenc, Ferdinand Ries,
Franz Limmer, Johann Baptist Cramer, and Hermann Goetz. Later composers who wrote
chamber works for this quintet include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Colin Matthews, Jon
Deak, Frank Proto, and John Woolrich. Slightly larger sextets written for piano,
string quartet, and double bass have been written by Felix Mendelssohn, Mikhail
Glinka, Richard Wernick, and Charles Ives.

In the genre of string quintets, there are a few works for string quartet with
double bass. Antonín Dvořák's String Quintet in G major, Op.77 and Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart's Serenade in G major, K.525 ("Eine kleine Nachtmusik") are the most popular
pieces in this repertoire, along with works by Miguel del Aguila (Nostalgica for
string quartet and bass), Darius Milhaud, Luigi Boccherini (3 quintets), Harold
Shapero, and Paul Hindemith. Another example is Alistair Hinton's String Quintet
(1969–77), which also includes a major part for solo soprano; at almost 170 minutes
in duration, it is almost certainly the largest such work in the repertoire.

Slightly smaller string works with the double bass include six string sonatas by
Gioachino Rossini, for two violins, cello, and double bass written at the age of
twelve over the course of three days in 1804. These remain his most famous
instrumental works and have also been adapted for wind quartet. Franz Anton
Hoffmeister wrote four String Quartets for Solo Double Bass, Violin, Viola, and
Cello in D Major. Frank Proto has written a Trio for Violin, Viola and Double Bass
(1974), 2 Duos for Violin and Double Bass (1967 and 2005), and The Games of October
for Oboe/English Horn and Double Bass (1991).

Larger works that incorporate the double bass include Beethoven's Septet in E♭
major, Op. 20, one of his most famous pieces during his lifetime, which consists of
clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass. When the clarinetist
Ferdinand Troyer commissioned a work from Franz Schubert for similar forces, he
added one more violin for his Octet in F major, D.803. Paul Hindemith used the same
instrumentation as Schubert for his own Octet. In the realm of even larger works,
Mozart included the double bass in addition to 12 wind instruments for his "Gran
Partita" Serenade, K.361 and Martinů used the double bass in his nonet for wind
quintet, violin, viola, cello and double bass.
Other examples of chamber works that use the double bass in mixed ensembles include
Serge Prokofiev's Quintet in G minor, Op. 39 for oboe, clarinet, violin, viola, and
double bass; Miguel del Aguila's Malambo for bass flute and piano and for string
quartet, bass and bassoon; Erwin Schulhoff's Concertino for flute/piccolo, viola,
and double bass; Frank Proto's Afro-American Fragments for bass clarinet, cello,
double bass and narrator and Sextet for clarinet and strings; Fred Lerdahl's
Waltzes for violin, viola, cello, and double bass; Mohammed Fairouz's Litany for
double bass and wind quartet; Mario Davidovsky's Festino for guitar, viola, cello,
and double bass; and Iannis Xenakis's Morsima-Amorsima for piano, violin, cello,
and double bass. There are also new music ensembles that utilize the double bass
such as Time for Three and PROJECT Trio.

Orchestral passages and solos

\new Score {
#(set-default-paper-size "b6")
\new Staff {
\relative c, {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = #"cello"
\time 3/4
\key c \minor
\clef "bass_8"
\omit Staff.ClefModifier
\tempo 4 = 240
\omit Score.MetronomeMark

\partial 4 g^\markup { \halign #-0.5 \bold "Allegro" }(\pp | c ees g | c2

ees4 | d2 fis,4) | g2.~ | g2.
}
}
}
0:00
The opening of the third movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 is often used as an
orchestral excerpt during bass auditions.
In the baroque and classical periods, composers typically had the double bass
double the cello part in orchestral passages. A notable exception is Haydn, who
composed solo passages for the double bass in his Symphonies No. 6 Le Matin, No. 7
Le midi, No. 8 Le Soir, No. 31 Horn Signal, and No. 45 Farewell—but who otherwise
grouped bass and cello parts together. Beethoven paved the way for separate double
bass parts, which became more common in the romantic era. The scherzo and trio from
Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are famous orchestral excerpts, as is the recitative at
the beginning of the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. In many
nineteenth century symphonies and concertos, the typical impact of separate bass
and cello parts was that bass parts became simpler and cello parts got the melodic
lines and rapid passage work.[citation needed]

A double bass section of a modern orchestra typically uses eight double bassists,
usually in unison. Smaller orchestras may have four double basses, and in
exceptional cases, bass sections may have as many as ten members. If some double
bassists have low C extensions, and some have regular (low E) basses, those with
the low C extensions may play some passages an octave below the regular double
basses. Also, some composers write divided (divisi) parts for the basses, where
upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to "outside" (nearer the
audience) and "inside" players. Composers writing divisi parts for bass often write
perfect intervals, such as octaves and fifths, but in some cases use thirds and
sixths.
\layout {
indent = 0
}
\new Score {
#(set-default-paper-size "b6")
\new Staff {
\relative c, {
\set Staff.midiInstrument = #"cello"
\set Score.currentBarNumber = #92
\time 4/4
\key d \major
\clef "bass_8"
\omit Staff.ClefModifier
\tempo 2 = 60
\omit Score.MetronomeMark

