Ecz Grade 11 Physics Summarised Notes FOR 5124 AND 5054.: Study Online. Notes. Past Papers With Answers

ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.
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ECZ GRADE 11 PHYSICS SUMMARISED NOTES
FOR 5124 AND 5054.
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G11 PHYSICS NOTES AND
ESKULU ZM 5/30/18
EXERCISES WITH ANSWERS
Here you will find Physics notes, exam tips, practical questions and exercises with answers designed for passing ECZ
exams.
Prepared by Jeffrey M for eskulu.com
Contact +260978031524
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Content: .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Measurement of temperature ......................................................................................................................................5
The thermometer .....................................................................................................................................................5
Graduating a thermometer ......................................................................................................................................5
Thermometric liquids ...............................................................................................................................................7
Clinical thermometer ...............................................................................................................................................7
The maximum minimum thermometer ...................................................................................................................8
The thermocouple ....................................................................................................................................................8
The bimetallic thermometer ....................................................................................................................................9
Calculation of unknown temperature ......................................................................................................................9
Kinetic theory ..............................................................................................................................................................12
Three states of matter ...........................................................................................................................................12
Brownian motion ...................................................................................................................................................12
Thermal expansion of solids and liquids ......................................................................................................................14
The bimetallic strip.................................................................................................................................................14
Linear expansivity...................................................................................................................................................14
Expansion of liquids ...............................................................................................................................................16
Expansion of gases .......................................................................................................................................................17
Gas volume and its pressure at constant temperature .........................................................................................17
Gas volume and temperature at constant pressure ..............................................................................................18
Combinations of boyle’s and charles’ law ..............................................................................................................19
Pressure and temperature at constant volume .....................................................................................................19
Heat transfer................................................................................................................................................................21
Conduction .............................................................................................................................................................21
Convection .............................................................................................................................................................22
Radiation ................................................................................................................................................................25
Vacuum flask ..........................................................................................................................................................26
Thermal properties of matter ......................................................................................................................................27
Heat capacity..........................................................................................................................................................27
Specific heat capacity .............................................................................................................................................27
Finding specific heat capacity of liquids .................................................................................................................28
Heat transfer between two bodies ........................................................................................................................29
Latent heat .............................................................................................................................................................29
Evaporation ............................................................................................................................................................33
Challenging questions – 1 ......................................................................................................................................34
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Solutions ................................................................................................................................................................38
Wave motion ...............................................................................................................................................................40
Terms used .............................................................................................................................................................40
Period and frequency .............................................................................................................................................40
Wave speed ............................................................................................................................................................41
Types of waves .......................................................................................................................................................43
Some behaviours of waves ....................................................................................................................................47
...............................................................................................................................................................................50
Solutions ................................................................................................................................................................51
Light .............................................................................................................................................................................54
Rectilinear propagation of light .............................................................................................................................54
Reflection of light ...................................................................................................................................................54
Practical 1 – comparing the size of the object with its image ................................................................................57
Practical 2 – to determine the position of the image ............................................................................................58
The mirror periscope..............................................................................................................................................58
Refraction of light ..................................................................................................................................................59
Practical 3 – refraction through a rectangular glass block .....................................................................................61
Total internal reflection .........................................................................................................................................63
Lenses.....................................................................................................................................................................64
Solutions ................................................................................................................................................................71
Electromagnetic spectrum...........................................................................................................................................74
Sound ...........................................................................................................................................................................80
Production of sound...............................................................................................................................................80
Echoes ....................................................................................................................................................................80
Loudness and pitch ................................................................................................................................................83
Ultrasound .............................................................................................................................................................83
Solutions ................................................................................................................................................................88
Magnetism ...................................................................................................................................................................90
Properties of magnets ............................................................................................................................................90
Methods of magnetism and demagnetism ............................................................................................................92
Magnetic fields .......................................................................................................................................................93
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Magnetic properties of iron and steel and their uses ............................................................................................95

