Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

“Assessment of Traffic Signals in The Three Major Intersections along P. Burgos, Rizal Avenue and D.

Silang Street in Batangas City” 2015 (Ayson,Del Mundo, Villanueva)

CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE

Traffic Management. “This is the term used to embody the activities undertaken by a highway

transportation agency to improve roadway system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for both providers

and consumers of transportation services. There are two type of traffic management. The first one utilizes

the traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices to regulate or control traffic. The use of traffic

enforcers and traffic signage are some of the examples of the traditional traffic management practices that

have been used since to control and manage the traffic. The second relies more on advanced technologies

through the use of Intelligent Transportation System.” (Sigua, 2008)

In the Philippines, there are several government agencies which deals with the traffic

management in different roads and intersections. These agencies include the Metropolitan Manila

Development Authority (MMDA), Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC),

Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), Traffic Engineering Center, Philippine National

Police- Traffic Management Group, and the Land Transportation Office. According to Lidasan as

mentioned in news report, poor coordination among government agencies occurs since their functions and

responsibilities often overlap. Moreover, even if policy making and implementation or enforcement is

assigned to specific agencies, these organizations usually disregard or bypass one another in the

performance of their functions. The following paragraphs further identify the key roles of the different

agencies for an effective traffic management.

MMDA’s role is primarily to coordinate and integrate the efforts of local government and the

central government in drawing up policies and plans and road construction and maintenance is divided
between DPWH for national roads and LGUs for local roads. The DPWH Traffic Engineering Center has

taken the responsibility for road planning that requires traffic engineering. DOTC is in charge of

regulating vehicle fleet and driver licensing through its Land Transportation Office. The Land

Transportation Franchising Regulatory Board regulates public transport services and fares. DOTC also

plans the extensions to Metro Manila’s rail systems through the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA) and

the Philippine National Railways.

Responsibilities for traffic management, however, should not just be relied upon the government

agencies but a collaborative effort among the policy makers, implementers as well as the ordinary people

– even children in grade school to senior citizens. Everybody has to be educated about road traffic safety

rules and signs. Representative Narciso D. Santiago III has filed House Bill 4745 which claims to have a

separate subject integrated in the grade school and high school curricula that includes the teaching of read

traffic safety rules and signs since young people are the easiest to train. (photosbyeinjel.blogspot.com)

Traffic Signals. These are electrically controlled automated devices that are situated at road

intersections, pedestrian crossings and other locations to control the traffic flow. These traffic signals are

programmed to function within a time interval to control the flow of traffic within an intersection

commonly called as traffic signal timing which will be discussed further within this study. It is a common

belief that traffic signals are the answer to all road traffic problems, specifically in the intersections.

Hence, a lot has developed certain interest in innovating and developing them further for the public’s

better understanding and use.

A standard traffic signal system consists of green, yellow, and red phases which convey different

meanings. A green light means that all vehicles may proceed providing the way is clear and it is safe to do

so. The red light means that all vehicles within a certain lane must come to a complete stop just behind

the white stop line before approaching an intersection. A yellow light indicates that all vehicles

approaching the intersection must prepare to stop just before the first white line on the intersection.
ADVANTAGES OF SIGNALS

Signals offer the maximum degree of control at intersections- they relay messages of both what to

do and what not to do. The primary function of any traffic signal is to assign right-of-way to conflicting

movement of traffic at an intersection, and it does this by permitting conflicting streams of traffic to share

the same intersection by means of time separation.

By alternately assigning right-of-way to various traffic movements, signals provide for the

orderly movement of conflicting flows. They may interrupt extremely heavy flows to permit the crossing

of minor movements which could not otherwise move safely through the intersection.

When properly timed, the traffic signal increases the traffic handling capacity of an intersection,

and when installed under conditions which justify its use, it is a valuable device for improving the safety

and efficiency of both pedestrian and vehicular traffic. In particular, signals may reduce certain types of

accidents, most notably the angle (broadside) collision.

DISADVANTAGES OF SIGNALS

While many people realize that traffic signals can reduce the number of angle collisions at an

intersection, few realize that signals can also cause an increase in other types of accidents (it has been

well documented that other types of accidents, notably rear-end collisions, usually increase when a signal

is installed).

Normally, traffic engineers are willing to trade off an increase in rear-end collisions for a decrease

in the more severe angel accidents; however, when there is no angle accident problem at an intersection,

there is nothing to trade off and the installation of traffic signals can actually cause a deterioration in the

overall safety at the intersection. This situation sometimes prompts the remark, “You mean you won’t do

anything until somebody gets killed!” What is not fully understood is that traffic signals are not a “cure-
all” and that the primary goal of all traffic engineers is to attain the safest and most efficient traffic flow

feasible.