\bar ""
fis2\p^\markup { \halign #-0.5 \bold "Allegro assai" }( g4 a) | a4( g fis e)
| d2( e4 fis) | fis4.( e8) e2 |
fis2( g4 a) | a4( g fis e) | d2( e4 fis) | e4.( d8) d2
}
}
}
0:00
The basses play the theme from the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.
Where a composition calls for a solo bass part, the principal bass invariably plays
that part. The section leader (or principal) also determines the bowings, often
based on bowings set out by the concertmaster. In some cases, the principal bass
may use a slightly different bowing than the concertmaster, to accommodate the
requirements of playing bass. The principal bass also leads entrances for the bass
section, typically by lifting the bow or plucking hand before the entrance or
indicating the entrance with the head, to ensure the section starts together. Major
professional orchestras typically have an assistant principal bass player, who
plays solos and leads the bass section if the principal is absent.

While orchestral bass solos are somewhat rare, there are some notable examples.
Johannes Brahms, whose father was a double bass player, wrote many difficult and
prominent parts for the double bass in his symphonies. Richard Strauss assigned the
double bass daring parts, and his symphonic poems and operas stretch the instrument
to its limits. "The Elephant" from Camille Saint-Saëns' The Carnival of the Animals
is a satirical portrait of the double bass, and American virtuoso Gary Karr made
his televised debut playing "The Swan" (originally written for the cello) with the
New York Philharmonic conducted by Leonard Bernstein. The third movement of Gustav
Mahler's first symphony features a solo for the double bass that quotes the
children's song Frere Jacques, transposed into a minor key. Sergei Prokofiev's
Lieutenant Kijé Suite features a difficult and very high double bass solo in the
"Romance" movement. Benjamin Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra
contains a prominent passage for the double bass section.

Double bass ensembles

Ensembles made up entirely of double basses, though relatively rare, also exist,
and several composers have written or arranged for such ensembles. Compositions for
four double basses exist by Gunther Schuller, Jacob Druckman, James Tenney, Claus
Kühnl, Robert Ceely, Jan Alm, Bernhard Alt, Norman Ludwin, Frank Proto, Joseph
Lauber, Erich Hartmann, Colin Brumby, Miloslav Gajdos and Theodore Albin Findeisen.
David A. Jaffe's "Who's on First?,"[29] commissioned by the Russian National
Orchestra is scored for five double basses. Bertold Hummel wrote a Sinfonia
piccola[30] for eight double basses. Larger ensemble works include Galina
Ustvolskaya's Composition No. 2, "Dies Irae" (1973), for eight double basses,
piano, and wooden cube, Jose Serebrier's George and Muriel (1986), for solo bass,
double bass ensemble, and chorus, and Gerhard Samuel's What of my music! (1979),
for soprano, percussion, and 30 double basses.

Double bass ensembles include L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (6 members),[31] Bass

Instinct (6 members),[32] Bassiona Amorosa (6 members),[33] the Chicago Bass
Ensemble (4+ members),[34] Ludus Gravis founded by Daniele Roccato and Stefano
Scodanibbio, The Bass Gang (4 members),[35] the London Double Bass Ensemble (6
members) founded by members of the Philharmonia Orchestra of London who produced
the LP[36] Music Interludes by London Double Bass Ensemble on Bruton Music records,
Brno Double Bass Orchestra (14 members) founded by the double bass professor at
Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts and principal double bass player at
Brno Philharmonic Orchestra – Miloslav Jelinek, and the ensembles of Ball State
University (12 members), Shenandoah University, and the Hartt School of Music. The
Amarillo Bass Base of Amarillo, Texas once featured 52 double bassists,[37][38] and
The London Double Bass Sound, who have released a CD on Cala Records, have 10
players.[39]

In addition, the double bass sections of some orchestras perform as an ensemble,

such as the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's Lower Wacker Consort.[40] There is an
increasing number of published compositions and arrangements for double bass
ensembles, and the International Society of Bassists regularly features double bass
ensembles (both smaller ensembles as well as very large "mass bass" ensembles) at
its conferences, and sponsors the biennial David Walter Composition Competition,
which includes a division for double bass ensemble works.

Use in jazz
See also: List of jazz bassists
Beginning around 1890, the early New Orleans jazz ensemble (which played a mixture
of marches, ragtime, and Dixieland) was initially a marching band with a tuba or
sousaphone (or occasionally bass saxophone) supplying the bass line. As the music
moved into bars and brothels, the upright bass gradually replaced these wind
instruments around the 1920s.[41] Many early bassists doubled on both the brass
bass (tuba) and string bass, as the instruments were then often referred to.
Bassists played improvised "walking" bass lines—scale- and arpeggio-based lines
that outlined the chord progression.

Because an unamplified upright bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz

band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling
the strings to produce a rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. The slap
style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings, and
made the bass more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording
equipment of that time did not favor low frequencies.[42] For more about the slap
style, see Modern playing styles, below.

