6.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND MULTIPLEXING

Data Transmission – Parallel vs Serial

What is data transmission?

Data transmission refers to the process of transferring data between two or more digital devices.
Data is transmitted from one device to another in analog or digital format. Basically, data
transmission enables devices or components within devices to speak to each other.

How does data transmission work between digital devices?

Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices. There are two
methods used to transmit data between digital devices: serial transmission and parallel
transmission. Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over a single channel.
Parallel data transmission sends multiple data bits at the same time over multiple channels.

What is serial transmission?

When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized in a
specific order, since they can only be sent one after another. The order of the data bits is
important as it dictates how the transmission is organized when it is received. It is viewed as a
reliable data transmission method because a data bit is only sent if the previous data bit has
already been received.

Example of Serial Data Transmission

Serial transmission has two classifications: asynchronous and synchronous:

1. Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used between data bytes
to synchronize the transmitter and receiver and to ensure that the data is transmitted
correctly. The time between sending and receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps are used
to provide time between transmissions.
The advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is required
between the transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost effective method. A
disadvantage is that data transmission can be slower, but this is not always the case.

2. Synchronous Serial Transmission

Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The data
transmitter and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency; therefore,
start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used. This means that data moves faster and timing
errors are less frequent because the transmitter and receiver time is synced. However,
data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being synced correctly between devices. In
comparison with asynchronous serial transmission, this method is usually more
expensive.

When is serial transmission used to send data?

Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer. It is also used in cases where
the amount of data being sent is relatively small. It ensures that data integrity is maintained as it
transmits the data bits in a specific order, one after another. In this way, data bits are received in-
sync with one another.

What is parallel transmission?

When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over
multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than using
serial transmission methods.

Example of Parallel Data Transmission

Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the same time, the order in which a bit
string is received can depend on various conditions, such as proximity to the data source, user
location, and bandwidth availability. Two examples of parallel interfaces can be seen below. In
the first parallel interface, the data is sent and received in the correct order. In the second parallel
interface, the data is sent in the correct order, but some bits were received faster than others.
Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Correctly

Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Incorrectly

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Parallel Data Transmission

The main advantages of parallel transmission over serial transmission are:

 it is easier to program;
 and data is sent faster.

Although parallel transmission can transfer data faster, it requires more transmission channels
than serial transmission. This means that data bits can be out of sync, depending on transfer
distance and how fast each bit loads. A simple of example of where this can be seen is with a
voice over IP (VOIP) call when distortion or interference is noticeable. It can also be seen when
there is skipping or interference on a video stream.

When is parallel transmission used to send data?

Parallel transmission is used when:

  a large amount of data is being sent;
 the data being sent is time-sensitive;
 and the data needs to be sent quickly.

A scenario where parallel transmission is used to send data is video streaming. When a video is
streamed to a viewer, bits need to be received quickly to prevent a video pausing or buffering.
Video streaming also requires the transmission of large volumes of data. The data being sent is
also time-sensitive as slow data streams result in poor viewer experience.

Applications

 Serial transmission is between two computers or from a computer to an external device

located some distance away. Parallel transmission either takes place within a computer
system (on a computer bus) or to an external device located a close distance away.

 A special computer chip known as a universal asynchronous receiver transmitter (UART)

acts as the interface between the parallel transmission of the computer bus and the serial
transmission of the serial port. UARTs differ in performance capabilities based on the
amount of on-chip memory they possess.

Examples

Examples of parallel mode transmission include connections between a computer and a printer
(parallel printer port and cable). Most printers are within 6 meters or 20 feet of the transmitting
computer and the slight cost for extra wires is offset by the added speed gained through parallel
transmission of data.

Modems

The word "modem" is a contraction of the words modulator-demodulator. A modem is

typically used to send digital data over a phone line. The sending modem modulates the data
into a signal that is compatible with the phone line, and the receiving modem demodulates the
signal back into digital data. Wireless modems convert digital data into radio signals and back.

Fig. 11-12 shows two ways that modems are commonly used in digital data transmission. In Fig.
11-12(a), two computers exchange data by speaking through modems. While one modem is
transmitting, the other is receiving. Full duplex operation is also possible. In Fig. 11-12(b), a
remote video terminal or personal computer is using a modem to communicate with a large
server computer. Modems are also the interface between the millions of personal computers and

servers that make up the Internet. There are four basic modem types: low-speed analog modems,
digital subscriber line (DSL) modems, cable TV modems, and wireless modems. The first three
are discussed in the following sections. Analog modems of the dial-up type are no longer widely
used, but there are many low data rate applications that use these techniques in both wired and
wireless equipment.