In addition to an increase in accident frequency, unjustified traffic signals can also cause

excessive delay, disobedience of signals, and diversion of traffic to inadequate alternate routes.

Traffic signals are costly than is commonly realized, even though they represent a sound public

investment when justified. A modern signal can cost taxpayers between $80,00 and $100,000 to install –

depending on the complexity of the intersection and the characteristics of the traffic using it. On top of

this, there is a perpetual cost which is almost never considered – the cost of the electrical power

consumed in operation a signalized intersection 24 hours a day. This now averages about $1,400 per year.

(http://azdot.gov/highways/traffic/Signal.asp)

Traffic Management Schemes. Traffic management schemes may be implemented:

1.To improve Road Safety

Accidents are a function of traffic usage and road condition. With a large majority of accidents

occur on arterial roads there are also opportunities for reducing accidents in local streets by altering street

layouts and modifying the behavior of traffic using it.

2.To Improve Local Amenity

Roads and vehicles, by their nature, can adversely affect the local amenities through the increased

noise, reduced safety and air pollution. Traffic management scheme can be designed to minimize these

adverse effects but with due regard to other requirements such as access and parking.

3.To Improve (or atleast protect) Local Access and Circulation

In some cases, improvements to access and circulation will conflict with local amenity. Where

standard road construction is low, however with proper control, these objectives can be achieved

concurrently.
4.Improve (or atleast protect) the Utility of Arterial Roads

The general community can benefit through improve traffic by reduction in travel times, reduced

fuel consumption and less pollution.

Techniques. The various techniques that assist in achieving these goals can be grouped into:

1.Method to direct vehicles along the most appropriate paths, e.g. improving capacity of arterial roads.

2.Improvement of driver behavior

3.Reductions of in-built risk in the street system

4.Variations of the physical nature of the street for other than traffic purposes.

Objectives of Traffic Management:

1.Increase the traffic carrying capacity of the existing street system (moving vehicles)

2.Increase the ability of the street system to transport more people (public transport priority)

3.Accommodate parking needs but in proper relationship to the above to objectives.

4.Improve pedestrian mobility and safety.

Typical Pedestrian Conditions:

1.The Pedestrian as a means of transport is neglected

2.Pedestrian conditions are unsafe.

3.Pedestrian systems lack continuity.

Traffic Signal. According to Fricker and Whitford (2004), a traffic signal cycle consists of green,

yellow and red phases, durations of each phase depends largely on the traffic flows in each intersection
approach and the capacity of the intersection. Thus, traffic signal timing is affected by the number of

vehicles passing through the intersections in every lane and phase. The basic traffic signal definitions are

the phases, cycle and interval.

Phase in the indication (green, red, yellow, arrow, etc.) that drivers see on the traffic signal as

they approach the intersection.

Cycle is the length of time between consecutive occurances of the same point in the green-

yellow-red sequence of phases. These are three types of traffic signal controllers with respect to its cycle

length (Highway Capacity Manual, 2000) : pre-timed, full actuated and semi-actuated.

Pre-timed controllers are those that are fixed timed, have constant signal timing and a preset

sequence of phases displayed in a repetitive manner. Each phase has a fixed green time and change

interval that is repeated in each cycle to produce a constant cycle length.

Fully actuated controllers are those that vary in response to the traffic flows detected by the

loops in the pavement or by commonly called vehicle detectors. Each phase is subjected to a minimum

and maximum green time depending on the current traffic volume detected. Its cycle length varies from

cycle to cycle making some instances that some phases may be skipped if no demand is detected.

Semi-actuated controllers on the other hand are operated in some approaches, typically on the

minor street, having detectors. They were designed to maintain the green light on the major street in the

absence of a minor-street actuation and once it is actuated, a minor-street green is displayed for a period

so as to accommodate the traffic demand.

Interval is the combination of phases that at any time during a signal’s cycle, the phase in effect

for each approach and turning movement can be noted, One example is when all approaches show red

indication which means an all-red clearance. When any of these phases that define the current interval

changes, a new interval has begun.

 Phasing and lane grouping. Phasing is the motion and directional movement of vehicles during

the green signal in the green-yellow-red sequence. The minimum number of phasing that should be found

in an intersection should be two phases. (search phases in an intersection)

HIGHWAY AND URBAN STREET OPERATIONS

In urban areas, traffic flows on freeways and expressways, arterials, collectors, and local street

networks. Arterial and local street operation make use of street markings, signs and signals controlled in

several ways either fixed setting or computerized system. Arterial streets are the main way of traffic

before the introduction of freeways and expressways. Despite the existence of these freeways and

highways, arterial roads serve the traffic flow to the nearest access points, because they offer the most

advantageous route for longer trips. In fact, these arterial roads are existing highways of considerable

length wherein cross traffic is regulated by signal and stop signs. It is these arterial that provide access to

adjacent property with restricted entry and exit locations, level parking, cross center left turn and other

traffic activities.