Jazz bassist Charles Mingus was also an influential bandleader and composer whose
musical interests spanned from bebop to free jazz.
Jazz bass players are expected to improvise an accompaniment line or solo for a
given chord progression. They are also expected to know the rhythmic patterns that
are appropriate for different styles (e.g., Afro-Cuban). Bassists playing in a big
band must also be able to read written-out bass lines, as some arrangements have
written bass parts.

Many upright bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz. Examples
include swing era players such as Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke Ellington,
and Oscar Pettiford, who pioneered the instrument's use in bebop. Paul Chambers
(who worked with Miles Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album) achieved renown for
being one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos with the bow. Terry
Plumeri furthered the development of arco (bowed) solos, achieving horn-like
technical freedom and a clear, vocal bowed tone, while Charlie Haden, best known
for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the role of the bass in Free Jazz.

A number of other bassists, such as Ray Brown, Slam Stewart and Niels-Henning
Ørsted Pedersen, were central to the history of jazz. Stewart, who was popular with
the beboppers, played his solos with a bow combined with octave humming. Notably,
Charles Mingus was a highly regarded composer as well as a bassist noted for his
technical virtuosity and powerful sound.[43] Scott LaFaro influenced a generation
of musicians by liberating the bass from contrapuntal "walking" behind soloists
instead favoring interactive, conversational melodies.[44] Since the commercial
availability of bass amplifiers in the 1950s, jazz bassists have used amplification
to augment the natural volume of the instrument.

While the electric bass guitar was used intermittently in jazz as early as 1951,
beginning in the 1970s bassist Bob Cranshaw, playing with saxophonist Sonny
Rollins, and fusion pioneers Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began to commonly
substitute the bass guitar for the upright bass. Apart from the jazz styles of jazz
fusion and Latin-influenced jazz however, the upright bass is still the dominant
bass instrument in jazz. The sound and tone of the plucked upright bass is distinct
from that of the fretted bass guitar. The upright bass produces a different sound
than the bass guitar, because its strings are not stopped by metal frets, instead
having a continuous tonal range on the uninterrupted fingerboard. As well, bass
guitars usually have a solid wood body, which means that their sound is produced by
electronic amplification of the vibration of the strings, instead of the upright
bass's acoustic reverberation.

Demonstrative examples of the sound of a solo double bass and its technical use in
jazz can be heard on the solo recordings Emerald Tears (1978) by Dave Holland or
Emergence (1986) by Miroslav Vitous. Holland also recorded an album with the
representative title Music from Two Basses (1971) on which he plays with Barre
Phillips while he sometimes switches to cello.

Use in bluegrass and country

See also: List of double bassists in popular music
The string bass is the most commonly used bass instrument in bluegrass music and is
almost always plucked, though some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow.
The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm section, and is responsible for keeping
a steady beat, whether fast, slow, in 4
4, 2
4 or 3
4 time. The Engelhardt-Link (formerly Kay) brands of plywood laminate basses have
long been popular choices for bluegrass bassists. Most bluegrass bassists use the
3⁄4 size bass, but the full-size and 5⁄8 size basses are also used.

Upright bass used by a bluegrass group; the cable for a piezoelectric pickup can be
seen extending from the bridge.
Early pre-bluegrass traditional music was often accompanied by the cello. The
cellist Natalie Haas points out that in the US, you can find "...old photographs,
and even old recordings, of American string bands with cello." However, "The cello
dropped out of sight in folk music, and became associated with the orchestra."[45]
The cello did not reappear in bluegrass until the 1990s and first decade of the
21st century. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the electric bass, because it
is easier to transport than the large and somewhat fragile upright bass. However,
the bass guitar has a different musical sound. Many musicians feel the slower
attack and percussive, woody tone of the upright bass gives it a more "earthy" or
"natural" sound than an electric bass, particularly when gut strings are used.
Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some exceptions) plucking on
beats 1 and 3 in 4
4 time; beats 1 and 2 in 2
4 time, and on the downbeat in 3
4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass lines are usually simple, typically staying on
the root and fifth of each chord throughout most of a song. There are two main
exceptions to this rule. Bluegrass bassists often do a diatonic walkup or walkdown,
in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, typically when there is
a chord change. In addition, if a bass player is given a solo, they may play a
walking bass line with a note on every beat or play a pentatonic scale-influenced
bassline.

Country music bassist "Too Slim" (Fred LaBour of Riders in the Sky) performing in
Ponca City, Oklahoma in 2008.
An early bluegrass bassist to rise to prominence was Howard Watts (also known as
Cedric Rainwater), who played with Bill Monroe's Blue Grass Boys beginning in 1944.
[46] The classical bassist Edgar Meyer has frequently branched out into newgrass,
old-time, jazz, and other genres. "My all-time favorite is Todd Phillips,"
proclaimed Union Station bassist Barry Bales in April 2005. "He brought a
completely different way of thinking about and playing bluegrass.[47]

An upright bass was the standard bass instrument in traditional country western
music. While the upright bass is still occasionally used in country music, the
electric bass has largely replaced its bigger cousin in country music, especially
in the more pop-infused country styles of the 1990s and 2000s, such as new country.