Magnetic screeing (shielding) ................................................................................................................................95
Challenging questions - 6 .......................................................................................................................................96
Solutions ................................................................................................................................................................97
Electromagnetism ........................................................................................................................................................99
Magnetic effect of a current ..................................................................................................................................99
Applications of the magnetic effect of a current .................................................................................................101
Force on a current-carrying conductor ................................................................................................................104
D.c motor .............................................................................................................................................................108
Challenging questions – 7 ....................................................................................................................................112
Solutions ..............................................................................................................................................................114
References ...........................................................................................................................................................116
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MEASUREMENT OF
TEMPERATURE
 The temperature of a substance is a number which expresses its degree of
hotness or coldness.
THE THERMOMETER
 Temperature is measured by a thermometer.
 There are different types of thermometers. Each of them makes use of a
different physical property which changes continuously with temperature
to show the temperature.
Types of thermometer
1. Volume of a fixed mass of liquid Liquid-in-glass thermometer e.g
mercury, alcohol.
2. Electromotive force (e.m.f) Thermocouple.
3. Resistance of a piece of metal Resistance thermometer
4. Pressure of a fixed mass of gas Constant volume gas thermometer
at constant volume
GRADUATING A THERMOMETER
The following steps must be taken;
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1. To graduate a thermometer, two points are first determined. These are called
lower fixed point and the upper fixed point. A fixed point is a reference
temperature chosen because it is readily reproducible.
2. Determine the lower fixed point, which is the temperature of pure melting ice.
Impurities lower the melting point.
Determining the Lower Fixed Point
3. Next determine the upper fixed point, which is the temperature of steam.
Determining the Upper Fixed Point

The thermometer is mounted in a hypsometer. The double wall minimizes heat
loss.
4. Divide the temperature range between the two fixed points into a number of
equal parts or degrees.
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THERMOMETRIC LIQUIDS
The two commonly used liquids are alcohols are mercury and alcohol.
Comparison of using mercury to alcohol:
Mercury Alcohol
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
o
Boils at 357 C Not as cheap as Cheaper Boils at 78 oC
alcohol
Conducts heat rapidly Freezes at -39 oC Freezes at -115 oC – Alcohol is less
– more sensitive to suitable for colder sensitive to
temperature change regions temperature change
Easy to see Expands less than Expands more than Alcohol is not easy to
alcohol mercury see – needs to be
coloured
Does not cling to glass Alcohol vapourises
easily
Does not vaporize Clings to glass
rapidly
CLINICAL THERMOMETER
 Used to measure temperature of human bodies.
 The range of the thermometer is 35 oC to 42 oC.
 It is very sensitive because it has a large bulb and a narrow bore.
 It has a constriction to block mercury above it. The mercury below the
constriction cools and contracts back into the bulb.
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THE MAXIMUM MINIMUM

THERMOMETER
 Used to record the maximum and
minimum temperatures reached over a
period of time.
 Consists of two bulbs.
 The scale on the side of the
completely full bulb measures minimum
temperatures.
THE THERMOCOUPLE
Temperatures may also
be measured by
variations of electric
current in a
thermocouple. If two
wires of different
materials are joined
together at their ends
and the two junctions are maintained at different temperatures, an electric
current flows around the circuit. This is called thermoelectric effect.
 The magnitude of the current depends on the temperature difference
between the two junctions.
 They are very sensitive and can measure high temperatures like the
temperature of a Bunsen flame.
 A number of thermocouples joined together make a thermopile.
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 Commercial thermocouples use antimony and bismuth because they give a

large thermoelectric effect.
 A thermopile:
THE BIMETALLIC THERMOMETER

The bimetallic thermometer consists of a
bimetallic strip made of a coiled spiral. One
end of the spiral is free while the other is
fixed. A pointer is attached to the free end
and moves over a temperature scale which is
predetermined.
 The thermometer works on the basis that the radius of the curvature of the
spiral coiled bimetallic strip changes with the surrounding temperature.
Increase in temperature makes the radius of curvature to increase. This
makes the pointer move.
CALCULATION OF UNKNOWN
TEMPERATURE
How to Find Unknown Temperature without a Temperature Scale?
Using ice point (lower fixed point) and steam point (upper fixed point) as
reference points.
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 If the following are given:

o L0 : Length of the liquid column at ice point (0oC)
o L100: Length of the liquid column at steam point (100 oC)
o Lθ: Length of the liquid column at an unknown temperature (θ)
Apply the following equation:
𝑙θ − 𝑙0
𝜃= × 100℃
𝑙100 − 𝑙0
Example
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Example
Example
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KINETIC THEORY
States: All matter is made of atoms that are constantly in motion.
THREE STATES OF MATTER