Modulation for Data Communication

Four main types of modulation are used in modern modems: frequency-shift keying (FSK),
phase-shift keying (PSK), quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing (OFDM). FSK is used primarily in lower speed (500 kbps) modems in a
noisy environment. PSK operates in narrower bandwidths over a wide range of speeds. QAM is a
combination of both amplitude modulation and PSK. It can produce very high data rates in
narrow bandwidths. OFDM operates over a very wide bandwidth and can achieve very high rates
in a noisy environment.
Asynchronous Protocols

Three popular protocols used for asynchronous ASCII-coded data transmission between personal
computers, via modem, are Xmodem, Kermit, and MPN. These protocols are no longer widely
used, but an example with Xmodem will illustrate the process. In Xmodem, the data transmission
procedure begins with the receiving computer transmitting a negative acknowledge (NAK)
character to the transmitter. NAK is a 7-bit ASCII character that is transmitted serially back to
the transmitter every 10 s until the transmitter recognizes it. Once the transmitter recognizes the
NAK character, it begins sending a 128-byte block of data, known as a frame (packet) of
information (see Fig. 11-59). The frame begins with a start-of-header (SOH) character, which is
another ASCII character meaning that the transmission is beginning. This is followed by a
header, which usually consists of two or more characters preceding the actual data block, which
give auxiliary information. In Xmodem, the header consists of 2 bytes designating the block
number. In most messages, several blocks of data are transmitted and each is numbered
sequentially. The first byte is the block number in binary code. The second byte is the
complement of the block number; i.e., all bits have been inverted. Then the 128-byte block is
transmitted. At the end of the block, the transmitting computer sends a check-sum byte, which is
the BCC, or binary sum of all the binary information sent in the block. (Keep in mind that each
character is sent along with its start and stop bits, since Xmodem is an asynchronous protocol.)
The receiving computer looks at the block data and also computes the check sum. If the check
sum of the received block is the same as that transmitted, it is assumed that the block was
received correctly. If the block was received correctly, the receiving computer sends an
acknowledge (ACK) character — another ASCII code — back to the transmitter. Once ACK is
received by the transmitter, the next block of data is sent. When a block has been received
incorrectly because of interference or equipment problems, the check sums will not match and
the receiving computer will send a NAK code back to the transmitter. A transmitter that has
received NAK automatically responds by sending the block again. This process is repeated until
each block, and the entire message, has been sent without errors. When the entire message has
been sent, the transmitting computer sends an end-of transmission (EOT) character. The
receiving computer replies with an ACK character, terminating the communication.
Synchronous Protocols

Protocols used for synchronous data communication are more complex than asynchronous
protocols. However, like the asynchronous Xmodem and Kermit systems, they use various
control characters for signaling purposes at the beginning and ending of the block of data to be
transmitted

SDLC: One of the most flexible and widely used synchronous protocols is the synchronous data
link control (SDLC) protocol (see Fig. 11-61). SDLC is used in networks that are
interconnections of multiple computers. All frames begin and end with a flag byte with the code
01111110 or hex 7E, which is recognized by the receiving computer. A sequence of binary 1s
starts the clock synchronous process. Next comes an address byte that specifies a specific
receiving station. Each station on the network is assigned an address number. The address hex
FF indicates that the message to follow is to be sent to all stations on the network. A control byte
following the address allows the programmer or user to specify how the data will be sent and
how it will be dealt with at the receiving end. It allows the user to specify the number of frames,
how the data will be received, and so on. The data block (all codes are EBCDIC, not ASCII)
comes next. It can be any length, but 256 bytes is typical. The data is followed by a frame-check
sequence (FCS), a 16-bit CRC. A flag ends the frame. A variation of the SDLC system, which
permits interface between a larger number of different software and hardware configurations, is
called high-level data link control (HDLC). Its format is similar to that shown in Fig. 11-61. It
may also use ASCII data and often has a 32-bit CRC/FCS.

Multiplexing: FDM, WDM and TDM

Multiplexing is a scheme that sends multiple signals or stream of information in the forms of
analog data or digital data over a single physical trunk (also called as transmission lines /circuits/
channels).
These multiplexing scheme can be divided into two basic categories: FDM ( Frequency Division
Multiplexing) and TDM (Time Division Multiplexing ). In FDM, the frequency spectrum is
divided among the logical channels or sub-channels of different frequency widths /bands within
the main channel. And TDM, the multiple signals are carried over the same channel and each
signal periodically getting the entire bandwidth for a little burst of time.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency division multiplexing is an analog technique. It is the most popular multiplexing
technique. We use this technique extensively in TV and radio transmission. This technique
combines multiple signals into one signal and transmitted over the communication channel.
Frequency division multiplexing is also known as FDM.
In this technique, the bandwidth of the communication channel should be greater than the
combined bandwidth of individual signals.

The frequency division multiplexing divides the bandwidth of a channel into several logical sub-
channels. Each logical sub-channel is allotted for a different signal frequency. The individual
signals are filtered and then modulated (frequency is shifted), in order to fit exactly into logical
sub-channels.
In this technique, each logical sub-channel (individual signal frequency) is allotted to each user.
In other words, each user owns a sub-channel.
Each logical sub-channel is separated by an unused bandwidth called Guard Band to prevent
overlapping of signals. In other words, there exists a frequency gap between two adjacent signals
to prevent signal overlapping. A guard band is a narrow frequency range that separates two
signal frequencies.
Applications of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
1. Frequency division multiplexing is used for FM and AM radio broadcasting.
2. It is used in first generation cellular telephone.
3. It is used in television broadcasting.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength division multiplexing is a technology that increases the bandwidth of a

communication channel (optical fiber) by simultaneously allowing multiple optical signals
through it.