Slap-style bass
Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass bass playing. When bluegrass bass
players slap the string by pulling it until it hits the fingerboard or hit the
strings against the fingerboard, it adds the high-pitched percussive "clack" or
"slap" sound to the low-pitched bass notes, sounding much like the clacks of a tap
dancer. Slapping is a subject of minor controversy in the bluegrass scene. Even
slapping experts such as Mike Bub say, "Don't slap on every gig," or in songs where
it is not appropriate. As well, bluegrass bassists who play slap-style on live
shows often slap less on records. Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely do slap
bass on recordings. While bassists such as Jack Cook slap bass on the occasional
faster "Clinch Mountain Boys song," bassists such as Gene Libbea, Missy Raines,
Jenny Keel, and Barry Bales [rarely] slap bass.[48]

Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his Intermediate Bluegrass
Bass DVD acknowledges that slap bass "...has not been stylistically very
predominant in the music I have recorded." He notes that "Even in traditional
bluegrass slap bass only appears sporadically and most of what I've done has been
on the more contemporary side of that (Tony Rice, Tim O'Brien)." Schatz states that
he would be "... more likely to use it [slap] in a live situation than on a
recording—for a solo or to punctuate a particular place in a song or tune where I
wouldn't be obliterating someone's solo."[49] Another bluegrass method, Learn to
Play Bluegrass Bass, by Earl Gately, also teaches bluegrass slap bass technique.
German bassist Didi Beck plays rapid triplet slaps, as demonstrated in this video.
[50]

Use in popular music

See also: List of double bassists in popular music
In the early 1950s, the upright bass was the standard bass instrument in the
emerging style of rock and roll music, Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His Comets
being but one example. In the 1940s, a new style of dance music called rhythm and
blues developed, incorporating elements of the earlier styles of blues and swing.
Louis Jordan, the first innovator of this style, featured an upright bass in his
group, the Tympany Five.[51]

The upright bass remained an integral part of pop lineups throughout the 1950s, as
the new genre of rock and roll was built largely upon the model of rhythm and
blues, with strong elements also derived from jazz, country, and bluegrass.
However, upright bass players using their instruments in these contexts faced
inherent problems. They were forced to compete with louder horn instruments (and
later amplified electric guitars), making bass parts difficult to hear. The upright
bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert venue settings, because it can be
prone to feedback howls. As well, the upright bass is large and awkward to
transport, which also created transportation problems for touring bands. In some
groups, the slap bass was utilized as band percussion in lieu of a drummer; such
was the case with Bill Haley & His Saddlemen (the forerunner group to the Comets),
which did not use drummers on recordings and live performances until late 1952;
prior to this the slap bass was relied on for percussion, including on recordings
such as Haley's versions of "Rock the Joint" and "Rocket 88".[52]

In 1951, Leo Fender released his Precision Bass, the first commercially successful
electric bass guitar.[53] The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in
magnetic pickups, easily portable (less than a foot longer than an electric
guitar), and easier to play in tune than an upright bass, thanks to the metal
frets. In the 1960s and 1970s bands were playing at louder volumes and performing
in larger venues. The electric bass was able to provide the huge, highly amplified
stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the
upright bass receded from the limelight of the popular music scene.

Photos of bassist Miroslav Vitous:

Miroslav-Vitous01.jpg

Miroslav-Vitous02.jpg

Miroslav-Vitous03.jpg
The upright bass began making a comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part
due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of folk and country music, as part of
the roots rock and Americana trends. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and
amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier
for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Some
popular bands decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an
electric bass, such as the Barenaked Ladies. A trend for "unplugged" performances
on MTV, in which rock bands performed with solely acoustic instruments, further
helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass
guitars.

Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies, pictured at a 2009 show.

Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies primarily plays upright bass, although he has
increasingly played bass guitar throughout the band's career. Chris Wyse of
alternative rock group Owl uses a combination of electric and double bass. Athol
Guy of the Australian folk/pop group The Seekers plays an upright bass. Shannon
Birchall, of the Australian folk-rock group The John Butler Trio,[54] makes
extensive use of upright basses, performing extended live solos in songs such as
Betterman. On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the indie/pop band Department of
Eagles, a bowed upright bass is featured quite prominently on the songs "Teenagers"
and "In Ear Park". Norwegian ompa-rock band Kaizers Orchestra use the upright bass
exclusively both live and on their recordings.[55] French contemporary pop duet
"What a day" uses double bass extended pizzicato technique with vocals and type
writer[56]
Hank Williams III's bass players (Jason Brown, Joe Buck and Zach Shedd, most
notably) have used upright basses for recording as well as during the country and
Hellbilly sets of Hank III's live performances before switching to electric bass
for the Assjack set.

The late 1970s rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly continued and expanded upon the
rockabilly tradition of slap bass. Bassists such as Kim Nekroman and Geoff Kresge
have developed the ability to play rapid slap bass that in effect turns the bass
into a percussion instrument.