Example
Example
BROWNIAN MOTION
 The existence of molecules in continuous random motion can be
demonstrated by Brownian motion.
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 Particles can be seen in a random zig-zag path.
Example
Example
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THERMAL EXPANSION OF
SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
THE BIMETALLIC STRIP
 This strip consists of two strips of iron and brass welded together. When
temperature rises, brass expands more than iron, and so heating the
bimetallic strip results in its bending towards the iron.
 Bimetallic strips are used in devices such as refrigerators, pressing irons,

fire alarms, direction indicators and thermostats.
 A thermostat is a device used to maintain a steady temperature and it
employs a bimetallic strip to accomplish this.
LINEAR EXPANSIVITY
 The linear expansivity of a substance is the fraction of its original length by
which a rod of the substance expands per kelvin rise in temperature.
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
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 The linear expansivity of a rod can be measured by the instrument below.
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Example
EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
Most liquids expand when heated.
The Abnormal Expansion of Water

If water at at 0℃ is heated, it gradually contracts until the temperature of 4℃.
Above 4℃ water expands with a rise in temperature.
As the volume reduces between 0℃ and 4℃, the density increases. Water has its
maximum density at 4℃ and this 1g/cm3.
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EXPANSION OF GASES
GAS VOLUME AND ITS PRESSURE AT
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
The following apparatus is usually used in the investigation of how the volume of
a gas changes as the pressure exerted on it changes:
It is called Boyle’s law apparatus.

 Boyle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of a dry gas varies
inversely with the pressure, provided the temperature remains constant.
 For a fixed mass of a dry gas at constant temperature the product of its
volume and pressure is a constant.
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Example
GAS VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE AT

CONSTANT PRESSURE
 All gases expand by the same amount when heated through one degree if
the pressure is constant.
 The following apparatus is used to find the relationship between the
volume and temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure.
This is called Charles law apparatus.

 Charles’ Law is a law stating that the volume of an ideal gas at constant
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
 To convert from Celsius to Kelvin scale, just add 273.
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COMBINATIONS OF BOYLE’S AND

CHARLES’ LAW
Example
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE AT

CONSTANT VOLUME
Pressure Law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume
is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
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Example
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HEAT TRANSFER
 Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of the molecules in a body.
 Thermal energy transfer or heat transfer takes place only when there is a
difference in temperature.
 Heat transfers from a higher temperature region to a lower temperature
region.
 The three forms of heat transfer are: conduction, convection and
radiation.
CONDUCTION
 Conduction is the process by which heat is transmitted through a medium
from its hotter part to its colder part until they are both at the same
temperature.
Example
Relative Conductivity
Relative conductivity is a measure of the degree of conductivity of a material
compared to the conductivity of air.
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CONVECTION
Convection is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place to
another by the movement of heated particles of a fluid (a liquid or a gas).
Convection Current
Convection currents are the flowing of a liquid or a gas caused by a change in
density, in which the whole medium moves and carries heat energy with it.
Applications of Convection Currents

1. Car engines are cooled by convection currents in the water pipes. Water is
a very good substance. Water is a very good substance to carry the
unwanted heat away from the engine to the radiator. The radiator is a heat
exchanger where the hot water gives up its energy to the air.
2. Simple domestic hot-water system. Convection currents drive the hot

water up from the boiler to the storage tank while cold water flows down
to the boiler.
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Example
Example
Convection in Air
Experiment:
You will observe that instead of rising as usual, the smoke flows through the top
of the box and emerges through the other chimney.
This is a result of a convection current.
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Sea and Land Breeze

During the day, hot air above the land rises and is replaced by colder air from the
sea. This results in a sea breeze, thus a breeze coming in off the sea.
At night the reverse occurs. The air above the sea which is warmer rises and is
replaced by the air above the land which is colder. Thus a breeze blows from the
land to the sea.
RADIATION
Radiation is a method of heat transfer whereby heat energy is transmitted from
a hot object to another in the form of electromagnetic waves.
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Factors Affecting Rate of Energy Transfer by Radiation