In wavelength division multiplexing, the communication channel is a fiber optic cable.

Wavelength division multiplexing is also known as WDM. A demultiplexer at the receiver end
separates the optical signal wavelengths or colors.
In this technique, the bandwidth of the communication channel should be greater than the
combined bandwidth of individual signals.
The wavelength division multiplexing divides the bandwidth of a channel into several logical
sub-channels according to its wavelength. It allots each logical sub-channel for a different light
color or optical signal wavelength. The individual signals are filtered and then modulated
(wavelength is shifted), to fit exactly into logical sub-channels.
In this technique, each logical sub-channel (individual signal wavelength) is allotted to each user.
In other words, each user owns a sub-channel.
Time Division Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing is a technique in which multiple signals are combined and
transmitted one after another on the same communication channel.
At the receiver side, the signals are separated and received. Each signal is received by a user at a
different time.
Time Division Multiplexing is also simply referred to as TDM. It is the digital multiplexing
technique.
In frequency division multiplexing, all signals of different frequencies are transmitted
simultaneously. But in time division multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency
are transmitted at different times.
In frequency division multiplexing, the sharing of a channel is done on the basis of frequency.
But in time division multiplexing, the sharing of a channel is done on the basis of time.
In time division multiplexing, each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot
during which data is transmitted. The time interval (time slot) allotted to each receiver (user) is
so small that the receiver will not detect that some time was used to serve another receiver
(user).
In time division multiplexing, all signals are not transmitted simultaneously; instead, they are
transmitted one after another. For example, as shown in the above figure, at first, we send signal
A. Then after second signal B and then after third signal C and finally, we send last signal D.
Thus, each user occupies an entire bandwidth for a short period of time.
The time division multiplexing technique is used to multiplex analog signals or digital signals.
However, the time division multiplexing is more suitable for digital signal multiplexing.
In time division multiplexing, the bandwidth capacity of the communication channel should be
greater than the multiple input signals.

Synchronous TDM

In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there are ‘n’ number of connections,
then the frame is divided into ‘n’ time slots. One slot is allocated for each input line.

In this technique, the sampling rate is common for all signals and hence the same clock input is
given. The MUX allocates the same slot to each device at all times.

Asynchronous TDM

In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of the signals and a common clock
is not required. If the allotted device, for a time slot transmits nothing and sits idle, then that slot
is allotted to another device, unlike synchronous.

Applications of Multiplexing
1. Communication system
2. Computer memory
3. Telephone systems
4. TV broadcasting
5. Telemetry
6. Satellites

FDM Transmitter
Fig.2 shows the block diagram of an FDM transmitter .

Fig. 2 : FDM Transmitter

The signals which are to be multiplexed will each modulate a separate carrier .The type of
modulation can be AM, SSB, FM or PM .

The modulated signals are then added together to form a complex signal which is transmitted
over a single channel .

Working Operation of the FDM Transmitter

Each signal modulates a separate carrier . The modulator outputs will contain the sidebands of
the corresponding signals .

The modulator outputs are added together in a linear mixer or adder .

The linear mixer is different from the normal mixers. Here the sum and difference frequency
components are not produced . But only the algebraic addition of the modulated outputs will take
place .
Different signals are thus added together i the time domain but they have a separate identity in
the frequency domain . This is as shown in fig.2 .

The composite signal at the output of mixer is transmitted over the single communication
channel as shown in fig.2 . This signal can be used to modulate a radio transmitter if the FDM
signal is to be transmitted through air .

FDM Receiver
The block diagram of an FDM receiver is shown in fig.3 .

Fig.3 : FDM Receiver

The composite signal is applied to a group of bandpass filters (BPF) .

Each BPF has a center frequency corresponding to one of the carriers. The BPFs have an
adequate bandwidth to pass all the channel information without any distortion .

Each filter will pass only its channel and rejects all the other channels.

The channel demodulator then removes the carrier and recovers the original signal back.

TDM multiplexing:

Most of the bio-medical signals have low frequency and bandwidth requirements. So FDM
telemetry system cannot be used regularly. We can use time division multiplex system by the
time sharing scheme where the transmission channel is connected to each single channel input
for a short period of time to sample and transmit the signal. A selection switch is used in order to
select the channels in an ordered way. Then transmitter is switched to the next signal channel in a
definite sequence. After scanning and transmitting all the present channels a cycle is completed
and next cycle will start and this operation is continued. At the receiver side the opposite process
is done. The block diagram of TDM telemetry system is shown below. Since the synchronization
of the signals is a must for a time division multiplexing system, a synchronization pulse is used
at the receiver side. It is used to decode the information from individual channels in the proper
way. The absence of synchronization will lead to severe interference among the channels in
almost all cases. The output is decoded and by using suitable filters, information from each
channel is separated.