Modern playing styles

A mid-sized bass amp used to amplify a double bass at a small jazz gig.
In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification and
almost exclusively played with the fingers, pizzicato style. The pizzicato style
varies between different players and genres. Some players perform with the sides of
one, two, or three fingers, especially for walking basslines and slow tempo
ballads, because this is purported to create a stronger and more solid tone. Some
players use the more nimble tips of the fingers to play fast-moving solo passages
or to pluck lightly for quiet tunes. The use of amplification allows the player to
have more control over the tone of the instrument, because amplifiers have
equalization controls that allow the bassist to accentuate certain frequencies
(often the bass frequencies) while de-accentuating some frequencies (often the high
frequencies, so that there is less finger noise).

An unamplified acoustic bass's tone is limited by the frequency responsiveness of

the instrument's hollow body, which means that the very low pitches may not be as
loud as the higher pitches. With an amplifier and equalization devices, a bass
player can boost the low frequencies, which changes the frequency response. In
addition, the use of an amplifier can increase the sustain of the instrument, which
is particularly useful for accompaniment during ballads and for melodic solos with
held notes.

In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, it is

sometimes played in the slap style. This is a vigorous version of pizzicato where
the strings are "slapped" against the fingerboard between the main notes of the
bass line, producing a snare drum-like percussive sound. The main notes are either
played normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and releasing it
so that it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive attack
in addition to the expected pitch. Notable slap style bass players, whose use of
the technique was often highly syncopated and virtuosic, sometimes interpolated
two, three, four, or more slaps in between notes of the bass line.

"Slap style" may have influenced electric bass guitar players[citation needed] who,
from the mid-sixties (particularly Larry Graham of Sly and the Family Stone),
developed a technique called slap and pop that used the thumb of the plucking hand
to hit the string, making a slapping sound but still letting the note ring, and the
index or middle finger of the plucking hand to pull the string back so it hits the
fretboard, achieving the pop sound described above. Motown bass player James
Jamerson routinely used a double bass for enhancement of the electric bass in post-
production ("sweetening") of recorded tracks and vice versa in many instances.
[citation needed]

Double bassists
Historical
Domenico Dragonetti (1763–1846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Franz Simandl (1840–1912) Virtuoso, composer, pedagogue
Edouard Nanny (1872–1943) Virtuoso, composer
Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951) Virtuoso, composer, conductor
Modern
Gary Karr (1941– ) Virtuoso
Edgar Meyer (1960– ) Virtuoso, composer, teacher
Contemporary (1900s)
Classical
See also: List of contemporary classical double bass players

Double bass soloist Gary Karr

Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass players are known
as much for their contributions to pedagogy as for their performing skills, such as
US bassist Oscar G. Zimmerman (1910–1987), known for his teaching at the Eastman
School of Music and, for 44 summers at the Interlochen National Music Camp in
Michigan and French bassist François Rabbath (b. 1931) who developed a new bass
method that divided the entire fingerboard into six positions. Bassists noted for
their virtuoso solo skills include American pedagogue and performer Gary Karr (b.
1941), Finnish composer Teppo Hauta-Aho (b. 1941), Italian composer Fernando
Grillo, and US player-composer Edgar Meyer. For a longer list, see the List of
contemporary classical double bass players.

Jazz
See also: List of jazz bassists
Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s included bassist Jimmy Blanton
(1918–1942) whose short tenure in the Duke Ellington Swing band (cut short by his
death from tuberculosis) introduced new melodic and harmonic solo ideas for the
instrument; bassist Ray Brown (1926–2002), known for backing Beboppers Dizzy
Gillespie, Oscar Peterson, Art Tatum and Charlie Parker, and forming the Modern
Jazz Quartet; hard bop bassist Ron Carter (born 1937), who has appeared on 3,500
albums make him one of the most-recorded bassists in jazz history, including LPs by
Thelonious Monk and Wes Montgomery and many Blue Note Records artists; and Paul
Chambers (1935–1969), a member of the Miles Davis Quintet (including the landmark
modal jazz recording Kind of Blue) and many other 1950s and 1960s rhythm sections,
was known for his virtuosic improvisations.

Christian McBride (born 1972), one of the new "young lions" in the jazz scene, has
won four Grammy Awards.
The experimental post 1960s era, and free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, produced
several influential bassists. Charles Mingus (1922–1979), who was also a composer
and bandleader, produced music that fused hard bop with black gospel music, free
jazz, and classical music. Free jazz and post-bop bassist Charlie Haden (1937–2014)
is best known for his long association with saxophonist Ornette Coleman, and for
his role in the 1970s-era Liberation Music Orchestra, an experimental group. Eddie
Gómez and George Mraz, who played with Bill Evans and Oscar Peterson, respectively,
and are both acknowledged to have furthered expectations of pizzicato fluency and
melodic phrasing. Fusion virtuoso Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is notable for his
dexterity on both the upright bass and the electric bass. Terry Plumeri is noted
for his horn-like arco fluency and vocal-sounding tone.