Arterial Streets are considered as a substitute for a controlled access when traffic volume

exceeds about 20,000 vehicles per day.

The basic considerations in planning for arterial roads are:

1.Selection of convenient route

2.Studies of traffic volume

3.Origin and destinations

4.Accident experienced

To unload and increase the capacity of the road, the following solutions are employed:
 1. Parking is strictly prohibited during peak hour on one or both sides of the street.
2. Eliminating parking for several meter away on each side of the intersection.
3. Allowing right turns on red signal or providing special provisions for these turns outside the

through lanes.
4. Eliminating left turn at congested intersections.
5. Reversing the flow of traffic in the center lanes to accommodate more lanes in the direction of the

heavies flow.

One Way Street

One way streets are those where traffic moves in only one direction. The adoption of the one-way

traffic plan is based from a number of important advantages over the two way operation, such as:

1. Bigger Capacity – more vehicles are accommodated by the same system.

2. Fewer Stops and Increasing Speed – fewer delay at intersections because the number of

possible conflict is greatly reduced.

3. Improved Pedestrian Movement – one crosswalk is totally free from turning vehicles during

each phase of the signal at signal-controlled intersections of two one way streets.
4. Reduced Accidents – when conflicts are eliminated, one way operations reduced accidents of all

types.
5. Elimination of headlight glare, ease of movement from emergency and less attention to traffic.
(Search for directions of traffic flow)

Highway Capacity

The capacity of any element of the highway system is the maximum number of vehicles which

has reasonable expectation of passing over the section (either one or both directions) during a given time

period under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. Example of capacities of modern highway

element is presented as follows:

Table (Highway Capacity)

Facility Capacity in Passenger Car

Freeway and expressways away from rams and weaving
2,000
sections, per lane hour
 Two lane highways, total in both directions per hour 2,000

Three lane highways, total in each direction per hour 2,000

A 3.60m. lane at signalize intersections per hour of
1,800
greens signal time (no interference and ideal progression)

THE LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)

The Level of Service is commonly accepted as a measure of the restrictive effects of increased in

volume. Each segment of the roadway can be rated at an appropriate level from A to F inclusive to reflect

its condition at the given demand of service volume.

LEVEL A = Free Flow, speed control by driver’s desires.

LEVEL B = Stable Flow, operating speeds beginning to be restricted; little or no restrictions on

maneuverability from other vehicles.

LEVEL C = Stable Flow, speeds and maneuverability more closely restricted

LEVEL D = Approached unstable flow. Tolerable speeds can be maintained but temporary

restrictions to flow substantial drops in speed. Little freedom to maneuver comfort and

convenience flow.

LEVEL E = Volumes near capacity, speeds in neighborhood of 45km/hr, Flow unstable; stoppage

of momentary duration. Ability to maneuver very limited.

LEVEL F = Forced flow; low operation speeds, volume below capacity.

Factors the Reduce Capacity and Level of Service

The ideal conditions for roadways to have uninterrupted flow are:

 1. Lanes 3.6m, and shoulder 1.8m. wide.
2. With flat grades
3. Sight distances, unrestricted
4. No trucks or buses plying the route

If these conditions are not met, capacity maybe reduced, thus, enumerated below are the

factors that contribute to reduction of capacity and level of service, such as:

1. Narrow lanes and shoulders or other restriction on edge clearance.

2. Sharp horizontal curves create dynamic forces to which drivers react. Short vertical curve

over crest or obstructions to vision on the inside of horizontal curves cause vehicles to slow

down.
3. Commercial vehicles like trucks, requires more highway space per vehicle than passenger car.
4. Effect of Grades on uphill road desirable vehicle spacing can be smaller which leads to

increased capacity. A 3% upgrades does not affect passenger car neither affected much by 6

or 7% grades unlike trucks which are markedly affected by the steep grade. (The Manual,

TRB circular 212, Elements of Roads and Highways by Max Fajardo)

RELATED STUDIES

Traffic Management System in the roadway intersection of Rosario Town Proper Batangas

Limbo et al. (2012) assessed the Traffic Management System in the roadway intersection of

Rosario Town Proper Batangas. The study intended to measure the vehicular capacity or traffic flow

density of the National Highway, to categorize the nature and kind of vehicles using this route, to

determine the traffic volume on weekends or weekdays or both which contribute to congestion, to classify

the level of prevailing traffic flow conditions, and to recommend actions to be considered in underpinning

the necessary measures that can be undertaken.