Factors: Radiate faster Radiate slower
Colour and texture of the dull black surface (also bright shiny surface
surface absorbs faster) (also absorbs slower)
Surface area Large area Small area
Temperature High temperature Low temperature
Example
VACUUM FLASK
Example
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
 Heat or thermal energy is transferred from a higher temperature object to
a lower temperature object.
 Once the energy is transferred, it becomes the internal energy of the lower
temperature object and its temperature rises.
 This internal energy is in two forms: kinetic energy and potential energy.
 The change in temperature is due to the change in average kinetic energy
of the molecules.
 The change in state (solid, liquid or gas) is due to the change in potential
energy, i.e. the force between the molecules and their distances apart.
 Like all other forms of energy, internal energy is measured in joule (j)
 In all energy transferring processes, energy is neither created nor
destroyed. This is the principle of conservation of energy
HEAT CAPACITY
The heat capacity of a body is the amount of the thermal energy that is needed
to raise the temperature of the body by 1 K or 1 oC.
 SI Unit is JoC-1
 Equation:
E = C∆θ
where E: Thermal energy (j); C: heat capacity;
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity (c) of a substance is the amount of thermal energy
that is needed to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of the substance by 1 oC (or 1 K).
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E = mc∆θ
where E: Thermal energy (j); C: heat capacity; m: mass(kg);
Substances Specific heat capacity (j Kg-1 oC-1)
Water 4200
Methylated spirit 2400
Paraffin 2200
Ice 2100
Aluminium 900
Sand 800
Iron 460
Copper 400
Mercury 140
Lead 130
FINDING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF

LIQUIDS
 Apparatus is set up as follows:
NOTE: Heat lost by heater = Heat gained
 E = Power × Time
𝑉𝐼𝑡
 𝑐=
𝑚𝐷𝑇
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Example
HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN TWO BODIES

 When two bodies with different temperatures are in contact, they will finally
have equal temperature.
 Energy lost by the hotter body = Energy gained by the colder body
m1c1(θ1 - θ) = m2c2(θ – θ2)
LATENT HEAT
Latent heat is the thermal energy absorbed or released during a change of state.
Latent Heat of Fusion

 For a solid at its melting point, the amount of thermal energy that is needed to
change its state (without changing the temperature) is called the latent heat
of fusion.
 The molecules in a solid are held by strong forces. At melting point, all energy
supplied to it is completely used up for breaking the strong forces.
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 Only the potential energy of the molecules has increased, not the kinetic
energy. As such, the temperature at melting point remains unchanged.
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

 The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of energy
needed to melt 1 kg of the solid to liquid without changing the
temperature.
 SI Unit: j/kg.
 Equation:
𝐸 = 𝑚𝐿𝑓
E: energy; m: mass; Lf : specific latent heat of fusion;
Latent Heat of Vaporization

 For a liquid at boiling point, the amount of energy that is needed to
change its state (without changing the temperature) is called the latent
heat of vaporization.
 In this process, the latent heat is used to overcome the attractions between
the molecules in the liquid. It is also used to push back the surrounding air
molecules in order to let the molecules in the liquid to escape, becoming a
gas.
Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization

The specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the amount of energy
needed to vaporize 1 Kg of the liquid to gas without changing the temperature.
 SI Unit: j/Kg
 Equation:
𝐸 = 𝑚𝐿𝑣
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Example
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Example
How much heat is required to convert 5Kg of ice at -10oC to steam at 100oC?
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EVAPORATION
 Evaporation causes cooling since it is the more energetic molecules that
escape from the surface taking heat with them from the container.
 Thus the surrounding cools down.
Applications of Cooling by Evaporation

The domestic refrigerator
The cooling effect of a very volatile liquid Freon (dichlorodiflouromethane) forms
the basis of the refrigerator.
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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS – 1
Instructions: *attempt questions before looking at the answers*
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SOLUTIONS
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WAVE MOTION
 A wave transfers energy from one place to another.
 NO MATTER is transferred in the process.
TERMS USED
1. Wavefront: A line joining all the crests (or troughs) of a moving wave is
called the wavefront. It is an imaginary line.
2. Wavelength ( λ ): of a wave is the minimum distance at which the wave
repeats itself. The distance between two successive wavefronts is equal to
one wavelength.
3. Amplitude: the maximum displacement of a particle from its resting
position.
Example
PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

 Period (T) is the time taken for one complete oscillation of a point on the
wave.
 SI Unit: Seconds (s)
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 Frequency (f) is the number of complete waves produced per second.

1
𝑓= 𝑓: 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 [𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧(𝐻𝒛)]; 𝑇: 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑;
𝑇
WAVE SPEED
 The speed (v) of a wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one
second.
𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣: 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑( 𝑖𝑛 𝒎/𝒔); 𝑓: 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝑖𝑛 𝑯𝒛); 𝜆: 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝑖𝑛 𝒎)
 SI unit of wave speed: ms-1 (metre per second).
Example
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Example
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TYPES OF WAVES
There are two types of wave:
The two waves can be distinguished by their waveforms.
1. Transverse Waves
 The waveform of a transverse wave appears as succession of crests and
troughs, shown in the following figure.
 The waveform appears to move at a constant speed.
A TRANSVERSE WAVE IS A WAVE IN WHICH THE OSCILLATIONS OF THE

PARTICLES ARE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL.
 The following are parts of a transverse wave:
Examples: water waves, microwaves, radio waves, infra-red, visible light, ultra-
violet, X-rays and ϒ-rays.
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Example
2. Longitudinal Waves
 They appear as a succession of compressions and rarefactions.
 An example of such waves: sound waves.
 A LONGITUDINAL WAVE IS A WAVE IN WHICH THE VIBRATIONS OF THE

PARTICLES ARE PARALLEL TO THE DIRECTION OF TRAVEL OF THE WAVE.
Example
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Example
Example
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SOME BEHAVIOURS OF WAVES

 We will refer to water waves in the simple ripple tank.
Reflection
Refraction
The change in the direction of propagation caused by a
change in the speed of the wave is called refraction.
Diffraction
This bending of waves as they emerge from a slit is called diffraction.
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Superposition and interference

 If a number of waves pass through a certain point at the same instant, the
displacement is the resultant of the displacements of the two separate wave
motions.
 This is the principle of superposition and applies to all kinds of waves.
 If two waves are travelling in the same direction at the same time and having
equal amplitudes and frequency, while they travel in such a way that the
crests of one wave meet those of the other and their troughs do the same,
their displacements of the waves add up and result into a wave of double the
original amplitude
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SOLUTIONS
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LIGHT
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
 Light travels in a straight line. This phenomenon is called rectilinear
propagation of light
 Rectilinear propagation of light produces sharp-edged shadows.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Laws of Reflection
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same
plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
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Example
Regular and Diffused Reflection

 Regular reflection refers to the reflection of rays coming from a smooth
plane surfaces. All incident rays have parallel reflected rays in this case.
 In diffused (irregular) reflection the reflected rays come out in different
directions as shown below. This is because of the rough surface.
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Ray Diagrams
 An image is formed when an object is placed in front of a plane mirror.
The image has the following properties:

1. Same size as object (hi = ho)
2. Laterally inverted
3. Erect
4. Virtual
5. As far behind the mirror as the object is in front (v = u)
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PRACTICAL 1 – COMPARING THE SIZE OF

THE OBJECT WITH ITS IMAGE
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PRACTICAL 2 – TO DETERMINE THE

POSITION OF THE IMAGE
THE MIRROR PERISCOPE

This instrument uses mirrors to enable
observers to see above an obstacle.
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REFRACTION OF LIGHT
 Refraction refers to the bending of light when it passes from an optically
less dense medium to an optically denser medium or vice versa.
Three Situations of Refraction
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Laws of Refraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal are all in the same
plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is always a constant. This is called the refractive index.
(Snell’s Law)
The equation is given below.
sin𝜃1
𝜂=
sinθ2
speed of light in vacuum (or air)

𝜂=
speed of light in medium
Example
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PRACTICAL 3 – REFRACTION THROUGH A

RECTANGULAR GLASS BLOCK
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TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Critical Angle
 Critical angle (C) refers to the angle of incidence in the optically denser
medium for which its angle of refraction in the less dense medium is 90O.
 Equation:
1
𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
η
Total Internal Reflection
 DEFINITION: When light travels from an optically denser medium to an
optically less dense medium and the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle, there is NO refracted ray, all the light is reflected back into
the optically denser medium. This is called total internal reflection.
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LENSES
Converging Lens
 A lens which is thicker at the center than at the edges is called a converging
(convex) lens.
 Light rays are converged to a point (F) after passing through a converging
lens
 In ray diagram:
o ‘C’ is the centre of the lens and is called the optical centre.
o ‘F’ is the principal focus.
o ‘f’ is the focal length.
o A line passing through C and perpendicular to the plane of the lens,
i.e the line F-C-F, is the principal axis.
Diverging Lens
 A lens thinner at the centre than at the edges is called a diverging (concave)
lens.
 Light rays are diverged after passing through a diverging lens.
o ‘C’ is the centre of the lens and is called the optical centre.
o ‘F’ is the principal focus.
o ‘f’ is the focal length.
o The line passing through C is the principal axis.
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Construction of Ray Diagrams (For Converging Lens)
 Rule 1. Rays parallel to the principal axis are refracted through ‘F’.
 Rule 2. Rays passing through ‘F’ are refracted parallel to the refracted through
‘F’.
 Rule 3. Rays passing through ‘C’ are undeviated.
The image formed depends on the position of the object.
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SOLUTIONS
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ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic spectrum consists of seven kinds of waves.
Radio waves.
Microwaves.
Infra-red radiation (IR).
Visible light.
Ultra-violet radiation (UV).
X-rays.
Gamma (ϒ) rays.
A. The following shows the ascending order of wavelength and frequency of
electromagnetic waves. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the
frequency.
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Example
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

1. They are all transverse waves.
2. They transfer energy from one place to another.
3. They all show wave properties such as reflection and refraction.
4. They can all travel through a vacuum.
5. They all travel at 3 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum.
6. The equation v = fλ applies to all of them.
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Applications of Electromagnetic Waves
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SOUND
PRODUCTION OF SOUND
Sound is caused by vibration.
 Sound needs a medium (gas, liquid or solid) for transmission.
 Unlike electromagnetic waves, sound waves cannot propagate through a
vacuum (because there are no molecules to pass on the vibrations).
 Air is the main medium for us to hear sound.
The speed of sound has the following Equation:
v = fλ
 Sound travels faster in denser media, so it travels faster in liquids than in
gases and fastest in solids.
 Sound travels faster in higher temperature.
ECHOES
Sound waves can be reflected. These reflections are called echoes.
 Echoes can be used to calculate the distance between two objects and the
speed of sound.
 To calculate the speed of sound in air we use 2 methods:
Direct Method
𝒔
𝒗= 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒗 = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅; 𝒔 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆; 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍;
𝒕
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Indirect Method
𝟐 × 𝒔
𝒗= 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒗 = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅; 𝒔 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆; 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍
𝒕
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Example
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LOUDNESS AND PITCH

Loudness
 The loudness (how soft or loud) of a sound depends on the amplitude of
the sound wave.
 Larger amplitude => more energy => louder volume
Pitch
 The pitch (how low or high) of a sound depends on the frequency of the sound
wave.
 A sound wave of higher frequency (shorter wavelength) produces a higher
note.
ULTRASOUND
 Ultrasound refers to sounds with frequencies greater than 20 000 Hz.
 Ultrasound is used for: examining an unborn baby, detecting flaws in metal
joints, cleaning jewellery, for sonar instruments.
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Instructions: *attempt questions before looking at answers*
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SOLUTIONS
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MAGNETISM
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
Magnetic Poles
 A magnet has north and south poles.
 A magnet suspended from a string so that it
is free to rotate always comes to rest with
its axis along an approximate north-south
direction. One pole points south and the
other north.
Attraction and Repulsion
1ST LAW OF MAGNETISM: “Like poles repel while unlike poles attract.”
Induced Magnetism
 A permanent magnet can retain its magnetism for a long time.
 It is also able to temporarily pass its magnetism effects to a magnetic material
so that the latter gains the ability to attract other magnetic materials.
 Magnetic induction is the process of inducing magnetism in an unmagnetised
magnetic material.
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 There is an induced magnetism (temporary magnetism) in the soft iron bar.

 The end nearer to the north pole becomes a south pole and the other end
becomes the north pole.
Magnetic Materials
 Soft magnetic materials lose their magnetism easily e.g Iron, stalloy,
mumetal etc. Hard magnetic materials are those that retain their
magnetism. They are used in making powerful magnets. E.g steel, alnico,
alcomax etc.
Example
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METHODS OF MAGNETISM AND

DEMAGNETISM
 A magnetic material can become a permanent magnet by using stroking and
electrical methods.
Stroking
Electrical Method
Magnetisation
 The solenoid (coil) is connected to a D.C supply.
 A strong magnetic field is produced and the steel bar is magnetised.
 If the current flows in a clockwise direction, this end is the induced S-pole.
 If the current flows in an anti-clockwise direction, this is the induced N-pole.
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Demagnetisation
 The solenoid is connected to a A.C supply.
 Placed inside the solenoid parallel to the east-west direction.
 Slowly withdraw the magnet.
 This is the most efficient way of demagnetisation.

A magnet can also be demagnetised by hammering or heating.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
 The region around a magnet where the magnetic force can be experienced is
known as the magnetic field.
Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

1. The direction is always from N-pole towards S-pole.
2. They do not cross or intersect one another.
3. They repel one another sideways.
4. They are in a state of tension which causes them the tendency to shorten
themselves.
5. They region with the higher density of lines has the greater magnetic field
strength.
Examples of Magnetic Field Patterns

 Two magnets with like poles placed near each other.
 At point P where there is no magnetic effect at all is known as neutral point.
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 Two magnets with unlike poles placed near each other.
 Two magnets with like poles facing each other. There is no magnetic effect
at all at P.
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MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND

STEEL AND THEIR USES
Iron Steel
Type of magnetic soft hard
material
Magnetic property easy to magnetise and harder to magnetise and
demagnetise (lose its demagnetise
magnetism easily)
Type of magnet made Electromagnets Permanent magnets
Uses  Transformers  d.c motors
 Audio and video  a.c genererators
tapes  moving coil galvanometers
 Electric bells  moving coil loudspeakers
 Magnetic relays  magnetic door catches
 Reed switches
 Reed relays
MAGNETIC SCREEING (SHIELDING)

 If a soft iron is placed in a magnetic field, the flux passes through it rather
than through air.
 If the soft iron bar is replaced by a soft iron ring the lines of force pass
through it and none pass through its centre.
Magnetic flux distorted by a soft iron bar:
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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS - 6
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SOLUTIONS
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ELECTROMAGNETISM
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF A CURRENT
 Electromagnetism is the study of the magnetic effect of an electric current.
 A current-carrying straight wire produces a circular magnetic field around
it.
 THE DIRECTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD DEPENDS ON THE DIRECTION OF THE
FLOW OF CURRENT. (use Maxwell’s Screw Rule or Right – hand Grip Rule)
Right Hand Grip Rule:
Grip the wire by the right hand in such a way that the
thumb points in the direction of the current. The direction of the curled fingers is
the same as the direction of the lines of force.
Maxwell’s Screw Rule:
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The direction of rotation indicates the direction of the magnetic field. The
forward direction of the screw is the same as direction of current.
Magnetic Field Due to Currents in Straight Wires

If the flow of current is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field is also
reversed.
Magnetic Field Due to Currents in Solenoids

 The magnetic field pattern is similar to that of a bar magnet.
 One end of the solenoid acts like a North Pole and the other end a South
Pole.
 How to know which end is North/South Pole:

1. Apply Right-hand Grip Rule. The end where the thumb is pointing is
the induced N-pole.
2. When viewed from one end of the solenoid; if the current flows in a
clockwise direction, it’s the induced S-Pole. If the current flows in
an anti-clockwise direction, it’s the induced N-Pole.
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 WAYS OF INCREASING THE STRENGTH OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD:

1. Increase the size of the current.
2. Increase the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid.
3. Placing a soft iron core inside the solenoid.
APPLICATIONS OF THE MAGNETIC EFFECT

OF A CURRENT
Electromagnets
If a bar of soft iron is placed in the solenoid, the magnetic field becomes
concentrated in the soft iron core and the soft iron becomes an electromagnet.
When the current of an electromagnet is switched off, it ceases to be a magnet.
Circuit Breaker
 It cuts off electric current when the current exceeds a certain limit.
 When the flow of current is too high, the strong magnetic force of the
solenoid will separate the contacts and break the circuit.
Magnetic Relay
 In a magnetic relay, there are two circuits. The first circuit uses an
electromagnet. The second circuit, which can only be switched on by the
first circuit, is connected to an electrical device.
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 When the switch is closed, the current flows through the solenoid and the
soft iron core is magnetised.
 The soft iron armature is attracted by the electromagnet. The top end of
the armature is raised and closes the contacts of the second circuit.
 The second circuit is complete and the electrical device is switched on.
 The advantage of using a magnetic relay is that we can use a small current
circuit to switch on a large current circuit.
Electric Bell
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 When the push-button switch is pressed, a current flows through the

completed circuit and the soft iron core in the coils becomes an
electromagnet.
 The coils are wound in opposite directions to produce opposite poles.
 The electromagnet attracts the soft iron armature. This causes the
hammer attached to the soft iron armature to hit the gong.
 The adjustment screw adjusts the gap between the armature and the
electromagnet in order to vary the rate at which the armature with the
hammer vibrates to cause a ringing sound.
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FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING
CONDUCTOR
Fleming’s Left-hand Rule
 Place the forefinger, second finger and thumb of your left hand mutually at
right angles.
 If the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the second
finger in the direction of the current, the thumb will point in the direction of
the force or motion.
Ways of Increasing the Force Acting on the Wire:

1. Using larger current.
2. Using a stronger magnetic field.
3. Using a greater length of wire inside the magnetic field.
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Example
Example
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Force on a Beam of Charged Particles

Applying Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:
Two Parallel Current Carrying Wires

Currents flowing in the SAME directions cause ATTRACTION.
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Currents flowing in the SAME directions cause ATTRACTION.
Moving Coil Galvanometer
This instrument is used to detect electric currents. It depends on the motor effect
for its operation.
When a current flows through the coil it set ups up a magnetic field around the
wires. The size of the deflection of the pointer is proportional to the size of the
current.
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D.C MOTOR
Principles of a D.C. Motor

 A direct current electric motor (d.c. motor) consists of
o Two permanent magnets with circular poles (N and S),
o A coil (ABCD) connected to a split-ring commutator (X and Y are not in
contact) and
o Two carbon brushes (P and Q) connected to an external battery
 The commutator (XY) will rotate when the coil rotates. The two carbon
brushes are made to press lightly against the commutator (to have contact) so
that the current can pass through.
 The following figures show how the coil is set into motion when current flows
through it.
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o When current flows from A to B and C to D through the coil, arm AB

experiences a downward force and arm CD experiences an upward
force.
o These forces produce a turning effect and cause the coil to rotate in a
clockwise direction.
Because of inertia, the coil will keep rotating. So arms AB and CD cross over to the
other half of the magnetic field without experiencing any turning effect generated
by the current until the commutator is in contact with the carbon brushes again.
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Ways of Increasing Rotating Speed of a Motor

1. Increasing the current
2. Increasing the magnetic field strength
3. Increasing the number of turns of the coil and
4. Placing a soft iron core into the coil
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SOLUTIONS
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REFERENCES
Pixabay.com
Keypoints GCE Physicis K L Poon
L Muunyu Physics 10 - 12
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Content: .................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Magnetic properties of iron and steel and their uses ............................................................................................95

Determining the Lower Fixed Point

Determining the Upper Fixed Point

THE MAXIMUM MINIMUM

 Commercial thermocouples use antimony and bismuth because they give a

THE BIMETALLIC THERMOMETER

 If the following are given:

THREE STATES OF MATTER

 Particles can be seen in a random zig-zag path.

 Bimetallic strips are used in devices such as refrigerators, pressing irons,

 The linear expansivity of a rod can be measured by the instrument below.

The Abnormal Expansion of Water

It is called Boyle’s law apparatus.

GAS VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE AT

This is called Charles law apparatus.

COMBINATIONS OF BOYLE’S AND

PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE AT

Applications of Convection Currents

2. Simple domestic hot-water system. Convection currents drive the hot

Sea and Land Breeze

Factors Affecting Rate of Energy Transfer by Radiation

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

FINDING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF

HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN TWO BODIES

m1c1(θ1 - θ) = m2c2(θ – θ2)

Latent Heat of Fusion

Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

Latent Heat of Vaporization

Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization

Applications of Cooling by Evaporation

PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

 Frequency (f) is the number of complete waves produced per second.

 SI unit of wave speed: ms-1 (metre per second).

A TRANSVERSE WAVE IS A WAVE IN WHICH THE OSCILLATIONS OF THE

 A LONGITUDINAL WAVE IS A WAVE IN WHICH THE VIBRATIONS OF THE

SOME BEHAVIOURS OF WAVES

This bending of waves as they emerge from a slit is called diffraction.

Superposition and interference

 Rectilinear propagation of light produces sharp-edged shadows.

Regular and Diffused Reflection

The image has the following properties:

PRACTICAL 1 – COMPARING THE SIZE OF

PRACTICAL 2 – TO DETERMINE THE

THE MIRROR PERISCOPE

Three Situations of Refraction

speed of light in vacuum (or air)

PRACTICAL 3 – REFRACTION THROUGH A

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Construction of Ray Diagrams (For Converging Lens)

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

Applications of Electromagnetic Waves

Instructions: *attempt questions before looking at the answers*

LOUDNESS AND PITCH

Attraction and Repulsion

 There is an induced magnetism (temporary magnetism) in the soft iron bar.

METHODS OF MAGNETISM AND

 This is the most efficient way of demagnetisation.

Instructions: attempt questions before looking at the answers