In the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, one of the new "young lions" was
Christian McBride (born 1972), who has performed with a range of veterans ranging
from McCoy Tyner to fusion gurus Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea, and who has
released albums such as 2003's Vertical Vision. Another young bassist of note is
Esperanza Spalding (born 1984) who, at 27 years of age, had already won a Grammy
for Best New Artist. For a longer list, see the List of jazz bassists, which
includes both double bass and electric bass players.

Other popular genres

Scott Owen, double bass player for Australian rock band The Living End.
In addition to being a noted classical player, Edgar Meyer is well known in
bluegrass and newgrass circles. Todd Phillips is another prominent bluegrass
player. Well-known rockabilly bassists include Bill Black, Marshall Lytle (with
Bill Haley & His Comets) and Lee Rocker (with 1980s-era rockabilly revivalists the
Stray Cats).

Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the 1990s and first
decade of the 21st century include Scott Owen (from the Australian band The Living
End), Jimbo Wallace (from the US band Reverend Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman
(Nekromantix), Patricia Day (HorrorPops), Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army, ex-AFI). Willie
Dixon (1915–1992) was one of the most notable figures in the history of rhythm and
blues. In addition to being an upright bassist, he wrote dozens of R&B hits and
worked as a producer. He also plays bass on numerous Chuck Berry's rock and roll
hits. Many other rockabilly bands like El Rio Trio (from the Netherlands) also use
this instrument in their work. See also the List of double bassists in popular
music.

Pedagogy and training

The pedagogy and training for the double bass varies widely by genre and country.
Classical double bass has a history of pedagogy dating back several centuries,
including teaching manuals, studies, and progressive exercises that help students
to develop the endurance and accuracy of the left hand, and control for the bowing
hand. Classical training methods vary by country: many of the major European
countries are associated with specific methods (e.g., the Edouard Nanny method in
France or the Franz Simandl method in Germany). In classical training, the majority
of the instruction for the right hand focuses on the production of bowing tone;
little time is spent studying the varieties of pizzicato tone.

In contrast, in genres that mainly or exclusively use pizzicato (plucking), such as

jazz and blues, a great deal of time and effort is focused on learning the
varieties of different pizzicato styles used for music of different styles of
tempi. For example, in jazz, aspiring bassists have to learn how to perform a wide
range of pizzicato tones, including using the sides of the fingers to create a
full, deep sound for ballads, using the tips of the fingers for fast walking
basslines or solos, and performing a variety of percussive ghost notes by raking
muted or partially muted strings.

Formal training

Jazz singer/bassist Esperanza Spalding performing on 10 December 2009 at the Nobel

Peace Prize Concert of 2009
Of all of the genres, classical and jazz have the most established and
comprehensive systems of instruction and training. In the classical milieu,
children can begin taking private lessons on the instrument and performing in
children's or youth orchestras. Teens who aspire to becoming professional classical
bassists can continue their studies in a variety of formal training settings,
including colleges, conservatories, and universities. Colleges offer certificates
and diplomas in bass performance.

Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and in
Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur orchestral experience for double bass
players. Universities offer a range of double bass programs, including bachelor's
degrees, Master of Music degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts degrees. As well,
there are a variety of other training programs such as classical summer camps and
orchestral, opera, or chamber music training festivals, which give students the
opportunity to play a wide range of music.

Bachelor's degrees in bass performance (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M.) are four-

year programs that include individual bass lessons, amateur orchestra experience,
and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses
(e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well-rounded education.
Usually, bass performance students perform several recitals of solo double bass
music, such as concertos, sonatas, and Baroque suites.

Master of music degrees (M.mus.) in double bass performance consist of private

lessons, ensemble experience, coaching in playing orchestral double bass parts, and
graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two solo
recitals. A Master's degree in music (referred to as an M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a
required credential for people who wish to become a professor of double bass at a
university or conservatory.

Manhattan School of Music professor Timothy Cobb teaching a bass lesson in the late
2000s. His bass has a low C extension with a metal "machine" with buttons for
playing the pitches on the extension.
Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A. or A.Mus.D.) degrees
in double bass performance provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest
artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours
beyond a master's degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree).
For this reason, admission is highly selective. Examinations in music history,
music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination-recital, are
required. Students perform a number of recitals (around six), including a lecture-
recital with an accompanying doctoral dissertation, advanced coursework, and a
minimum B average are other typical requirements of a D.M.A. program.

Throughout the early history of jazz, double bass players either learned the
instrument informally, or from getting classical training early on, as in the case
of Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the 1980s and 1990s, colleges and universities
began to introduce diplomas and degrees in jazz performance. Students in jazz
diploma or Bachelor of Music programs take individual bass lessons, get experience
in small jazz combos with coaching from an experienced player, and play in jazz big
bands. As with classical training programs, jazz programs also include classroom
courses in music history and music theory. In a jazz program, these courses focus
on the different eras of jazz history. such as Swing, Bebop, and fusion. The theory
courses focus on the musical skills used in jazz improvisation and in jazz comping
(accompanying) and the composition of jazz tunes. There are also jazz summer camps
and training festivals/seminars, which offer students the chance to learn new
skills and styles.