 The study’s findings were most number of vehicles passed the intersection during Fridays

specifically vehicles coming from Padre Garcia, there were insufficient traffic signs and signals, and there

was inadequate width of the roadway. The study;s recommendations were road-widening, construction of

tricycle terminal, improvement of pedestrian lanes and centerline markings, and installation of traffic

lights and signage.

Assessment of Traffic Light System at Batangas City

Maalihan, et. Al (2005), Electrical Engineering Department. The study conducted an assessment

of the traffic light system in Batangas City. It further aimed to determine the comparative traffic

characteristics in terms of volume and vehicle classification, traffic operation in terms of travel time, the

different factors that contribute to traffic congestion and expected output of the system. Their study

offered the city council and TDRO some suggestions/ recommendations such as: they should be ready to

provide reliable solutions to other problems that may arise when the traffic light system fails; and problem

areas should be identified before any traffic management scheme is implemented to avoid difficulties in

the implementation of new scheme.

Solution to Traffic Congestion at Bolbok – Diversion Intersection

Arada et. Al (2001) attempted to propose an efficient and effective short term solution that would

solve the traffic congestions at Bolbok – Diversion intersection. This study aimed to determine the

contributing factors to traffic congestion at the area and to develop an action plan that would improve the

traffic condition. According to the study, it is enough to know the existence of traffic problem and then,

prescribing solutions.
Traffic flow Analysis of Level of Service Characteristics of SM City Batangas Frontage Road”

Berba et. Al (2005) conducted a study “Traffic flow Analysis of Level of Service Characteristics

of SM City Batangas Frontage road.” This study focuses on identifying the road characteristics of the

main road through LOS characteristics to measure the vehicular capacity of traffic flow density, nature

and kinds of vehicles plying the route, determine whether the traffic volume on weekdays or weekends

are both contributing to congestion and to classify the level of prevailing traffic flow conditions. They

recommend administering a traffic study regarding other characteristics like vehicle characteristics, driver

characteristics, traffic flow characteristics and land use characteristics.

Evaluation of the Traffic Congestion Problem at San Sebastian Intersection in Lipa City

Alcaraz et al. (2012) evaluated the traffic congestion problem at San Sebastian Intersection in

Lipa City. This study aimed to determine the contributing factors to traffic congestion along approach

roadways using volume/capacity ratio as indicator, and recommended a plan of actions that would

improve the traffic condition. The study revealed that the traffic congestion in the area was brought by the

weakneses of the highway facilities such as inadequate width of roadway, poor surface condition of

pavements, inadequate lateral clearance, insufficient area of the center island, and absence of crosswalks.

The study’s recommendations were the improvement of the highway facilities and traffic

reinforcement and management, adjustments in size or removal of the center island to accommodate the

traffic volume in the intersection and to increase road capacity, a new design of center island, and level of

service (LOS) analysis can be used in determination of the degree of traffic congestion.

Analysis of the Traffic Condition in Lipa City Town Proper

Dalisay et al. (2004) analyzed the traffic condition in Lipa City Proper. This study gave the

situational analysis of the traffic condition in the city by analyzing and observing the conformity of the
traffic management system using the local ordinance as the basis of the observation. Results showed that

the factors such as poor surface condition of pavements, absence of crosswalks, improper loading zones

and illegally parked vehicles contributed to the traffic congestion. An action plan was conceptualized to

lessen the traffic problems in the city. The study’s recommendations were CCTV cameras should be

installed, incidents and congestion should be effectively monitored and managed. Further evaluation of

the traffic management system and further improvement of road condition of Lipa City were also

recommended.

Assessment of Traffic Signals in the Three Major Intersections Along P. Burgos, Rizal Avenue And

D. Silang Streets in Batangas City

Ayson, Del Mundo, Villanueva (May 2015) assessed the traffic signals in the three major

intersections along P. Burgos, Rizal Avenue and D. Silang Streets in Batangas City. The research

identified the following conclusions based on their traffic counting and analyzation.

(1) Traffic signal timing is greatly affected by the volume of vehicles entering an intersection.

(2) The effectiveness of existing traffic signal system in the city is not maximized because of weak

observance and proper maintenance of the traffic signals.

(3) Electronic controlled devices together with the strict implementation of traffic rules and regulations

should work hand in hand to achieve an efficient and effective traffic management system.

Based on their study, the researchers proposed some recommendations to improve the

effectiveness of traffic signals within the three intersections.

(1) Further study is recommended to evaluate all other remaining intersections within Batangas City.
(2) It is recommended that further studies be conducted to focus on the efficiency of the entire traffic

signal system of Batangas City.

(3) Alternative schemes to help improve the existing traffic signal system of Batangas City.