Informal training
In other genres, such as blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, the pedagogical
systems and training sequences are not as formalized and institutionalized. There
are not degrees in blues bass performance, or conservatories offering multiple-year
diplomas in rockabilly bass. However, there are a range of books, playing methods,
and, since the 1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., on how to play rockabilly-style
slap bass). As such, performers in these other genres tend to come from a variety
of routes, including informal learning by using bass method books or DVDs, taking
private lessons and coaching, and learning from records and CDs. In some cases,
blues or rockabilly bassists may have obtained some initial training through the
classical or jazz pedagogy systems (e.g., youth orchestra or high school big band).
In genres such as tango, which use a lot of bowed passages and jazz-style pizzicato
lines, the bassists tend to come from classical or jazz training routes.

Careers
Careers in double bass vary widely by genre and by region or country. Most bassists
earn their living from a mixture of performance and teaching jobs. The first step
to getting most performance jobs is by playing at an audition. In some styles of
music, such as jazz-oriented stage bands, bassists may be asked to sight read
printed music or perform standard pieces (e.g., a jazz standard such as Now's the
Time) with an ensemble. Similarly, in a rock or blues band, auditionees may be
asked to play various rock or blues standards. An upright bassist auditioning for a
blues band might be asked to play in a Swing-style walking bassline, a rockabilly-
style "slapping" bassline (in which the strings are percussively struck against the
fingerboard) and a 1950s ballad with long held notes. A person auditioning for a
role as a bassist in some styles of pop or rock music may be expected to
demonstrate the ability to perform harmony vocals as a backup singer. In some pop
and rock groups, the bassist may be asked to play other instruments from time to
time, such as electric bass, keyboards or acoustic guitar. The ability to play
electric bass is widely expected in country groups, in case the band is performing
a classic rock or new country song.

A German double bass section in 1952. The player to the left is using a German bow.
Classical music
In classical music, bassists audition for playing jobs in orchestras and for
admission into university or Conservatory programs or degrees. At a classical bass
audition, the performer typically plays a movement from a J.S. Bach suite for solo
cello or a movement from a bass concerto and a variety of excerpts from the
orchestral literature. The excerpts are typically the most technically challenging
parts of bass parts and bass solos from the orchestral literature. Some of the most
commonly requested orchestral excerpts at bass auditions are from Beethoven's
Symphonies Nos. 5, 7 and 9; Strauss's Ein Heldenleben and Don Juan; Mozart's
Symphonies Nos. 35, 39 and 40; Brahms' Symphonies Nos. 1 and 2; Stravinsky's
Pulcinella; Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5; Ginastera's Variaciones Concertante;
Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4; Mahler's Symphony No. 2; J. S. Bach's Suite No. 2 in
B; Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique, Mendelssohn's Symphony No. 4; and the bass
solos from Verdi's opera Otello, Mahler's Symphony No. 1, Britten's The Young
Person's Guide to the Orchestra and Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kije Suite.[57]

See also
Bach: Unaccompanied Cello Suites Performed on Double Bass
Double bass concerto
Electric upright bass
List of historical classical double bass players
Octobass
Triple contrabass viol
Piccolo bass
Tololoche
References
The Orchestra: A User's Manual Archived 29 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine,
Andrew Hugill with the Philharmonia Orchestra
Alfred Planyavsky, Chamber Music in the Vienna Double Bass Archive[permanent dead
link]; Archived link on 25 March 2012
Double Bass Sizing FAQ, Bob Gollihur
"Geschiedenis van de basgitaar: van 1936 tot heden". Basgitaarshop (in Dutch). 25
November 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
The Double Bass, Jacob Head
"A New History of the Double Bass". Paulbrun.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
"A Brief History of the Double Bass". Oocities.org. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
Planyavsky 1998
"A Brief History of the Double Bass, Lawrence Hurst, Professor of Double Bass,
School of Music, Indiana University". Web.archive.org. 27 October 2009. Archived
from the original on 27 October 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
"bull fiddle". TheFreeDictionary.com. Retrieved 2019-04-04.
"Upright Basses & EUB's, at Gollihur Music - Upright Basses, Pickups, Preamps,
Amps, and More". www.gollihurmusic.com.
 "Introductory Double Bass - UB Standard model Upton Basses".
"Upright Bass, String Bass, Double Bass - www.lemurmusic.com". www.lemurmusic.com.
"The New Standard Bass - Cleveland Model". www.newstandardbass.com.
Strings, standing waves and harmonics, Prof. Joe Wolfe, University of New South
Wales
Article on bass strings by the Double Bass Workshop Archived 25 March 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
"Jeff Sarli". Jeff Sarli. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
"Viola da Gamba". musicolog.com. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
"Double bass." Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911 Edition
[en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Double_bass]
Three-string double bass in the cobla band Website of Cobla Baix Llobregat
"Bill Bentgen – 5 String Basses". Billbentgen.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
"Sound Systems- Why?!". Harada-sound.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
Freiberg, Sarah. "How to Tame Annoying Howling Wolf Tones / CARE & MAINTENANCE /
Instruments / All Things Strings". Allthingsstrings.com. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
Dünnwald, H. (1979). "Versuche zur Entstehung des Wolfs bei Violininstrumenten".
Acustica. 41 (4): 238–45.
Firth, Ian M. (1973). "The wolf in the cello". The Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America. 53 (2): 457. doi:10.1121/1.1913343.
David Chapman. "Historical and Practical Considerations for the Tuning of Double
Bass Instruments in Fourths" – p.228–229, The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 56,
(June 2003), pp. 224–233.
Hume, Christopher. “And this bass stands alone” ‘’The Toronto Star’’ .Toronto, 10
November 1997. Retrieved on 5 November 2018.
"The Book of Questions".
"Who's on First? for five double-basses". Terra Non Firma Press. Archived from the
original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 22 March 2014.
"Bertold Hummel work commentaries". Bertoldhummel.de. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
Official website of L'Orchestre de Contrebasses Archived 11 March 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
"Bass Instinct – Live In Vienna by none on DVD". LOVEFiLM.com. 16 April 2007.
Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
"bassiona-amorosa.de". bassiona-amorosa.de. Archived from the original on 6 July
2009. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
"Chicago Bass Ensemble – Home". Chicagobassensemble.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
Pighi Andrea. "The Bass Gang". Thebassgang.org. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
Music Interludes
[1][dead link]
"Bassgirls". Bassgirls. 21 August 1974. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
"The London Double Bass Sound: Gary Karr, Ernest Bloch, Paul Desmond, Edward
"Duke" Ellington, Jerome Kern, John & Paul McCartney Lennon, Niccolo Paganini, Cole
Por". Amazon.com. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
"Wacker Consort and Northwestern Music Faculty to Perform". Northwestern
University. 27 March 2007. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
Siemers, Bryan. "Double bass". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Retrieved
2015-09-17.
"Historic Jazz Fotos". Peterunbehauen.de. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
Hentoff, Nat (April 1999). "Charles Mingus -A musician beyond category". Gadfly
Online. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
Scott Yanow, AllMusic Guide, https://www.allmusic.com/artist/p95770 retrieved 3
November 2009.
Looming Large: What's a cello got to do with a famous fiddler's tale? By Natalie
Haas Archived 3 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Howard "Cedric Rainwater" Watts, Stewart Evans
Johnston, Richard. "Barry Bales Expands The Spectrum With Alison Krauss & Union
Station". Guitar Player. NewBay Media, LLC. Archived from the original on 31
January 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
"Bluegrass Music: iBluegrass.com, Your #1 Source for Bluegrass". 11 May 2003.
Archived from the original on 11 May 2003.
"Learn How to Play Bass Guitar With Free Online Lessons". Rockabillybass.com.
2015-04-10. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
"The Art of Slap Bass Presents DIDI BECK". YouTube. 2010-03-31. Retrieved 2015-12-
23.
Dallas Bartley – Small town Boy: Playing in the bands, Special Collections and
Archives Department, Missouri State University
BBC Radio 2, Just Keep on Rockin' , broadcast 17 April 2004. On this radio
documentary, host Suzi Quatro expresses disbelief that no drums were played on the
recording of Rock the Joint.
The Electric Guitar: How We Got From Andrés Segovia To Kurt Cobain, Monica M.
Smith
"In Australia, the John Butler Trio has established itself as one of the most
successful independent acts in recent history. Their U.S. debut, Sunrise Over Sea,
features gritty and soulful vocals, elements of hip-hop and Appalachian folk." The
John Butler Trio's Fresh Blends
"Kaizers Orchestra official web page". Kaizers.no. Archived from the original on
10 July 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
What a day - Closet http://www.notreble.com/buzz/2015/08/08/what-a-day-closet/
Jason. "Double Bass Orchestral Audition Lists – A Survey – Jason Heath's Double
Bass Blog". Doublebassblog.org. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
External links
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Double
bass.
The dictionary definition of double bass at Wiktionary
Media related to Double basses at Wikimedia Commons
Bass at Curlie
EarlyBass.com by Jerry Fuller
List of chamber music pieces with double bass
Polish folk music double basses
vte
Bass (sound)
vte
Violin family
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
GND: 4032300-6 LCCN: sh85039150 MusicBrainz: 7bd32b95-416f-4244-a98b-1311ec69c7db
NARA: 10647753 NDL: 00659674
Categories: Bass (sound)Bowed instrumentsCompositions for double bassContinuous
pitch instrumentsContrabass instrumentsDouble bassesDouble-bassistsString
instrumentsC instrumentsRhythm sectionJazz instrumentsRockabilly instrumentsBlues
instrumentsAmplified instrumentsFolk music instrumentsBowed stringsOrchestral
instrumentsString sectionWestern Classical music instrumentsBaroque
instrumentsBasso continuo instruments
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView
historySearch
Search Wikipedia
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons

Languages
‫العربية‬
Беларуская
Deutsch
Español
Lietuvių
Polski
Русский
Українська
中文
64 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 4 April 2019, at 04:14 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie
statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki