Tips - Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management PDF
Tips - Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management PDF
Tips - Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management PDF
MEGAN TRANTER
This edition first published in Australia in 2004
The material in this book is intended for reference only. The author and publisher expressly
disclaim all liability to any person arising directly or indirectly from the use of, or from any
errors or omissions in the content of this book.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any
information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the
publisher. The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or
10% of this book, whichever is the greater, to be photocopied by any educational institution
for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or body that
administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL)
under the Act.
Tranter, Megan.
Occupational hygiene and risk management.
Bibliography.
Includes index.
ISBN 1 74114 329 2.
613.62
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
Occupational hygiene 1
Risk management 2
Risk perception 3
States of matter 4
Toxicology 8
Routes of entry 9
Distribution, metabolism and excretion 10
Dose 11
Carcinogenicity 13
Chronic versus acute exposure 15
National exposure standards 16
Sampling and measurement 18
Types of national exposure standards 18
Units of measurement 20
Biological exposure indices 24
Epidemiology 25
Risk factors 27
Summary 28
Bibliography and further reading 29
Integumentary system 39
Lymphatic system 41
Muscular system 42
Nervous system 44
Reproductive system 46
Respiratory system 49
Skeletal system 51
Urinary system 52
Anatomical positions 54
Summary 56
Bibliography and further reading 56
Inspections 57
Occupational hygiene auditing 60
Using information or specialist advice 62
Reviewing records — material safety data sheets 63
Reviewing records — labelling 65
Summary 65
Bibliography and further reading 65
Chapter 5 Metals 99
Index 341
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
RF radio frequency
RH relative humidity
RIS regulatory impact statement
RMPF required minimum protection factor
RPE respiratory protection equipment
RSI repetitive strain injury
RT radiant temperature
RULA rapid upper limb assessment
RWL recommended weight limit
SBS sick building syndrome
SI International System of Units
Simpeds Safety in Mines Research Establishment
SLM sound level meter
SMF synthetic mineral fibre
SMR standard mortality rate
SOP standard operating procedure
SPL sound pressure level
STEL short-term exposure limit
STP standard temperature and pressure
SWOT strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
TDI toluene 2,4 diisocyanate
TLD thermoluminescent dosimeter
TTS temporary threshold shift
TWA time-weighted average
UV ultraviolet
VIRA video recording analysis
VOC volatile organic compound
WB wet bulb
WBGT wet bulb globe temperature
WRULD work-related upper limb disorder
XRD X-ray diffractometry
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of occupational
hygiene and risk management
Several workers in a restaurant have reported headaches and feeling drowsy when
they serve customers through a driveway window. The serving window is closed
when customers have been served and they have driven away. The building is
airconditioned.
The occupational hygiene hazard was identified as the gas carbon monoxide
(CO), a chemical asphyxiant which is released from motor vehicles. The exposure
was evaluated and the ventilation adjusted to reduce exposure.
that can harm a worker’s health. These agents Following these principles is crucial to the
can exist in a number of forms: biological, occupational hygiene process. Incorrect
chemical, ergonomic, physical. Physical hazards identification of the nature or type of occu-
can include light, noise, pressure, radiation and pational hygiene hazards will result in time and
vibration. Chemical hazards may be in the form resources being spent investigating aspects
of aerosols, dusts, fibres, fume, gas, mists, that may not in fact require it. Equally, if the
smoke or vapours. Bacteria, fungi, protozoan agent is not evaluated against valid criteria, the
and viruses are examples of biological agents. potential outcome will not be recognised and
Shift work, manual handling and occupational controls may not be sufficient to protect the
stress are considered to be ergonomic hazards. worker. More details about hazard identifi-
cation techniques are discused in Chapter 3.
Strategies for managing risk are included in
RISK MANAGEMENT Chapter 14.
Asbestos fibres, which are firmly embedded in the frequency of exposure may be judged as
a matrix such as asbestos-cement sheeting ‘rare’ or ‘occasional’. The duration of exposure
(found on roofs from the 1950s), can be may range from ‘constant’ to ‘less than once
hazardous. However, a risk will only exist if the each day’. Severity of outcome can be
fibres are released from the matrix, become measured by magnitude, such as ‘death’ or
airborne and are inhaled. This may occur if the ‘minor injuries’.
roof is cleaned using a high-pressure water Risk management as a profession in-
spray or if the roof is broken. corporates many sources of loss. In order for
an organisation to manage the potential
Hazard = potential that an event losses, a philosophy of recognition, evaluation
sequence will cause and control is promoted. However, depending
damage or harm upon a person’s experiences and beliefs, they
Risk = likelihood that an event may approach the task in different ways. This
sequence will cause could be due to their perception of risk.
damage or harm. The
combination of
frequency, duration and RISK PERCEPTION
severity of exposure.
The final decision about the level of risk in the
The concept of risk assessment lies core to workplace will vary depending upon percep-
Australia’s occupational health and safety tions. Risk perception is an individual’s inter-
legislative framework. This extends to occu- pretation of the level of risk associated with an
pational hygiene hazards with some States pre- event and their tolerance to this risk. Risk
scribing the conduct of mandatory risk assess- perception will be discussed further in Chapter
ments for specific hazards such as manual 14 and it is influenced by factors such as:
handling and chemicals. While risk per se can be
assessed using a number of methods, it is im- • self-control over the risk versus
portant to identify the assumptions and imposed risk
limitations that go with the process. Quan- • natural versus human-made risk
titative risk assessments of occupational hygiene • familiarity with the risk
hazards generally involve measuring exposure • understanding of the effects of
and comparison against a scientifically validated exposure to the risk
benchmark. Consideration is made of the nature • financial or other gain to be made
of the hazard, the cycle or pattern of exposure from exposure to the risk
and knowledge about the acute and chronic • cultural norms, beliefs and values
health effects of the agent. Due to the complex • society’s acceptance of risks.
issues associated with interpretation of data,
these types of risk assessments are best Some industries such as underground
performed by qualified and experienced occu- coalmining traditionally provided workers with
pational hygienists. Misinterpretation of ex- a financial incentive to work in particularly
posure results is a serious issue with both legal high-risk places. Extra payment was given for
ramifications for an employer managing risk and working in noisy or dusty environments. Even
potentially compromising workers’ health. today, with ever-improving standards of health
Qualitative risk assessment is made by and safety at work, it is clear that a worker’s
evaluating the three components of risk and perception of risk can be influenced by the
the most likely event sequence. For instance, factors identified above. Risks may be
4 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Figure 1.2 Zinc oxide (Zn0) fume from welding galvanised steel
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of occupational hygiene and risk management ■ 7
–2
pressure of 1 atmosphere (101 325 N.m ). NTP Example 1.2
refers to a temperature of 298 K (25°C) and
pressure of 1 atmosphere. 1.0 mol nitrogen (N2) is being held at
STP. What is its volume, if it behaves as
an ideal gas?
Answer:
V = nRT/P –1 –1
Vapours V = (1.0 mol).(8.315 J.mol–2 .K )
(273 K)/101–3
325
3
N.m
Vapours can best be explained as molecules or V = 22.4 x 10 m
atoms that escape from the surface of a liquid. Since there are 1000
3
litres (L) in
As liquid, molecules are attracted to one 1 cubic metre (m ), 1 mol nitrogen (or
another by strong forces. However, the any gas) has a volume of
molecules in the upper section of the liquid 22.4 L at STP.
may leave the liquid for a short time.
Usually, the attractive forces of the other
molecules will draw the vagrant molecule back TOXICOLOGY
to the liquid surface, but if the molecule has
enough energy it will escape the liquid and The word toxicology is derived from the terms
remain in the gas phase. toxic, meaning ‘a poison’ and ology, meaning
Workplace examples of vapours include ‘the study of ’. In studying poisons, we are
water vapour and the evaporation of solvents. concerned with the adverse effects that they
As more molecules leave the liquid surface, the can exhibit on living cells and the human body.
volume of liquid decreases and the In fundamental terms, all substances are
concentration of vapour increases. When the potentially poisonous or toxic.
number of molecules leaving the liquid is equal It was Paracelsus (1493–1541) who first
to the number returning to the liquid (i.e. it is documented this, noting that it was the dose
at equilibrium), the area is said to be saturated. that determined the toxicity of a substance.
The pressure of the vapour when it is saturated
is called the saturated vapour pressure (vapour All substances are poisons; there is
pressure). The International System of Units none which is not a poison. The right
(SI) unit for measuring saturated vapour
–2
dose differentiates a poison and a
pressure is the Pascal (N.m ). The saturated remedy.
vapour pressure of a liquid increases with
temperature. This is especially important from When we are attempting to manage the risk
an occupational hygiene perspective as liquids associated with occupational hygiene hazards,
are often heated to increase the speed of a it is very important that the mechanism of the
process or improve its efficiency. For instance, effect is known, as well as the probability that
a chemist may dissolve a sample in warmed it will occur. This begins by identifying where
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) for a faster result. If the the substance or agent enters the body. The
saturated vapour pressure of the liquid is movement and metabolism of the substance
raised enough to equal the external pressure, through the body must also be known to
tiny bubbles form in the liquid. In other words, determine the most likely response. Our aim is
the liquid is changing from a liquid state to the to reduce exposure to a level that is as low as
gaseous state, or boiling has begun. reasonably achievable (ALARA).
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of occupational hygiene and risk management ■ 9
fixing specimens and as a glue or resin We have already discussed the three major
component. routes of entry — inhalation, absorption and
ingestion. Inhalation is the most significant
Ingestion mechanism for uptake of gases, vapours, mists,
fume and dust. Substances that are fat- or
Ingestion is the least common route of entry water-soluble can be easily absorbed through
and can occur by substandard personal the skin and ingestion is generally not a major
hygiene or by eating/drinking an unknown route of entry.
substance. Failing to wash hands, eating or Once a substance has entered the body, it
smoking after handling a substance can leave a can show an effect in a number of ways. The
residue on the hands that can then be effect may be localised where the damage or ill
accidentally ingested. health occurs at the site of initial contact. For
Another more insidious form of ingestion instance, exposure to sulphuric acid can burn
occurs because of the normal clearance the skin and exposure to hexavalent chromium
mechanism of the lungs. The lining of the (CrVI) salts can cause dermatitis and skin
trachea is constructed from finger-like ulcers.
projections called cilia, which are covered in a Another substance, however, may cause a
mucous membrane. The mucous collects systemic effect where other organs or systems
foreign particles before they enter the lungs. of the body are affected. Many substances are
As the contaminants are moved along the distributed via the bloodstream. The ability of
mucociliary escalator for elimination, they are a substance to move throughout the body is
swallowed and removed through the digestive influenced by its chemical/physical properties
system. This is one reason why asbestos and its ability to cross membrane barriers.
workers have a higher than normal incidence Cells in the human body are surrounded by a
of stomach cancer. membrane consisting of two protein layers
with a lipid (fat) layer in between. There are
also small pores with a diameter of 2–4
DISTRIBUTION, angstroms (Å) traversing the membrane. (An
METABOLISM AND –10
angstrom is 10 metres.)
EXCRETION This means that there are three ways a
substance can cross a membrane:
When substances enter the body, they are
distributed and are subject to a number of • If a substance is lipid-soluble, it can
biochemical reactions. These chemical reactions simply diffuse through the
are known collectively as ‘metabolism’. membrane. A substance that is small
Metabolism can be anabolic or catabolic. enough can pass through the pores.
Anabolic (synthetic) metabolic processes form This is called passive diffusion.
larger molecules or structures from smaller • A substance may bind with a
ones. Catabolism is a degradative process where specialised carrier molecule to carry
complex structures are broken down into simple the substance through the lipid
ones. During these processes, the substances layer. This is known as facilitated
can be transformed and an entirely different diffusion.
substance may be excreted from the body. • The substance can be actively
The usual course of a substance is as transported against a concentration
follows: uptake–distribution–metabolism– gradient. This requires energy input,
excretion. and is known as active transport.
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of occupational hygiene and risk management ■ 11
In general, molecules that are fat-soluble can benzene (C6H6), a toxic aromatic hydrocarbon,
cross membranes quicker and easier than is used as an industrial solvent. In the body, the
those that are water-soluble. Once a substance liver oxidises it to phenol which then combines
enters a compartment of the body, it can exert with glutathione to form non-toxic
an effect in that location or even move to other mercapturic acid metabolites. In contrast,
areas of the body. The main organs that are methanol is biotransformed to formaldehyde,
susceptible to storage of chemicals include: a carcinogen.
Within the cells there are several ways that
• fatty tissues substances are metabolised and biotrans-
• nerve cells formed. The most significant mechanism uses
• bone and bone marrow enzymes (chiefly in the liver) to detoxify the
• liver substance in two phases (Figure 1.4).
• kidneys Phase I involves forming a more reactive
• thyroid. metabolite that is suitable for the conjugate
enzymes in Phase II metabolism. Phase II
For instance, inhalation of lead oxide (PbO) metabolism turns the ‘reactive metabolite’ into
fume can result in distribution throughout the excretable compounds by conjugating (joining)
body and then symptoms of exposure to lead with enzymes. Ideally, the reactive metabolite
can appear in the bones, blood, reproductive will follow the correct pathway for this to
system and kidneys. If the substance reaches a occur; however, if the pathway is saturated, the
site in the body that has a high affinity for it, reactive metabolite may accumulate or an
the substance can accumulate and remain in alternative pathway may be used. If either of
this area. These sites are known as storage these options occurs, toxic effects can result.
depots. Some typical examples of toxic
substances and their storage depots are shown
in Table 1.2. DOSE
The concept of dose is paramount for
Table 1.2 Storage of toxic substances
occupational hygiene and risk management.
Dose refers to the amount of a substance to
Substance Storage depot
which we are exposed, and is a combination of
Carbon monoxide Haemoglobin (in the concentration of exposure and duration of
red blood cells) exposure.
Carbon tetrachloride Fat
Chlorinated Dose = concentration x duration of
pesticides (eg. DDT) Fat exposure
Lead Bone
Dose depends on the following factors:
In some cases, substances are taken into the • rate of absorption (depending on the
body in a particular form and then removed in route of entry)
a different form. The reason for this disparity is • blood perfusion rate to the organ
the role of metabolism taking over, causing a under consideration
chemical biotransformation of the substance. • rate of passage of the chemical (and
Biotransformation can be advantageous or its metabolites) across the cell
hazardous, in terms of exposure. For instance, membrane
12 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
SUBSTANCE
PHASE I
'Reactive Metabolite'
EXCRETED
PHASE II
Conjugate
CELL
• volume of distribution for the without effect. The curve then rises linearly,
chemical indicating that the dose and response are pro-
• rate of bio-transformation of the portional to one another, before plateauing out
chemical to a peak response, which is not affected by in-
• degree of binding of the chemical creasing the dose and is known as a ceiling level.
(and its metabolites) to tissues and These dose–response relationships are
plasma proteins used in toxicology to estimate health effects
• rate of excretion of the chemical (and from exposure to particular concentrations of
its metabolites). substances over time. Scientists carrying out
experimental toxicology use test animals (e.g.
Generally, an increase in dose will result in an rats, mice, rabbits) and expose them to
increase in response. This is known as the particular toxic substances, via alternative
dose–response relationship. The relationship routes of entry, for different durations.
may be linear, where the dose is proportional Exposure is usually divided into the following
to the response, but mostly the relationship four categories:
has a sigmoid or curved shape as shown in
Figure 1.5. • acute
Notice that the curve does not cross the Y- • sub-acute
axis (representing response). This means that • sub-chronic
exposure at a particular dose may not lead to a • chronic.
response and indicates the existence of a dose
threshold. A dose threshold assumes that the From these tests, the toxicologist can obtain
human body is able to cope with the exposure information about the potency of the
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of occupational hygiene and risk management ■ 13
Ceiling level
Response
Dose threshold
Dose
Response
Hyposensitivity
Dose
T A
H
G C
H
A T
SUGAR
PHOSPHATE
No metabolism or excretion
Exposure to substance
that is metabolised &
excreted
Response
Exposure
comprises the National Hazardous Substances more than 700 chemical substances, physical
Regulatory Package. NOHSC refers to the agents and biological exposure determinants.
package as a blueprint for legislative control of Most developed countries have their own
hazardous substances. All Australian States exposure standards, although these are known
and Territories have given legislative effect to by different names. For instance, in the US
the package by incorporating the principles exposure standards are called threshold limit
into their respective hazardous substance values (TLV) and in the UK they are known as
legislation. the occupational exposure limits (OEL).
NES are defined as airborne concentrations In the US, the National Institute of
of individual chemical substances that should Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
not harm or impair health or cause undue expresses TLV as recommended exposure
discomfort to nearly all workers, according to limits (REL). REL are time-weighted average
current knowledge. They are also understood concentrations for up to a ten-hour work shift
to guard against narcosis or irritation, which during a 40-hour working week. Short-term
could lead to industrial accidents. exposure limits are also designated. A ceiling
Many of the adopted exposure standards REL is designated for certain substances and
used in Australia have been obtained from should not be exceeded at any time. Also in the
overseas. In recent years, NOHSC has US, the Occupational Safety and Health
endeavoured to address the lag between Authority (OSHA) has recommended per-
Australian exposure standards and those missible exposure limits (PEL). PEL are time-
adopted by comparable overseas occupational weighted average concentrations that must
health and safety agencies. Its approach has not be exceeded during any eight-hour work
been to expedite the review of substances shift of a 40-hour working week.
where the UK Health and Safety Executive It is interesting to note that in different
(HSE) occupational exposure limits (OEL) are countries some exposure standards for the
lower than Australia’s or where Australia has same substance can differ. The reasons for this
yet to set an NES. The reviews are undertaken can be different testing regimes or perception
in batches. The process begins with the of risk and influence by industry and
selection of the substances by an NOHSC stakeholders. Although we accept that
technical committee, followed by a call for exposure to chemical substances must be kept
public comment. A regulatory impact ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable),
statement (RIS) accompanies final recom- industry may lobby regulatory authorities
mendations for the change to the NES. The RIS under the auspices that reduction of an
identifies whether the proposed action would exposure below a low exposure standard may
reduce adverse health outcomes from not be achievable. This may also be a reason
exposure to the substance and would enable that exposure standards are not static but can
industry, workers and the community to align increase or lower over time. As our knowledge
with international practice in terms of about substances changes over time, exposure
exposure control and the related flow of standards may alter to reflect the risk
benefits to the worker and the community. associated with exposure.
Costs and other benefits are also considered. Exposure standards are not dividing lines
Many of the adopted NES have also been between ‘safe’ and ‘unsafe’ but can be applied
sourced from the American Conference of to assess the risk to exposed workers and assist
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) in deciding on control measures to minimise
list of exposure standards. This publication exposure. Because each person may react
provides recommendations and guidelines for differently if exposed to a substance, some
18 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
people may show symptoms of ill health even if The breathing zone is defined as a
exposed to less than the occupational exposure hemisphere with a radius of 300 mm in front of
standard. In other words, some workers may be the face of the worker and drawn from a line
more susceptible than others. Unfortunately, bisecting the ears. The airborne concentration
the occupational exposure standards do not of the contaminant under investigation must
account for this individualism. be measured in this region for the NES to be
Similarly, exposure standards have been applied. This is known as ‘occupational
developed on the assumption of a normal sampling’. ‘Para-occupational’ or ‘static’
workday. But what is ‘normal’? Each day sampling occurs where the concentration of an
exposure may differ, depending on the agent is not measured in the breathing zone
production rate, use of the substance, climatic but at a workstation or workplace.
conditions and intensity of work. Workers who Strictly speaking, para-occupational or
breathe through their mouth, rather than their static samples should not be compared directly
nose, may be exposed to higher con- with the NES, since the measurement may not
centrations of contaminants. The lung be indicative of the worker’s actual exposure,
ventilation rate may also increase if: and hence risk. Para-occupational sampling is
best used to assess control measures which
• the nature of work is heavy have been implemented or where environ-
• the work requires a high metabolic mental monitoring of fugitive emissions to the
work rate air may be required. The latter point about en-
• the conditions are hot or humid vironmental monitoring (for instance, for
• the work is performed at altitude. evaluation of air quality or non-occupational
exposure) is not discussed in this text but en-
These are a few reasons why the application of vironmental science texts will provide further
exposure standards should be used carefully in information.
assessing workers’ risk to substances. Many substances have not been assigned
Additionally, as we have already established, NES. The absence of an exposure standard
exposure standards are defined as airborne should not lead to the assumption that the
concentrations of chemical substances; and the substance is safe or that exposure should not
exposure standards are only valid where be reduced to ALARA. If there is insufficient
significant skin absorption cannot occur and information about the health effects of
they consider absorption through inhalation substances, the substance is under review or
only. the use of the substance is minimal, an
exposure standard may not be specified. In this
case, it is always wise to minimise exposure
SAMPLING AND since our ‘current knowledge’ can change in
MEASUREMENT the near future.
Exposure
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (hours)
FIGURE 1 11
Figure 1.10 An example of a typical eight-hour shift exposure
Example 1.5
Mixed exposure
A worker is exposed to n-hexane for a
12-hour shift. The 8-hour TWA for n- Australian NES are based on single ingredients.
hexane is 20 ppm. Using the Brief and In most workplaces, it would be rare for a
Scala Model, determine the adjusted worker to be exposed to just one substance.
exposure standard for a 12-hour shift. We must then consider how the exposure
Answer: standards can be applied where multiple
Adjusted TWA = exposures occur. The first questions in
8 x (24 – h) x TWA determining the effects of exposure to
(16 x h) mixtures of substances are: where do the
= substances affect the body, and what is the
8 x (24 – 12) x 20 ppm mechanism of action?
(16 x 12) A number of terms are used to describe the
= 10 ppm effects of exposure to multiple substances:
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of occupational hygiene and risk management ■ 23
Additive effects
Potentiative effects
Descriptive (or observational) epidemiology The three main types of analytical studies are:
investigates the occurrence of disease or other
health effect in a particular population. • cross-sectional
Observations are made about the age, gender, • cohort
race, occupation, socioeconomic status and • case-control.
geographic location of the population.
Cross-sectional
Experimental
The cross-sectional or prevalence study looks
Experimental epidemiology is a study where the at the relationship between disease and other
conditions are under the investigator’s direct variables of interest in a defined population at
control. A selected population undergoes a a particular point in time. The study is
specific trial or regimen and the outcome of conducted by identifying the presence or
26 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
absence of disease and other variables in each a particular time frame. For instance, a flow
member of the study population. The rate may be described as 500 L per minute.
relationship between a variable and the The occurrence is the flow (given as litres) and
disease can then be examined in terms of the the time frame is ‘each minute’.
prevalence of disease in sections of the A crude mortality rate refers to the actual
population (defined according to the presence observed mortality rate in a population under
or absence of the variables) and the presence study. By convention, the crude mortality rate
or absence of the variables in the diseased is taken as deaths per 1000 and is measured as
compared with the non-diseased. the population at mid year. This does not take
account of any confounders or factors that
Cohort have influenced the mortality rate such as age,
lifestyle, race or gender.
A cohort study (also known as concurrent,
follow-up, incidence, longitudinal or Crude mortality rate = all deaths in a
prospective study) begins at a particular point calendar year/
and follows exposed (or potentially exposed) population at
individuals into the future. Cohort studies are mid year x 1000
particularly expensive and time consuming, as = deaths per 1000
a large number of participants are involved people
over a long period of time. The outcome from
the study is a determination of the incidence In order to take account of characteristics that
rate or mortality rate in groups that differ in affect mortality, a comparison needs to be
exposure levels. made between the population being studied
and the ‘general’ population. This is done by
Case-control separating the effect of the confounding factor
from the effect of the factor of interest and
The case-control study (also known as statistically adjusting to remove the effect of
retrospective, case referent or comparison the confounder.
study) compares a person who has the From an occupational hygiene point of
occupational disease of interest (the ‘case’) view, the most frequent mortality rate we use
with a suitable group of individuals who do not is the standardised mortality rate (SMR). This
have the disease (the ‘control’). The control is measure is used to demonstrate the
matched with the case for similarities in age proportion of the overall mortality that can be
and gender but the control does not have the attributed to a specific cause and is expressed
disease or condition of interest. From this, a as a percentage. This figure does NOT provide
suspected risk factor may be identified by any information about the actual rate that was
comparing the exposure history of the case involved. Also, we should be aware of the
and the control. limitations of using data, which may not clearly
identify all work-caused illnesses and deaths.
Measures of mortality
Standardised
Mortality (death) is an extreme and final mortality rate = deaths from a disease
outcome of exposure! While it may appear in a certain year/total
simple to measure mortality as a number, we deaths in the
need to consider mortality in the workplace as population in the same
a rate. A rate refers to a defined occurrence in year x 100
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of occupational hygiene and risk management ■ 27
Example 1.8
Determine the relative risk (RR) and
odds ratio for this example.
Exposed Not exposed
Disease a b
No disease c d
Answer:
The relative risk is
{a/(a+b)}/{c/(c+d)}
The odds ratio is ad:bc.
SUMMARY
Occupational hygiene combines the sciences and arts to identify, evaluate and control hazards
that may impact on workers’ health. These hazards can be broadly categorised as chemical,
biological, physical and ergonomic. The objective of occupational hygiene is to minimise the
risk associated with exposure to these agents. Risk can be thought of as the likelihood that
an event sequence will occur and cause damage or harm. It is a combination of the frequency,
duration and severity of exposure.
The term risk management can be applied to the field of occupational hygiene, although
it also relates to other sources of loss in the workplace from the environment, occupational
safety, workers’ compensation and rehabilitation plus insurance. Risk management adopts a
philosophy of recognising agents in the workplace, assessing the exposure or dose and
rectifying the problems.
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of occupational hygiene and risk management ■ 29
CELLULAR LEVEL
Cells are formed
from molecules
SYSTEM LEVEL
Many organs that operate
together are known as a system
ovaries, testes and adrenal, The characteristics of these systems will now
thymus, thyroid, pituitary and pineal be described to illustrate the relationship
glands between their structure, function and the
• immune system — spleen, red effect that exposure to occupational hygiene
bone marrow, lymph nodes and the hazards can have.
thymus
• integumentary system — skin, nails
and hair CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
• lymphatic system — lymphatic vessels
and lymph nodes As the name suggests, the cardiovascular
• muscular system — skeletal muscle system consists of the cardiac muscle (the
• nervous system — brain, sensory heart) and vascular tissue (the veins, arteries
receptors, spinal cord and nerves and capillaries). The system is essentially a
• reproductive system — male (testes, delivery service that can adapt the flow of
penis) and female (ovaries, vagina, blood to suit the changing needs of the body
uterus) (Figure 2.2).
• respiratory system — nasal cavity, The heart has four chambers — the
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus and superior (upper) atria (or auricles) and the
lungs inferior ventricles. It is also divided into two
• skeletal system — bones, joints and sides — left and right. The left side of the
cartilage heart functions by allowing blood to be
• urinary system — kidney, ureters and received in the left atrium from a vessel called
urethra. the pulmonary vein. This vein joins the lungs
Lungs
Right Left
Atrium Atrium
Right Left
Ventricle Ventricle
Body
to the left atrium and contains oxygenated they have valves to prevent blood from flowing
blood. backwards.
Blood enters the atrium where it is held for The blood is returned to the right atrium
a moment before passing through the bicuspid and right ventricle of the heart through the
valve and into the left ventricle. The ventricles largest vein in the body, the vena cava. The
are the powerful part of the heart and pump vena cava is made up of its inferior component
blood into the body for circulation. Blood is (which returns blood from body areas lower
ejected from the left ventricle into the aorta, than the heart) and the superior vena cava
the largest artery in the body. (returning blood from areas above the heart).
Some substances, such as carbon di- Some blood will also be returned to the heart
sulphide (CS2), a strong solvent used in by the coronary sinuses. These collect blood
chemistry laboratories or as a component in that has drained from the heart itself.
the manufacture of viscose rayon fibres, can The blood then leaves the right ventricle
damage the coronary arteries and increase the through the pulmonary artery, on its way to
prevalence of ischaemic heart disease. the lungs to be oxygenated. This is called
Arteries are vessels that carry blood away pulmonary circulation and is essentially the
from the heart. However, this does not neces- path that blood takes to be oxygenated before
sarily mean that they always carry oxygenated returning to the left atrium via the pulmonary
blood. The pulmonary artery transports vein for circulation to the body once again.
deoxygenated blood from the body to the
lungs. Arteries are divided into three main
groups — elastic arteries, muscular arteries and DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
arterioles. An example of an elastic artery is the
aorta. It has a large, thick wall that can with- The digestive system is divided up into two
stand the high-pressure blood being ejected main groups: the alimentary canal and the
from the left ventricle yet adjusts to a reduction accessory organs.
in pressure when the heart is not contracting.
Muscular arteries are smaller than elastic Alimentary canal
arteries and work as the distributors of blood
throughout the body. Arterioles are the smallest The alimentary canal or gastrointestinal tract is
of the arterial vessels with an inside diameter a continuous tube that begins below the oral
(known as the lumen) of less than 0.5 mm. Once cavity and terminates at the anus. Exposure to
blood has left the heart it will travel via the occupational hygiene hazards may occur
arteries to the arterioles and into a network of through the digestive system, although it is the
small blood vessels called capillaries. least likely route of entry. Exposure through
As the blood passes through the capillary ingestion can occur in several ways:
bed it unloads oxygen (and other substances)
and collects carbon dioxide. The tiny capillaries • accidental consumption of a
then rejoin to form venules. The venules substance
unite to form veins, which then take blood • transmission from the hands or tools
back to the heart. The structure of veins to the mouth
differs to that of arteries in a few ways. They • smoking with contaminated hands
have only a small muscular wall, a large lumen • inhalation of a contaminant which is
and are very thin. This allows large volumes of then removed via the mucociliary
blood to be transported. Since much of the escalator to the oesophagus for
blood moved in veins occurs against gravity, swallowing.
Chapter 2: Working out the human body ■ 35
As substances enter the mucosa-lined cavity of of the oesophagus help food to be moved
the mouth, mechanical digestion begins with along in a wave-like motion called peristalsis.
the teeth and tongue. Saliva is secreted from Once substances pass through the
salivary glands to begin the chemical oesophagus they reach the stomach (the organ
breakdown of starchy foods. Very little involved in the majority of mechanical and
absorption occurs in the mouth, although chemical digestion). The stomach breaks down
nitroglycerine (an explosive ingredient in proteins in the highly acidic environment.
dynamite, 20–40 per cent, with ethylene glycol Some fat-soluble substances are also absorbed
dinitrate, 80–60 per cent) is known to be through the lining of the stomach wall. The
absorbed in this area. The substances then creamy mixture formed in the stomach is
pass into the pharynx and into the called chyme.
oesophagus. The oesophagus is a passage that Exposure to some substances can cause
connects the mouth to the stomach. Muscles nausea and vomiting, an unpleasant
Pharynx
Oesophagus
Liver Stomach
Gall bladder
Pancreas
Transverse colon
Small intestine
Ascending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum Cecum
Anal canal
• irritation to the eyes, skin and The liver is one of the body’s most important
respiratory system organs as it maintains blood glucose levels, meta-
• nausea bolises fat and proteins, stores vitamins and
• vomiting minerals and has biotransformation functions. It
• abdominal cramps converts hazardous substances into inactive pro-
• diarrhoea. ducts that can be secreted by the kidneys. How-
ever, sometimes the liver is unable to convert
toxic substances to their less hazardous form.
Excessive or continued exposure may lead to Exposure to vinyl chloride monomer (a
convulsions, lowered blood pressure and even colourless gas used in the synthesis of PVC) can
cardiac irregularities. cause enlargement of the liver and fibrosis. In
The small intestine is where virtually all rare cases, continued exposure can cause liver
absorption of nutrients and substances occurs. cancer.
The lining of the small intestine contains many Selenium, a metallic alloy, is metabolised in
folds to force the chyme to mix with intestinal the liver to dimethylselenide under conditions
juice and then the chemical contents are of high exposure. This reaction leads to a ‘gar-
absorbed through finger-like projections called licky breath’, as it is released through the lungs.
villi. Hepatitis, or inflammation of the liver, is
The cells within the small intestine divide another virus that can be contracted from
very quickly and are renewed every three to six work, especially those working in high-risk
days. This is one reason why exposure to an areas such as hospitals, day care centres or
acute dose of ionising radiation can damage nursing homes. More details about the various
the cells of the small intestine, causing nausea types of hepatitis are given in Chapter 10.
and vomiting followed by minor symptoms of
malaise, diarrhoea and thirst.
The large intestine’s major role is to allow ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
absorption of water and eliminate indigestible
food residues through the anus as faeces. The endocrine system is often the unsung hero
Exposure to some microbiological hazards at work within the human body. The major
found at work, such as Escherichia coli from endocrine organs are the:
poor sanitation practices, can produce toxins
that cause gastrointestinal disturbances. • pituitary gland
The large intestine may also play a role in • thyroid gland
hot and humid conditions such as working in • parathyroid gland
an underground mine or in a laundry. As the • thymus gland
sweat rate increases to lower the net heat • adrenal gland
retained by the body, less water is available for • pancreas
reabsorption through the large intestine. • gonads.
Chapter 2: Working out the human body ■ 37
Jules is a jewellery maker. She notices a red rash on her hands, which persists after
several months. Jules consults an occupational physician, who diagnoses the rash
as allergic contact dermatitis, caused from exposure to nickel.
The doctor tells Jules that this is an example of a cell-mediated hyper-
sensitivity or Type IV sensitivity. It is caused by an immune response between the
proteins of the skin and the nickel molecules, which then produces T-cells. Jules
informs the doctor that this was not the first time she had used alloys containing
nickel. This is not unusual, as T memory cells may be formed after the first contact
with no resulting dermatitis; however, subsequent exposures will result in
dermatitis as the T memory cells form many active T-cells to fight the invader.
Antibodies, also called immunoglobins (ig’s), sidered normal. It is also called an allergy. A
are classified according to their structures and hypersensitivity response occurs when anti-
type of antigen to which they will bind. bodies and antigens bind together to form
The confrontation usually occurs in the complexes, and these are deposited in organs
spleen or lymph node, and involves a B-cell. B- and cause inflammatory damage. This type of
cells are a type of lymphocyte (white blood effect can be generalised as extrinsic allergic
cell) which are able to recognise and link to a alveolitis.
specific antigen. As the antigen binds to the Exposure to some micro-organisms can
surface of the B-lymphocyte, it becomes elicit a hypersensitivity response. For instance,
activated, causing the cell to quickly multiply mushroom farm workers exposed to
and form B-cells. By themselves, B-cells do not mushroom compost containing Micropolyspora
secrete large amounts of antibodies. However, faeni and Thermoactinomyces vulgaris can suffer
B-cells formed from the original B-lymphocyte from a Type III mediated hypersensitivity
(called clones) change to plasma cells, which reaction known as mushroom pickers’ lung.
secrete antibodies to kill the antigens. Those
few clone cells that do not become plasma Cellular immunity
cells, called memory cells, continue to
circulate in the body and can quickly react to Cellular or cell-mediated immunity occurs
another invasion of the antigen if required. when lymphocytes defend the body. So,
Humoral immunity can be obtained in two instead of antibodies fighting off the antigens,
ways. Firstly, it can be naturally acquired some types of white blood cells have this
through viral or bacterial infections. Secondly, responsibility. T-cells are best suited for this
it can be artificially acquired by being exposed attack as they respond to processed fractions
to a vaccine. For instance, exposure to vaccine of protein antigens that are displayed on
against Q fever (the bacteria Coxiella burnetii is surfaces of the body’s own cells. A full
the causal agent) will cause the body to description of cellular immunity is complex
develop its own antigens and, if exposed to the and beyond the scope of this discussion.
fever, the body can fight off the antigens. However, you should be aware that there are a
Hypersensitivity is a term used to describe number of T-cells that play a role in the
a person’s reaction to an agent that is not con- immune response. This type of response is also
Chapter 2: Working out the human body ■ 39
found chiefly when the B-cell has not been able to external stimuli, it synthesises vitamin D
to remove the agent and it has multiplied and it is involved in a limited amount of
within the body quite quickly. Some examples excretion of nitrogen-containing wastes such
of this include exposure to viruses, bacteria as urea and ammonia. The skin is composed of
and cancerous cells. two layers: the epidermis and the dermis.
The outer layer (the epidermis) is a thick
covering that has four cell types and four or
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM five separate layers. The cell types include:
Stratum corneum
Stratum luddum
Stratum granulosum
Papillary layer
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale
Reticular layer
Meissner's corpuscle
Dermis
Hair root
Hypodermis
Pacinian
corpuscle
nerv
FIGURE 2 4
Figure 2.4 Structure of the skin
40 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
manufacture keratin. Melanocytes are found dermis. Hair is produced by hair follicles. Hair
deep in the epidermis and synthesise melanin, follicles extend from the epidermal surface of
the pigment that helps protect skin cells from the skin deep into the dermis. At the base of
UV radiation. Exposure to substances such as the follicle is a bundle of smooth muscle, the
p-tert-butylphenol (PTBP), which is an arrector pili, which controls the movement of
ingredient in resins used in adhesives in the the hair. In the workplace, hair filters out large
motor industry, can cause vitiligo, a particles such as dusts from the respiratory
depigmentation of the skin. system. It also protects the eyes from foreign
Merkel cells are also located deep in the particles.
epidermis and combine with a sensory nerve Oil (sebaceous) glands are found
ending. Langerhans’ cells are essentially everywhere on the body except the palms and
scavenger cells which have migrated from the soles. They secrete sebum, an oily liquid that is
bone marrow to assist in the immune effect of usually secreted at the hair follicle to coat the
the body. hair, making it water-resistant and killing
The epidermis also has several layers, bacteria. Acne occurs when an oil gland
although the number will depend on the becomes inflamed and pimples show on the
thickness of skin. These layers are the: skin (this is caused by a bacterial infection or
exposure to some chemical substances). Oils,
• basal layer (stratum basale) pitch, tar and some chlorinated hydrocarbons
• spiny layer (stratum spinosum) can cause occupational acne. These chemicals
• granular layer (stratum granulosum) clog the pores and then promote the
• clear layer (stratum lucidum) production of keratin, forming cysts.
• horny layer (stratum corneum). Sweat glands are distributed over the skin
except the nipples and part of the external
Thick skin, found on the palms, fingertips and genitalia. The eccrine sweat glands are coiled,
soles of the feet, has five layers. In thin skin, tubular glands that open at pores, excreting
only four layers are present (the clear layer is sweat. Apocrine sweat glands secrete sweat,
missing). proteins and some fatty substances. The
The dermal region contains a large number secretion is odourless but can have a musky
of blood vessels and nerve endings. This is for odour if decomposed by bacteria on the skin.
several reasons. Firstly, the skin regulates body Exposure to some substances can cause
temperature by increasing or limiting sensitisation of the skin. This occurs when the
perspiration. When the body temperature sensitising substance travels through the
rises, the blood vessels in this area dilate and epidermis and reacts with proteins in the
sweat is lost through sweat glands and to the dermis to form an antibody. This is known as
pores of the skin. If the body becomes too contact dermatitis and the skin will react
cool, the blood vessels constrict to conserve whenever the body is reacquainted with the
body temperature. Secondly, the sensory substance. Some examples of sensitisers are:
receptors respond to stimuli such as
temperature, pain and irritation. Finally, the • dyes, such as aniline black, safranine
extremely vascular nature of skin makes it an and bismarck brown
ideal blood reservoir. When blood is needed in • photographic developers containing
other organs, the volume of blood sent to the hydroquinone or bichromates
dermal blood vessels is decreased. • insecticides, such as creosote, tar
Derivatives of skin, including hair follicles, and pyrethrum
oil glands and sweat glands, are located in the • natural resins from timber.
Chapter 2: Working out the human body ■ 41
Thymus
Spleen
Peyer's
patches
(in intestine)
a specific antigen. Macrophages are involved in capillaries. These then expand to successively
destroying foreign bodies in the body. This larger and thicker-walled vessels until finally
process is called phagocytosis. being delivered to one of two large ducts in
Lymphatic vessels collect fluid that is in the thoracic region.
tissue spaces (interstitial fluid), where it is
drained and returned to the bloodstream.
Once the fluid enters the lymphatic vessels it is MUSCULAR SYSTEM
called lymph. Since there is no central
‘pumping station’ for the lymphatic system (as Muscle tissue can be skeletal, cardiac and
opposed to the cardiovascular system), the smooth. Each type has different functions
vessels have a specialised structure that allows within the body and all can be affected by
lymph to be collected from the interstitial exposure to occupational hygiene hazards.
space and transported throughout the body. Skeletal muscle can be damaged if over used.
Lymph is collected initially by lymphatic In general, the function of muscle is to:
MYOFILAMENT
Thick filament
Head of
myosin molecule
Sarcomere
SARCOMERE
Fascicle
(wrapped by perimysium)
Endomysium
(beween fibres)
MUSCLE
Epimysium
Agonist (biceps)
Antagonist (triceps)
Trapezius
Triceps brachii
Intercostals Biceps brachii
Rectus abdominis
External oblique
Sartorius
Rectus femoris
Vactus lateralis
Vactus medialis
Tibialis anterior
Sternocleidomastoid
Deltoid
Rhomboid major
Triceps brachii
Latissimus dorsi
Erector spinae
Gluteus maximus
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Achilles tendon
Brain Central
nervous
Spinal cord system
Axonal terminals
Nodes of ranvier
Schwann
cells
Impulse
direction
Axon
hillock
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Axon
epididymis, the vas deferens and The female reproductive system consists of
urethra. the internal organs:
Axon of
presynaptic Synaptic vesicle containing
neuron neurotransmitter molecules
Axonal terminal of
presynaptic neuron
Synaptic
cleft
Postsynaptic
membrane
Spine Ureter
Urinary bladder
Seminal vesicle
Rectum
Ejaculatory duct Pubis
Prostate gland Ductus deferens
Anus
Testis
Scrotum
Fundus of uterus
Ampulla
Isthmus
Infundibulum
Uterine
tube
Fimbria
Ovarian Endometrium
Ovary ligament
Myometrium Wall of uterus
Perimetrium
Cervix
Vagina
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM of air. Since the alveolar wall is only about one
cell thick, the air diffuses across the membrane
and into the capillaries. This area is known as
The respiratory system consists of two areas the respiratory zone.
— the conducting zone and the respiratory Exposure to substances at work through
zone. The conducting zone consists of the inhalation will show different effects
nasal and oral cavity, which funnels air from depending on their movement through the
the external environment through the trachea conducting zone and the respiratory zone.
and into the branched structures of the lungs Water-soluble gases such as ammonia (NH3)
(bronchi). The trachea and bronchi are and chlorine (Cl2) will dissolve in the upper
constructed of a connective tissue called respiratory tract. These gases may irritate the
cartilage that helps maintain their structure to eyes and nasal mucosa and cause itching or
prevent collapse and allow air to travel into the stinging of the nose and throat and watering
smaller bronchioles. Air then travels along the eyes. Other more permanent gases, such as
bronchioles and to its ending (the terminal carbon monoxide (CO), will travel through the
bronchiole) which is covered in tiny sacs. conducting zone and pass across the alveolar
These are called alveoli. Alveoli have the role of wall to the oxygen-carrying cells of the blood,
increasing the surface area available for gas the red blood cells (RBC) or erythrocytes.
exchange in the lung. They resemble a bunch These cells contain a protein, globin, and a red
of grapes on the end of a stalk. As air is pigment, haem. Every haemoglobin molecule
conducted through the bronchioles it is forced contains four ring-like haem groups with an
into the alveoli that expand from the pressure iron atom in its centre. It is the iron atom that
50 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Nasal cavity
Nostril Pharynx
Oral cavity
Larynx
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
Trachea
Primary bronchus
Secondary bronchus
Tertiary bronchus
Middle lobe
Inferior lobe
combines with oxygen to collect, transport and Carbon dioxide can be transported in the
unload this gas from the lungs to the tissues of following forms:
the body. Therefore, four oxygen molecules are
transported in each haemoglobin molecule.
Some fibrotic dusts such as crystalline • as a gas dissolved in the plasma of
silica, which was formerly used as an abrasive blood — about 7–8 per cent of carbon
blasting media, do not pass through the dioxide transported simply dissolves
alveolar wall but are instead removed from the into the plasma
lungs by scavenging cells from the immune • chemically bound to haemoglobin in
system. Macrophages, a type of white blood red blood cells — about 20 per cent
cell that recognises foreign particles (antigens), of carbon dioxide is transported this
play an important role in engulfing and way; as the red blood cells reach the
destroying these particles. lungs the carbon dioxide is rapidly
Once the oxygen has diffused through the dissociated and transfers across the
alveolar wall and bound with the haemoglobin, alveolar wall into the lung
it is then transported throughout the body • as bicarbonate ion in plasma —
tissues. Carbon dioxide (CO2), a by-product of about 70 per cent of carbon dioxide is
normally active body cells, is then collected converted into bicarbonate ions and
from the tissues to be excreted by the lungs. transported in the blood plasma.
Chapter 2: Working out the human body ■ 51
Cranium
Skull
Face
Clavicle
Scapular
Sternum
Ribs
Humerus
Vertebrae
Radius
Carpals
Ulna
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Once the carbon dioxide reaches the bones that act as levers. From an occupational
respiratory zone and passes through the health perspective the skeleton also has
capillaries covering the alveoli, it either another important function: storage of fat and
dissolves or dissociates, moves into the alveoli minerals. Calcium and phosphorous are the
and is exhaled for elimination from the body. most important minerals stored in the matrix
of the bone, although copper, magnesium,
potassium, sodium and sulphur are also
SKELETAL SYSTEM stored. Some metals such as lead, which is
used in manufacturing car batteries, some
The skeletal system consists of two main parts: pipes, paints, enamels, glazes, leaded petrol
the axial and the appendicular skeletons and in radiator repair, will actually displace
(Figure 2.16). calcium from the bone and teeth. Once inside
The skeleton’s main function is to support, the body, the metal compound is quite stable.
protect and allow for movement by the long The skeleton also manufactures blood cells
52 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Cortex
Renal pelvis
Medullary
Renal artery (renal)
pyramid
Renal vein
Ureter Renal
capsule
Cortex
Medulla
Renal
pelvis
Ureter
Glomerular
capsule
Glomerular
capillaries
Proximal
convoluted
tubule
Collecting tubule
Loop of Henle
kidney is found at the cortex-medulla junction Water, small proteins, urea and fat-soluble
and is the area most significantly damaged by solutes can also be reabsorbed. Chloride
exposure to occupational hygiene hazards. sodium ions and water continue to be
As the liquid, or filtrate, travels through the reabsorbed at the loop of Henle. The distal
tubules, capillaries that surround the tubules convoluted tubule reabsorbs sodium, water
reabsorb a large amount of the liquid. The and anions (negatively charged ions). This is
proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs: known as tubular secretion. Tubular secretion
assists in disposing of substances that are not
+
• sodium ions (Na ) already in the filtrate, can help control the pH
• nutrients such as glucose, vitamins (acidity) of the blood and eliminates
and amino acids undesirable substances that have been
+
• ions such as potassium (K ), reabsorbed.
2+ 2+
magnesium (Mg ), calcium (Ca ), After moving through the loop of Henle,
–
chloride (Cl ) and hydrogen urine concentrates and is conveyed from the
3
carbonate ions (HCO ) kidneys to the bladder via the ureters. Urine
54 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
consists of about 95 per cent water and only 5 can be collected to detect substances (or
per cent of solute. The urinary bladder is a indicators of their presence).
muscular sac that temporarily stores urine
until draining from the body by the urethra.
Some substances can be measured in urine, ANATOMICAL POSITIONS
as they are not fully metabolised by the body
and are not reabsorbed through the excretory Let’s face it, studying the human body at work
system. The term used for this type of can be complex. Work requires many
measurement is biological monitoring. Table movements and placement of body parts at
2.1 shows some examples where urine samples different angles and locations.
Anatomists use certain medical terms left and right sections. The transverse
to describe the direction and position of plane runs horizontally through the centre
organs within the body. They describe the of the body to divide it into top (inferior)
body in terms of sections or planes. For and bottom (superior) parts. These
instance, the frontal plane divides the body examples are shown in Figure 2.19. Move-
into front (anterior) and back (posterior) ments of the body are also described in
parts. The saggital plane cuts the body into Figure 2.20.
SUMMARY
The human body at work is an amazing piece of machinery whose systems work together to
adapt to continual change and variation. Exposure to occupational hygiene hazards
constantly challenges the body to maintain homeostasis. The twelve systems in the body that
work to achieve this internal consistency are the cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine,
immune, integumentary, lymphatic, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, skeletal and
urinary systems.
Hazard identification
Earlier in this book, the broad principles of risk performed in a structured or planned way, or
management were identified as hazard may be part of day-to-day work and are thus
identification, risk assessment and risk control. unplanned or casual. Whatever the level of
In Australian workplaces, occupational health formality in conducting an inspection, what is
and safety laws require a structured approach integral is that hazards are identified and
to hazard identification. However, this need controlled to minimise risk.
not mean the task is onerous. Recognition of In recent years, the application of
hazards, especially those that impact on the occupational health and safety inspections has
health of workers, can be performed in a broadened to encompass the identification of
number of ways: both formally through the unsafe/unhealthy acts, as well as unsafe/
engagement of specialists and informally by unhealthy conditions. The latter refers to the
involving trained workers in the process. physical hazards. The former considers the
AS/NZS4801 and AS/NZS4360 provide broad role of workers and management and the
guidance in the area by suggesting that all impact of their behaviour on health and safety
hazards should be identified as part of an outcomes. This section of the chapter will
ongoing process and especially where there focus on physical conditions while the
are changes in the workplace, new knowledge discussion on consultation and communication
about the hazard or changes in legislation. will delve into the aspect of human
This chapter provides some practical involvement.
hazard identification tools and techniques Physical inspections generally involve
including inspections; occupational hygiene walking around various areas of the workplace
audits; consultation and communication; using to identify hazards that may be observed or
information or specialist advice; reviewing anticipated. While investigating the physical
records; and job safety analyses. environment and conditions, it is vital that
further information is obtained from workers
or their representatives to gauge the full
INSPECTIONS picture. Workers have an intimate knowledge
about what is actually done at the workplace
One of the most common methods of and whether the conditions are representative
identifying hazards is the inspection or walk- of a typical day’s exposure. For instance, has
through survey. Inspections can focus on a an exhaust fan been switched off for
specific physical area of the workplace or may maintenance, resulting in high dust
be hazard specific. Equally, they can be concentrations in the workshop? Why are
58 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
government publishing services. The websites basic observations about the work
for the State, Territory and Commonwealth environment, workers and the work process.
departments responsible for occupational Some aspects that should be investigated will
health and safety are shown in Table 3.1. include:
Table 3.1 OH&S websites in Australia
• the process (inputs, outputs and by-
products)
Government authority Internet address (URL)
• the nature and state of matter of
substances or agents involved in the
Queensland www.whs.qld.gov.au process
• temperature and pressure of the
New South Wales www.workcover.nsw.gov.au process
• the number of workers involved in
Victoria www.workcover.vic.gov.au the process and those who may be
exposed
Tasmania www.workcover.tas.gov.au • immediately observable conditions
such as excessive noise, dusts, fume,
South Australia www.workcover.sa.gov.au lighting
• controls currently in place and
Western Australia www.safetyline.wa.gov.au whether they are being used
• the use of personal protective
Northern Territory www.deet.nt.gov.au/wha equipment such as respiratory
protective devices, hearing
ACT www.workcover.act.gov.au protection, gloves and eye
protection
Commonwealth www.w.comcare.gov.au • visible health effects that may be
associated with exposure to
substances from the process.
The planning phase will also involve
selecting a team to participate in the
inspection. The team should be balanced with Evaluation
workers or their representatives, supervisors
or management, and a person with skills, The evaluative phase allows the identified
knowledge and experience in identifying hazards to be compared with measurable
occupational hygiene hazards. standards and decisions to be made as to the
This may require some negotiation to requirement for further information to assist in
obtain the best balance of team members in a the risk assessment. Conducting occupational
setting that is still informal and easily hygiene monitoring may require quantification
managed. It is important to remember that the of the risks. For instance:
inspection is not a fully fledged audit but a
preliminary survey of the conditions. • monitoring of noise levels and
frequencies at a canning factory
Investigation • measurement of lighting levels and
glare in an office environment
The investigative component of the walk- • measurement of temperature in a
through survey will require the team to make bakery.
60 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
The manager of a large open-plan office that housed telemarketers had received
recent complaints of general feelings of unwellness from personnel. The
symptoms included dryness of the eyes, running nose and headache.
Upon investigation of the complaints, she noticed that most were from the
afternoon shift, which began at 3 p.m. and finished at 10 p.m. At first, the
manager assumed the comments had stemmed from a worker who stirred up
other employees who then became vocal about minor issues. Only a week
previously they had complained that the tearoom was stuffy.
The manager contacted the owner of the building, who informed her that
the air-conditioning was on an automatic timer that switched off at 6 p.m.! The
manager notified the building owner that employees were working until 10 p.m.
The timer was adjusted to turn off at 10 p.m. and an ‘out-of-hours’ switch was also
installed.
62 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
relating to a particular topic. They are usually and information sheets to help identify
peer-reviewed and the authors must meet hazards.
stringent publication requirements. Some Lastly, occupational hygiene consultants
useful occupational hygiene journals include: should be able to provide current and
significant information about occupational
• The Annals of Occupational Hygiene hygiene hazards. While it may be difficult to
• American Industrial Hygiene identify such a professional from the
Association Journal telephone directory, the Australian Institute of
• Journal of Occupational Health and Occupational Hygienists is the professional
Safety — Australia and New Zealand organisation that has a list of members who
• Journal of Occupational Medicine may assist in matters such as these.
• Applied Occupational and
Environmental Hygiene
• American Journal of Epidemiology REVIEWING RECORDS —
• Scandinavian Journal of Work, MATERIAL SAFETY DATA
Environment and Health. SHEETS
The contents of these journals can be found in If chemical substances are used at the
some libraries on CD-ROM or online. workplace, one of the best sources of
Universities that specialise in occupational information is the material safety data sheets
health and safety or occupational hygiene (MSDS). The MSDS are documents that
should be the first port of call. identify:
Computer databases can contain factual
information or bibliographic details about a • the ingredients and their physical
particular topic. They can be accessed through properties
CD-ROM or directly online, although the cost • the product name
of accessing this information online is still • the use and composition of the
expensive and charged by the minute. product
Organisations such as libraries and • health effects/hazards
government departments may also provide • safe handling information
services to help identify occupational hygiene • precautions for use.
hazards. Public and university libraries contain
many excellent starting points in this search. While the inspection or audit are tools that can
While public libraries are easily accessible, be used to identify hazards, the MSDS provide
most university libraries will allow only specific information about the nature of a
enrolled students to access this type of substance and possible health effects. They are
information. The NOHSC offers a service (for a developed by the manufacturer or importer of
small fee) where key words can be searched in the substance and should be supplied with the
a number of databases. The findings are then substance.
provided as a bibliography or as the papers The real aim in producing and providing
themselves. MSDS is to ensure a flow of information about
Some companies will also have private the hazardous nature of substances and ways
libraries and information about occupational to minimise the risk associated with exposure
hygiene risks. State, Territory and to the substance.
Commonwealth government departments As a hazard identification technique, the
mostly have libraries, documents, brochures MSDS can assist in:
64 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
SUMMARY
Hazard identification or recognition is an important step in managing occupational hygiene
risks. There are many techniques that can be used to identify hazards including discussions
with workers and occupational health and safety professionals, occupational hygiene audits,
walk-through surveys or inspections and personal experience and information sources.
Performance — Describing and Reporting Occupational Health and Safety Injuries (known as the
National Standard for Workplace Injury and Disease Reporting), Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1999, AS/NZS4360: 1999, Risk Management, Standards
Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 2001, AS/NZS4801: 2001, Occupational Health and
Safety Systems — Specifications with Guidance for Use, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North
Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 2001, AS/NZS4804: 2001, Occupational Health and
Safety Management Systems — General Guidelines on Principles, Systems and Supporting Techniques,
Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Victorian WorkCover Authority 2000, SafetyMAP: Auditing Health and Safety Management Systems, 4th
edn, Victorian WorkCover Authority
Chapter 4
Cement dust
Carbon black
philosophy can explain why fibres are airborne to the change and keep moving in the same
for a longer period than spherical particles and direction. If the momentum of the particles is
are hence more likely to be inhaled. enough, they will impact on the curved
The degree of dust penetration can best be airways and nasal hairs.
described by considering its linear momentum
once it enters the nasal cavity. Momentum The alveolar region and dust
(p) is defined as the product of the dust’s removal
mass and its velocity (Equation 4.3). Its SI
–1
unit is kg.m.s . The more momentum the Alveoli are tiny depressions along the walls of
dust has, the harder it is to stop and the alveolar sacs. The alveolar sacs resemble
greater the effect it will have if brought to bunches of grapes, where the flesh of the
rest by impact or collision. It therefore follows grape is the gas-filled alveoli. The walls of the
that a denser dust will have a greater alveoli consist of a single layer of cells that are
momentum at a constant velocity than a less covered with a network of capillaries. As air
dense dust. (and its contaminants) passes into the alveoli,
gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion across
the alveolar wall and into the blood. If
Equation 4.3
respirable dusts move into the alveolar region
p = mv of the lung, they are not transferred across the
Where: capillary barrier. Instead, the body uses non-
m is mass (kg) specific cellular and chemical defences to
–1
v is velocity (m.s ) remove these foreign particles.
Phagocytosis is the term given to the
Dusts with a smaller physical diameter, or ingestion of a micro-organism or particulate
which are less dense, will be able to travel matter by a cell. The cells that produce this
through the nasal cavity, negotiate the function are white blood cells or their
sharp turn at the nasopharyngeal region and derivatives such as macrophages or
pass into the trachea. The entrained dust neutrophils. Phagocytosis can be divided into
can then continue to move through the the following four phases:
primary bronchus, through the bronchi and
bronchioles and into the air-exchange sacs, the 1. chemotaxis
alveoli. 2. adherence
Diffusion will also affect the time available 3. ingestion
for deposition of the dust. Since airborne dusts 4. digestion.
consist of gas molecules that are constantly
moving, particles may be carried along with Phagocytes are firstly attached to the foreign
the airflow and deposited in the respiratory dust particles. This is called chemotaxis. The
tract. plasma membrane of the phagocyte then
Impaction is the final factor that affects the adheres to the surface of the dust. Phagocytes
deposition of particles in the respiratory find it easier to attach to dusts with a rough
system. Although particles are entrained in a surface. Ingestion of the dust then occurs. In
gaseous medium, they have a much greater this process, the phagocyte, in a sac called a
momentum and hence inertia than gas. phagocytic vacuole, surrounds the dust. The
Therefore, as the airflow direction changes to final phase of digestion occurs where digestive
negotiate its way through the respiratory enzymes and bacterial substances from
system, the dust particles are unable to adapt lysosomes break down the dust. At this point,
Chapter 4: Dusts and particulate ■ 71
Pseudopod
A CHEMOTAXIS Lysosome
AND ADHERENCE
Digestive Phagolysosome
Micro-organism enzymes (digestive vacuole)
or other particle
B INGESTION
Plasma
membrane of
granulocyte
F RESIDUAL
E DIGESTION BODY
Cytoplasm C PHAGOSOME
(PHAGOCYTIC DISCHARGING
VACUOLE) WASTES
D FUSION
the phagocytic vacuole and lysosome milling) and high-molecular weight animal
membranes fuse to form a single structure, the proteins. The effects are believed to be an
digestive vacuole. Once digestion is complete, immunological response to these allergens.
the digestive vacuole discharges the wastes Chronic respiratory symptoms also affect
(Figure 4.2). textile workers exposed to hemp and cotton. A
Some dust particles (e.g. crystalline silica comprehensive discussion about the source
and asbestos) cannot be destroyed by phago- and health effects of organic dusts can be
cytosis. Asbestos fibres in the alveolar region found in Chapter 10.
can become coated with layers of iron-
containing protein. These are known as
asbestos bodies. Exposure to crystalline silica SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS
is believed to damage the alveolar macro- OF DUSTS
phages and damage the lysosome membrane,
causing the death of the macrophage. These We have already said that occupational dusts
cells then calcify and join to form nodules. The can be classified according to their size and
nodules grow and coalesce, reducing the area chemical composition, and that their size
of lung tissue available for oxygen exchange. refers to the AED. Dust clouds do not exist
As this occurs, the lung tissue loses elasticity uniquely as one size but as a range of
and fibrotic tissue is formed. compositions instead. This is termed the size
Occupational asthma has been reported distribution.
from dust exposure to substances such as The three size distributions of occupational
grains, tea, bagasse (a by-product of sugar significance are:
72 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
100
90
80
70
60
50
Respirability (%)
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
100
90
80
70
60
50
Inspirability (%)
40
30
20
10
0 10 30 60 100
increases to 5 µm, the particles are defined as strengthened steel and more
50 per cent respirable; and above 7 µm, recently in trial tests of vanadium
particles have no penetration to the batteries.
respiratory zone of the lung.
Some examples of dusts that show their Inspirable (inhalable) dust
effects in the alveolar region of the lung include:
Over the past years, discussion has continued
• crystalline silica (e.g. quartz, with regard to the definition of inspirable or
cristobalite, tridymite) generated inhalable dusts. This discussion has resulted in
during quarrying, mining or agreement that the ISO Mass Fraction
sandblasting Sampling Curve should be adopted, defining
• asbestos (e.g. chrysotile, crocidolite, such dust as inhalable. Currently, Australia still
amosite) used in brake linings, textiles uses AS3640 as a reference to describe how to
and lagging due to their thermal sample and gravimetrically analyse inspirable
insulation properties; however, while dust. From this, it provides the following
asbestos is respirable the definition of alternative (although philosophically similar)
a countable fibre does not conform to criteria to define inspirable dusts:
the BMRC curve (this is discussed
shortly) • inspirable mass fraction, by the ISO
• vanadium dust or fume, resulting • inspirable mass sampling efficiency,
from use as an alloy for from the ACGIH.
74 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
100
90
80
70
60
50
Inspirability (%)
40
30
20
10
0 10 30 60 100
Each curve plots inspirability against the sampled has a higher proportion of larger
particle AED. Figures 4.4 and 4.5 show the ISO particles (>30–50 µm), the ACGIH definition
and ACGIH criteria, respectively. However, it may give higher results, compared to the ISO
should be noted that the new ISO criterion is criteria. With the new adoption of the ISO
now the agreed criterion for inspirable dusts. criteria by most countries, this point will be
The ISO inspirable mass fraction defines all defunct.
particles with an AED of less than 0 µm to be The following list shows some examples of
100 per cent inspirable; at 30 µm, they are inspirable dusts:
around 52 per cent inspirable; and above 185
µm, the particles are not inspirable. This
• birch or beech timber used for
compares with the ACGIH curve, which
housing construction and finishing
corresponds to the ISO inspirable mass
• cement dust from concreting work
fraction criteria at 0 µm but allows particles
• metal dusts such as zinc oxide from
with an AED of 30 µm to have a 58 per cent
grinding galvanised steel.
inspirability. At 50 µm, the ACGIH criteria
specifies such particles are 50 per cent
inspirable; however, at 185 µm, the curve does Total dusts
not define a level of inspirability.
The difference in definitions of inspirability Total dusts have little occupational hygiene
need not have a significant effect on the significance and should not be monitored in
overall approach to inspirable dust the workplace, except where the distribution
monitoring. However, if the dust cloud to be of the dust cloud is sought.
Chapter 4: Dusts and particulate ■ 75
To filter
Tangential inlet
Air inlet
G
Figure 4.6 Principle of operation of the cyclone elutriator
Cyclone elutriators operate on the principle since it is usually an alpha () particle source
of centrifugal impaction of dusts. Dust-laden air and may result in minute holes in the filter.
enters the inlet and is circulated in a centrifugal Filters should be left in a constant
motion into the cyclone (Figure 4.6). environment, such as a balance room, at least
Dust particles whose AED conforms to the overnight to allow them to come to
BMRC curve impact on the filter. Larger equilibrium. In addition to the sampling filters
particles have too much inertia and will fall being weighed, 10 per cent of weighed filters
into the grit pot at the base of the cyclone. The should be kept as blanks, with a minimum of
grit pot should be regularly cleaned to remove two blanks per batch of weighed filters. Blanks
these larger non-respirable particles. are an example of an internal quality check
Such devices are loaded by firstly weighing that can be used to correct any changes in the
the appropriate filter before loading it in a mass of the filters.
cassette and the cyclone elutriator. The filter
should be weighed using a microbalance that Calibration of the sampling train
is capable of weighing to within 0.01 mg at the
90 per cent confidence level in the range 0–20 Once the weighed filters are loaded into the
mg. This is shown in Figure 4.7. cyclone elutriator, the entire sampling train is
–1
The filters should be placed above a static calibrated accurately at 1.9 L.min . The
eliminator to dissipate any electrical charge sampling train consists of the pump, tubing,
before weighing. It is important not to place filter and cyclone elutriator. This can be
the filter directly over the static eliminator, conducted using a primary flow meter such as
a soap-film flow meter or with a secondary • Once sampling has been completed,
flow meter that has been calibrated against a the flow rate is re-checked before
primary flow meter. In the field, it is often not switching off and removing equipment
convenient to utilise a primary flow meter so a from the worker.
secondary meter such as a ball rotameter can
be used (Figure 4.8). Whatever technique is The final flow rate must not differ by more
being used, the calibration technique must be than 5 per cent of the initial rate or the sample
sensitive enough to measure within ±5 per will need to be rejected and re-collected. The
cent variation of flow rate. cyclone elutriator or cassette should then be
Sampling for respirable dust must be isolated from other samples in a dust-free box.
conducted over a period of at least four hours Some cassettes contain clips that allow the
but should be representative of the actual inlets to be closed to prevent further dust from
working shift and as long as practicable. The contaminating the sample.
sampling procedure will involve the following
steps: Determining the mass of
respirable dust
• Attach the sampling pump to the
belt of the worker (or in their close Once sampling has been completed, the
vicinity, for instance, if the worker is sampled filters and blanks are re-weighed after
driving a vehicle and the placement of another period of allowing the filters to come
the pump on the belt is to equilibrium in a stable environment. Some
uncomfortable). hydrophilic filters such as mixed cellulose ester
• Attach the loaded cyclone elutriator will absorb water vapour from the air and
within the breathing zone of the hence may be heavier following sampling. The
worker, ensuring that the cyclone electrostatic eliminator is also used again to
elutriator is kept upright during the dissipate any charge before re-weighing.
sampling to prevent dust from falling
from the grit pot of the cyclone
Equation 4.4
elutriator.
• Record information about the mfinal = minitial ± mblank
worker and the sampling equipment. Where:
This will include the cyclone mfinal is the mass of dust collected on
identification, filter identification, the filter (mg)
pump identification, date of sampling, minitial is the initial mass of the filter
time of pump starting, initial flow rate, mblank is the difference in mass of the
worker’s name or other identifier, blank filter.
description of work or task, controls
and environmental conditions and
other relevant data. The sample is then The mass of dust collected on the filter can
collected during the shift. It is prudent be determined using Equation 4.4. With the
to check the calibration of the blank filter, a gain of mass between the two
sampling train during the shift as monitoring periods requires an adjustment
the flow rate can be affected by to the overall mass by subtracting this from
issues such as pump charge, loading the total mass. If the blank filter loses mass,
of the filter and backpressure placed this amount is added to the final mass of
on the pump. the sample.
Chapter 4: Dusts and particulate ■ 79
Equation 4.5
–3
c (mg.m ) = mass of sample (mg)/volume
3
of sampled air (m ) INSPIRABLE DUST
MONITORING
The mass can be simply obtained from the
gravimetric determination of the dust, after Monitoring for inspirable dust follows the
taking into account any difference with the same principles as respirable dust monitoring.
blanks. The volume can be calculated using An airborne sample of a known substance is
Equation 4.6. collected in the breathing zone, using a size-
selective sampling device that is connected to
a sampling pump. AS3640 describes the
technique for sampling and gravimetric
Equation 4.6
analysis of inspirable dust. With this method,
3 –1
V (m ) = [flow rate (L.min ) x duration of the chosen sampling device must have a
monitoring (min)]/1000 sampling efficiency that conforms to the ISO or
ACGIH criteria.
Where further chemical analysis of the The two common devices used for this
sampled dust is conducted, its concentration purpose are the IOM open-face sampling head,
may still be determined using Equation 4.5, and the UKAEA 7-hole sampling head. An
although the mass of analyte will be not merely alternative sampling head used for sampling
assessed gravimetrically. Example 4.2 shows inspirable metals, the single-hole sampler, is
application of this theory. discussed in Chapter 5.
80 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Both sampling heads are loaded with a These cassettes consist of two or three
pre-weighed filter prior to sampling. The filter stages (housings) and can collect a dust sample
is held inside the sampler on a gridded either with the face of the sampler open or
supporting base. When assembling the closed. If closed, the sample is collected
sampler, it is vital that the filter is handled through an inlet. The filter is held firmly
carefully with tweezers and not with the between the stages. Depending on the dust to
fingers. This will minimise the chance of be collected, the filter may be washed or pre-
contamination of the filter. Once loaded, the treated in a chemical solution before sampling.
sampler is reassembled and firmly tightened to However, the advantage of these cassettes lies
stop leakage. (Note, however, that excessive in their limited reactivity with collected
tightening may cause the enclosed filter to substances, for instance, alkaline dusts.
tear, resulting in an invalid sample.) The Sodium hydroxide, calcium carbonate and
sampling head is usually located on the lapel of calcium hydroxide can be monitored using this
a worker’s shirt, in a vertical position. If it is technique.
allowed to lie horizontally, gravitational
settling of dust will affect the integrity of the
sample. According to AS3640, both the IOM PARTICLE SIZE AND DUST
and UKAEA sampling devices are calibrated in CHARACTERISATION
the sampling train at a flow rate of 2.0 L.min .
–1
MONITORING
The train must be calibrated before and
following sampling, and be within ± 5 per As already mentioned, total dust measure-
cent. For further detail about the technique for ments hold no value in assessing the risk to
calibration, selection of filters and determining workers’ health. However, in limited situations
the mass and concentration of inspirable dust, a sample of total dust may be taken to
the principles outlined in the section on determine its constituent particle size range. A
respirable dust monitoring apply. Depending cascade impactor is a useful sampling device
upon the composition of dust being for this purpose. The first cascade impactor
monitored, the sampled filter may be analysed was developed in the mid-1940s. The principle
gravimetrically or sent to a laboratory for of operation of cascade impactors is to draw
analysis. air through the sampler, which contains several
levels or orifices in series. As the air passes
deeper into the sampler, it speeds up. Using a
TOTAL DUST MONITORING similar principle to the cyclone elutriator, the
large particles impact on a collection media
Total dust monitoring has traditionally been (e.g. a filter). The filters are pre-weighed before
incorporated into some mining regulations sampling and re-weighed after use. Smaller
and is used by some US-based companies in particles continue to move through the
Australia. The open- or closed-face cassette impactor until their inertia also causes them to
was developed and is used in the US. come to rest on the media. Each level or stage
Unfortunately, the sampling efficiency of these represents a particular size range. Therefore,
devices does not closely reflect the criteria of in effect, the cascade impactor separates the
AS3640. They tend to under-sample the dusts into fractions.
inspirable fraction. For this reason, total dust The Andersen sampler is a common
monitoring is being rapidly phased out and the example of this type of impactor. After
results must not be compared with the NOHSC entering the initial circular orifice of the
inspirable dust standards. Anderson sampler, the air passes through a
Chapter 4: Dusts and particulate ■ 81
series of perforated circular plates. Light scattering or optical monitors relate the
Subsequent plates in the series have smaller intensity of scattered light to particle
holes. So, the larger particles are deposited concentration. As dust enters the monitor, it
towards the top of the impactor and the causes the light to be extinguished or
smallest particles deposit further down. scattered. The disadvantage with these types
Several stages are available with these of devices is their lack of pump. This means
samplers, the most common of which are that the dust must be able to enter the
cascade impactors with four, six or eight monitor without mechanical means. These
stages. The different size fractions can then be types of monitors also rely on the relationship
examined for specific mineral content, particle between particle size and light scattering
shape or chemical content. response. This means that the results may be
difficult to interpret unless the size response
has been determined. The US-developed real-
DIRECT-READING time aerosol monitor (RAM), or its smaller
MONITORING EQUIPMENT version the MiniRAM, is often used in an initial
dust survey. The MiniRAM has the advantage of
The dust sampling techniques discussed so far collecting a sample in the breathing zone of
have focused on sample collection and analysis. the worker due to its smaller size and the
However, the application of these methods is response of the monitor corresponds
often limited by the time taken for sample reasonably with the respirable dust criteria.
collection, transportation to a laboratory and The MiniRAM is currently being replaced by a
analysis of filters. To assist in the initial personal dust monitor. Another brand, the
identification of dusts as a potential risk to Hund monitor, also produces a similar
workers, direct-reading monitoring equipment response.
can be invaluable. These devices provide a real- Monitors that determine dust concen-
time measurement of dust exposure according tration using the electrical properties of the
to a specified size criterion. dust work by counting and sizing the
The disadvantages of using direct-reading individual dust particles. An example of this is
monitoring equipment include: the fibrous aerosol monitor (FAM), which
counts respirable fibres. A mass-measuring
• cost of purchase and maintenance device actually assesses the mass of certain
• calibration requirements for some dusts by comparing it against its mechanical
devices and lack of calibration of oscillation of a piezoelectric crystal. As the
others crystal is bombarded with dust, its mass
• conformance with an acceptable dust changes and this is converted into a change in
size criteria. its mechanical resonant frequency.
outcome. It is also linked to the perception of inspirable fraction). The mineral olivine has the
the hazardous nature of exposure and whether approximate chemical configuration of
or not the risk is tolerable. MgFeSiO4 (inspirable fraction). Portland cement
is formed from a mixture of calcium silicates
–3
and aluminates. It has a TWA of 10 mg.m ,
Silicaceous dusts measured as the inspirable fraction. Concrete is
a mixture of cement, sand and a filler such as
Silicon is one of the most widely spread
crushed stone. Mortar combines cement, sand
elements on earth. Indeed, the majority of the
and usually slaked lime, Ca(OH)2. The
rocks in the earth’s crust are silicates. The term
significance of slaked lime is described later.
silicate refers to compounds that are bound
Soapstone, ((MgO)3(SiO2)4H2O), with less than 1
with silicon. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) or silica is
per cent quartz and no asbestos, has a TWA of
the simplest form of silicon compounds. It is –3
6 mg.m as inspirable dust. Talc has the
also potentially hazardous, depending upon its
composition Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 and has a TWA of
physical configuration. Other types of silicates –3
2.5 mg.m . Silicon carbide (SiC) is an example
include naturally occurring minerals such as:
of silicon-based carbides, which are used as an
abrasive in grinding wheels. Its TWA is 10
• asbestos (used in building materials –3
mg.m (inspirable dust).
and for fireproofing)
• clay minerals such as bauxite Silicon dioxide (silica)
• feldspar (a pottery glaze and abrasive
material) Silicon dioxide (SiO2) or silica is the simplest of
• garnet (a precious stone for jewellery, silicon compounds. From an occupational
also used as an abrasive blasting hygiene perspective, the major risk to workers’
medium) health can be determined by considering its
• magnetite physical structure. Silica exists in two forms:
• mica (has application as an electrical crystalline (free) and amorphous (non-
insulator) crystalline). Crystalline silica is further divided
• olivine (used as an alternative sand to into five different symmetrical configurations
free silica in foundry operations) or polymorphs.
• portland cement (used for making
concrete and mortar) Crystalline silica
• soapstone (also known as massive talc Quartz is the most commonly found form of
or steatite) silica that is stable at ordinary temperatures. It
• talc (a fine dust used in cosmetics, is widely distributed in the natural
crayons and wallpaper) environment and occurs in granite (an igneous
• vermiculite (for paints and insulation). rock), gneiss and mica (metamorphic rocks),
and sandstone and quartzite (sedimentary
These silicate minerals are actually the rocks). It is also the main constituent of sand.
combination of silicon and oxygen atoms with Sand can be utilised in glassmaking, as an
other metals such as magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), abrasive blasting medium, in metal polishing
aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na) and and as a water filter in swimming pools. Silica
potassium (K). Asbestos is discussed in further mining is another potential source of
detail as a fibre later in this chapter. Mica has exposure. The NOHSC exposure standard for
–3
the approximate formula KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 and quartz is 0.2 mg.m , expressed as the TWA.
–3
a TWA of 2.5 mg.m (measured as the Cristobalite, another form of crystalline
Chapter 4: Dusts and particulate ■ 83
XRD is based on the principle of light free silica, freshly generated dust is of higher
beams diffracting (reflecting) from the risk than old dust.
planes in a three-dimensional crystal. It is Silicosis often is not accompanied by
used to quantify both quartz and cristobalite. significant clinical symptoms. However, a chest
IR spectroscopy (or spectrophotometry) X-ray will show calcification in the lung. These
can identify specific pure substances, lesions are made up of nodules, composed of
especially organic compounds and covalently connective tissue, coalescing to form masses.
bonded metal complexes. Different types of Simple or uncomplicated silicosis does not
crystalline and amorphous silica have usually cause premature death, although in
specific fingerprints or patterns, depending some people the disease progresses to acute
upon their structure. For direct measure- silicosis. In the lung, the acidity of lysosomes
ment, the collected sample-on-filter is placed in the macrophages can usually etch or
in the line of the infrared beam, while a dissolve the free silica. However, if the
blank filter is placed in front of a reference macrophages are overloaded they may die,
beam. Since quartz has a double peak (a causing the tissue coalescence to form
–1
doublet) at 798 cm , the plot of transmission nodules, which are seen on a lung X-ray. This
versus wave number will show this distinct scarring leads to an area in the lung that is no
characteristic. longer functional as a gas-exchange region.
If measurements cannot be directly With acute silicosis, the alveolar spaces
measured from the filter, it can be heated and become filled with a fluid. Symptoms develop
formed into a potassium bromide (KBr) disc. quickly. The disease is usually fatal within a
Since the quartz absorbs infrared radiation, year of the first symptoms. It is important to
the transmission will change at varying note that acute silicosis is relatively rare, and
frequencies. This method will utilise blank KBr has been associated with short-term exposure
–1
discs, and the doublet at 798 cm is expected to dusts containing a high concentration of
for quartz. quartz.
The standard method for this analytical
technique is the National Health and Medical
Research Council (NH&MRC) Methods for Carbon-based dusts
Measurement of Quartz in Respirable Airborne
Dust by Infrared Spectroscopy and X-ray Exposure to carbon at work occurs either
Diffractometry. Laboratories that perform through pure carbon or carbon fixed to other
analysis for quartz are usually National elements as carbonates or hydrides. Pure
Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) carbon exists as two main forms: graphite and
accredited. diamond. Graphite is a grey, greasy substance
that conducts electricity well and is used as a
Health effects from exposure to dry lubricant and to manufacture brushes for
–3
crystalline silica electric motors. Its TWA is 3 mg.m , measured
as respirable dust. Diamond is used in the
Exposure to free silica is known to cause a industrial setting for drills and abrasives, due
fibrotic pneumoconiosis called silicosis. to its incredible strength and hardness.
Silicosis is also known as grinders’ rot, masons’ Charcoal is often referred to as amorphous
disease, miners’ phthisis and potters’ rot. The carbon, since it is a microcrystalline form of
magnitude of the risk is associated with the graphite. Carbon black is a commercial form of
physical structure of silica, so non-fibrous carbon used in inks and as filler for rubber. Its
–3
silicates are less likely to harm the lungs. With TWA is 3 mg.m (respirable dust).
Chapter 4: Dusts and particulate ■ 85
fibreboard (MDF). This discussion can be found usually an immunologically mediated reaction
in Chapter 6. to the allergen (hypersensitivity). Western red
The major health effects from exposure to cedar is acknowledged as causing occupational
wood dusts are broadly divided into: asthma. Exposure of the skin to the dust may
result in dermatitis, either from the mechanical
• toxic effects due to release of action of dust against the skin, chemical
alkaloids and other organic irritation from the rosin and oils in the wood
compounds or sensitisation.
• carcinogenic effects (nasal cancer) Non-allergic or irritation effects relate to
• allergic responses such as dermatitis the impact of dust on the respiratory system,
or respiratory sensitisation especially in the reduction of ventilation
• irritation. capacity associated with exposure to wood
dusts. It is also suspected that wood dust can
It therefore follows that the industries most at cause an increase in upper respiratory tract
risk of exposure to wood dust are those in symptoms to the nasal region, such as rhinitis.
timber furniture manufacture, sanding of
timber floors of homes or buildings,
construction work and (to a lesser extent) Alkaline dusts
hardware outlets.
Exposure to hardwoods (and some This category of dust is really describing a type
softwoods) is believed to cause nasal cancer. of inspirable dust. However, it does have
However, the latency period is often 30 to 40 specific chemical characteristics that make it
years, thus the full magnitude of its effects are worthy of mention. Alkaline dusts (or bases)
still largely unknown. Exposure to wood dust have a pH of more than 7. They can be used in
can cause a respiratory response and processes to maintain acidity balance and as
dermatitis. The allergic respiratory response is filters, alloys in lead production and cleaning
cement (AC) sheeting. If the roofing were to be silicate mineral. These silicates usually are
cleaned and exposure to contaminants was to found in a fibrous crystal form, which can
be determined, sampling for asbestos rather separate into flexible fibres when crushed.
than cement would be conducted. Some examples of sources of exposure include:
has an additive effect on the risk of lung • What is the condition of the
cancer. There is an increased risk of lung asbestos? Is it friable (easily crumbled)
cancer in asbestos workers who develop or tightly bound in a matrix?
asbestosis. • Where is it sited? Is it in a high-traffic
The final condition that is associated with area or in an isolated location where
asbestos exposure is mesothelioma or cancer exposure is rare?
of the lung lining (pleura). It has been closely • Is it in a direct airstream?
linked with exposure to crocidolite. The issue • How accessible is it?
with mesothelioma is that it is normally an • What control procedures are
exceptionally rare disease in the community. currently in place?
Epidemiological studies have shown that a
typical dose–response curve is followed with It is always wise to collect a sample of the
mesothelioma and other asbestos diseases; suspected asbestos to enable correct
however, with mesothelioma, the disease can identification by an accredited laboratory.
result from even low-level exposure. Usually a sample of 100–250 g is sufficient to
In Australia, the most widely publicised enable its identification. If the suspected
disaster with regard to mesothelioma involved asbestos is located in a number of areas or
mine workers and their families at the layers, each of these should be collected. For
Wittenoom crocidolite mine in Western instance, checking the surface layer of lagging
Australia. However, many other asbestos may indicate the sample is asbestos-free, when
industries in Australia have produced higher asbestos is in a lower layer. The sample should
numbers of mesothelioma cases. Mesothelioma be sealed in an appropriate container or plastic
is an extremely painful and aggressive cancer. bag and clearly labelled with its location, time
The tumour is seen in an X-ray as a dense white and date that the sample was collected and the
growth that can spread to the whole lung and name of the person collecting the sample.
cause its collapse. Due to its aggressive nature,
it is usually fatal within a few months. Identifying asbestos
Sampling for asbestos The laboratory techniques for identifying
asbestos include:
Asbestos usage in Australian industries is now
minimal and most asbestos investigation will • polarising light microscopy (PLM)
involve ‘in situ’ products in workplaces such as with dispersion staining (DS)
ships, power stations and buildings. When techniques
assessing the risk of asbestos exposure, it is • analytical electron microscopy
important to consider a number of factors • infrared (IR) spectroscopy
before jumping to conclusions about its hazard- • X-ray diffraction (XRD).
ous nature. Since asbestos is a particularly
emotive issue, when dealing with asbestos (or The most thorough technique uses a combined
suspected asbestos), it is important to correctly approach of PLM and DS microscopy. PLM
identify its presence and type. The first is the most common method used due to its
questions to ask are: ease of application and relatively low cost.
However, it may not confidently distinguish
• Has the sample been confirmed as between forms of asbestos. This is where
asbestos? What is its type and relative combination with DS becomes a useful tool. IR
composition? spectroscopy and XRD do not differentiate
Chapter 4: Dusts and particulate ■ 91
between the fibrous and non-fibrous forms of separately. The fibres are then mounted on a
the material. glass slide and covered with a cover slip. As the
With the PLM–DS technique, the optical identity of the sample is unknown at this stage,
characteristics of the fibres are considered. the sample should be treated with the utmost
The process can be divided into the following care, preferably in a glove box or exhaust
steps: ventilation system.
A polarising microscope with crossed
• Make an initial examination using a polars and a first-order red plate is used to
low-power setting on the polarising analyse the sample. As the sample is rotated
light microscope. over the plate, the fibres’ colours will change.
• Treat the sample to distinguish For instance, amosite and chrysotile have a
between fibres and other matrix wavelength change from blue to yellow when
components such as cement. rotated clockwise. This is called length slow.
• Examine the fibre fraction using a Crocidolite changes from yellow to blue. This
low-power stereoscopic microscope is called length fast.
and mount in refractive liquid on a Since the first-order red plate only
glass slide with coverslip. differentiates between length-slow and
• Use the polarising light microscope length-fast fibres (i.e. amosite/chrysotile or
with a rotating stage and first-order crocidolite), the DS technique is used for
red plate to identify the existence of further analysis. The microscope is adjusted so
asbestos. that the analyser and first-order red plate is
• Examine the sample using refractive removed and a central step objective is used. A
index immersion liquids of known liquid with a specific refractive index is placed
dispersion characteristics and identify on the sample. Using east–west polarisation,
the exact asbestos type. the colours will change as the sample is
rotated.
The first step is to review the morphology of The only disadvantage of this method
the fibres using a low to moderate occurs where the asbestos fibres are contained
magnification. This will involve investigating in a fibrous inorganic matrix or if the fibres are
the size and shape of the fibres with a short. The dispersion effects of the matrix
magnification of between X5 and X10. The aim cause a ‘milky way’ effect and overwhelm that
is to identify whether the sample contains of the fibres.
more than one layer. If it does, each layer must
be divided and treated separately. Monitoring for asbestos
After the substance is divided into
distinctive sections, it may be necessary to Monitoring for asbestos should be conducted
treat the samples with water and cold dilute according to the NOHSC’s Asbestos Code of
hydrochloric acid to free the fibres from their Practice and Guidance Notes or the Membrane
matrix. This is particularly important for Filter Method for Estimating Airborne
substances such as AC-sheeting or millboard Asbestos Dust. These define monitoring as
where the asbestos is bound. It is important to either occupational or para-occupational.
completely dry the sample at this stage. Next, Occupational sampling refers to the collection
the sample is gently teased apart, using fine- of samples in the breathing zone, which are
point tweezers. Since the sample may actually compared with the NES to assess workers’
consist of several types of fibres, it is exposure. Para-occupational or area sampling
important that each of these is looked at is frequently used to assess the effectiveness of
92 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
controls. It places samplers both within the • belt for placement of the pump.
work area and outside the operations (for
instance, during an asbestos stripping The major difference between asbestos
operation) to identify the existence of asbestos sampling and inspirable or respirable dust
fibres. sampling lies in the collection of the dust size.
For occupational sampling, the equipment For asbestos sampling, it is not the mass of
that is required includes: dust that is determined but the number of
fibres that meet a specific size criterion during
• a sampling pump counting. This is why a size-selective sampling
• filter holder — a cowled asbestos device is not required.
sampling head (Figure 4.9) is used to The open-face asbestos cowl can be made
protect the filter from accidental of either metal or conductive coating (not
contamination plastic) to ensure the filter is not accidentally
• a 25-mm gridded filter (preferably contaminated or electrostatic charge does not
mixed esters of cellulose or cellulose cause repulsion of the fibres. Filter holders and
nitrate) with a nominal pore size of cowls must be thoroughly cleaned using
0.8 µm; although it is acceptable to detergent and water before the sampling.
use 13-mm filters provided that the The sampler is prepared by placing a 25-
flow rates and sample volumes are mm filter onto a supportive pad before
appropriately adjusted inserting into the sampling head. The pro-
• flow calibration device tective cowl is then attached and a cover
• time measuring device attached for transportation to prevent con-
• connective tubing tamination. (Although it is vital to remember
SUMMARY
Dusts and particulate are examples of occupational hygiene hazards that may present a risk
to workers’ health. Dusts are categorised according to their aerodynamic equivalent diameter
and are broadly known as either respirable or inspirable (inhalable) dusts. Some examples of
occupationally related dusts include crystalline silica, wood dusts, organic dusts and
coaldusts. Fibres have solid, thread-like filaments that have a defined length-to-width ratio.
Asbestos and synthetic mineral fibres are examples of these.
In Australia, respirable dust is sampled according to AS2985. Inhalable dust is monitored
according to AS3640. Direct-reading sampling devices are also available to monitor for
airborne dusts and fibres.
National Health and Medical Research Council 1984, Methods for Measurement of Quartz in Respirable
Airborne Dust by Infrared Spectroscopy and X-ray Diffractometry, AGPS, Canberra
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health 1997, Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, US
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Method 7401 Alkaline Dusts, from Cassinelli,
M.E. & O’Connor, P.F. (eds) 1994, NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, 4th edn, DHHS (NIOSH)
Publication 94–113, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Method 7020 Calcium (see Specific Compounds),
from Cassinelli, M.E. & O’Connor, P.F. (eds) 1994, NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, 4th edn,
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication 94–113, US Government Printing Office, Washington DC
National Occupational Health and Safety Commission 1988, Asbestos Code of Practice and Guidance
Notes, AGPS, Canberra
National Occupational Health and Safety Commission 1989, Technical Report on Synthetic Mineral Fibres
and Guidance Note on the Membrane Filter Method for Estimation of Airborne Synthetic Mineral Fibres,
AGPS, Canberra
Pisaniello, D. 1989, ‘Rationalizing Wood Dust Exposure Limits in the Furniture Industry: Problems
with Composites and Irritant Woods’, Australian Institute of Occupational Hygienists (AIOH)
Conference Proceedings, AIOH
Selikoft, I. and Lee, J. 1978, Asbestos and Disease, Academic Press, New York
Standards Association of Australia 1987, AS3640: 1987 Workplace Atmospheres — Method for Sampling
and Gravimetric Determination of Respirable Dust, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia 1989, AS2985: 1989 Workplace Atmospheres — Method for Sampling
and Gravimetric Determination of Respirable Dust, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Torén, K., Järvholm, B., Sällsten, G. and Thiringer, G. 1994, ‘Respiratory Symptoms and Asthma Among
Workers Exposed to Paper Dust: A Cohort Study’, American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 26,
pp. 489–96
Waldron, H.A. 1990, Lecture Notes on Occupational Medicine, 4th edn, Blackwell Scientific Publications,
Oxford
Weise, N.K. and Lockey, J.E. 1992, ‘Man-made Vitreous Fibre: Vermiculite and Zeolite’, in Environ-
mental and Occupational Medicine, W.M. Rom, 2nd edn, Little Brown, Boston, pp. 307–23
Zuskin, E., Mustajbegovic, J. and Schachter, E.N. 1994, ‘Follow-Up Study of Respiratory Function in
Hemp Workers’, American Journal of Industrial Medicine, vol. 26, pp. 103–15
Chapter 5
Metals
liquids containing metals in very high are not required for homeostasis. Even where
concentrations. Some metals such as mercury the body does require essential metals, doses
and thallium may be absorbed through the beyond the optimal concentration window
skin. Inhalation of high concentrations of may also be of concern. Exposure to these
metals is irritating and may cause severe metals has the potential to damage the body
damage to the respiratory tract. Many metals and places workers at risk of ill health and
are also sensitisers. Exposure to nickel, for disease. The metals, metal hydrides and
instance, may lead to a rash called nickel itch. metalloids that are considered in this chapter
Other metals (e.g. chromium) can cause include:
corrosion of the skin and mucous membranes.
Chronic exposure to metals has also been • aluminium (Al)
well documented, for instance: • antimony (Sb) and stibine (SbH3)
• arsenic (As) and arsine (AsH3)
• lead exposure from operations • beryllium (Be)
reclaiming lead-acid accumulator • boron (B)
batteries • cadmium (Cd)
• felting involved the use of inorganic • chromium (Cr)
mercury compounds, which caused • cobalt (Co)
severe central nervous system • copper (Cu)
symptoms including a pronounced • gold (Au)
tremor • lead (Pb)
• manganese exposure from welding • manganese (Mn)
hard metals, such as dragline buckets • mercury (Hg)
from coalmines • nickel (Ni)
• inorganic arsenic, an impurity of lead • osmium (Os)
and copper ores, is given off during • platinum (Pt)
the smelting process. • selenium (Se)
• silver (Ag)
Since most exposure to metals occurs through • thallium (Tb)
inhalation of particulate (dust or metal), most • tin (Sn)
workplace monitoring requires sampling of • titanium (Ti)
dusts. However, where the metal becomes • tungsten (W)
airborne as an aerosol (such as in an • vanadium (Vn)
electroplating process where chromium and • zinc (Zn).
nickel are the metals), these aerosols are
monitored in a similar fashion to particulate Aluminium
clouds containing metals.
Workers can be exposed to aluminium (Al) in
its metallic form as dust or fume, aluminium
oxide (alumina or Al2O3), alkyl products
SPECIFIC METALS AND +
(–NOC ), pyro-powders or as the soluble
THEIR RISKS aluminium salts. Aluminium is used in the
manufacture of:
Having said that many metals are essential to
the normal functioning of the human body, • domestic cookware (pots, pans,
there are still some twenty or more metals that trays)
102 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Antimony (Sb) is a silvery-white metalloid. It is The body may show clinical effects such as:
quite brittle and breaks easily. Due to this
characteristic, antimony is mostly alloyed with • pneumoconiosis
other metals, such as zinc and lead, to form • increased blood pressure
solids such as: • abdominal distress and ulcers
• dermatitis.
• batteries
• solder Exposure to antimony trichloride can result in
• sheet metal and pipe metal cardiac abnormalities. Antimony is excreted in
• ammunition the urine; therefore, workers with kidney
• pewter. problems may be at higher risk.
The occupational exposure standards
High-grade antimony is used to make (TWA) for antimony and antimony compounds
semiconductors. Other compounds such as are:
aluminium antimonide, gallium antimonide
and indium antimonide are used for • antimony and antimony compounds
–3
thermoelectric devices such as infrared (as Sb) — 0.5 mg.m
detectors and diodes. Antimony trioxide is • handling and using antimony trioxide
–3
used as a fire retardant in plastics, textiles, (as Sb) — 0.5 mg.m
rubber, glues, pigments and paper. Antimony • production of antimony trioxide (as
trioxide is classed as a Category 2 carcinogen. Sb) — as low as practicable (due to
Other antimony compounds include its carcinogenic properties).
antimony pentasulphide, antimony chloride,
antimony pentoxide, antimony potassium Antimony particulate can be monitored as the
tartrate, antimony trichloride, antimony inspirable fraction, according to AS3640. Once
trisulphide and stibine (SbH3, antimony sampling is complete, the filters can be
hydride, which is formed when antimony is analysed with AAS or ICP using a similar
exposed to nascent hydrogen). The technique to that used to analyse aluminium.
occupational health hazards of stibine are
discussed in Chapter 6. Arsenic and arsine
In normal conditions, antimony metal is
quite stable and a poor conductor of heat and Arsenic (As) has been seen as the poison of
electricity. It is incompatible with strong choice in many thriller novels. The major
oxidising substances, acids and halogenated occupational health risk associated with
104 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
arsenic occurs through the inhalation of dust. The health effects of arsine gas (AsH3) are
Arsenic is actually a metalloid, which is often described in Chapter 6, and include headache,
alloyed with lead in the production of cable giddiness, abdominal pain and vomiting.
sheaths or battery grids. Solid arsenic comes in The NOHSC exposure standard for
two forms or allotropes: grey, metallic arsenic inorganic arsenic salts, metal and soluble salts
–3
and yellow, nonmetallic arsenic (As4). is 0.05 mg.m (TWA). It is 0.05 ppm or 0.16
–3
Oxides and complex salts of arsenic are mg.m for arsine. Air monitoring depends on
used in the production of weedkillers, the form of the arsenic. For instance, arsenic
insecticides, wood preservatives and trioxide is collected on filters treated with
fungicides. An example of inadvertent sodium hydroxide. Arsenic particulate is
exposure to arsenic compounds occurs when collected as inspirable dust and arsine is
logs treated with chromated copper arsenate collected in a liquid impinger. There are also
(CCA), for outdoor and garden use, are burned. direct-reading colorimetric tubes which are
This causes the arsenic to be converted to the available for both arsenic trioxide vapour and
extremely toxic arsenic trioxide. Another arsine.
strange source of arsenic has been found in Biological monitoring through analysis of
groundwater run-off from cemeteries. In the blood and urine of workers is another option
late nineteenth century, embalming fluid to review recent exposure. Normally,
containing arsenic was used to preserve unexposed workers have blood and urine
–1 –1
bodies. Once buried, the arsenic contaminated levels below 0.7 µmol.L and 0.07 µmol.L ,
the groundwater. respectively. Since arsenic can bio-accumulate
Inorganic arsenic compounds are absorbed in waterways, seafood or fish should not be
through inhalation, ingestion and through consumed for at least three days before
intact skin. They are stored in the tissue and biological testing for arsenic is conducted.
tend to accumulate in the muscles and liver.
Arsenic is excreted through the kidneys. Beryllium
The effects of exposure are very much
dependent upon the arsenic’s chemical form. Beryllium (Be) is a grey metal that is used for
While acute poisoning in the workplace is rare, fibre optics and cellular network
arsenic has been implicated in suicides and communication systems. Beryllium is also used
homicides. The first symptoms of acute as an alloy for electrical parts and aerospace
exposure are severe respiratory irritation with applications, window material for X-ray tubes,
cough and chest pain. Chronic exposure to a moderator material for nuclear weapons and
arsenic is seen as: in high-performance aircraft brakes. It also
forms many compounds, including:
• irritation of the nasal mucosa
(sometimes the nasal septa perforate • beryllium chloride — a white or
from the corrosive effect) colourless crystal
• thickened and pigmented skin • beryllium fluoride — a colourless,
• stomach pain and diarrhoea non-crystalline mass
• nausea and vomiting • beryllium hydroxide — crystalline
• numbness of the soles and palms solid or gelatinous
that develops into a painful condition • beryllium oxide (BeO) — a white,
called neuritis amorphous powder or gel
• lung cancer and respiratory tract • beryllium sulphate — colourless
cancer. crystals.
Chapter 5: Metals ■ 105
• tetra borates (decahydrate) sodium levels of cadmium can cause long-term damage
–3
salts — 5 mg.m to the lungs including reduction of lung
• tetra borates (pentahydrate) sodium function. Cadmium and its compounds are
–3
salts — 1 mg.m categorised as Category 2 carcinogens.
–3
• boron oxide — 10 mg.m Chronic exposure affects the kidneys, with
• boron tribromide — 1 ppm (peak the disease proteinuria which causes the
limitation) glomerular filtration rate to decrease while an
• boron trifluoride — 1 ppm. increase in kidney stones can occur. Chronic
inhalation can also lead to emphysema or
The dusts of boron compounds (e.g. boron affect the liver, bones and immune, blood and
oxide and tetrasodium salts of boron) are nervous systems.
monitored as inspirable dust. The filters can be It is also reported that cadmium is one of
analysed gravimetrically and then further the metals that may contribute to a condition
analysed using ICP. The gases (boron known as metal fume fever. With this
tribromide and boron trifluoride) are sampled condition, the worker may suffer headache,
using a midget impinger with a fritted nozzle. cough, chill and fever.
Biological monitoring of the blood or urine
Cadmium can be used to indicate cadmium exposure.
The samples are then analysed using AAS. In
Cadmium (Cd) is a metal with a soft, silver- severe cases, a biopsy can be taken to measure
white colour. It is usually found in combination cadmium concentrations in the liver or
with other elements and used as a: kidneys. However, this method is expensive
and invasive. If urine is analysed, the ACGIH
• pigment recommends a BEI of 10 µg/L.
• component of batteries (e.g. NiCad The occupational exposure standard for
–3
batteries) cadmium is 0.01 mg.m for oxides, fume or
• constitute of alloys for iron, steel metal cadmium. It can be monitored by
and copper in the electroplating collecting the inspirable dust fraction
industry according to AS3640 (Chapter 4). The collected
• welding and brazing solder. filters are then analysed using ICP or AAS.
• chromium (0) — the metal compounds and are neither irritating nor
• chromium (II) — chromous corrosive.
• chromium (III) — chromic (occurs The NOHSC has provided occupational
naturally) exposure standards for chromium metal and
• chromium (VI) — hexavalent. chromium compounds. Expressed as the TWA,
these are:
Typical applications where chromium exposure –3
might occur include: • chromium metal — 0.5 mg.m
• chromium (II) and (III) compounds (as
–3
• plating elements on metal and Cr) — 0.5 mg.m
plastics to minimise corrosion • certain water-insoluble chromium (VI)
–3
• nuclear and high-temperature compounds (as Cr) — 0.05 mg.m ;
research these substances are also Category 1
• electroplating cleaning substances carcinogens and sensitisers
for the metal finishing industry • water-soluble chromium (VI)
–3
• dyes and pigments compounds (as Cr) — 0.05 mg.m ;
• medicinal antiseptics these are also sensitisers.
• leather treatments and tanning
• mordants in the textile industry Occupational hygiene sampling for chromium
• fungicides and wood preservatives and chromium compounds is best conducted
such as CCA in treated timbers using inspirable dust sampling techniques,
• industrial water treatment (e.g. although care should be taken in the selection
cooling tower water) of the filter. Special PVC filters with low
• production of chromic acid and moisture pick-up that are designed to collect
specialty chemicals. chromic acid, chromates and hexavalent
chromium should be used. If unsuitable filters
The health effects of exposure to chromium are used, the collected dust or fume sent for
and its compounds depend upon their valency, analysis may not be in the correct valence for
state of matter and water-solubility. For analysis.
instance, some water-insoluble chromium (VI) Health surveillance for workers in an
compounds are Category 1 carcinogens due to inorganic chromium process should include
their ability to cause cancer of the respiratory collection of information about their
tract. Hexavalent chromium substances (e.g. occupational and medical history and a
chromates, dichromates and chromic acid) are physical examination of the respiratory system
corrosive, causing ulceration and dermatitis. and the skin.
Allergic dermatitis has been well reported in
cement and metalworkers, painters and Cobalt
leather tanners (Baruthio 1992). In serious
cases of exposure, chrome holes appear In the workplace, exposure to cobalt (Co) is
around the joints of the fingers, the fingernails typically found as dust or fume. Cobalt is an
and eyelids. Perforation of the nasal septum odourless, silver metal or black solid, which is
may also occur. used as an alloy ingredient of steel, especially
The most dangerous effect from ingested for jet engines. In the textile and ceramic
chromium is acute renal tubular necrosis. The industries, the salts of cobalt (cobalt blue and
trivalent chromium compounds, Cr (III), are cobaltous blue) are used for colouring glass,
considerably less toxic than the hexavalent ceramics and textiles. Some cobalt components
108 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
find applications as permanent magnets, in making items from copper as far back as 5000
nuclear technology and in abrasives and tools. BC, with Asians in about 4200 BC appreciating
Exposure to cobalt may cause symptoms the greater workability it afforded once
such as coughing, pulmonary oedema and heated. Indeed, the Bronze Age (about
decreased functioning of the respiratory system. 3000–1200 BC) was named after the change
The dust may cause dermatitis, with a rash or from stone-based weapons and tools to those
burning feeling, and fibrosis of the lung. The of copper and its alloy bronze. Bronze is
fibrosis can be fatal. The major effect is respir- actually a combination of copper and tin.
atory hypersensitivity (resulting in asthma-like Copper is also used nowadays, either as the
responses such as wheezing, chest pain and metal or its alloy brass. Brass consists of
shortness of breath). It has also been reported copper and zinc.
that exposure to cobalt can damage the heart. In the workplace, exposure to copper
Chronic exposure is believed to damage the usually occurs from the metal or its oxides. The
thyroid and liver. Some isotopes of cobalt are two oxides of copper are Cu2O (cuprite) and
60
radioactive (e.g. Co, which is a beta and gamma CuO (tenorite). Exposure may occur during
emitter) and care should be taken to control smelting and refining.
exposure in these cases. Chapter 10 describes Once copper ore is reduced, blowing air
the effects of exposure to ionising radiation. through the molten metal can be used to refine
In Australia the TWA for cobalt metal and it. This oxidises any other metals that are
–3
dust (as Co) is 0.05 mg.m . Sampling for present as impurities; the oxides rise to the
particulate cobalt is best conducted according surface and can be skimmed off. Copper is also
to AS3640, using a mixed cellulose ester filter used as an insecticide and bactericide and in
with nominal pore size of 0.8 µm. The filters electroplating. Exposure usually does not
can then be analysed using AAS or ICP. If health present a high risk to workers, except possibly
surveillance is required, lung function tests, those who have a genetic condition known as
assessment of the heart and tests of the skin Wilson’s disease. With this disease, the body is
for dermatitis are some common assessments unable to excrete excessive copper; therefore,
that can be performed. occupational exposure may lead to problems.
One product that is made from cobalt is The TWA for copper (dust and mist) is
–3 –3
cobalt naphthenate. This can be a brown 1 mg.m . For copper fume, it is 0.2 mg.m .
powder or blue-red solid, and is used in paint Occupational hygiene sampling and analysis is
varnish or to bond rubber to steel and other similar to that of the other metals, by
substances. Inhalation of cobalt naphthenate collecting the inspirable fraction and analysing
can lead to asthma. Inhalation may also cause with AAS or ICP.
scarring of the lung tissue, and high-level
exposure may damage the heart and even Gold
cause an enlarged thyroid (goitre). Repeated
exposure can cause a loss of the sense of smell, Gold (Au) is one of the earth’s precious metals
affect the red blood cells, increase serum fat and is found in nature mostly as the pure free
and reduce the ability of the body to burn metal. However, oxides of other metals are
sugar from the diet. usually found with the gold (e.g. silver, arsenic
and copper) and need to be removed. This is
Copper where occupational exposure may occur.
Cupellation is the process that is used to
Historically, copper (Cu) has been extensively remove impurities by adding lead metal or lead
used. Indians of the Pacific Northwest were oxide to the gold. Refinement of gold using a
Chapter 5: Metals ■ 109
method known as froth flotation can introduce rise to the risk of lead compounds escaping in
other occupational hygiene hazards such as the car exhaust and is a potential source of
arsenic and sulphur. The process of froth pollution wherever large numbers of cars are
flotation is also often followed by cyanidation, used. The use of unleaded fuel in new cars has
where the crushed ore is treated with sodium been introduced to combat this. Cases of
cyanide and calcium oxide to oxidise the gold abnormal exposure to lead have been reported
to Au (I). An alternative method known as in moonshine-whisky drinkers due to the lead
amalgamation introduces mercury to form solder used to construct the stills.
liquid alloys (amalgams). The gold is recovered Some industries where exposure to
by distilling away the mercury. Gold does not inorganic lead occur are:
have an occupational exposure standard. In its
refinement, consideration must be given to the • battery manufacture (lead-acid
risk associated with exposure to the other plates) and reclamation
metals. • radiator repair
• propeller grinding
Lead and lead oxide • lead lighting
• spraying with lead-based paints
Lead (Pb) can be extracted by roasting the ore • sanding or torch-cutting lead-painted
galena (PbS) in an oxidation reaction. In fact, metals and timber, such as with
the ore is normally found with argentite (Ag2S) Queenslander houses painted prior to
impurities, which are then separated to obtain the 1950s or bridges, which used
silver. To obtain lead, the PbS, lead (II) compounds such as PbSO4, PbCrO4
sulphide, is oxidised to lead (II) oxide (PbO) and PbCO3 as pigments (modern
and lead (II) sulphate (PbSO4). Some PbS is also paints contain little or no lead)
left unchanged so, if the air supply is reduced, • gold or silver laboratory assayers
the PbS left unchanged reacts with the PbO • indoor shooting gallery and rifle
and PbSO4 to produce lead metal. range operators.
3PbS (s) + 5O2 (g) → 2PbO (s) + PbSO4 (s) The use of lead dates back to antiquity. The
+ 2SO2 (g) Romans used lead on an extensive scale for
2PbO (s) + PbS (s) → 3Pb (l) + SO2 (g) water pipes, linings and cooking utensils. Since
PbSO4 (s) + PbS (s) → 2Pb (l) + 2SO2 lead will dissolve to some extent in water, lead
poisoning became a common occurrence.
Lead forms three oxides — PbO, PbO2 and Lead has a reputation for its toxicological
Pb3O4. PbO is also known as massicot (orange- effects. It accumulates in the body. Therefore,
yellow) or litharge (red) and is used to glaze exposure to small doses over a long period can
pottery or in the manufacture of flint glass. affect a worker just as much as a high dose
These are known as inorganic lead over a short period. Indeed, exposure to lead
compounds. PbO2 is used in lead-acid can be fatal, although usually the effects are
accumulators, while Pb3O4 is a pigment which not. The chronic effects of exposure to low
has past uses in anti-rust paints and crystal levels of lead include:
glass.
Another use of lead occurs in its organic • decreased intelligence in children
state, in the compound lead tetraethyl or • neurobehavioural effects on children
tetraethyl lead, Pb(C2H5)4, that is added to • storage of lead in the bone and
leaded petrol as an antiknock agent. This gives blood.
110 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
In its most acute form, lead poisoning results In Australia, the TWA for inorganic lead
–3
in brain damage which presents as mental dust and fume is 0.15 mg.m . Atmospheric
impairment and personality changes. In less monitoring can be conducted using inspirable
acute cases, there are abdominal pains dust monitoring techniques. Typically, an IOM
accompanied by cramps, vomiting, weight loss or UKAEA sampling head is used, although a
and tiredness. In its least severe form, the special one-hole lead-sampling head has been
result is anaemia, tiredness and irritability. The designed for collection of lead fume (Figure
toxicology of lead exposure relates to the Pb 5.1). The filters are typically mixed cellulose
(II) cation, which has the major effect of ester and are acid-digested before analysis by
inhibiting the synthesis of haemoglobin. AAS or ICP.
The major route of entry for lead is through Health surveillance for workers exposed to
inhalation of dust and fume, although some is lead should be conducted before starting work
ingested following the lung clearance in the lead process. Biological monitoring
mechanisms. Inorganic lead is quite poorly should be carried out within a month of work
absorbed by the gut and only about 10 per commencing. More health surveillance may be
cent of the ingested dose is taken up by the required three months after starting work and
body. The rate of absorption depends on other then again after six months. There are other
metals in the gut, particularly calcium and iron. reasons why biological monitoring for lead
With inhalatory exposure, the degree of exposure should be conducted. These are:
uptake depends on the size of particulate and
its solubility, with about 40 per cent of inhaled
• if an accidental uptake of lead is
lead being absorbed. Organic lead compounds
suspected
are absorbed through the skin.
• if workplace control of the lead
Excretion of lead occurs primarily through
hazards has failed
the kidneys but small amounts are also lost
• if work task factors might still result
through the bile, sweat and milk.
in an increased exposure to lead
The bodily systems affected include the
• if workers have shown a past history
blood (haematopoietic) system, resulting in
of excessive exposure to lead
anaemia. Anaemia is seen only in inorganic
• if respiratory protective equipment
lead poisoning and occurs late in the disease.
is the only control used.
Early symptoms of lead poisoning include
abdominal pain, constipation and vomiting.
A blue line on the gums due to the deposition Blood lead levels are the usual type of
of lead sulphide is occasionally seen. Lead biological monitoring. In order to determine
is also a neurotoxin — affecting the intel- whether a worker is at risk, blood lead action
lectual development in the young, decreasing levels are used. Biological monitoring of lead
nerve conduction velocity and causing brain workers is based on a test of lead absorption
damage. and a test that measures its metabolic effect.
Organic lead poisoning may result from This can be either urinary ALA (-amino
exposure to tetraethyl lead. The symptoms of lavulinic acid) or the red cell protoporphyrin
organic lead poisoning differ from those of concentration (zinc protoporphyrins or ZPP).
inorganic poisoning in that psychiatric Urinary tests for lead are the least preferred
manifestations, such as disturbances in sleep method, since the excretion of lead from
patterns, vertigo, headache, tremor, hyper- compartments in the body occurs at different
excitability and pain, are more common than rates. Blood tests give the most reliable
with inorganic lead poisoning. indicator of exposure.
Chapter 5: Metals ■ 111
muscles, balance difficulties, twitching and The effects of exposure to mercury depend
tremors. The later symptoms are identical to upon its chemical form. For instance, mercury
Parkinson’s disease. (I) chloride (calomel or Hg2Cl2) was historically
Exposure to manganese fume can result in used as a purgative. Until recently, dental
metal fume fever. This ailment causes fillings used an amalgam of mercury with gold
symptoms similar to the flu, with chills, fever or silver.
and aching muscles. Manganese’s high If inhaled, only a tiny amount of inorganic
molecular weight can also cause damage to the mercury is absorbed into the bloodstream.
kidneys and liver. Therefore, inorganic mercury should present
The occupational exposure standard (TWA) only a minor risk. But history shows otherwise;
–3
for manganese fume is 1 mg.m . For the dust in the early days of the industrial revolution,
–3
and compounds of manganese, it is 5 mg.m . mercury (II) nitrate, Hg(NO3)2, was used to
Sampling for the inspirable fraction is soften fur in the making of felt hats. The Mad
according to AS3640 and analysis of filters by Hatter of Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland
AAS or ICP is normal. Health surveillance for must have been exposed to inorganic mercury,
exposure to manganese typically involves a as he exhibits the typical effects on the central
complete examination of the nervous system, nervous system: mental effects and shakes.
blood count and kidney function tests. The different forms of organic mercury,
such as methylmercury (CH3Hg), and other
Mercury organomercury compounds, such as the
mould-preventative phenylmercury acetate
Mercury (Hg) is an interesting metal, in so used in fertilisers, are much more dangerous.
much as it is the only metal that is liquid at More than 90 per cent of the intake of
room temperature. Its chemical symbol, Hg, methylmercury is absorbed into the
originates from the word ‘hydrargyrum’. bloodstream.
Mercury is formed from the heating or From an environmental perspective,
oxidation of the ore cinnabar (HgS) with lime organic mercury is a major concern. It is
(CaO). bioconcentrated in the food chain and fish and
shellfish can concentrate mercury from the
HgS (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g) + Hg water to toxic levels. There have been several
4HgS (s) + 4CaO (s) → 4Hg + 3CaS (s) recorded instances of mercury poisoning, of
+ CaSO4 (s) which the most well known occurred at
Minimata Bay, Japan, in 1952. The mercury
At present, mercury has applications in source was a plant effluent. This effluent
scientific and electrical equipment (e.g. affected several hundred people, including
thermometers, manometers and barometers) unborn children. In other cases (Iraq in 1961,
and in metallurgical plant processes (pressure Pakistan in 1963 and Guatemala in 1966),
pumps). Organic mercury compounds are used people were poisoned by seed grains that
as an anti-slime agent in papermaking and as had been treated with organomercurial
seed dressings to prevent the spread of preservatives.
fungicidal seed diseases. Inorganic mercury The risk associated with mercury arises
compounds which have an industrial use during the mining and recovery of the metal
include the nitrate which is used in ‘carrotting’ from ore and during the manufacture of
of rabbit fur to form felt for hats and the red compounds from the metal. Since mercury
oxide used in manufacturing anti-fouling evaporates at room temperature it may also be
paints which are applied to the hulls of ships. a hazard if it escapes (for instance, breakage of
Chapter 5: Metals ■ 113
–1
a thermometer). Mercury can also penetrate levels are usually less than 0.1 mg.L . Urinary
–1
through the skin. mercury concentrations above 0.3 mg.L are
Approximately 80 per cent of inhaled excessive.
mercury vapour is absorbed by the lungs,
although the rate of absorption will depend on
the particle size and chemical composition of Nickel
the mercury. Elemental mercury is able to cross
the blood–brain barrier and also crosses the Nickel (Ni) is a silvery-white metal that forms a
placenta. While inorganic mercury compounds large number of compounds. For instance, it is
do not cross the blood–brain barrier, they are used in manufacturing alloys (such as stainless
widely distributed in other tissues. steel (iron, chromium and nickel), nickel-
The main adverse health effects associated copper and nickel-chromium), manufacturing
with excessive exposure to mercury include chemical process equipment, coins, magnets,
damage to the kidneys, liver and brain. The batteries, bimetallic strips, electroplating,
symptoms of acute poisoning include cough, welding rods and electrodes and the aerospace
fever, nausea, vomiting and a feeling of and automotive industries.
tightness in the chest. The most serious effects The main compounds of nickel are either
of chronic mercury exposure relate to its nickel metal, nickel soluble compounds, nickel
impact on the nervous system and the kidneys. carbonyl or nickel sulphide fume and dust
The characteristic sign of mercury poisoning is which occur when the ore is roasted. In its
the production of a tremor, known commonly metallic form nickel acts as a sensitiser. If
as the hatter’s shakes. Along with the tremor, exposure to the skin occurs, it may result in a
the person’s handwriting becomes irregular condition known as nickel itch. You may see
and unintelligible and speech disorders may this with people who wear cheap jewellery and
occur. watches. The symptoms are usually localised,
The occupational exposure standard for with itching, redness and a rash. A lung allergy
mercury depends on its chemical composition. may also occur. This manifests with asthmatic-
Elemental and divalent compounds of mercury like effects, with coughing, shortness of breath
–3
have a TWA of 0.025 mg.m . Inorganic and fluid in the lungs.
–3
mercury compounds have a TWA of 0.1 mg.m Nickel also reacts with other substances to
and alkyl mercury compounds have a TWA of form compounds such as nickel carbonyl,
–3
0.01 mg.m . nickel hydroxide, nickel sulphide, nickel
Mercury can be monitored using indicator cyanide and nickel ammonium sulphate. Nickel
stain tubes, although these present problems ammonium sulphate is a green odourless
since their sensitivity is not below the powder that can be used in electroplating. It
occupational exposure standard. A direct- can cause sensitisation, as well as damaging
reading instrument may also be used to the lungs. High-level exposure or repeated
monitor for mercury. lower exposure may also damage the heart,
Urinary mercury concentration is the liver and kidneys.
method used to determine workers’ actual Nickel carbonyl is used when refining nickel
exposure to mercury. However, since there is a ore and as a catalyst in chemical reactions. It is
marked variation in the excretion of mercury a pale yellow liquid with a musty odour.
from the body, the sample should be collected Exposure may occur through inhalation or
at the same time as an airborne sample. through the skin. The effects of exposure
Background levels may be expected due to diet include headache, dizziness and nausea. In
(e.g. fish consumption) although background severe cases it may cause death from
114 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
respiratory and heart failure. It may also cause Osmium and osmium tetroxide
a skin allergy.
Anhydrous nickel cyanide is a yellow-brown
powder although when it absorbs water, it may Osmium (Os) is a metal that is used to produce
change to a green colour. It is used in very hard alloys with other metals of the
metallurgy and for electroplating. platinum group, for instance, fountain pen
Nickel hydroxide is a green-coloured tips, instrument pivots and electrical contacts.
powder and may be present in the workplace Osmium tetroxide (OsO4) is used to detect
as a dust or as a liquid in an acid solution. fingerprints, as a catalyst and to stain fatty
Nickel sulphate exists as blue to blue-green tissue for microscope slides. The alloy of
crystals with a sweet taste. It is used to make platinum and osmium is used in surgical
other nickel compounds and as a mordant in implants such as pacemakers and replacement
dyeing, printing textiles, coatings and valves. The metal is lustrous, blue-white in
ceramics. colour, extremely hard and brittle even at high
The roasting of nickel is recognised as a temperatures. It has the highest melting point
Category 1 human carcinogen. Repeated and the lowest vapour pressure of the
exposure to nickel and its compounds can platinum group.
cause cancers of the lung and nose. Nickel is The main occupational hygiene concern is
also a potent skin sensitiser and many people associated with osmium tetroxide, a colourless
exposed at work to the various forms of nickel or pale yellow solid with a very strong odour.
have developed allergic dermatitis. It is a strong oxidising agent. Exposure to
The occupational exposure standards osmium tetroxide can result in severe burns to
(TWA) for exposure to nickel and its the skin and eyes. Prolonged exposure can lead
compounds are: to ulcers and even blindness. The vapours are
irritating to the upper respiratory tract and
lead to wheezing, coughing, tightness in the
–3
chest, sore throat and hoarseness. Due to this
• metallic nickel — 1 mg.m irritating effect, the eyes often are affected,
• soluble nickel compounds — 0.1 with the worker suffering from blurred vision
–3
mg.m and seeing halos around lights.
• nickel carbonyl — 0.05 ppm The TWA for osmium tetroxide is 0.002
• nickel sulphide roasting (fume and ppm. The STEL is 0.006 ppm. It can be sampled
–3
dust) — 1 mg.m . using a midget impinger.
Platinum
Occupational hygiene monitoring for nickel
and its compounds will depend on the
individual substance. For instance, metallic Platinum (Pt) is a precious, rare, white metal
nickel, soluble compounds and insoluble with unusual properties. It is heavier than
compounds are sampled as the inspirable gold, is virtually impossible to corrode and has
fraction. Nickel carbonyl is sampled on a glass a very high melting point.
fibre filter, usually in a multi-stage plastic It was used historically to make expensive
cassette. The filters are then dissolved in acid cutlery, watch chains and coat buttons. In the
and analysed using AAS. Some direct-reading early nineteenth century, it found use in gun
indicator tubes are also available for nickel parts, sophisticated batteries and fuel cells and
measurement. the purification of hydrogen. It is currently
Chapter 5: Metals ■ 115
used to make coins and jewellery, in surgical oral exposures can cause aches and pains,
and dental applications and in laboratory irritability, chills and tremors. If exposure
apparatus, to make drugs for cancer treatment, continues, a metallic taste is apparent, with
and to make computer and automotive equip- ‘garlicky breath’, fatigue, increased dental
ment. Interestingly enough, platinum is also cavities, loss of nails and hair, irritability and,
used in the catalytic converters of motor sometimes, depression. Repeated higher
vehicles to convert carbon monoxide into exposures to selenium also may cause liver
carbon dioxide and water. damage.
From a risk management perspective, The TWA for selenium compounds
–3
exposure to platinum can be assessed either as (excluding hydrogen selenide) is 0.1 mg.m .
–3
the metal or as soluble salts of platinum. The The TWA for hydrogen selenide is 0.16 mg.m .
–3
TWA for metallic platinum is 1 mg.m . For To sample for the selenium particulate,
–3
soluble salts it is 0.002 mg.m . It is sampled as inspirable dust monitoring is used with the
the inspirable fraction according to AS3640 filters analysed by AAS. With hydrogen
and analysed for the specific metal or selenide, sampling is conducted using an
compound. impinger.
Selenium Silver
Selenium (Se) is a black, grey or red odourless Silver (Ag) is usually found with lead, although
metalloid that is used to manufacture it may also be found naturally as the metal or
electrodes, photographic exposure meters, as the insoluble chloride salt AgCl (cerargyrite
anti-dandruff shampoos and rectifiers for or horn silver). To obtain silver from ore, it is
home entertainment equipment and as a roasted in oxygen to form SO2 and Ag2O. This is
pigment for ruby glass, paints and dyes. It is followed by a reduction reaction with carbon
also used in veterinary medicine and as a to form Ag and CO2.
fungicide and insecticide. Silver and its compounds are used in black
Selenium is also an essential metal for the and white photography, jewellery, X-ray film
human body, acting as an antioxidant. It is development, trinkets, mirrors, electroplating,
required for tissue elasticity and effective cutlery and silverware. Silver is a brilliant, soft,
functioning of the pancreas. white metal.
With occupational exposure to selenium, Exposure to fine silver dust or fume can
the main concerns are its compounds, lead to a blue or grey staining of the eyes,
especially selenium dioxide and hydrogen mouth, throat, internal organs and skin. This
selenide which can cause eye irritation. occurs slowly and may take years to develop.
Inhalation of selenium dust or mist, selenium Once present, it does not go away. Skin
dioxide or hydrogen selenide can irritate the contact can cause silver to become embedded
nose, throat and upper respiratory tract. in small cuts in the skin, forming a permanent
Exposure can cause headache, dizziness and tattoo.
general malaise. High concentrations of A compound of silver, silver nitrate is a
selenium dioxide can cause bronchial spasms, colourless, odourless solid that is also used in
symptoms of asphyxiation and bronchitis. photography, silver plating, chemical reactions
While ingestion of selenium or its and mirror manufacturing and as an antiseptic.
compounds is unusual, high-level exposures Exposure may cause irritation and burns to the
through this route of entry can cause eyes and skin. It can also cause the colour
pulmonary oedema and lung lesions. Acute change described earlier.
116 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Metal fume fever often occurs in welders The aetiology of metal fume fever is
who are soldering, brazing, cutting, forging, believed to be an immunological reaction that
melting and casting with elements of zinc, occurs when the freshly formed metal oxide
copper or iron. Although metal fume fever can fumes injure the cells lining the airways. This
occur following exposure to several metal causes lung proteins to modify. The modified
oxide fumes (this was identified earlier in this proteins act as allergens and generate an
chapter), zinc oxide is the most frequent cause allergen–antibody reaction, resulting in an
of the syndrome. Arc welding of galvanised allergic reaction.
steel is the most common source of Another compound of zinc is zinc
exposure. potassium chromate. This substance is a
The production of zinc oxide fume requires Category 1 carcinogen and may enter the body
heating elemental zinc or zinc-containing through inhalation or the skin. It is a yellow
alloys to elevated temperatures, which results powder that has been used both as a rust
in volatilisation of zinc. This causes the inhibitor in metal paints and as an artists’
vapours to rapidly oxidise in air, forming very colour. Repeated exposure can cause a hole in
small particles (with an aerodynamic the nasal septa, with nosebleeds and sores the
equivalent diameter of less than 0.5 µm). The earlier signs. Exposure can irritate the skin,
particles are then absorbed in the lower causing rash or skin ulcers. It can also trigger a
respiratory tract causing inflammation and skin allergy, so that even low exposures cause
tissue damage. rash.
Metal fume fever is also known as Monday Zinc sulphate is a colourless, crystalline
fever, brass chills, foundry fever, welder’s ague powder that is used for manufacturing rayon
and smelter chills. It typically affects the new and as a wood preservative. Contact with zinc
worker. Those who have experienced exposure sulphate may burn the eyes or skin. In
to zinc oxide fume tend to be prone to repeat Australia, the occupational exposure standards
attacks of metal fume fever, especially if for zinc and its compounds are:
they have not been exposed for the previous
few days. • zinc oxide dust — 10 mg.m TWA
–3
SUMMARY
Many metals are essential to maintain homeostasis of the body. However, some can place
workers’ health at risk, causing adverse health effects and polluting the environment.
The major route of entry of most metals and metalloids is through inhalation of the dust
or fume. Exposure via ingestion or through the skin occurs less frequently.
Some examples of occupationally significant metals include aluminium, antimony,
beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, tin,
vanadium and zinc.
Chemical contaminants
their ability to freely permeate throughout an total environment. The standard units are
area. This has drawbacks in restricting the %vol/vol or %v/v. In other words, the volume of
movement of a contaminant from one area to a specific gas compared to the volume of the
another but can be used to advantage when reference environment (usually air). For
controlling contaminants through ventilation. instance, air at 1 atmosphere (sea level) has
The capture velocity of gases and vapours is about:
usually low and the contaminant can be swept
along with existing air. Thus, gases are usually
measured volumetrically. Vapours can be • 20.95 per cent oxygen (O2)
represented either volumetrically or as a mass • 79 per cent nitrogen (N2)
per volume. • 0.03 per cent carbon dioxide (CO2)
The second characteristic of gases and • trace amounts of other inert gases.
vapours that distinguishes them from other
occupational hygiene hazards is the odour.
Many gases and vapours have an odour Notice that the v/v or vol/vol has been removed
threshold or distinctive odour that can assist in in this expression. In every day practice, it is
their identification as a hazard. Unfortunately, normal to express gases simply as a per-
although it is useful as a warning signal, it does centage, although technically speaking we are
not always relate to the concentration of referring to the volumetric concentration.
contaminant or its potential risk associated Vapours can be measured either volumetrically
with its toxicity. (%v/v) or as a weight per volume (%w/v). This
Thirdly, unlike dusts and particulate, many difference arises from the source of the vapour.
gases and vapours can enter the body by Vapours are defined as the gaseous form of a
absorption through the skin. This additional substance that is usually in the solid or liquid
route of entry needs to be considered when state at room temperature. In reality, most
evaluating the risk of exposure. Often, it will organic vapours such as xylene, toluene or
not be adequate to merely assess exposure benzene are liquid at room temperature.
through the inhalation route. Solvent vapours Where a substance converts directly from
in particular are notorious for defatting the the solid to gaseous state, this is known as
skin, causing the lipid layer of the epidermis to sublimation. The apparent ‘dissolving’ of
be removed. Others can cause a hyper- mothballs containing naphthalene over a
sensitivity or allergic reaction in the skin. Each period is actually due to sublimation. Since the
of these features of gases and vapours will now vapour’s origin is measured as a mass, the
be discussed. resultant vapour is expressed as milligrams of
the contaminant per cubic metre of air
–3
Physical structure and units of (mg.m ).
measurement
Equation 6.1
Gases are essentially fluids that expand to
–3 4
occupy the space or volume in which they are % = [mg.m x 24.4] x 10 /MW
confined. This concept is due to the weak Where:
–3
bonds between atoms or molecules and the mg.m is concentration of the
ability of gas to move freely, without the contaminant
confines of a rigid structure that binds solids. MW is molecular weight
Because of this, gases are usually measured 24.4 is molar volume in litres
volumetrically or as a percentage (%) of the at 25ºC and 1 atmosphere
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 123
In reality, some simple arithmetic can while its occupational exposure standard
–3
transform mg.m to a percentage, if the (TWA) is 20 ppm. Hydrogen sulphide (rotten
molecular weight (MW) of the contaminant is egg gas) has an odour threshold of 0.0002 ppm
known. This equation, introduced in Chapter and the occupational exposure standard (TWA)
–3
1, converts mg.m to ppm (parts per million). is 10 ppm. Some examples of odour thresholds
Remembering that 1 per cent is equal to are shown in Table 6.1.
10 000 ppm, Equation 6.1 simplifies the
–3
conversion from mg.m to a percentage.
Table 6.1 Odour thresholds
Odours Substance Odour threshold
(ppm)
Many gases and vapours have a handy
characteristic that is useful in recognising the Formaldehyde 0.3
hazard — an odour. Odour perception can be Hydrogen sulphide 0.0002
an effective hazard identification technique, Ozone 0.01
although it should not be relied upon for Toluene 2
quantification of the risk associated with Xylene 0.5
exposure to the contaminant. The limitations
of odour thresholds include:
Dermal effects
• the range of odour perception
amongst individuals will vary (what While we recognise that exposure to gases and
one worker can perceive, another may vapours chiefly occurs through inhalation, the
not) possibility of dermal or skin absorption of
• the inability to confidently define a chemical contaminants should not be
relationship between the presence disregarded. Substances such as nitrobenzene,
or absence of an odour and the aniline and some pesticides can pass easily
extent of risk to workers’ health through the skin and be absorbed directly
• interference from other substances into the tissues of the body. It has been
• the development of olfactory fatigue recognised that mixing and spraying pesticides
(dulling or deadening of the sense of during windy conditions presents a higher
smell) that can occur after exposure to risk than when the air is still. This is due to the
some contaminants; this condition is spray drift accumulating on the skin and
particularly prominent when a worker being absorbed into the body. In the
may be exposed to a strong odour agricultural industry, there have been several
initially, but after repeated or instances of farmers suffering severe ill health
continued exposure the odour is after spraying pesticides from a leaking
completely undetectable. backpack holding the chemical. As the
backpack leaked, the chemical was absorbed
Very often, the odour threshold of a into the farmers’ clothing and then directly
contaminant is actually higher than the into their skin.
occupational exposure standard. Therefore, Skin absorption of chemical contami-
even if the worker were to detect the odour of nants typically occurs where a substance is
the contaminant, exposure may have already splashed onto the skin or the skin is immersed
caused damage to the body. For instance, n- directly into the substance. The effect may
hexane has an odour threshold of 130 ppm be acute (i.e. spillage of corrosive substances)
124 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
or chronic (i.e. the narcotic effects of exposure • the use of 4,4’-methylene bis (2-
to organic solvents). In rare cases, if the chloroaniline) or MOCA, which is
airborne concentration of a contaminant is used in the manufacture of skateboard
sufficient, it may also be absorbed through wheels and hard plastics, and is
the skin. suspected of causing bladder cancer
It is important to note that some guidance • hydrogen cyanide (HCN), which is a
about skin absorption is available in the component in the production of
national exposure standards. A notation of ‘Sk’ isocyanates
in column 6 of the NOHSC exposure standards • polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),
document indicates that absorption through which are clear to yellow-coloured
the skin may be a significant source of solids or liquids that were used as
exposure. This form of skin absorption can electrical insulators (e.g. transformers,
occur in several ways: capacitors); are notorious for being
absorbed through both inhalation and
• splashing directly onto the skin or the skin; are a suspected human
mucous membranes carcinogen; can cause an acne-like skin
• splashing onto clothing followed by rash; and can damage the liver.
absorption through the skin
• absorption directly from the vapour Categorising gases
where the atmospheric
concentration is high (although this In the workplace and indeed in everyday life,
rarely occurs). we are exposed to myriad gases. How do we
possibly decide which gases can harm and
In some cases, other substances or which will be exhaled without causing damage
mechanisms may also accelerate skin to the human body? A good starting point is to
absorption. For instance, solvents may categorise gases according to health effects.
increase the rate of uptake through the skin by Three available options are:
defatting the lipid layer of the epidermis,
making the dermis more susceptible. It has • asphyxiants
also been reported that some forms of barrier • irritants
creams could contribute to the overall • toxics.
absorption of substances.
Sweat can also contribute to an increased Simple asphyxiants are gases that can cause a
uptake of chemical contaminants. Wearing reduction in oxygen concentration by
impermeable gloves (e.g. PVC, nitrile, butyl displacement or dilution. Most are odourless,
rubber) in warm conditions can cause the such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or nitrogen (N2).
hands to perspire. This additional heat and Chemical asphyxiants, on the other hand, can
water causes occlusion, where the substance is be present in relatively low concentrations but
close to the skin and quickly absorbed through affect the body’s mechanism for oxygen
its surface. In cases where skin absorption of uptake or distribution. Carbon monoxide (CO),
a substance presents a risk to workers’ health, a by-product of incomplete combustion, is a
it is always wise to adopt biological monitor- typical example of a chemical asphyxiant.
ing techniques in addition to the air Many cases of accidental or intentional
monitoring program. Some occupational carbon monoxide poisoning have been
examples where skin exposure should be documented, both in the workplace and in the
considered include: community.
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 125
Exposure to irritants will chiefly affect the In the alveoli, the exchange of gas is driven by
upper respiratory tract, resulting in its partial pressure gradient. Oxygen passively
uncomfortable burning or stinging. Pyrolysis of diffuses from alveolar air spaces, through
thermoplastics such as polyvinyl chloride interstitial fluid into lung capillaries. In normal
(PVC), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), respiration, carbon dioxide, driven by its
polystyrene (PS) and polytetrafluoroethylene partial pressures, diffuses in the reverse
(PTFE) can emit toxic and irritant gases. Of direction. Gases also dissolve into the plasma
course, the exact nature of the gases will of blood.
depend on the starting plastic and processing
temperature.
Toxics can be broadly described as those
gases that can cause local or systemic effects in PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
the body and have an occupational exposure OF EXPOSURE TO GASES
standard.
The movement of gases and vapours in the As with other airborne contaminants such as
body is influenced by their partial pressure. metals, dusts and particulate, the magnitude of
Gases move from areas of high pressure to risk associated with exposure to gases is
areas of lower pressure. Gases will also diffuse dependent upon the chemical composition
into liquids. Therefore, their water-solubility is and dose. The chemical composition will
an important factor that will impinge on their determine the:
transportation and excretion throughout the
body. Once gas has passed through the • level of solubility in different areas
alveolar capillaries, it must be transported of the body
through a medium (e.g. haemoglobin in blood • the substance’s affinity for certain
or dissolved into the plasma of blood or the tissues or parts of the body
interstitial fluids). However, the rate of gas • the target organ.
exchange may also be limited by
environmental conditions. For instance, ammonia (NH3) gas, found in large
Once the gas enters the conducting or refrigeration plants, is particularly water-
respiratory zone of the respiratory system, it soluble. Therefore, the effects of exposure
can be absorbed in the following ways: present in the watery mucous membranes of
the eyes, nose and throat. Lipophilic
substances such as organic solvents are
• by exchange at the body surface attracted to the lipid-layers of the skin and
(e.g. mucous membranes of the strip off this layer. Carbon disulphide (CS2)
nose and pharynx), where the gas vapour can affect the nervous system and the
diffuses over a thin, moist respiratory heart. Carbon monoxide has an affinity for
surface haemoglobin in red blood cells that is some
• by exchange within the trachea and 250 times greater than oxygen!
its branches
• by passing across the alveolar tissue,
where it is exchanged between the
medium and blood vessels — this SIMPLE ASPHYXIANTS
action will depend on the pressure
difference (continual gradient) across In its barest form, a simple asphyxiant is
the tissue. defined as a gas that has the ability to displace
126 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
The health effects from exposure to carbon effects are included later in this
dioxide include an increase in the breathing chapter).
rate, excitation, headache and a feeling of • Ethylene dibromide — is a suspected
‘stuffiness’. Obviously, as the concentration human carcinogen, mutagen and
increases, the effect of oxygen deficiency teratogen. It can be absorbed
becomes more noticeable. The worker may through the skin, and no
become cyanotic (have a blue tinge to the occupational exposure standard
skin), their respiration increase rapidly and has been set in Australia. It has
unconsciousness may follow. been used as a lead scavenger in
leaded fuels (to retard lead deposition
Ethane and ethylene in the engine); a soil, grain and fruit
fumigant; an intermediate in the
Both ethane and ethylene are hydrocarbons, synthesis of dyes and pharmaceuticals;
although ethane is an alkane (represented as and a solvent for resins, gums and
CnH2n+2) and ethylene is an alkene (CnH2n). The waxes.
characteristics of hydrocarbons are described • Ethylene dichloride (1,2
later in this chapter. Their similarity lies in the dichloroethane) — has a TWA of
common ethyl group (CH2). 10 ppm and the liquid can irritate
Ethane is a colourless, odourless, flammable the skin. The vapour may irritate
gas and is shipped in steel cylinders as a the eyes and mucous membranes,
liquefied gas under its own vapour pressure. with repeated skin contact causing
Typical uses include fuel for motors and as a dermatitis. It has also been
refrigerant for extremely low temperature reported that exposure to high
systems. It has the chemical formula H3–C–CH3. concentrations of vapour may
Ethane has a flammable range of 3.0–12.5 per produce dizziness and
cent, with a relative density of 1.0. According to unconsciousness.
dangerous goods classifications, ethane is a • Ethylene oxide — is a poisonous
Class 2.1 flammable gas. liquid or gas, which is highly
Ethylene (ethene) has the molecular size of flammable. It can irritate and
the alkene series and the chemical formula damage the eyes, skin and lungs.
H2–C–C–H2. Ethylene gas is used to ripen fruit, It is also a suspected human
in order to make them suitable for market. carcinogen. Further discussion of
While some fruits (e.g. apples, bananas, pears, ethylene oxide is included later in
peaches and plums) produce ethylene gas this chapter.
naturally, warehouses also make use of
controlled atmospheres to reduce the ripening Hydrogen and helium
rate of the fruit to enable their sale during
other periods of the year. Ethylene is also a Hydrogen and helium are the two simplest
starter of products such as: elements and occupy the first and second
places in the periodic table, respectively.
• Ethylene glycol (radiator inhibitor) — Hydrogen (H2) was used for a limited period in
–3
the vapour has a TWA of 60 mg.m the popular times of hot-air balloons. However,
–3
and a STEL of 120 mg.m . Glycol its flammable nature soon saw its demise after
ethers exist as a number of forms, the catastrophe of the German Hindenberg
such as monoethyl glycol ether airship, which burned at its mooring mast in
(further details about the health 1937. Nowadays, helium is used in airships or
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 129
Methane
Nitrogen
Methane is classified as both a simple
asphyxiant and as an explosive gas. It has the Nitrogen is the main constituent of air,
chemical formula CH4 and is a by-product from comprising around 79 per cent at normal
the decomposition of organic matter. The temperature and pressure. Nitrogen can be
explosive range of methane is 5–15 per cent, it used as an inert gas or as a shielding gas, in the
has a relative density of 0.6, and is regularly process of manufacturing ammonia, to make
found in the coalmines. The gas forms in fertilisers and to make explosives, medicines
pockets of the coal seam and escapes as the and dyes.
coal is mined. Methane is also released as the Other nitrogen products (oxides of
coal and coal-bearing rock are broken open. In nitrogen) include nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
years gone by, coalminers used canaries to dinitrogen oxide (N2O2) and nitrogen trioxide
indicate the presence of the gas. If the birds (NO3). Laughing gas or nitrous oxide (N2O) is
died, methane concentrations in the mine another form of nitrogen. Further information
were considered to be at dangerous levels. about these gases is included later in the
The magnitude of methane released from chapter.
coal is dependent on the type of coal and how
it is mined. For instance, lower quality coals
(brown coal or lignite) have a lower methane Propane and propylene
content than higher quality coal (e.g.
bituminous and anthracite coal). Underground These gases are hydrocarbons, with the similar
coalmining typically releases more methane, propyl group. Propane has the molecular
since the coal is under pressure deep into the formula of C3H8, with the structure
earth. Open-cut or surface mining generally H3C–CH2–C–H3. Most bottled gas and cigarette
has around 10 per cent of the methane content lighters contain propane. The flammable range
when compared to its underground of propane is 2.1–9.5 per cent. It has a relative
counterparts. density of 1.6. According to dangerous goods
Since methane has organic origins, it is also classifications, propane is a Class 2.1
found in sewerage treatment plants, the rural flammable gas. Propylene (propene) has the
industry (e.g. pig and cattle farming and dairy) formula CH2–CH2–CH3, and can also be used as
from animal excrement and wetland rice fields. a fuel.
130 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Blackdamp, which consists of about 88 per cent nitrogen (N2) and 12 per cent
carbon dioxide (CO2), is formed by the oxidation of the iron pyrites and calcite
found in coal. When the concentration of blackdamp increases above 17.7 per
cent, the miner’s safety lamp is often extinguished. Historically, this occurred when
ventilation in the mine was inadequate, and would not be expected nowadays. So,
if the miner’s safety lamp was extinguished, what was the concentration of oxygen
in the air?
The answer to this is calculated by determining the proportional reduction
of oxygen concentration that was caused by blackdamp. In other words, it is about
21 per cent of 17.7 per cent, or 3.8 per cent. Therefore, the oxygen concentration
is about 21 per cent – 3.8 per cent, or 17.2 per cent.
To convert the percentage of N2 and CO2 to ppm in the environment, we
must consider the concentration of N2 and CO2 formed from the blackdamp and
add this to the natural concentrations of N2 and CO2. Therefore, for N2 the
concentration due to blackdamp is 88 per cent of 17.7 per cent, or about 15.8 per
cent.
The total concentration of N2 is 15.8 per cent (due to blackdamp) plus 79
per cent, or about 94.6 per cent. With CO2, the concentration due to blackdamp
is 12 per cent of 17.7 per cent, or about 2.1 per cent. The total gas concentration
can be summed to around 100 per cent.
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 131
but from their interplay with the body’s • diesel- or fuel-powered vehicles such
homeostatic balance. Even at very low as bobcats, forklifts, excavators and
concentrations, chemical asphyxiants can affect trucks
the way the human body absorbs, transports • fires
and distributes oxygen throughout the body. It • gas or wood stoves
therefore follows that, while the concentration • heating processes — e.g. welding in a
of oxygen in the working environment may be confined space (these spaces are
close to 21 per cent, damage to tissues can still defined under AS2865 and explained
occur. The national exposure standards for later in this chapter)
chemical asphyxiants are specified in the • cigarette smoke
NOHSC’s Exposure Standards for Atmospheric • old model cars — with the
Contaminants in the Occupational Environment. development of catalytic converters,
The major chemical asphyxiants of concern are: more carbon monoxide is oxidised
and converted to CO2 (a simple
• arsine asphyxiant) before emission from the
• carbon monoxide vehicle.
• hydrogen cyanide
• hydrogen sulphide As a chemical asphyxiant, carbon monoxide
• stibine. elicits its effects through its affinity with haem
atoms within haemoglobin, the oxygen-
Arsine carrying component of red blood cells. In
simple terms, haemoglobin prefers to bind
In Chapter 5, metallic arsenic was identified as with carbon monoxide rather than oxygen.
a high-risk metal. Arsine (AsH3) gas is formed This affinity is reported to be 250 times more
when nascent hydrogen is produced in the for carbon monoxide than oxygen. In addition,
presence of arsenic or arsenic-containing the binding of carbon monoxide molecules
materials. The gas is colourless and flammable, with the haemoglobin prohibits the release of
and has a garlic-like odour. Arsine is used oxygen into the tissues, including vital organs
commercially in the manufacturer of such as the heart and brain. Therefore, in the
semiconductors for the electronics industry. presence of carbon monoxide, there are no
The symptoms of excessive exposure to arsine mechanisms for oxygen transport and the
show themselves from the action on the blood. tissues become deprived of oxygen (anoxia).
In mild cases the worker may have nausea, This combination of carbon monoxide and
headache, shivering and abdominal pain. haemoglobin forms carboxyhaemoglobin
Jaundice may present after several days and (COHb). The build-up of carboxyhaemoglobin
the main organ that is affected is the kidney. in the blood is dependent upon the
The TWA for arsine is 0.05 ppm. concentration of the gas being inhaled and the
duration of the exposure. However, another
Carbon monoxide confounding factor in the risk of exposure is
the long half-life of carboxyhaemoglobin in the
Carbon monoxide (CO) is often known as the blood (about five hours).
silent killer since it has no odour and the Death may occur when the carboxy-
symptoms of exposure may be confused with haemoglobin concentration in blood is 60–80
general narcotic effects. It is produced by per cent. Since carbon monoxide is not a
incomplete combustion of organic matter. cumulative poison, any gas which has been
Some sources include: taken up by the body will be released once
132 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
exposure is discontinued. A person suffering With exposure to carbon monoxide the skin
from carbon monoxide poisoning will show will appear a bright cherry red colour from the
symptoms beginning with confusion, carboxyhaemoglobin, compared with a blue
dizziness, loss of mental agility and lethargy. tinge that is exhibited with simple
Table 6.3 illustrates the symptoms that are asphyxiation.
associated with different concentrations of The TWA for carbon monoxide is currently
carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood. 30 ppm. A STEL has not been specified, since
recommended guidelines to control short-term
excursions above the TWA have been
Table 6.3 Relationship between
developed based on the toxicokinetic
carboxyhaemoglobin concentration in
properties of carbon monoxide. Table 6.4
blood and symptoms
provides further guidance about the short-
term effects of exposure to carbon monoxide.
%COHb Symptoms and outcomes
10 No symptoms. Heavy smokers Hydrogen cyanide
can have as much as 9%
COHb The toxicity of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is
15 Mild headache related to its chemical composition. The
25 Nausea and serious headache. cyanide ion as hydrogen cyanide or potassium
Treatment with oxygen and/or cyanide (KCN) is more hazardous than the
fresh air will result in quick insoluble inorganic salts, as they only release
recovery the cyanide ion under certain conditions. It is
30 Symptoms intensify. Potential likely to be found as a fumigant and in
for long-term effects electroplating in the chemical industry, and
especially in the case of may be produced when polyurethane foams
infants, children, the elderly, are combusted.
victims of heart disease and Cyanide interferes with the oxidation of
pregnant women tissue but it does not interfere with the
45 Unconsciousness transport of oxygen, as is the case with carbon
60%+ Death monoxide poisoning. In most cases of
poisoning, the effects of excessive exposure
Continued exposure to carbon monoxide occur so quickly that treatment must be given
can lead to headache, nausea and increased immediately. The main route of entry in the
respiration as the body attempts to com- workplace is through inhalation, although it
pensate for the lack of oxygen to the tissues. has been reported that ingestion of cyanide
To summarise, the health effects from the size of a rice grain is sufficient to cause
exposure to carbon monoxide include: death.
Hydrogen cyanide causes deleterious
• a persistent or severe headache effects by inhibiting the metal-containing
• dizziness and blurred vision enzymes (e.g. cytochromoxidase, which
• nausea contains iron). This enzyme system assists in
• fainting providing energy for respiration. When cell
• loss of muscle control respiration ceases, it is no longer possible to
• fatigue maintain normal cellular functions. This may
• rapid heartbeat or pulse or lead to the death of the cell.
tightening of chest. The symptoms of cyanide poisoning will
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 133
depend upon the route of entry, duration of then excreted in the urine. Since the cyanide
3+
exposure and concentration or dose. If the ion has a high affinity with trivalent iron (Fe ),
route of entry were inhalation, the symptoms the blood haemoglobin is oxidised, leading to
would include: the formation of methaemoglobin, which
binds cyanide ions.
• restlessness For atmospheric sampling, the TWA for
• increased respiratory rate airborne exposure to hydrogen cyanide is 10
• giddiness, headache and palpitations ppm, expressed as the peak limitation. The
–3
• respiratory difficulty TWA for cyanides (as CN) is 5 mg.m . Further
• vomiting information about the symptoms and
• convulsions outcomes of exposure to hydrogen cyanide are
• respiratory failure and listed in Table 6.5.
unconsciousness.
Hydrogen sulphide
If a worker is suspected of suffering from
cyanide poisoning, the treatment is aimed at In mines, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is known as
increasing the body’s ability to excrete cyanide stinkdamp. The obvious reason for this is that
and bind cyanide in the blood. In the liver, the it smells like rotting eggs. It is likely to be
enzyme rhodanese, together with sulphur, found in the following areas where organic
transforms cyanide into thiocyanate, which is matter may be rotting:
134 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
the teeth of children who consume water while laboratories and mortuaries
developing permanent teeth. Since elemental • a component of resins and glues
fluorine and the fluoride ion are extremely (as urea-formaldehyde) for particle
toxic, a low occupational exposure has been board, carpets, laminates and MDF,
set by the NOHSC. For fluorine, the TWA is which can contain between two and
1 ppm and the STEL is 2 ppm. Although even at four times the amount of urea-
these concentrations, the pungent odour may formaldehyde than is found in
be detectable — the odour threshold for standard particle board
fluorine can be as low as 20 parts per billion! • a fire-retardant and stiffener in fabric
• making paper products, cosmetics,
Formaldehyde and deodorants, shampoos, fabric dyes,
glutaraldehyde permanent-press fabrics, inks and
disinfectants
These substances are both aldehydes. Both • enhancing wrinkle-resistance and
formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde are water-repellancy in cotton and
sensitisers. This means they can cause an cotton blend fabrics
immune response in some people. Once • enhancing the water-repellency of
sensitisation has occurred, exposure can packaging paper, by treating the
manifest itself as a skin rash, inflammation or wood pulp with urea-formaldehyde
asthma-like response. It should also be noted resin.
that although low occupational exposure
standards have been set for these substances, There are several types of formaldehyde resin
they might still not protect all workers. mixtures, mainly phenol-formaldehyde, mala-
Workers who are already sensitised to mine-formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde.
formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde should not be Because of its water-solubility, urea-formal-
exposed further. dehyde is the substance that contributes the
most to indoor air pollution. The release of
Formaldehyde formaldehyde from building materials in an
indoor environment is known as off-gassing.
Formaldehyde was first discovered by August The rate of gas release depends on the air tem-
Wilhem von Hofman in 1867 but pure perature and humidity. For instance, an increase
formaldehyde was not isolated until 1892 by in temperature of 5–6°C can double the con-
Friedrich August Kekule von Stradonitz. It has centration of gas. If the relative humidity
the chemical formula HCHO. Formaldehyde can changes from 30 per cent to 70 per cent, this
be manufactured by the oxidation of methanol may result in a 40 per cent increase in formal-
with air, using a metal catalyst around dehyde concentration. However, where both
400–650°C. the temperature and humidity are increased,
Formaldehyde is a colourless gas with a the resulting formaldehyde level can increase to
strong odour. Since it is very polar, as much as five times its original level.
formaldehyde is soluble in both water and Formaldehyde is also a combustion product
ethanol. Formalin is formed by mixing that is emitted from cigarette and wood
formaldehyde with water to form a 37 per cent smoke, natural gas, kerosene and exhaust from
solution. Formaldehyde is used for: vehicles. The symptoms of low-level exposure
to formaldehyde include irritation of the eyes,
• fixing and preserving biological nose and throat, coughing, dermatitis and
specimens (as formalin), in sleeping difficulties.
138 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
If acute exposure occurs, the symptoms of the nose and throat (at concentrations
may extend to: generally less than 0.2 ppm) and contact
dermatitis.
• headache and fatigue
• breathing difficulties and sinus Nitrous gases
irritation
• chest pain and asthma attacks THe irritant nitrous gases are nitrogen dioxide
• nausea and vomiting (NO2) and dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). The
• nose bleeds other oxides of nitrogen are non-toxic.
• decreased lung capacity Nitrous gases may be produced during
• abdominal pain, anxiety and oxyacetylene, carbon-arc or electric-arc
diarrhoea. welding and in mining when dynamite burns
quietly instead of exploding. Nitrous gases
If the exposure to formaldehyde is relatively have a reddish-brown colour. The TWA for
short term, the symptoms disappear once nitrogen dioxide is 3 ppm and the STEL is
exposure ceases. However, exposure over the 5 ppm.
longer term may be more deleterious. Exposure to nitrogen dioxide can affect the
Formaldehyde is normally present at low body in a number of ways. For instance, the
levels in the atmosphere, usually less than reaction of NO2 and water in the aqueous
0.06 ppm. However, above 0.1 ppm, workers environment of the lung can form acids, which
may show symptoms of exposure. Some damage lung epithelium and may result in
research indicates that formaldehyde is pulmonary oedema and pneumonia. Other
carcinogenic. The NOHSC has classified oxides of nitrogen can impact on the body’s
formaldehyde as a Category 2 carcinogen with defence systems by destroying macrophages
a TWA of 1 ppm and STEL of 2 ppm. and compromising local immunity.
Glutaraldehyde Ozone
machines. Ozone is a sensitiser and has a TWA wine. It is highly irritating to the mucous
of 0.1 ppm. This is expressed as the peak membranes of the eye and respiratory tract.
limitation. Serious health effects are rarely seen due to
Ozone is present in the upper layer of the the extreme irritant nature of the gas, which
earth’s atmosphere, the stratosphere. Much precipitates the movement of the worker away
media attention has been given to the ozone from the contaminated area. The TWA for
layer in recent times, due to a decrease in the sulphur dioxide is 2 ppm and the STEL is
amount of ozone and the so-called greenhouse 5 ppm.
effect. While scientific debate continues about While sulphur dioxide is colourless, it does
the extent of damage to the earth, a general have a pungent odour that is detected around
consensus prevails that the continued 0.5–0.8 ppm. It is also highly soluble in water.
destruction of the ozone layer has resulted in This results in the formation of sulphurous
an increase in the earth’s temperature, acid, which is easily converted to sulphuric
exposure to ultraviolet radiation (Chapter 9 acid (H2SO4). Sulphuric acid is a major acidic
discusses the health effects from exposure to component of acid rain. On a worldwide basis,
UV radiation) and changes in weather patterns. oxides of sulphur are thought to be one of the
major pollution problems. With the continual
Phosgene combustion of fossil fuels (coal and oil) in
power stations and refineries, its emission is
Phosgene is much more toxic than chlorine. At escalating. Diesel emissions and volcanic
room temperature it exists as a colourless gas eruptions are also sources of sulphur dioxide.
that has a suffocating odour at high Table 6.6 shows the effects of exposure to
concentrations. At low concentrations, its sulphur dioxide at various concentrations.
odour resembles newly mowed hay. It may be
found:
Table 6.6 Symptoms from exposure to
• where chlorinated hydrocarbons sulphur dioxide
have been heated — for instance,
where degreasing agents such as Concentration
carbon tetrachloride have been used (ppm) Symptoms and outcomes
adjacent to welding or cutting
400 Lung oedema, bronchial
processes and the vapour is
inflammation
unconfined
20 Eye irritation, coughing
• in the manufacture of chemicals.
0.5 Odour threshold
Exposure to low concentrations may cause
slight irritation of the eyes and upper The mechanism of effect with exposure to
respiratory tract. The TWA for phosgene has sulphur dioxide is believed to be similar to that
been changed in recent years to 0.02 ppm, of exposure to oxides of nitrogen. As the
with a STEL of 0.06 ppm. sulphur dioxide dissolves in the mucous lining
of the respiratory system, its viscosity
Sulphur dioxide increases. This causes the airway resistance
and mucociliary clearance to decrease. In the
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) has been used bronchioles, small-sized acid aerosols may
industrially in magnesium foundries and was produce an irritant effect which, with repeated
previously used as a preservative in food and exposure, may lead to bronchitis.
140 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
refining, and all the members of this group are Aromatic hydrocarbons all have the
flammable. Aliphatic hydrocarbons — including common characteristic of a ring that contains
alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes and alkynes — six carbon atoms. The simplest aromatic
are straight or branched chains of carbon, hydrocarbon is benzene (C6H6), although
saturated with hydrogen; while aromatic (one carbon atoms can be substituted to form
hydrogen atom per carbon atom) hydrocarbons other aromatic compounds. For instance,
contain a six-ring structure. chlorobenzene substitutes one carbon atom
Alkanes have the general chemical formula for a chlorine atom, ethylbenzene substitutes
CnH2n+2. Each carbon atom is joined by only a an ethyl group for the carbon atom, and
single bond. The simplest member of the alkane nitrobenzene substitutes a NO2 group for the
family is methane. Naming of alkanes (this is carbon. Aromatic hydrocarbons can also be
known as nomenclature) is quite easy. Except fused together to form many types of
for the first four members, the number of polycyclic hydrocarbons, for instance:
carbon atoms in each alkane is reflected in the
Greek prefix. When one or more hydrogen • naphthalene
atoms are replaced by other groups, the name • benz (a) anthracene
of the substance must indicate the location of • benzo (a) pyrene.
the carbon atoms where replacements are made.
For the first four alkanes, the prefixes used
With all of the polycyclic aromatic
reflect the alkyl groups. These are:
hydrocarbons, the greater the number of rings,
• methyl (CH3) the more toxic and potentially carcinogenic the
• ethyl (C2H5) substance. For instance, as described in
• propyl (C3H7) Chapter 1, scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps
• butyl (C4H9). has been recognised as being caused by
exposure to large quantities of soot and tar
The cycloalkane family has its carbon atoms which contain many types of carcinogens,
joined in rings, with the general formula CnH2n. mostly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Some examples of these substances are Aromatic hydrocarbons differ vastly in
cyclobutane (C4H8) and cyclohexane (C6H12). chemical and physical characteristics from
Alkenes (CnH2n) are hydrocarbons that aliphatic hydrocarbons, with the aromatics
contain at least one carbon–carbon double being far more toxic than the aliphatics. The
bond. They are named in a similar manner to aromatic members are all potent narcotic
the alkanes, although the numbering begins at agents and overexposure can quickly lead to
the double-bond location. Some examples of loss of muscular coordination, collapse and
alkenes include ethylene (C2H4) and propylene unconsciousness.
(C3H6). Due to the geometric arrangement of
the carbon atoms of alkenes, there are often Halogenated hydrocarbons
two isomers of alkenes. These isomers
typically have different physical and chemical The term halogen is applied to five elements
properties. — fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and
Alkynes (CnH2n–2) contain at least one astatine. For industrial purposes, the
carbon–carbon triple bond. The name of the chlorinated compounds are the most
substance is given by considering the number important members of this group with
of carbon atoms in the longest chain. The chlorobenzene being a well-known solvent. It
simplest alkyne is acetylene (C2H2). has an acute action on the central nervous
142 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
system, although there are believed to be no the body and the blood. These solvents are
chronic effects. Exposure to some chlorinated used in hydraulic brake fluids, nitrocellulose
hydrocarbons can cause an angry rash on the and synthetic resins, printing inks, writing
skin, known as chloracne. This has been well inks, spirit-diluting fluids and dye solutions.
documented in the motor repair industry They may also find use as rust removers,
where, until recently, chlorinated solvents degreasing agents and dry-cleaning soaps, due
were used widely as degreasers. to their penetrating qualities.
Alcohols Esters
Alcohols have a chemical structure –OH. This Generally speaking, esters do not constitute a
group includes monohydric and polyhydric serious hazard to workers’ health. They are
solvents. Polyhydric alcohols have only widely used as solvents for surface coatings
recently become popular as an industrial although excessive exposure may lead to
solvent. Methyl alcohol, n-propyl alcohol, n- irritation of the nose, eyes and upper
butyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol are most respiratory tract. Esters have the chemical
commonly used as solvents in the preparation structure R’COOR, where R is a functional group
of alkyd resins, new synthetic fibres and and R’ is a hydrogen atom or functional group.
synthetic polymer rubber. Some common
alcohols include: Ketones
• methanol (methyl alcohol) Ketones contain the double-bonded carbonyl
• ethanol (ethyl alcohol) group (C=O) with two groups on the carbon.
• 2-propanol (isopropyl alcohol) With the growth of acetate rayon and vinyl
• phenol resin coatings, ketones have become an
• ethylene glycol. increasingly important solvent. The most
common solvents of this type are acetone and
Ethers methyl ethyl ketone (MEK).
Carbon disulphide is one of the most dangerous reported to have caused acute poisoning —
solvents used in industry with a high flamma- although accidental exposure may lead to very
bility and low ignition temperature of around high concentrations of the vapour and present
100°C. It acts on the peripheral and central as symptoms of euphoria, headache and
nervous systems and has been reported to cause vomiting. The more sinister, adverse health
heart irregularities. It has a TWA of 10 ppm. effect is associated with long-term exposure to
the solvent. Benzene has its main effect on the
Benzene bone marrow and is linked with the develop-
ment of acute leukaemia. If workers are to be
Historically, the use of benzene as a solvent in exposed to benzene, they should be assessed
industry has been extensive. It was used as a by an occupational physician to determine their
solvent in the manufacture of rubber or plastic occupational history and medical history and a
shoes and in photogravure printing. It also may blood sample for haematological profile should
still be found in fuel. Benzene is absorbed be collected. In Australia, the occupational
through the lung and the skin, since it is fat- exposure standard (TWA) for benzene has
soluble. Due to its lipophilic characteristic, it recently been reduced from 5 ppm to 1 ppm
accumulates and stores in the fatty tissue. While and it is classified as a Category 1 carcinogen.
a large amount of benzene is exhaled un-
changed, between 15 per cent and 60 per cent Toluene
of the absorbed substance is biotransformed in
a complex reaction. Its biological half-life is Toluene is a commonly used hydrocarbon
around twelve hours. solvent which is found in resins, glues and
Exposure to benzene is not commonly paints. It is absorbed through the lungs and the
144 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
has also been noted in people detailing cars • herbicides (e.g. amitrole, ammonium
using a dilute solution containing hydrofluoric sulphamate, atrazine, borates,
acid. The occupational exposure standards for bromacil, 2-4 D, diuron, paraquat)
atmospheric exposure are 5 ppm for • rodenticide (e.g. ANTU)
hydrochloric acid (hydrogen chloride) and 3 • fungicides (e.g. benomyl, captan,
ppm for hydrofluoric acid (hydrogen fluoride). ferbam)
These are expressed as peak limitations. For • fertiliser (e.g. calcium cyanimide)
sulphuric acid (hydrogen sulphide), the TWA is • pesticides (e.g. carbaryl, chloropyrifos,
10 ppm and the STEL is 15 ppm. strychnine)
• insecticide (e.g. carbofuran, dieldrin,
Coal tar pitch (creosote) heptachlor, kepone, pyrethrum).
Coal tar pitch contains volatile organic Monitoring for drugs and poisons is not easy.
compounds that can be emitted during road Since most adverse exposure occurs through
repair operations involving hot asphalt. They ingestion or absorption (and not inhalation), it
actually consist of a mixture of hydrocarbons is best to conduct biological monitoring of the
that are a Category 1 carcinogen. It has been body or its metabolites.
estimated (NOHSC 1996) that creosote is a Typically, the cholinesterase level in the
complex mixture of 1000 compounds. The blood is measured from blood tests. Since
health effects from exposure include: most poisons inhibit the nervous system by
inhibiting the release of cholinesterase,
• photosensitivity exposure can cause respiratory failure.
• irritation of the skin (resulting in red
ulcers or papules) Ethylene glycol
• nausea and vomiting
• diarrhoea, anorexia and difficulty Ethylene glycol is a colourless, sweet-tasting
swallowing liquid that is used as antifreeze in vehicles and
• headache, fainting, vertigo and to manufacture polyester fibres and film.
mental disturbances. Historically, it was used in the manufacture of
explosives during World War I (substituting
The TWA for coal tar pitch (measured as the glycerol). Some other areas of application of
–3
benzene soluble fraction) is 0.2 mg.m . ethylene glycol include:
system. This is followed by depression, and unloading the items after importing. The
kidney damage and death may also result. shipment is usually treated by covering with
Ethylene glycol is also used to make glycol impervious sheeting and pumping the methyl
ethers. Glycol ethers (e.g. monobutyl glycol bromide through the products. Otherwise,
ether) are suspected of increasing the risk of some containers are treated with canisters
miscarriage for pregnant women working in containing methyl bromide. The TWA is 5 ppm.
the manufacturing of semiconductor chips.
Methyl methacrylate and ethyl
Isocyanates methacrylate
Isocyanates are a group of chemicals that are Both of these chemicals are hydrocarbons and
known respiratory and skin sensitisers. They are used in the manufacture of prosthetics and
are used in the manufacture of polyurethane dentures. Methyl methacrylate is an ingredient
foams and are a component of some 2-pack of the liquid that is applied with a powder to
paints and varnishes. The three main make acrylic or artificial fingernails. Ethyl
isocyanates that are found in the workplace methacrylate is a starting product of prosthetics.
setting are: In Australia, the TWA for methyl methacrylate
has been reduced in recent years to 50 ppm and
• MDI (methylene bisphenyl it has been allocated a Class 3 carcinogen
isocyanate) category. An occupational exposure for ethyl
• TDI (toluene 2,4 diisocyanate) methacrylate has not been set in Australia.
• HMDI (hexamethylene diisocyanate).
MOCA
If the eyes are exposed to isocyanates, this
may lead to severe chemical conjunctivitis. MOCA or 4,4’–methylene bis (2-chloroaniline)
Sensitised workers may show symptoms after has increased in use for the manufacture of
exposure to even tiny amounts of isocyanates. hardened plastics such as rollerblade wheels,
Additional health effects include damage to skateboard wheels and other applications. It is
the liver and kidney. A chronic effect is supplied as solid pellets and then melted in a
interstitial pulmonary fibrosis. pot before casting into appropriate moulds.
The occupational exposure standards for MOCA is easily absorbed through the skin and is
–3
MDI, TDI and HMDI are 0.02 mg.m (TWA) and a Category 2 carcinogen. It is believed to cause
–3
0.07 mg.m (STEL). Health surveillance of bladder cancer. The TWA for MOCA is 0.02 ppm,
workers exposed to isocyanates should include although it may be more appropriate to conduct
administration of a standardised respiratory biological monitoring using the urine to
questionnaire, physical examination of the skin determine whether the worker is at risk. With
for occupational dermatitis, lung function test these tests, dipstick urinalysis tests for
and the collection of medical history haematuria (blood in the urine) and urine
information. cytology may also be conducted.
Methyl bromide is used as a fumigant and This category refers to mineral oils and
rodenticide. Exposure to workers is usually lubricants, synthetic resins from soldering and
limited to those who come into contact with natural rosins that are emitted from timber
fumigation of timber items or may be products. Many processes involving cutting of
148 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
metals require the use of mineral oil as a Confined spaces are particularly hazardous
lubricant. However, the oils may become since the atmospheric environment can change
aerosolised and workers can be exposed to quickly and without notice. Since the space is
mineral oil mist. Refined mineral oil mist has a not a normal place of work, many confined
–3
TWA of 5 mg.m . Resins and rosins have a spaces are used either for access to remote
potentially sensitising effect to either the skin locations or to perform maintenance. Some
or respiratory system. These are a little more examples of confined spaces include vats,
difficult to analyse for, since the exact nature of silos, drums, tanks, personnel access holes and
the resin or rosin must be understood. For storage vessels.
instance, the curing of timber releases In considering the occupational hygiene
different types of rosins and categories of hazards of confined spaces, it is important to
turpenes, depending upon the timber. The identify any potential sources or processes
–3
NOHSC has set a TWA of 0.1 mg.m for the that may introduce contaminants. Some
rosin core solder pyrolysis products, measured questions that may be asked include:
as formaldehyde.
• Does the vessel contain water or had
Vinyl chloride it previously contained water? Is
there a potential for sludge or fungal
Vinyl chloride monomer is used in the growth? (Plant matter will respire,
manufacture of PVC. It has been classified as a consuming oxygen in the space.)
Category 1 carcinogen due to its effect chiefly • Is there any oxidation of the vessel
on the liver. Acute exposures may result in walls? (Oxidation or rusting of the
euphoria, headache, dizziness and loss of vessel walls also uses oxygen in this
consciousness. If the skin is contacted, rapid process.)
evaporation of liquid vinyl chloride may cause • Have any chemicals been stored in
freezing of the skin, resulting in burns. Chronic the vessel? What was the vessel
exposure may result in scleroderma, Raynaud’s used for, previously? (Toxic chemicals
disease, acro-osteolysis and fibrosis of the liver may also be a potential source
and spleen. The TWA for vinyl chloride of risk.)
monomer is 5 ppm. • Are there any sources of flammable
gases or vapours? Have incoming
lines been blanked, the pipe
CONFINED SPACES removed or locked out?
Confined spaces is a defined term according to Before entering a confined space, the
AS/NZS2865 and encompasses many hazards in atmosphere should be tested for the
addition to occupational hygiene hazards. A concentration of oxygen, flammable gases and
confined space is defined as any space that may: toxic contaminants. AS/NZS2865 requires that
entry is not permitted unless:
• have limited access and egress and is
not designed for work • the oxygen concentration is between
• have an oxygen concentration which 19.5 per cent and 23 per cent
may be hazardous • explosive gases are not more than
• have a flammable atmosphere 5 per cent of the lower explosive
• have toxic contaminants limit (LEL)
• cause engulfment. • any toxic contaminants are less than
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 149
For instance, if sampling is conducted while The most widely used of colorimetric systems
half of the factory is not operating then would have to be the pump and tube assembly.
exposure may be significantly different to a With this system, air is actively sampled
‘normal’ working day. The concept of a normal through the tube by the drawing action of the
working day is discussed in Chapter 1. pump. The glass tube is tightly packed with a
chemically reactive substance. As contaminant-
laden air passes through the tube, it
DIRECT MONITORING specifically reacts with the chemical inside the
tube. A resulting colour change or stain will
Direct monitoring or real-time measurements develop along the length of the tube.
allow the concentration of a contaminant to be To determine the concentration of
determined on-the-spot. It is also known as substance, either the length of stain or its
grab sampling, since the sample is quickly colour intensity is usually compared with the
taken and analysed immediately. Usually, a manufacturer’s specified data. Two types of
sample is collected in the breathing zone of pumps see common use in Australia — the
the worker over a short period and the piston pump and bellows pump.
concentration of contaminants determined With the piston pump, the piston is drawn
instantaneously. Some methods do allow back to pull a sample of air through the tube.
collection for the entire shift. The main The exact volume of air will depend upon the
techniques are categorised as: tube and sensitivity requirements. Gradations
mark the length of the piston, to show the
• colorimetric operator the extent of the required piston
• electrical and electrochemical extension. The handle is then locked in place
• thermal to allow the chemical reaction to be
• electromagnetic completed. This normally takes a few minutes.
• gas chromatographic The bellows pump is firmly squeezed to suck
• mass spectrometric. air through the tube. Once squeezed, it is
allowed to reinflate and the chain at the
Colorimetric bellows to become taut. For both types of
detector systems, it may be necessary to
The principle of colorimetric monitoring lies in repeat the stroke (this refers to the depression
the chemical reaction between a known of the bellows or the drawing of the piston)
contaminant and a detecting system. In several times, depending upon the directions
Australia, the most common techniques are of the manufacturer.
either tubes or badges. Because of the As a first port of call, colorimetric sampling
specificity of colorimetry, it is vital that the is relatively inexpensive and simple to use. A
exact substance is known before sampling pump costs several hundred dollars and the
begins. It is also wise to be sure of other tubes are usually purchased in packs of ten for
potential contaminants, in case these interfere $100–$200. However, to the unwary user there
with the operation of the detection system. may be pitfalls in their use and interpretation of
results. Since a sample is collected by drawing
a known volume of air through the tube for
Colorimetric analysis refers to systems usually less than one minute, the results should
where a colour change can be detected not be used to compare against the TWA. Long-
using a system whose reagents react with term sampling tubes are available, although
the analyte. these mostly operate using passive sampling,
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 151
where the contaminant diffuses into the • ampoule detector (includes a filling
chemical reagent during the day. indicator and additional reagent
The advantages of direct-reading colori- ampoule; when the ampoule is broken,
metric stain tubes are: its contents are released and shaken
onto the indicating layer).
• they can be used to identify high-
level, short-term exposure How to use colorimetric tubes
• the requirement for long and
expensive laboratory analysis is Of all the occupational hygiene sampling
removed techniques available, colorimetric tubes are
• they can provide preliminary findings one of the simplest to use. These steps are
of exposure, including alarm levels summarised below:
for evacuation or remedial controls
• they can be used to check controls. 1. Select the contaminant and approximate
concentration range. This technique is very
Unfortunately, they also come with limitations. specific and the exact nature of the
These include: substance must be known. Additionally,
most tubes have a concentration range. If
• interference from other the concentration of contaminant is above
contaminants can give false positives or below this range, the substance will not
• incorrect tube or range selection can be detected or will result in a stain that is
result in false negatives beyond the graduations of the tube.
• cross-sensitivity with other 2. Leak-test the pump. If a pump leaks, it will
substances under-sample and the result cannot be
• storage requirements for tubes relied upon. With the bellows pump, an
• limited shelf life of tubes. unopened tube is inserted into the pump
when the bellows are depressed and left for
Some different types of tubes one minute. If the bellows reinflate, the
pump may be leaking and require
There are several types of direct-reading maintenance. To leak-test a piston pump,
colorimetric tubes. All can be used, although for an unopened tube is inserted and the
active sampling it is important that the pump handle gently pulled. If there is a firm
brand is aligned with the tube. For instance, the resistance and the handle ‘bounces’ back to
two main brands, Drager and Kitagawa, have its original point, the pump is not leaking.
different diameter tubes. Attempting to insert a 3. Read the manufacturer’s instructions.
Kitagawa tube into a Drager pump will result in When checking the operating instructions,
leakage and an invalid sample! The types of it is important to search for limitations of
tubes can be best described as: the method, such as interferences or
effects of temperature, pressure or
• single layer (where all the filling is the humidity. If the sample is collected at
indicator layer) conditions other than normal temperature
• multi-layer (a pre-layer may contain a and pressure, adjustments to the
filter for interfering substances) concentration may need to be made.
• two tubes (a pre-tube and indicating 4. Break the tip from the tube. Most pumps
tube are included to keep the reagent contain a tip-cutter, although care should
components separate) be taken with the tiny shards of glass. For
152 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Gas chromatography is mostly used for • the ability to collect a sample over
measurement of organic substances. an entire working shift or a duration
representative of exposure.
Mass spectrometric
When deciding on the type of sample
The most direct and accurate method for collection technique, careful consideration
identifying chemical substances is through the must be given to a number of factors. For
use of a mass spectrometer. This allows the instance:
atomic and molecular masses of the substance
to be identified by bombarding a gaseous • the chemical and physical structure
sample with high-energy electrons. The of the contaminant
collision between the electrons and atoms • the type of work situation
produces positive ions, which are then • the analytical method for measuring
accelerated by passing them through two the contaminant (including its
oppositely charged plates. The ions are passed sensitivity, limit of detection and
through a magnet, forcing them into a circular interferences or cross-sensitivities)
path. • knowledge of the contaminant’s
identity and likely concentration
range.
SAMPLE COLLECTION
AND ANALYSIS In deciding on the best method for collecting
and analysing a sample, it is best to refer to
In many cases, it may not be appropriate to use standard methods, which detail both the
direct-reading devices to analyse for workplace collection and analytical techniques. In
gases and vapours. Perhaps a direct-reading Australia, a limited number of Australian
system is not available or a more reliable Standards methods are available. However, US
expression of concentration is required. The methods promulgated by NIOSH and OSHA are
nature of direct-reading samples is also a commonly used. The UK also has some
reason to avoid their use — the grab sample methods that can be used.
can only provide an indication of exposure Some manufacturers and suppliers of air
over a small window of an entire working day; sampling products have catalogues available
and a one-minute sample may not be that specify details for sampling of airborne
representative of overall exposure. contaminants.
Sample collection has many advantages The three main sample collection methods
over instantaneous or ‘grab’ samples. These are:
include:
• liquid absorption (washing through an
• the ability to confirm the identity of absorbing solution)
a contaminant when previously the • adsorption onto a solid sorbent (e.g.
exact chemical was unknown carbon, activated charcoal, silica gel)
• easily analysing mixtures of gases • collection in a large bag or pumped
and/or vapours at the one time under pressure into a cylinder.
• detecting low concentrations of
substances or insensitive materials Many permanent gases such as oxygen, carbon
• storing samples for analysing at a dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide
later time and argon cannot be easily reacted with a
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 155
collected medium. These should be collected veniently passed through the liquid and
by physically taking a sample of the gas in a captured. Different types of gas-washing
bag or jar. Organic vapours, because of their devices include:
polarity, are reversibly adsorbed onto a range
of media including charcoal, silica and XAD. • the midget impinger, which creates
This is useful as the contaminant can be small bubbles at the point of entry
conveniently ‘desorbed’ from the collection • a helical spiral gas-washer
media for analysis at the laboratory. Reactive • a fritted-glass washer, which creates a
gases and vapours cannot be trapped on stream of very fine bubbles and
charcoal but may be collected by reacting with increases the surface area available for
another media. For instance, acid gases, oxides contact.
of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide and ozone can be
trapped by a reaction with a base such as The sampling technique involves the
sodium hydroxide. connection of the sampler to a constant flow
To decide whether sample collection and sampling pump at known flow rate (usually
–1
analysis can be performed, a number of 0.5–1.5 L.min ). Sometimes, two or more
questions should be asked. These include: impingers are connected in series to increase
the efficiency of collection or to allow a pre-
• What is the efficiency of the filter (or absorber) to remove any particular
sampling and analytical methods? contaminant which may interfere with analysis.
• Will the contaminant be detected
using the proposed analysis? Solid sorbent sampling
• Will the sampled gas or vapour be
retained in the same chemical form As the term suggests, solid sorbent sampling
that it exists in for the sampling collects a sample of gas or vapour on a media
process? that is non-aqueous. With this technique, the
• Will the sampling equipment and physical and chemical nature of substance
medium be safe for the wearer, user must be recognised to ensure the correct
or environment? medium for adsorption is selected. An
excellent prime reference for organic vapour
Liquid absorbers sampling in Australia is AS2986.
Certain gases and vapours are readily
Some gases are best collected by dissolving adsorbed by some solid materials such as
them into a solvent or washing with another activated charcoal, silica gel, polymers and
chemical. Acids and bases can be made to react molecular sieves. The selection of adsorptive
with the opposite material. Some examples of material will depend on the polarity of the
this type of sampling are collection of: media and analyte to be collected. For
instance, organic gases and vapours are
• formaldehyde in water (or bisulphite collected using activated charcoal. Substances
solution) such as glutaraldehyde vapour are collected on
• ozone in potassium iodine solution silica gel.
• oxides of nitrogen in sulphanilic acid The adsorbent material is usually tightly
• halide gases in silver nitrate. packed into a glass tube. In a similar technique
as colorimetric tube sampling, the tip of the
The devices used to collect the gases in liquid tube is broken off and a measured volume of
are designed to allow the gas to be con- air is drawn through the tube (active sampling).
156 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
After sampling, the tubes are capped and then The pumps also usually have an in-built
desorbed in the laboratory for analysis. The rotameter, although this should not be relied
sample tube is usually placed within the upon for calibration unless it has been checked
breathing zone for personal sampling and can against a primary method such as the upturned
also be used for static sampling. Passive burette. The selection of flow rate and
sampling can also be conducted using a solid duration of monitoring is dependent upon the
adsorption material. With this method, air collection efficiency of the adsorbing material
diffuses into the medium (which is designed as and the sensitivity and detection limit of the
a tube or a badge). Once sampling is complete, analytical method.
the adsorptive material is sent to a laboratory Organic vapours can be sampled according
for analysis. to AS2986, using a tube packed with activated
–1
charcoal, with a flow rate between 50 mL.min
–1
Gas sampling bag and 200 mL.min . Many workplaces use high-
flow sampling pumps that have been
In some cases it is preferable to collect a converted to a lower flow to conduct this
sample in order to take it to a laboratory for sampling. Once the tip has been broken from
more comprehensive analysis. the tube, the tube is inserted into connecting
In these situations, an impervious bag or tubing and sampling begins. Immediately after
cylinder may be used. This method is suitable sampling is finished, the tube must be capped
for a number of gases such as oxygen, carbon to prevent the vapour from desorbing from the
monoxide, hydrogen and methane. Care must adsorbing material.
be taken to ensure the bag or cylinder medium Laboratory analysis of adsorption tubes
is inert to the sample and will neither adsorb it should be conducted as soon as possible after
nor allow it to permeate through. sampling. It is preferable to store the tubes in
To collect a bag sample, the container must a cool environment that will minimise loss of
firstly be flushed or purged. This will ensure the collected substance.
that any previous gases do not interfere with To desorb the tube, it can be either
the collected sample. The collected sample thermally treated or desorbed using a strong
should then be sucked into the bag at least solvent such as carbon disulphide or
three times, before sealing firmly to prevent petroleum ether. Thermal desorption is the
leakage. Ideally, the sample should be analysed preferred method, since carbon disulphide, in
as soon as possible after sampling to minimise particular, is a hazardous chemical and its use
loss or adsorption of the gas to the inside of should be minimised where possible. Thermal
the bag. The concentration of gas will normally desorption also minimises loss as the heated
be expressed as a percentage (%v/v). vapour is fed directly into the analytical
instrument, usually a gas chromatograph. This
Active sampling instrument is able to detect and identify the
substance, expressing the result as a mass.
Active sampling involves the collection of a The adsorption tube used for vapour
sample using a pump that draws a known sampling and analysis usually also has a front
volume of air through an adsorptive tube. and backup section (Figure 6.2). When
Some brands of pump include SKC, DuPont, analysing the tube, both sections should be
Gilian and AirChek. These range in price from analysed individually in order to check for
several hundred dollars to thousands, and are break-through. Break-through can occur where
available with timers and delayed start the vapour or gas is passed too quickly
capabilities. through the tube or the concentration has
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 157
Sorbent layer
Glass wool
Backup
sorbent layer
Foam separators
Sealing cap
sampling period, the badge is returned to a Using either Equation 6.3 or Equation 6.4, the
laboratory where the adsorbent material is change of mass (m) over a time period (t) can
removed and analysed. Some tubes are be determined. This is the concentration of the
designed to be read directly from the contaminant.
graduations at the end of the sampling period
and require no further analysis. Some badges
have problems with the effect of air passing BIOLOGICAL MONITORING
over the adsorbing media. Research is
continuing in the design of a badge that is not Biological monitoring is discussed in Chapter
affected by low air velocities. 1. In some cases, it may not be appropriate to
Diffusion samplers operate on the principle merely sample the occupational environment
of diffusion of gas across a porous membrane. but necessary also to determine workers’
Fick’s first law of diffusion can be applied to actual uptake of a substance by measuring the
the mass uptake rate (Equation 6.3). substance itself, an indicator of the substance
or its metabolites. The appropriateness of
biological monitoring as a valid method of
determining exposure relies on the existence
Equation 6.3
of a method for detection of the substance or
dm/dt = AD (Co – C)/T its metabolites and an appropriate benchmark
Where: with which to compare exposure. Ethical
m is mass of adsorbate collected in considerations and tolerance of the sampling
grams regime will also impact on its practicability.
t is sampling time in seconds Some examples of biological monitoring of
D is diffusion coefficient for the chemical contaminants include:
2 –1
adsorbate in air, in cm .s (this is
available from the manufacturer for a • urinary analysis for MOCA
given chemical) • urinary analysis for hippuric acid (a
A is cross-sectional area of diffusion metabolite from toluene exposure)
2
sampler in mm • blood analysis for isocyanates
L is length of diffusion path in • estimation of red cell and plasma
cm (from porous membrane to cholinesterase activity levels from
sampler) exposure to organophosphate
C is concentration of contaminant in pesticides
–2
ambient air, in g.cm • analysis of breast milk for
Co is concentration of contaminant organochlorine pesticides.
just above the adsorbent surface in
–2
g.cm ) In conducting biological monitoring, con-
sideration needs to be taken of issues such as:
If we were to assume the concentration of Co
were zero (it all gets adsorbed out of the air by • the time of collection of the sample
the sampler), the following equation may be — e.g. is the sample collected at the
applied (Equation 6.4). beginning of the shift or at the
completion of the shift? Does the
substance have a short half-life that
Equation 6.4
will mean it is not detected unless
m/t = ADC/L monitored at the correct time? Will it
Chapter 6: Chemical contaminants ■ 159
SUMMARY
Chemical contaminants such as gases and vapours can present a risk to workers due to their
ability to easily move throughout the workplace, pervading even very small areas. The three
main groups of chemical contaminants are asphyxiants, irritants and toxics.
These gases and vapours can be monitored using direct-reading techniques such as
colorimetric, thermal, electromagnetic, gas chromatographic and mass spectrographic
techniques. The alternative is to collect a sample of the substance and analyse it at a later
time. Sample collection can be conducted by liquid adsorption, adsorption onto a solid
sorbent or collection in a bag or other device.
National Occupational Health and Safety Commission 1996, Guidelines for Health Surveillance —
Benzene, AGPS, Canberra
National Occupational Health and Safety Commission 1996, Guidelines for Health Surveillance —
Creosote, AGPS, Canberra
Standards Association of Australia 1987, AS2986: 1987 Workplace Atmospheres — Sampling by Solid
Adsorption Techniques, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 2001, AS/NZS2865: 2001 Safe Working in Confined
Space, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Waldron, H.A. 1990, Lecture Notes on Occupational Medicine, 4th Edition, Blackwell Scientific
Publications, London
Chapter 7
One of the most significant hazards in the considerable latency period. For this reason,
workplace is exposure to noise. Noise is an noise is seen as an insidious occupational
inherent aspect of daily life, both at work and hygiene hazard.
socially. However, excessive or prolonged Noise is the term that describes the
exposure can lead to hearing loss, hearing interpretation of sound and whether it is
quality impairment and other health effects. wanted or hazardous. It includes the products
The onset of these effects sometimes occurs of day-to-day living such as music, chirping
after an acute exposure but mostly after a birds or industrial noise from factories and
Figure 7.1 Sound is transmitted in waves, like a pebble thrown into a pond
162 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
workplaces. However, noise is actually an it passes through the elastic medium of air,
energy source that is transferred through a compressing it in the same direction as the
medium (such as air) and is sensed by the acoustic energy. Compression causes a small
hearing mechanism of the body — the ear. increase in the air pressure. When the
Noise can be calming and relaxing. It can also vibrating motion reverses direction, a partial
annoy, disrupt and damage. vacuum or rarefaction occurs.
Vibration often exists in concert with Alternating compression and rarefaction of
noise. It can affect segments of the body, such the air causes small fluctuations in pressure and
as the hands and arms or the whole body. extends outward to form a pressure wave
This chapter provides a description of noise vibrating at the same frequency as the vibrating
and vibration physics, their sources, health source. The ear’s hair cells are able to detect
effects and methods to measure and classify these fluctuations in pressure, convert them
them. The components of a hearing conser- into electrical pulses and send them to the
vation program are also described, together brain where they are interpreted as noise.
with practical methods to control noise at the While this description oversimplifies the
source, its path or at the ear. Methods to generation of sound (a water wave is a com-
control the risk associated with exposure to bination of transverse and longitudinal wave
vibration are also discussed. motion), it has some benefit in explaining how
energy can be converted to acoustic pressure.
Sound pressure waves will actually spread from
THE PHYSICS OF SOUND a source and reflect (or diffract) around an
object or barrier. The nature of the diffraction
The easiest way to describe sound is to consider will depend on the wavelength of the wave,
it as an energy source that is transferred from a which in turn is related to the frequency of the
vibrating body through a medium and to a wave, as shown in Equation 7.1.
receiver. The energy (E) is generated by the
Equation 7.1
movement of molecules in a vibrating object
and is conveyed from the source in waves c = .f
(longitudinal waves). With longitudinal waves, Where:
–1
the particles of the medium vibrate in the same c is speed of sound (m.s )
direction as the motion of the wave. The other is wavelength (m)
–1
type of wave is a transverse wave, where the f is frequency of the wave (cycles.sec )
particles vibrate in a direction that is
perpendicular (transverse) to the motion of the The wavelength is the distance between two
wave itself. The ear detects the resulting sound successive points of the wave and is measured
energy from the wave. in metres. The frequency or number of
Imagine throwing some pebbles into a still compressions and rarefactions in a period is
pond. As the pebbles hit the surface of water, measured in cycles per second or hertz (Hz).
waves are generated from where the pebbles The frequency is sometimes called the pitch of
enter. The transfer of energy causes water to sound. For instance, a beating drum or
be ‘pushed’ from the pebbles. The waves then rumbling diesel engine mainly emits low
reverse direction, returning the water to its frequencies (low pitch). A squeaking wheel or
original position (Figure 7.1). wailing siren usually emits high frequencies.
This analogy is almost identical to the The human ear is relatively insensitive to low
generation and transfer of sound or acoustic and very high frequencies (high pitch). A
energy. As energy is generated from a source, young, healthy human ear has an audible range
Chapter 7: Noise and vibration ■ 163
between 20Hz and 20 000 Hz. Its highest Since the pressure of the wave changes
sensitivity lies between 1000 and 5000 Hz direction (compression and rarefaction), the
(1–5 kHz). maximum amplitude (A) of the curve is both
positive and negative, when compared against
a neutral axis. If the arithmetic mean of the
CHARACTERISTICS OF pressure wave was considered, its overall
SOUNDWAVES amplitude would be zero since the positive
and negative amplitudes of the wave would
As sound energy is transmitted through a cancel out each other. Therefore, to determine
medium in waves, it exhibits certain prop- the equivalent amplitude of the pressure wave
erties. Firstly, the longitudinal waves travel at a (or the effective pressure, peff), the root mean
velocity or speed. The speed of sound differs square (rms) value is taken. This is expressed in
depending upon the medium, temperature and Equation 7.3.
pressure in which it is travelling. At Ø–º C and 1
atmosphere of air pressure, the speed of sound
–1 Equation 7.3
is accepted as 331.3 m.s . As the temperature
(T) increases, the speed of sound also increases peff = prms 0.707 pamplitude
–1
at approximately 0.60 m.s for each 1–º C. The
–1
speed of sound in steel is around 6000 m.s The rms is determined by squaring the mean
–1
and it is around 4700 m.s in aluminium. values of points along the pressure wave and
then taking the square root of this value.
The simple soundwave shown in Figure 7.2
Example 7.1
illustrates the pattern, or cyclic nature, of a
What would be the speed of sound (c) at sinusoidal wave.
20°C and 1 atmosphere? One cycle is described as the displacement
Answer: of a sound source from equilibrium through to
–1
c ≈ (331 + 0.6T) m.s its maximum point, before rebounding to its
–1
≈ 343 m.s minimum level and returning to equilibrium.
Figure 7.2 shows a frequency of 2 Hz or two
Small fluctuations in air pressure that are cycles per second. The time taken to complete
caused through the vibration of air particles the cycle is known as the period (t) and is
are known as acoustic pressure. For simple measured in seconds. Period and frequency are
sounds, the acoustic pressure is described as a inversely related (Equation 7.4).
sinusoidal (sine) curve (Equation 7.2) that
considers:
Equation 7.4
• the angular nature of the wave t = 1/f
• the period or time duration of the Where:
wave (t) T is period (sec)
• amplitude or maximum value of the f is frequency (Hz)
curve (A).
The other characteristic of a soundwave is its
wavelength (l), measured in metres (m). A
Equation 7.2
wavelength is the distance between two
p = A. sin 2πft successive crests or two identical points on the
wave.
164 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
0.707p prms
pa
1
Time (secs)
Pressure
G
Figure 7.2 A simple soundwave
For an ideal point source in a free field Figure 7.3 illustrates the difference between
(where the source is in open air or where noise emission and noise immission.
reflection is limited), the intensity of sound
radiated is given in Equation 7.5.
An example of this type of noise may be a
THE LOGARITHMIC
small loudspeaker operating at low
RESPONSE TO SOUND
frequencies. The continuousness of sound
Since the human ear is able to detect sound
relates to whether the sound is produced
over an incredibly large range, it would be
intermittently or constantly.
impractical to express this linearly. Instead, a
logarithmic scale is used to represent the range
EMISSION AND IMMISSION of intensity and sound pressure levels that can
be detected and interpreted by workers. This
Sound can be generated in several ways. method is more practical, as it allows sound to
Emission refers to the radiation of sound from a be expressed as a logarithmic ration of the value
source. For instance, an electric saw will emit to a reference value of 20 µPa.
noise from the motor and cutting action of the The intensity level of sound is defined in
rotating blade against the timber. Immission Equation 7.6. The intensity level is specified as
describes the influx of sound at a point. Sound a bel. However, because the bel scale is too
immission takes into account the following large to work with, the decibel (dB) is used. A
factors: decibel is one-tenth of a bel.
• the location of the exposed person
Equation 7.6
or workstation in relation to noise
sources Intensity level (IL) = 10 log10I/Iref
• the relationship between noise Where:
immission and normal operations I is intensity of the sound source
–2
• the duration of the immission (W.m )
–12 –2
• if it is caused by a contribution of all Iref is 10 W.m and is the reference
sources. intensity
Machine Machine
• malleus (hammer)
Example 7.4 • incus (anvil)
A sound source has an effective acoustic • stapes (stirrup).
pressure of 25 mPa. What is the sound
pressure level at a point in air? The ossicles transfer the vibrating motion
Answer: of the tympanic membrane to the round
SPL = 20 log10 p/pref window of the cochlea. The round window lies
–3 –6
= 20 log10 25 x 10 /20 x 10 deep in the stapes and causes fluid of the inner
= 62 dB ear to move. The inner ear is situated in the
Chapter 7: Noise and vibration ■ 167
Auricle
Semicircular
canals
Ossicles
Cochlea
Temporal bone
Auditory
tube
G
Figure 7.4 Anatomy of the ear
petrous portion of the temporal bone of the contains a fluid that moves in waves,
skull; when looking from the front of a increasing pressure when the round window
person’s face, it lies behind the eye socket. It exerts force. As the stapes oscillates against
consists of two major parts: the bony labyrinth the round window, a pressure wave is
and membranous labyrinth. The bony labyrinth generated. Low-frequency sounds that are
consists of three regions: transmitted across the round window create
soundwaves that travel all the way through the
• the vestibule cochlea and then back again, without
• cochlea stimulating the organ of corti. This is why we
• semicircular canals. cannot hear certain frequencies. Other higher
frequency soundwaves stimulate the cochlear
The membranous labyrinth lies more or less hair cells, causing the hairs to be ‘pulled’ due
within the bony labyrinth. It is formed from to changes in vibrationary energy. As the hair
sacs and ducts. cells are excited, neurotransmitters are
The chief function of the vestibule is to released and excite the cochlear nerve fibres.
respond to changes in orientation, particularly The firing of the action potentials that follows
of the head position. Receptors within the is transmitted to the brain via the cochlear
semicircular canals respond to angular nerve. The organ of corti is able to detect
movement of the head. The cochlea is the different frequencies in different parts of the
organ that responds to soundwaves. It organ. For instance, high-pitched sounds are
168 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
detected by the hair cells closest to the round cochlear nerve. Occupational exposure to
window. noise can lead to sensorineural deafness or a
noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL). The hairs of
the cochlea are particularly sensitive to loud
EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE noise or noise of certain frequencies. The loss
TO NOISE of hearing can be temporary or permanent.
Hearing loss is a common age-related problem,
The main adverse effect from exposure to although some research indicates the loss may
noise is hearing loss or deafness. Hearing loss be due to the environment and not necessarily
can occur either because of the failure to age-related. This is known as presbyacusis.
conduct sound vibrations in the fluid of the Figure 7.5 illustrates the drop in response to
inner ear or from damage of the cochlear hair frequencies that is illustrated in a person
cells right through to the cochlear nerve. suffering presbyacusis, as an audiogram.
These two types of deafness are classified as A temporary threshold shift (TTS) can occur
conductive deafness and sensorineural after exposure to a high-amplitude noise or
deafness. impact noise such as a gunshot or crash of
As the title suggests, conductive deafness metal-on-metal. This desensitises the cochleal
occurs where the vibrational energy is not hairs, which may appear to ‘bend’. After a
correctly transmitted through the ear. Many period of time, the sensation of dullness of
possible reasons exist for this problem, hearing disappears and hearing returns.
including: A permanent threshold shift (PTS) occurs
where the cochlear hairs are damaged by
• rupturing of the eardrum prolonged exposure to noise. The hairs may
• illness that restricts the vibration of shear from the cochlear membrane. For
the eardrum (i.e. if the person has a workers who sustain a hearing loss, the effects
cold) can be devastating. Since the loss occurs at
• inflammation of the ossicles frequencies in the range of human speech
• ostoscelrosis, a condition where the (around 4 kHz), general conversation becomes
ossicles become fused with difficult. Words with the letters k, t and p are
overgrown connective tissue difficult to hear. Crowd noise, especially, makes
• ossicles being out of alignment it difficult to distinguish conversation from the
following an acoustic trauma. background noise.
Another, more insidious effect of exposure
Sensorineural deafness refers to a problem in to noise is a condition known as tinnitus or
the cochlea — either from damage to the ringing of the ears. Workers with tinnitus
cochlear hair cells, the vibration of fluid or the report the sound to be like ringing, buzzing or
A temporary threshold shift occurs where the cochlear hairs are desensitised and
may actually bend. A primitive method of demonstrating the effect of a TTS is to
switch on a radio, and turn down the volume until it is barely heard by the listener.
After exposure to noise during a typical workday, the radio is switched on and the
volume adjusted until the radio is audible again. The difference between the initial
and final volume of the radio indicates a potential TTS.
Chapter 7: Noise and vibration ■ 169
0 20 years old
10
Hearing loss (dB)
20 40 years old
30
65 years old
40
50
60
Frequency (Hz)
clicking when an auditory stimulus is not hearing loss. These agents are known as
present. The main concern with tinnitus lies in ototoxic agents and include:
its annoyance factor, particularly in quiet
environments such as when the person is • trichloroethylene
trying to sleep or relax. It is believed that • toluene
tinnitus is an early indication of cochlear nerve • butanol
degeneration. • lead
Some other symptoms of exposure to noise • mercury
include: • manganese
• arsenic.
• heart palpitations
• dilation of the pupil Exposure to some chemical agents and noise
• secretion of thyroid hormone and exposure can cause a threshold shift where
adrenalin cortex hormone normally either the noise source or chemical
• churning of the stomach and alone would not cause such a change. These
intestines from muscle movement are known as synergistic effects. Some
• skeletal muscle reaction examples of substances that cause synergistic
• constriction of blood vessels. effects are:
To protect against both these effects, there are Throughout Australia, noise is generally
two types of standards for regulating exposure regulated according to the NOHSC criteria,
to sound pressure levels (with the exception of with some exceptions as detailed above.
Queensland). These are the: Unfortunately, even exposure to less than the
LAeq,8hr of 85 dB(A) will not protect all workers
from noise-induced hearing loss: therefore, it
• equivalent, A-weighted continuous does not provide a clear line between safe and
sound pressure level over eight unsafe.
hours (LAeq,8hr) of 85dB(A), referenced Another method of describing noise
to 20 µPa exposure is called noise dose. The dose is an
• peak, unweighted sound pressure integrated measure that combines the
level (Lpeak) of 140 dB, referenced to criterion sound level and an exchange rate.
20 µPa. The criterion sound level is the allowed
Chapter 7: Noise and vibration ■ 171
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Difference between two noise levels to be added or subtracted (dB(A))
+20
+10 D
C
0 A
B B+C
Relative response (dB)
-10
D
-20
A
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
10 20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
Frequency (Hz)
Occupational noise measurement typically specifies that peak sound pressure levels are to
uses an A-weighting. Exposure to noise is be measured using C-weighting).
expressed as the A-weighted equivalent sound The ultimate aim of determining noise
pressure level or LAeq,T. The equivalent sound immission is to ascertain whether workers’
pressure level integrates sound pressure levels noise exposure exceeds the daily noise dose.
over a period of time, T. The simplest method For this reason, it is imperative that the
of determining LAeq is to measure it directly measurements are representative of the
using an integrating sound level meter (SLM). workers’ actual exposure (in a similar way that
An integrating SLM measures discrete atmospheric contaminants are measured in the
sound pressure levels at time intervals and breathing zone). Another application of sound
then averages the values to give the equivalent pressure level is to monitor individual items of
sound pressure level. machinery or equipment. This data may be
used to develop noise contours and later used
Octaves for implementing controls according to the
hierarchy of control. The three main
Octaves are bands that describe groupings of techniques that can be used to measure noise
frequencies in the ratio of 1:2. An octave in the workplace are the:
describes the centre or mid-frequency between
the range of frequencies. It is given as the • personal sound exposure meter
geometric mean of frequencies. The centre (PSEM)
frequencies that are typically discussed with • sound level meter
noise exposure are 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, • auxiliary instruments (such as tape
1000, 2000, 4000, 8000 and 16 000 Hz. If recorders, data recorders and level
further detail about the characteristics of the recorders).
sound is required, the normal octaves can be
divided into thirds or one-third octaves. Personal sound exposure meter
a piece of static machinery for an extended discrete points in time but can average the
period of time, the PSEM is a valuable meter. It values to provide an integrated value of sound
also gives a reasonably accurate indication of pressure level. For instance, the instrument
the worker’s LAeq,T and Lpeak. Some models have can give a value over a time period such as the
a facility which allows the collected data to be LAeq,60s. This is the optimal sound level meter to
downloaded to computer or serial printer. The use when conducting a sound survey since it
individual sound pressure levels can be plotted can provide an instantaneous value of the
against time to identify times or work equivalent sound pressure level, Leq. AS1259.1
locations where exposure may be high. Some and AS1259.2 detail the compliance
brands provide a statistical analysis of the requirements for integrating and non-
proportion of time spent in areas above 85 integrating sound level meters, respectively.
dB(A) or 90 dB(A), time exceeding the daily The sound level meter consists of a
noise dose and number of excursions above microphone, preamplifier, amplifier, frequency
the peak sound pressure level. weighting, level range control, time averager
and indicating display. The components of the
Sound level meter sound level meter are shown in Figure 7.8.
Sound level meters are classified according
Sound level meters measure sound pressure to their type. There are four types of SLM,
levels in real time. They are used to conduct ranging from 0 to 3. Type 0 sound level meters
noise surveys in a workplace. There are two are not usually used in occupational
main classifications of sound level meters: environments but are found mainly in
laboratories. They have a high sensitivity. Type
• non-integrating (or standard) sound 1 sound level meters are used in workplaces
level meters that require an accuracy of ± 0.7 dB and are
• integrating (or averaging) sound generally used by professionals (e.g.
level meters. consultants) to conduct noise surveys. Type 2
sound level meters are often used by
Integrating sound level meters take occupational hygienists or in-house health and
measurements of sound pressure levels at safety personnel as they are less expensive
Frequency
weighting
Time
weighting
Integrating
circuit
Output
meter
than a Type 1 meter, yet are accurate enough must be set to a linear response.
to comply with AS/NZS1269.1. Type 3 sound To conduct the noise survey, a variety of
level meters should not be used. methods can be used. The first assumes that
Other varieties of sound level meters workers are located at a stationary location
include those that give a readout of the during the entire shift. The sound pressure
instantaneous sound pressure level. The levels at a piece of equipment or plant can
response of these sound level meters is then be measured. It is preferred that the
governed by the time response weighting. The measurements are taken at the ear of the
time response weighting refers to the time worker, where they would normally be located
between detection of the sound pressure level in relation to the equipment. Measurements
and reporting of the value on the sound level should be taken at both ears to check for a
meter. The common settings that are found on difference in exposure at each point. While
most sound level meters are: conducting this monitoring, it is important
that reflection from the body of the worker, the
• fast plant or the person measuring the noise does
• slow not affect the integrity of the results. To
• impulse overcome this, the sound level meter can be
• peak. mounted on a tripod and read from a distance
of at least 1 metre away.
The fast setting responds quickly to the sound The sound level meter can also be used to
source (time constant 0.125 second) but also develop a noise contour plan of the workplace.
decreases quickly. The slow response takes This is especially useful in designating areas
longer to acknowledge the sound source (time according to the sound pressure levels. To plot
constant 1 second) and report the source. It is a noise contour, the sound level meter is used
generally used for root mean square values or to identify a particular sound pressure level,
where rapid fluctuations of the meter output for instance 85 dB(A). The person holding the
need to be damped. An impulse setting sound level meter then moves throughout the
responds with a time constant of 35 workplace, ensuring that the sound pressure
milliseconds and is used for environmental level is maintained at the same level. This
surveys to gauge annoyance. enables contours of equal intensity to be
When using an integrating sound level drawn on the plan of the workplace. Some
meter, the preferred setting is slow. For a non- workplaces use noise contour plans to assist in
integrating sound level meter, the preferred deciding where to make the area a hearing
time setting is ‘fast’. protection zone.
The sound level meter will also have a
weightings network, usually A, C and Calibration and attachments
unweighted (linear or flat). To determine the
sound pressure level at the ear of the worker, It is imperative that the performance of sound
A-weighting is applied in order to compare the level meters and personal sound exposure
results, in dB(A), with occupational standards. meters are checked prior to, at intervals during
The C-weighting facility is used to assist in and following the collection of sound pressure
noise control. Peaks are measured unweighted. levels. The device used to calibrate these
Some instruments also have the facility to instruments is called an acoustic calibrator.
add an octave-band analyser to the sound level The calibrator must also be calibrated regularly
meter (1/1 or 1/3 octave band). To conduct an by an accredited laboratory, such as a NATA
octave-band analysis, the sound level meter laboratory, as required by AS/NZS1269.1.
Chapter 7: Noise and vibration ■ 177
Some acoustic calibrators have two can be used for this purpose. These
calibrating levels but the most common level instruments must also comply with the
used is at 1000 Hz and for a specific sound precision requirements of AS1259.1 for at least
pressure level. It is important that the SLM or Type 2 and preferably Type 1 instruments. Tape
PSEM is set at the correct weighting. For recorders must comply with AS2680. The
instance, a frequency of 1000 Hz is equal to an sound pressure levels are recorded in a similar
unweighted response at 94 dB. The calibration way as the sound level meter — close to the
is conducted by: ear of the worker or near machinery where
workers are sited. An example of the
• switching on the acoustic calibrator application of this type of auxiliary instrument
(a tone is heard) is analysing the characteristics of ‘roof-talk’,
• connecting the acoustic calibrator to the creaking and movement from unstable roof
the microphone of the switched-on strata, in underground coalmines.
SLM or PSEM, ensuring a firm fit
without leakage Frequency analysis
• reading the response from the SLM
or PSEM and adjusting the Earlier in this chapter, the characteristics of
calibration until the response is noise were described as its amplitude,
equal to the sound pressure level frequency and period. The level of risk
from the acoustic calibrator. associated with exposure to noise is also
governed by its frequency, amplitude and
Some sound level meters and personal sound duration of exposure. Sound pressure levels
exposure meters have an internal adjustment that are linear (or non-weighted) are those
for calibration. Therefore, a manual adjust- where no account is taken of the frequencies
ment is not required. It is also important to that contribute to the overall sound. However,
ensure the acoustic calibrator is the same it is possible to determine the types and
brand as the SLM or PSEM. If not, there is no magnitudes of frequencies of a sound source
guarantee of a correct calibration. If an all-day by conducting a frequency or octave analysis.
survey is being conducted, the calibration of This can be conducted by recording the sound
the meter should be checked at least twice, or conducting a real-time analysis using a
with a discrepancy of no more than ± 0.5 dB. facility for measuring frequencies.
If the meter drifts beyond this amount, the The main reasons for analysing frequencies
results must be disregarded and the test are to:
repeated.
Attachments, such as windscreens or • determine whether hearing
extended frequency or level response protection devices are adequate
microphones, can also be used with sound • characterise the sound source
level meters and personal sound exposure • assist in determining engineering
meters. controls to minimise exposure.
Table 7.1 One and one-third octave occupational hygienists should ask themselves
centre frequencies relate to the areas of risk, nature of the risk
and source of the risk. Asking open questions,
1/1 octave band 1/3 octave band such as where, why, who and how, will help to
centre frequency centre frequency provide answers about the nature of the
(Hz) (Hz) workplace and potential problem areas.
The noise survey can also be conducted to
31.5 31.5 assess the effectiveness of engineering
40 controls in place or the type of hearing
50 protection devices that are being utilised. A
63 63 detailed noise assessment could then be
80 conducted using a sound level meter or actual
100 exposure measured with a personal sound
125 125 exposure meter. This will allow the LAeq and
160 peak sound pressure levels to be determined.
200 AS/NZS1269.1 describes noise assessments
250 250 under the following categories:
315
400 • the preliminary noise assessment
500 500 • a detailed noise assessment
630 • the follow-up noise assessment.
800
1000 1000 A preliminary or initial assessment should be
1250 conducted where noise has newly been
1600 identified as a risk at the workplace and a
2000 2000 noise survey has not been previously
2500 conducted. In addition, if previous
3150 assessments have been performed but are
4000 4000 more than five years old, an initial assessment
5000 should be conducted to obtain an overview of
6300 the state of conditions in the workplace. A
8000 8000 detailed assessment may then be required if
10 000 there is doubt as to whether the noise sources
12 500 are placing workers at risk, if the noise sources
16 000 16 000 are complex or if the noise levels are excessive.
The detailed assessment involves
measuring sound levels for the LAeq,8hr or LAeq,T
CONDUCTING A NOISE and the Lpeak. The levels should be taken at
SURVEY work areas or on workers who may be at risk
from noise exposure.
Once noise has been recognised as a risk to The follow-up noise assessment aims to
workers, the next step in the risk management check controls and the current status of noise
process is to conduct an initial noise survey. exposure, although a noise assessment may
The initial survey aims to identify potential have been previously conducted. An assessment
areas of high risk and non-compliance with should be carried out at least every five years or
statutory requirements. The questions that where any of the following have occurred:
Chapter 7: Noise and vibration ■ 179
• a change to the process that may where the worker would normally be
have affected noise exposure standing
• additional equipment or plants have • 0.8 m above the middle of the seat
been added to the workplace for a horizontal seat. If the seat is at
• changes in work procedures that an angle, the microphone should be
could have affected noise exposure. placed 0.8 m as close as possible to
the midpoint of its horizontal and
The first step in conducting the noise assess- vertical adjustment.
ment survey is to calibrate the SLM or PSEM. If
a discrepancy of more than ± 0.5 dB in the The equivalent, continuous sound pressure
reference level, or ± 10 per cent in the refer- level should be measured over a representative
ence noise exposure reading, is found between period of the operation, process or work
two successive checks, then the results of the pattern of exposure. The duration of
measurements taken between the two checks monitoring should include any process or
are invalid. procedures that could significantly vary the
The sound pressure levels are taken either noise level (e.g. machines switching on). No
on a worker or at a particular location where matter what the duration of the measurement
the worker spends their normal workday. The (T), it should be either the entire length of the
occupational noise exposure includes both task or a portion of the task where the Leq can
immissions from equipment and plant, as well be assessed. Whatever is chosen, the reading
as other noise from radios, sirens or warning must stabilise to within ±0.5 dB.
signals. Where a person occupies one work When conducting the noise assessment,
area, the sound pressure levels are taken at adequate information should be kept both as
this location. However, most workers are evidence if required due to litigation and as a
exposed to noise in different work locations. benchmark for the future. Some information
Therefore, the sound pressure levels are that should be kept includes:
measured in each of these locations and
the duration of exposure determined to • details of the workplace (location and
calculate the partial noise dose and daily noise nature of work)
dose. • description of the work environment
The microphone should be located about including nature of work process and
0.1 m, but no more than 0.2 m, from the tasks; acoustic characteristics of the
entrance of the external canal of the ear workplace (e.g. reflective walls and
receiving the higher noise level, at a level that panels, absorbing materials, open
is horizontal to the ear. If this is not practical, areas); working hours for a ‘normal’
the person can be removed from the area and day; number of workers in various
a measurement taken at the location where areas; alterations to the workplace
they would have been. If a PSEM is being worn, compared with a previous
the preferred location of the microphone is the assessment; job description or
top of the shoulder, close to the ear. If it is designation where the measurements
difficult to define the worker’s head position in are taken; and details of current
the work location, AS/NZS1269.1 suggests that controls, including hearing protection
the microphone heights should be: devices
• noise assessment details such as the
• 1.5 m above the ground for a brand and type of sound measuring
standing person, at a location instrument; operating conditions
180 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
pattern, Q equals two. If one wall plus the floor • vibrational energy
causes reflection, the noise will be distributed • mechanical energy
in a one-quarter spherical pattern (Q = 4). • a mechanism for the transfer or
Where the machine is placed in the corner of a coupling of the energy with another
room and there are three sources of reflection, medium for its transmittal
the sound will radiate in a one-eighth spherical • a radiating surface.
pattern (Q = 8). This is shown in Figure 7.9.
This makes it easier to review noise control
Engineering control options methods. If one or more of these factors are
minimised or removed, the noise source will
In order to understand the application of be unable to transmit energy.
engineering controls, it is firstly important to
appreciate the components of a noise source Minimising energy input
that make it conducive to control by damping, Some sources of noise can be minimised by
isolation or absorption. Since noise is actually limiting the available energy that in turn
the perception of energy that is moved causes vibration in equipment or surfaces. For
through waves, we can expand this to show instance, reducing the height of an object
that a noise source requires: falling or avoiding impact. Figure 7.10 and
Figure 7.11 show some examples of these
techniques.
Q=8 Q=4
Solid cover
over drive belt Wire mesh
Absorbent walls
Reflective
board Plasterboard
Carpet
FIGURE 7 14
Figure 7.14 Sound absorbing materials used in an isolation room
Plasterboard
and batons Plasterboard
and batons
Glass
Synthetic
mineral
fibre
the tone is decreased by 5 dB and three bursts These shifts would be compared with reference
again presented. audiometry and the person may be asked to
The lowest level at which two out of the seek further medical opinion as to the cause of
three bursts are heard is taken as the person’s the shift. From a risk management perspective,
threshold hearing level. The frequencies that are a change in a worker’s hearing threshold is of
taken in this sequence are 1000, 1500, 2000, serious concern to the workplace. The
3000, 4000, 6000, 8000 and 500 Hz then 1000 Hz following steps should be taken to minimise the
is re-tested. The rechecked 1000 Hz should risk of noise-induced hearing loss:
agree with the initial test within ± 5 dB other-
wise the first test at 1000 Hz should be 1. identify changes that may have contributed
discarded. to an increase in noise exposure.
The results of audiometric testing should 2. Measure the current noise levels and
be recorded using approved symbols of the frequencies in the workplace.
Australian Audiological Society. 3. Review the existing control methods,
Automatic recording audiometry is a lot including frequency and duration of
easier to conduct. Once recording has begun, exposure.
the test continues until both ears have been 4. Ascertain whether the attenuation of the
tested once. The test is then repeated at one hearing protection device is suitable for the
or two of the first frequencies of the first ear. If actual noise exposure in the workplace.
the results agree with the first testing, the 5. Determine the integrity of the worker’s
results can be kept. A deviation of more than hearing protection device for damage or
5 dB means the test should be repeated. wear.
Once the testing has finished, the person 6. Ask the worker whether they have any
should be provided with a copy of their difficulty in using the supplied hearing
audiometric assessment. The meaning of the protection devices.
audiogram should be explained in a way that is 7. Check whether the worker actually uses the
easy to understand. In some cases, further hearing protection device correctly and
audiometric testing is required to confirm a consistently.
threshold shift. The additional testing must be
conducted on another day and after at least Calibration of the audiometer
sixteen hours of quiet conditions. The cases
where further testing may be needed include: Similar to noise measuring devices, the
integrity of the audiometer must be tested
before use by calibrating the meter. First, a
• a shift in average threshold at 3000, tester with normal hearing conducts a listening
4000 and 6000 Hz of 5 dB or more check prior to use.
• a shift in the mean threshold greater This check aims to identify distortions and
than or equal to 10 dB at 3000 and other unwanted sounds from the audiometer
4000 Hz for at least three attenuator settings,
• a change in the mean threshold of separated by at least 20 dB and for all
15 dB or greater at 6000 Hz frequencies. A subjective calibration test
• a threshold shift of 15 dB or should be conducted at least once per week
greater at 500, 1000, 1500 or but preferably each day. In this test, an
2000 Hz audiogram of a person with stable hearing is
• a threshold shift greater than or taken at each test frequency and the results
equal to 20 dB at 8000 Hz. compared with a known audiogram. If the
190 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Example 7.8
An octave band analysis of a sound source showed the following results:
Octave band centre frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Equivalent SPL (Leq,T) 106 108 109 101 95 96 90
The hearing protection devices worn by the workers have the following attenuation:
Octave band centre frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Attenuation (mean – SD) (dB) 12 18 26 35 36 36 22
Step 1
For each octave, subtract the octave-band attenuation of the hearing protector from the
actual noise exposure.
Octave band centre frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Equivalent SPL (Leq,T) 106 108 109 101 95 96 90
Attenuation (mean – SD) (dB) 12 18 26 35 36 36 22
Attenuated levels (dB) 94 90 83 66 59 60 68
Step 2
Add the A-weighting corrections. Where there are high and low frequencies and 63 Hz
and 16 kHz octaves are measured, the A-weighted corrections are 26 dB and – 7 dB,
respectively.
Octave band centre frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Attenuated levels (dB) from Step 1 94 90 83 66 59 60 68
A-weighting correction (dB) –16 –9 3 0 +1 +1 –1
A-weighted attenuated levels 78 81 80 66 60 61 67
(dB(A))
Step 3
Combine the A-weighted attenuated levels from Step 2. Therefore the combined A-
weighted effective sound pressure level is 85 dB(A).
194 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Whole-body vibration
measurement
is not exceeded at any time unless special acceleration. The technique for monitoring
precautions and controls are taken. hand–arm vibration is similar to that of whole-
The fatigue-decreased proficiency body vibration. The main difference lies in the
boundary is a level beyond which a significant use of two orthogonal coordinate systems to
risk to working efficiency may occur. It is describe the direction of the vibration: the
expressed as a function of frequency and basicentre and biodynamic systems.
exposure time for either longitudinal (az) or The basicentre system is defined by
transverse acceleration (ay and ax). considering the location and direction of the
Exposure graphs (from AS2670.1) are read tool or equipment. The biodynamic system
by deciding on the exposure standard that is to takes its reference from the knuckle of the
be used and then comparing the measured third finger of the hand. As the tool is being
–2
acceleration (m.s ) at certain frequencies to used, the accelerometer is attached either to
determine the allowed exposure time. From the tool or on the surface between the palm of
these graphs, the acceleration levels of the the hand and the tool. AS2763 is the standard
exposure limit standard are actually the that provides guidance for measuring and
fatigue-decreased proficiency boundary assessing hand–arm vibration for an exposure
multiplied by a factor of two (or 6 dB higher). period of four hours. The three axes are
The reduced comfort boundary is obtained by monitored for their accelerations and the
dividing the fatigue-decreased proficiency by largest of the weighted accelerations is then
3.15 (or reducing it by 10 dB). chosen. AS2763 includes graphs which indicate
The standard focuses on four criteria: the probability that vibration-induced white
intensity, frequency, direction of vibration and finger syndrome will occur at particular
duration of exposure. The intensity refers to accelerations (measured as rms).
the magnitude or acceleration of the vibration. It is important to remember that the graph
Its frequency will impact on the body organs is given for an equivalent rms acceleration
that are affected by exposure. The direction of value over an exposure period of four hours.
vibration is measured in either the x, y or z The graph then prescribes the percentage of
axes. Duration of exposure will impact on the people who are exposed at this weighted
risk of adverse health effects to workers. acceleration and the time before vibration-
From the exposure standards, it can be induced white finger exposure will occur.
seen that the body is most vulnerable to In some cases, exposure to vibration may
frequencies of 4–8 Hz for longitudinal not be the same. For instance, different tools
vibration. For transverse vibration the sensitive with different accelerations may be used. In
frequencies are around 1–2 Hz. this case, the equivalent frequency-weighted
acceleration can be determined by considering
Hand–arm vibration the duration of exposure and acceleration.
measurement This is showed in Example 7.10.
Since the graph from AS2763 is expressed as Otherwise, isolation of the vibration source or
an acceleration value for a daily period of four restricting its transmission can be effective
hours, it may be necessary to adjust the control mechanisms. Isolating techniques can
frequency-weighted acceleration to this only be effectively applied if the ratio of
period. Equation 7.18 shows how this can be disturbing frequency to natural frequency is
conducted. known. If the ratio is greater than √2, isolation
is feasible. For ratios less than √2, damping
should be used. Some examples of isolation
Equation 7.18
methods include:
aw,eq,4hr = aw,eq,T x T/4
• anti-vibration mountings (AVM) —
Example 7.11 converts exposure from seven that isolate the vibration source from
hours to four hours to compare with the its supporting structure to reduce
guidelines. transmission
• inertia blocks — such as heavy
concrete or steel, to increase the mass
Example 7.11
and therefore lower the vibration
–2
Convert aw,eq,7hr of 10.6 m.s to aw,eq,4hr amplitude.
Answer:
aw,eq,4hr = 10.6 x 7/4
–2
Anti-vibration mountings
= 14 m.s
There are several forms of anti-vibration
mountings (AVM), which are useful in isolating
CONTROLLING VIBRATION vibration. Springs, rubber mats, cork isolators
EXPOSURE and insulation pads all adopt the same
philosophy of providing a barrier between the
The techniques used for minimising exposure vibrating source and the floor or surface to
to vibration follow similar principles to that of which it is mounted. The magnitude of
noise exposure. The hierarchy of control can isolation will depend upon the amount of
also be adopted, although practicability may compression that the material can generate.
affect the application of certain principles of The most effective form of AVM are springs.
the hierarchy. For whole-body vibration the Some typical applications of these in industry
source of vibration can be minimised by include:
increasing the stiffness of the source to reduce
the resonance. Other methods of source • mounting heavy vehicle drivers’
alteration include: seats on a suspension system
• placing laboratory benches with
• re-balancing unbalanced fans or sensitive scales on spring isolators
rotating drums • mounting the vibrating screens in
Chapter 7: Noise and vibration ■ 199
coal preparation plants mounted inside the tool to reduce the produced
with springs to reduce overall vibration. The materials are usually rubber or
vibration transmission throughout other visco-elastic materials that dampen the
the plant. high-frequency components of the vibration.
Since segmental vibration can cause
Inertia blocks degeneration of the vascular, muscular and
nervous tissue of the hand and arm, another
Inertia blocks increase the mass of the method of limiting exposure is to reduce the
vibrating source in order to decrease the transmission through the tool to the body.
vibration amplitude and minimise rocking. The Anti-vibration gloves are useful in this regard
only limitation with inertia blocks is that they but can be cumbersome and reduce the tactile
must also be accompanied with isolators. They response and grip strength. They are also
are particularly effective for a number of aimed to protect against high frequencies. The
vibration plants that must be continually advantage of the gloves is that they can help
supported. keep the hands warm and prevent cuts or
other skin abrasion.
Damping
Administrative controls to
Where the ratio of disturbing frequency to minimise vibration exposure
natural frequency is less than √2, damping is
recommended. Damping is particularly These controls are similar to those suggested
efficient where the generated vibration levels for noise exposure and include:
are similar to the resonating frequencies. This
allows the mechanical energy from the • pre-employment medicals to assess
vibrating source to be converted to thermal workers who may be susceptible to
energy. Some examples of damping include: the effects of exposure to whole-
body and segmental vibration
• lining pipes and chutes with rubber, • maintenance of tools and adopting
• using a combination of hardwood the principle of purchasing tools
and fibreboard for wall construction with minimal vibration
• a combination of steel plating and a • work–rest regimes to minimise
thick damping layer to enclose a exposure to vibration.
vibrating plant in a large workshop.
Training about the risk associated with
Segmental vibration control exposure to vibration should also be provided,
including work practices such as:
The main characteristic of segmental vibration
that contributes to its hazardous nature is its • keep the hands warm and do not
proximity from the source to a particular area allow them to become wet and cold
of the body. To minimise risk of vibration white • do not smoke (a vasoconstrictor)
finger, vibration transmission can be halted when using vibrating hand tools
either at the source or at the path. The two • use supplied personal protective
main techniques used are damping in tools and equipment such as anti-vibration
damping gloves. gloves with full fingers
Anti-vibration tools place damping material • reduce exposure time associated
between the tool housing and the hand or with the vibration source where
200 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
SUMMARY
As occupational hygiene hazards, noise and vibration are among the most commonly faced in
Australian workplaces. Noise is a term used to describe our interpretation of sound. However,
excessive exposure may lead to physiological and psychological effects.
Exposure to vibration through the body or the hands and arms can also result in adverse
health effects. This chapter has described the physics of noise and vibration, the health effects
and methods for monitoring and interpreting the risk associated with exposure to these
hazards.
Standards Association of Australia 1990, AS2670.1: 1990 Evaluation of Human Exposure to Whole-body
Vibration — General Requirements, Standards Australia, Homebush
Standards Association of Australia 1990, AS2670.2:1990 Evaluation of Human Exposure to Whole-body
Vibration — Continuous and Shock-induced Vibration in Buildings (1 to 80 Hz), Standards Australia,
Homebush
Standards Association of Australia 1990, AS2670.3: 1990 Evaluation of Human Exposure to Whole-body
Vibration — Evaluation of Exposure to Whole Body Z-axis Vertical Vibration in the Frequency Range 0.1
to 0.63 Hz, Standards Australia, Homebush
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS1269.0: 1998 Occupational Noise
Management Part 0: Overview, Standards Australia/New Zealand, Homebush
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS1269.1: 1998 Occupational Noise
Management Part 1: Measurement and Assessment of Noise Immission and Exposure, Standards
Australia/New Zealand, Homebush
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS1269.2: 1998 Occupational Noise
Management Part 2: Noise Control Management, Standards Australia/New Zealand, Homebush
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS1269.3: 1998 Occupational Noise
Management Part 3: Hearing Protector Program, Standards Australia/New Zealand, Homebush
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS1269.4: 1998 Occupational Noise
Management Part 4: Auditory Assessment, Standards Australia/New Zealand, Homebush
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS2399: 1998 Acoustics — Specifications For
Personal Sound Exposure Meters, Standards Australia/New Zealand, Homebush
Ylikoski, M. and Ylikoski, J.S. 1994, ‘Hearing Loss and Handicap of Professional Soldiers Exposed to
Gunfire Noise’, Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health, vol. 20, pp. 93–100
Chapter 8
In Australia, exposure to the extremes of heat conditions alter. This equilibrium is called
and cold occurs more often than you may homeostasis. Homeostatic balance occurs
realise. With such an expansive land area that where receptors monitor the environment and
extends from the tropics in the north, deserts respond to these changes to balance the
in the centre and snow-covered mountains in internal workings of the body within a small
the south, heat and cold are real occupational window or range.
hygiene issues. However, the body has only a limited
The body has its own thermoregulatory capacity to adjust to extremes of temperature
system to respond to such extremes but in and humidity. An imposed heat stress from the
some cases this is inadequate. Mines, environment will cause a resulting strain on
foundries, outdoor work and laundries are the body. This typically produces physiological
typical sources of excessive heat, which can reactions such as increased skin temperature,
also be combined with high relative humid- sweat production, increased heart rate and
ities. Cold exposure may occur for workers in higher core temperature.
the meat processing industry, cold storage Low levels of heat stress cause discomfort
warehouses or while working outdoors during because the body must adjust to cope with the
the winter months in southern states. extra heat load while higher levels can lead to
This chapter describes the body’s serious health problems.
mechanism for regulating heat, thermo- The human body’s thermal regulation
regulation; health effects from exposure to system is controlled principally by the
extremes of heat; and environmental and hypothalamus, which contains neurones that
physiological methods for assessing the risk of are sensitive to changes in arterial blood
heat-induced illness. A variety of controls are temperature. The hypothalamus integrates the
also described that can be adopted in most information from these various sensory nerves
workplaces. and regulates heat loss from the body. The
thermoregulatory system of the human body
tries to keep a heat balance in which there is
THERMOREGULATION: no net loss or storage of heat. This can be
MAINTAINING THE BODY’S described by the heat balance equation
EQUILIBRIUM (Equation 8.1) that is shown on the following
page.
The human body must maintain a constant
internal environment, even when external
204 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Ultimately, the body must ensure working to 38°C. Heat cramps usually occur in
muscles have an adequate supply of blood but unacclimatised workers who have replenished
it must also redistribute blood to the skin to water lost through sweating but who have not
facilitate heat exchange through conduction. replaced salt at the same time.
To do this, a disproportionate amount of blood
is shunted to the skin for heat exchange. The Heat oedema
consequence of this routing of blood is a
reduction in the volume of blood returning to One of the milder afflictions caused by
the heart, thereby decreasing the amount of exposure to heat is called heat oedema. This
blood pumped per heartbeat (stroke volume). condition causes swelling which is most
In hot conditions heat loss is increased first noticeable around the ankles and generally
by vasodilation which increases the flow of occurs among workers who are not
blood to the skin and raises skin temperature. acclimatised to working in hot conditions.
If this is insufficient, body temperature will rise
further and sweating begins to increase heat Heat syncope
loss by evaporation. Repeated exposure to
heat leads to modified responses in the Heat syncope (heat-induced giddiness and
sweating mechanism and cardiovascular fainting) is caused by the loss of body fluids
system. This is known as heat acclimatisation. through sweating and by lowered blood
Where the environment is both hot and pressure due to pooling of blood in the legs
humid (the air is saturated with water vapour), while working in a standing position.
such as underground mines and laundries,
excessive fluid loss can occur over a work shift. Heat exhaustion
This is chiefly due to evaporative heat loss
achieved by sweating and inadequate Heat exhaustion or prostration is also caused
hydration. Depending upon the severity of by salt depletion and is characterised by
fluid loss, the total blood volumes can excessive sweating but with cold, pale and
decrease to such a level where stroke volume clammy skin. Dizziness, blurred vision and
is reduced. The major effects of exposure to unconsciousness may accompany a rapid but
heat stress are prickly heat rash, heat cramps, weak pulse. Nausea, heat cramps and rapid
heat oedema, heat syncope, heat exhaustion, shallow panting may also be present.
heat stroke and hyperpyrexia.
Heat stroke and hyperpyrexia
Prickly heat rash
The most serious heat illnesses are heat stroke
Heat rashes exhibit as red spots on the skin and hyperpyrexia. These are caused by
that cause a prickling sensation during heat prolonged work in extremely hot
exposure. environments. Symptoms of heat stroke
include dry, hot skin. This is due to the failure
Heat cramps of sweating. Body temperature often exceeds
41°C and complete or partial loss of
Heat cramps are often the first indicator of a consciousness occurs. The signs of heat
heat-related problem. Symptoms are sharp and hyperpyrexia are similar except that the skin
painful spasms in the muscles that are being remains moist. Heat stroke and heat
stressed. Deep body core temperature is still hyperpyrexia can be fatal and require prompt
within the normal range of approximately 36°C medical attention.
206 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
The central and western regions of Queensland are renowned for unrelenting high
ambient temperatures around 40°C during summer months. Some maintenance
operations at open-cut coalmines require workers to crawl into confined spaces
with little ventilation. A boilermaker was repairing the bucket of a dragline in
these conditions and suffered a heat-induced illness as a result of the radiant heat,
protective clothing that had to be worn and ambient conditions.
The worker had recently returned from extended leave in a much cooler
location and was not acclimatised to the working conditions.
These devices consist of a transmitter, estimates. The ACGIH advises that workers
which is worn around the chest, and a wrist should not be allowed to continue their
receiver. The device is frequently used by work when their deep body temperature
athletes but is also useful to track a worker’s exceeds 38°C. However, additional care must
heart rate and relate this to stresses caused by be taken with pregnant workers. If a pregnant
exposure to heat. worker’s core temperature exceeds 39°C for
Since heart rate is affected not only by heat extended periods during the first trimester, the
but also by metabolic work, it is sometimes unborn foetus is at increased risk of
difficult to differentiate an increase in heart malformation. Core body temperatures above
rate exclusively from heat. In Australia there is 38°C have also been reported to cause
no standard heart rate that is recommended for temporary infertility in both males and
work. An increase in heart rate can be due to a females.
number of individual factors, including fitness,
illness or anxiety. Minard (1973) suggests a Skin temperature
mean heart rate of 110 beats per minute
–1
(b.min ) over an eight-hour shift is a reasonable One mechanism of body temperature
limit for work involving heat exposures. The regulation is to vary the amount of blood
ACGIH have provided heart rate guidelines flowing to the skin. This changes the skin
relating to tasks where the wet bulb globe temperature, and hence changes the rate at
temperature (WBGT) threshold limit values are which heat is lost or gained by radiation and
exceeded or if water–vapour impermeable convection. The mean skin temperature of a
clothing is worn. In such situations, it suggests person feeling comfortable in an environment
that work should discontinue if a sustained is around 33°C. Skin temperatures over the
–1
heart rate is more than 160 b.min for those trunk will usually be 3–4°C higher than over
–1
under 35 years of age or 140 b.min for those the limbs.
aged 35 years or older. Where the environmental surroundings are
warmer than the skin, heat cannot be lost
Core body temperature through radiation and convection; instead, the
body will gain heat from its surroundings. In
One of the most direct outcomes of excessive this case, sweating is a very effective manner
exposure to heat is a rise in core body to prevent overheating.
temperature. A variety of techniques exist for One method of monitoring skin temper-
monitoring deep body core temperature but ature is to use a digital thermometer that is
only a few are practical for use in an industrial placed over various locations on the body.
setting. The more practical measures include
rectal, oral, skin and aural (ear) temperature. Sweat loss
Rectal temperatures up to 38°C or
slightly higher are usually viewed as acceptable The most important avenue of heat loss during
or safe, while temperatures around 39°C exercise or work is the evaporation of sweat
have been described as undesirable or unsafe. from the surface of the skin. Situations that
Physiological monitoring of core body limit this process such as high relative
temperature overcomes the inherent problems humidity reduce thermal tolerance and
of extrapolating environmental temperature increase the susceptibility to thermal injury.
readings and metabolic heat production One technique to measure electrolyte loss is
208 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
the use of an electronic device that looks the only parameter to consider. Muscular work
similar to a wristwatch. It collects a sample of is associated with an increase in the body’s
sweat. The accumulated sample is then metabolic rate. This occurs because of the
evacuated for electrolyte analysis. working muscles’ increased demand for
Other methods for assessing fluid loss are oxygen and nutrients.
to consider the overall weight loss during a With an increase in metabolic rate,
shift by firstly weighing the worker before however, comes an increase in the amount of
work (preferably nude) and again at the end of heat produced. This is a result of the largely
the shift. The weight of food and drink inefficient process of converting energy into
consumed during the shift is closely monitored external work (termed the mechanical
to provide an indication of overall fluid loss efficiency). Generally, the mechanical efficiency
during the shift. Gross fluid change represents of muscular work is between 0 per cent and 50
the change in hydration status resulting from per cent (Astrand & Rodahl 1986), with most
the metabolic work rate and ambient forms of exercise exhibiting efficiencies in the
environmental conditions. It can be calculated range of 20–25 per cent (Bray et al., 1994). This
using Equation 8.2. means that 50–75 per cent of the energy
expended to create movement is released into
the body as heat. A significant portion of this
Equation 8.2
heat load must be dissipated to the external
GFC = BMPST – BMPRE – FI – FLI environment, otherwise the body will retain
Where: and accumulate heat, leading possibly to an
GFC is gross fluid loss abnormal increase in core temperature,
BMPST is body mass post-shift followed potentially by the development of
BMPRE is body mass pre-shift heat stress.
FI is food intake
FLI = fluid intake
Equation 8.4
NWB – WB = [0.16 (GT – DB) + 0.8 (560 –
–1
2RH – 5DB0] – 0.8 for v > 0.15 m.s
Source: Malchaire (1976)
Globe temperature
Globe temperature (GT) is determined from an Figure 8.3 The Kata thermometer
ordinary glass thermometer that is inserted –1
y
dit
42
mi
hu
39
W
ive
& d et bu
0%
36
lat
ew lb
po temp
Re
10
int
%
90
tem eratu
%
38
80
re
Vapour pressure (mmHg)
pe
%
70
rat (°
ure C)
60
%
30
50
(°C
%
)
40
27 %
30
25 %
24
20
21
%
18 10
15
12
3
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Dry bulb temperature (°C)
temperature) and this depression found on one The P4SR, WBGT, ET and CET are empirical
axis of the table. Secondly, the dry bulb indices. This means that they were developed
temperature (listed on the other axis of the after considering the physiological responses of
table) is used to directly read the relative people. The HSI was modelled on the heat
humidity level. balance equation. More recently, an analytical
index called the required sweat rate has been
developed. This has been adopted by the
HEAT STRESS INDICES International Standards Organisation as
ISO7933, as a method to evaluate and interpret
A heat stress index is a single number that the thermal stress experienced by a subject in a
integrates the effects of basic parameters in hot environment. The standard does not predict
any thermal environment. It aims to correlate the physiological response of individual
the number with the thermal strain workers but only considers the standard
experienced by an exposed person. At this subjects in good health and fit for the work they
point, it is important to distinguish between perform. The calculations of required sweat
two terms: heat stress and heat strain. Heat rate are complicated and usually performed by
stress describes the total heat load on the computer.
body from all sources. Heat strain relates to
the physiological response to the imposed Effective temperature index
stress. and corrected effective
The aim of heat stress indices is to provide temperature index
an accurate prediction of workers’ physio-
logical state at any time of the exposure. This Houghton and Yaglou (1923) devised the
in turn will allow assessment of the effective temperature index as a comfort scale.
permissible duration of exposure and the It combines the effects of air temperature,
duration of rest breaks. Even though humidity and air movement into a single value
development of an index has continued for (ET). The limitation of effective temperature is
almost a century, it has proved difficult to that it was not devised to make an allowance
derive a single-figure heat stress index which is for radiant heat. It was later modified to form
both an accurate indicator of risk and univer- the corrected effective temperature index. This
sally applicable. index uses a globe thermometer reading
There is probably more than a dozen instead of the air temperature reading but is
heat stress indices available for use in study- otherwise similar to the ET index. The chart
ing the relationship between heat stress used for determining both the ET and CET
and heat strain. The main indexes that can indices is shown in Figure 8.5.
be used to manage the risk of heat stress are
the: Predicted 4-hour sweat rate
• effective temperature (ET) or The predicted 4-hour sweat rate index measures
corrected effective temperature sweat rate as a function of climate stress. It uses
(CET) a nomogram (Figure 8.6) to predict the quantity
• predicted 4-hour sweat rate (P4SR) of sweat given off over a four-hour period. The
• wet bulb globe temperature P4SR is one of the few indices which takes into
• heat stress index (HSI) account all of the environmental factors in
• required sweat rate. addition to metabolic rate and clothing.
Veloc
it y of a
ir (m.s -1
)
4.00
3.50
0.10
0
7.50
6.00 5.00
0.50
0
1.00
2.50
3.00
1.50
2.00
Globe temperature or dry bulb temperature (°C)
0
5
10
15
10
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
15
10
20
15
Co
rre
cte
de
25
ff e
cti
ve
20
(or
e ff
ec
tiv
e)
25
tem
pe
rat 30
ure
(°C
)
30
35
35
40
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
DB
3.0
1.0
B4
/s = W
0.0 36
50 100 150 200 50
=W 2
B1
0.32 m
W B
100 150 200
3
W/m-2
m/s
B
m/s
=W
Metabolic rate 35.5
S2
0.37
0
S1
m/s
2 . 5
6.0
0.35
5.0
5.0
34.5
37
4.0 4.0 34
)
e (˚C
33.5
3.0 3.0
33
ratur
40 35
e
35
emp
2.0 2. 32
0 34
ulb t
34 31
33
dry b
1.0 30
1.0 33 32
28
s)
e or
32
tre
35 31 25
(li
31 30 21
e
Glob
at
0.5 16
tr
0.5 30 28
ea
w
28
rs
0.05
0.15
0.25
4h
0.35
0.37
2.50
c
si
0
Ba
ity
eloc
0 Air V /s-1 )
(m
30
-0.25
-0.5
2.50
1.50
1.00
0.05
0.37
-0.37
developed in a United States investigation into The resultant WBGT values are then compared
heat casualties during military training and is with permissible heat exposure threshold limit
currently recommended by the ACGIH. It is values to take into account metabolic factors
actually an environmental measurement from via a workload schedule. These are expressed
which the potential for heat stress is inferred, as work–rest regimes over a one-hour period.
by considering: Therefore, care should be taken in gathering
the data to ensure it is the moving average of
WBGT over the one-hour period. Table 8.1
• globe temperature
shows the recommended maximum WBGT
• dry bulb temperature
indices or the work–rest regimes.
• the temperature of a naturally
Area heat stress monitors are on the
ventilated wet bulb thermometer
market to make the task of measuring and
functioning as an integrating sensor.
calculating WBGT much simpler. Most
automatically calculate WBGT for either an
The WBGT index is incorporated into ISO7243, indoor or outdoor environment, as well as the
to estimate heat stress on workers. It takes individual parameters obtained from the
into account whether workers are exposed to thermometers. Since the WBGT is an index
heat with solar radiation or without. Equation that does not consider the effect of acclimatis-
8.6 shows the calculation for conditions with ation, gender, clothing or age, there have been
and without solar radiation. suggestions that the limit values of WBGT
should be adjusted to take account of these
Equation 8.6
factors. For instance, imagine the effect of heat
Indoors or outdoor with no heating by strain when wearing an impermeable chemical
sun suit compared with a singlet and shorts!
WBGT = 0.7 NWB + 0.3 GT The ACGIH has recommended that the
Outdoor exposure to the sun threshold limit value of WBGT is modified for ac-
WBGT = 0.7 NWB + 0.2 GT + 0.1 T climatisation, fitness and clothing (see Table 8.2).
temperature the risk of fatality increases, until ACGIH TLV for cold stress
at temperatures below 30°C the imminent
death of an individual is likely due to cardiac The ACGIH provides a method for assessing
arrest. exposure to cold. These are expressed as the
equivalent chill temperature (ECT). For
exposed skin, the ACGIH recommends that
The effects of exposure to cold workers should not be continuously exposed
to an ECT of less than –32°C. The ECT
The first sign of the risk associated with considers the estimated wind speed and actual
exposure to cold conditions is pain, then temperature. It is available in the ACGIH’s TLV
numbness of the extremities (especially the and BEI document.
fingers and toes). This is due to the body The ACGIH also suggests that superficial
shunting warm blood to the core of the body, freezing will occur at temperatures below –1°C,
away from the non-vital areas such as the regardless of wind speed. To minimise expos-
hands, feet, nose, cheeks and ears. This can ure time, work-warming regimes can be used in
lead to frostbite. ‘Trenchfoot’ or immersion a similar method to the work–rest regimes
foot can also occur. As the cardiovascular from the WBGT index for heat exposure.
system attempts to compensate for the heat
loss from the body, the metabolic rate rises. Controls for cold
Maximum shivering occurs when the core body
temperature is 35°C. This is known as
Exposure to extremely cold environments may
hypothermia. As the body’s temperature
lead to hypothermia, where the body’s core
decreases, cognitive reaction times slow, the
body temperature falls to below about 35°C.
metabolic rate increases in an attempt to
However, it is not only the air temperature
compensate for heat loss and the body shivers.
which impacts on the risk to cold stress. Low
air temperatures aggravated by the wind,
immersion in water and working in wet
Cold stress indices clothing all increase the risk. Depending upon
the exposure situation, a combination of
Compared to heat stress, the number of administrative controls and personal pro-
indices available to predict outcomes and tective equipment may be the best option to
control exposure for cold exposure is minimise risk of cold-induced illness. Some
extremely limited. The two main techniques examples of controls include:
are the still shade temperature and ACGIH TLV
for cold stress. • warm air jets, hot plates or radiant
heaters
• insulating handles of tools with
Still shade temperature thermal insulating materials
• anti-contact gloves with padding and
This index considers the outdoor environ- insulation characteristics
mental conditions, assuming that there is no • shielding the work area from the
solar load and no heat effect. Alterations are wind by enclosures (e.g.
made if solar heat is absorbed by the body or telecommunications workers repairing
if wind speed increases. An increase in wind joining lines while huddled under
speed will affect the windchill factor. tents)
222 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
SUMMARY
Exposure to heat typically results in the body compensating for any temperature gains to
maintain homeostasis. However, where this is not possible, a resulting heat strain may occur.
Managing risks associated with exposure to heat or cold can be conducted through either
physiological or environmental monitoring.
Environmental indices such as WBGT, ET, P4SR, HSl and required sweat rate can be used
for exposure to heat. The still shade temperature index and ACGIH TLV can be used for
evaluating and controlling exposure to cold stress.
Mariaux, P. and Malchaire, J. 1995, ‘Comparison and Validation of Heat Stress Indices in Experimental
Studies’, Ergonomics, vol. 38, no.1, pp. 58–72
Minard, D. 1973, ‘Physiology of Heat Stress’, in The Industrial Environment — Its Evaluation and Control,
US Department of Health Education and Welfare, pp. 399–412
Morris, L.A. 1995, ‘Practical Issues in the Assessment of Heat Stress’, Ergonomics, vol. 38, no.1, pp.
183–92
Olesen, B.W. 1985, Technical Review No.2 — 1985 Heat Stress, Bruel & Kjaer, Technical Review No. 2,
Denmark
Pathak, B. 1989, ‘Heat Stress: Too Hot to Handle’, Occupational Health and Safety Canada, vol. 5, no. 6,
pp. 18, 20, 22–4
Pathak, B. and Pilger, C.W. 1988, Work in Hot Environments, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health
and Safety, Ontario
Ramanthan, N.L. and Belding, H.S. 1973, ‘Physiological Evaluation of the WBGT Index for
Occupational Heat Stress’, American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, September, pp. 375–83
Saunders, M.S. and McCormick, E.J. 1993, Human Factors in Engineering and Design, 7th edn, McGraw-
Hill Inc., Sydney
Stanford, H.W. 1988, Analysis and Design of Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Systems, Prentice-
Hall, New Jersey
Waldron, H.A. 1989, Occupational Health Practice, Butterworths & Co., London
Chapter 9
Physical occupational hygiene hazards such as monitor for radiation. A small section of the
radiation and pressure are often overlooked, chapter will be apportioned to pressure, its
since they cannot be sensed through sight, effects and sources.
smell, hearing, taste or touch. However, while
we may not easily perceive the actual hazard,
the consequences of exposure can be IONISING RADIATION
devastating.
Arguably the world’s worst industrial Believe it or not, we are all exposed to natural
incident involving radiation occurred on ionising radiation. Some of it originates from
26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Power Plant in radioactive materials in rocks and soil. Others
the Ukraine (former Soviet Union). An over- are produced by cosmic rays that continually
heated reactor caused a meltdown of the core, bombard us from beyond earth. In the
resulting in two explosions that blew the top workplace, workers may be exposed to
off the reactor building, releasing clouds of ionising radiation in hospitals, dental clinics,
deadly radioactive material into the materials testing laboratories and uranium
atmosphere for more than ten days. The mining. By definition, ionising radiation refers
people of Chernobyl were exposed to radio- to any material that can ionise the atoms or
activity 100 times greater than the Hiroshima molecules of the material it passes through.
bomb of 6 August 1945. After more than a This can cause significant damage to biological
decade, babies are still being born with no tissue. The kinds of radiation of major concern
arms, no eyes or only stumps for limbs. are , , and X rays, as well as protons,
Radiation is a source of energy that is made neutrons and other particles such as pions.
up of waves with different frequency and But what makes a substance radioactive? To
wavelength characteristics, and alpha and beta explain this, the structure and properties of a
particles. Radiation can be categorised into nucleus need to be understood.
two groups: non-ionising and ionising. The
Chernobyl and Hiroshima incidents are Nuclear physics
examples of exposure to ionising radiation.
In this chapter we take a brief look at the As you would be aware, the building blocks of
physics of radiation, radioactivity and life are atoms. Atoms combine to form
radioactive decay. The health effects from molecules, and so the structural complexity
ionising and non-ionising radiation will be increases. Atoms all have common com-
discussed, together with an outline of how to ponents: a nucleus and electrons. Electrons are
226 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
226 222 4
288 Ra – > 286 Rn + 2He
Ra – > Rn + He
element with a lower atomic mass and number. decay are known as particles. Having said
The resultant element is known as the that particles are negatively charged, we will
+
daughter. Therefore, with decay an entirely now introduce the principle of positron ( )
different element is formed. An example of this decay. Some isotopes have a much greater
is the decay of radium-226 to radon-222 number of protons than neutrons. With these
(Figure 9.1). elements, radioactive decay will result in the
+
Radon is used in hospitals for certain emission of a positron (sometimes called e or
+
therapies, although the main hazard is from ) instead of an electron. A positron has a
inhaling dust in the air. Radon build-up is a positive charge of +1. Since it is like an
health consideration in uranium mines. electron, except for its opposite charge, the
Recently, however, radon build-up in homes positron is called the antiparticle.
has become a concern, especially in North
America. Many deaths from lung cancer can be Gamma decay
attributed to radon exposure and Western
Australia also has significant levels of radon in Gamma () decay occurs where a nucleus is in
the soil. Radon gas from the soil can enter a an excited state and it moves into a lower
home or building through dirt floors, hollow- energy state, emitting energy or a photon.
block walls, cracks in the foundation floor and Gamma rays are photons with very high
walls, and openings around floor drains, pipes energy. They do not carry any charge;
and sump pumps. therefore, there is no change in the element as
a result of decay.
Beta decay Usually, atoms get into this ‘excited state’
following previous radioactive decay like
Beta () decay occurs when a nucleus decays decay. It follows, then, that radiation often
with the emission of an electron or particle. accompanies or follows decay.
Beta decay does not cause a change in the Finally, while both and X rays are
number of protons or neutrons in a nucleus. photons, radiation is produced by a nuclear
Therefore, the parent and daughter elements process. X rays are created by an
have the same atomic mass number. For each electron–atom interaction.
decay, the parent nucleus loses a charge of –1
(electrons are negatively charged); therefore, Half-life and rate of decay
the daughter nucleus has an extra positive
charge (Figure 9.2). A neutrino is also emitted. Radioactive decay is a random process. Nuclei
This particle has no charge and is believed to will not all decay at the same time, but over a
have no mass. period of time. The number of decays (N) that
It is important to realise that the electrons occur over a time period (t) will be
that are lost in this process are not those from determined from the total number (N) of
the orbit of the nucleus. Instead, an electron is radioactive nuclei present. We also must
created within the nucleus itself. This is one consider the decay constant (), which differs
reason that electrons emitted through beta for individual isotopes. This is illustrated in
228 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Equation 9.3
–t
Example 9.1
N = No.e
Radon-222 from radium has a half-life of
Where:
3.823 days. What is the activity of a
N is the total number of radioactive 222
sample of Rn after 3 days, if the initial
nuclei
activity is 5 Bq?
No is the number of nuclei present at t
Answer:
=0
= 0.693/(3.823 x 24 x 60 x 60 (s))
is the decay constant –6 –1
= 2.1 x 10 s
t is time (sec) –t
A = Aoe
(0.0000021 x [3 x 24 x 60 x 60]
= 5000 e
The rate of decay each second (N/t) is called
= 2.9 kBq
the activity of the element. Activity (A) is the
number of decays per second from a sample.
The SI unit is the bequerel (Bq) or one
Sources of ionising radiation
disintegration per second. Previously, the curie
In the broad picture of industry as a whole,
(Ci) was used, although this is a very large unit.
10 ionising radiation is found in only a small
One curie is about 3.7 x 10 Bq. Equation 9.4
proportion of workplaces. Some examples of
shows how to calculate activity from initial
sources include:
activity.
• gauges for measuring thickness,
density, moisture and levels
• checking welding defects in metals-
manufacturing workplaces
(non–destructive investigation)
• smoke detectors
Chapter 9: Radiation and pressure ■ 229
• laboratory analysis (e.g. X-ray • Ionising radiation can induce the ab-
diffraction, X-ray fluorescence) normal growth of cells. Advanced
• therapeutic health care (e.g. cancer cancer cells usually have an abnormal
treatment therapy, radioactive complement of chromosomes but
tracers) other smaller genetic changes may also
• diagnostic health care (e.g. CAT scans play a part in carcinogenesis. Since
and X-rays in hospitals, X-rays in dental chromosome damage is most likely to
clinics) happen in dividing cells, ionising
• uranium mines radiation is most likely to cause cancer
• nuclear reactors. in those parts of the body where cells
are actively dividing.
Health effects of exposure to • Ionising radiation kills rapidly
ionising radiation dividing cells. This specific effect of
ionising radiation can, however, be put
Biological damage to the body is dependent on to good use. Cancer cells produced by
the type of radiation and organ that is human genetic defects or other causes
exposed. Charged particles such as and divide rapidly, which is why they are
rays and protons cause ionisation of tissues dangerous. Careful application of
due to their electrical force. Neutral particles radiation therapy can therefore be
such as X rays and ray photons can also used to kill the cancer cells while
ionise atoms in the body. leaving normal cells relatively
High doses of ionising radiation destroy undamaged.
body tissues with death occurring immediately
or soon after exposure. The symptoms of Measuring ionising radiation
radiation sickness include a reddening of the
skin, a drop in white blood cell count, nausea, As we have already discussed in Chapter 1, all
fatigue and loss of body hair. The effects of substances are poisons. However, the dose
lower doses, however, may not show for years distinguishes between the agent having a
after the exposure and are due to various therapeutic or hazardous effect. The measure-
changes in DNA molecules and chromosomes. ment of ionising radiation is known as
There are at least four ways in which low doses dosimetry. This involves measuring the mag-
of ionising radiation can affect cells: nitude or strength of the radiation (its activity)
and considering the area of the body which is
• Low doses of ionising radiation can affected.
bring about delays in the process of The activity can be expressed as the curie
cell division. or bequerel. A useful conversion is that one
10
• Radiation-induced mutations seem curie equals 3.7 x 10 disintegration per
to be brought about by the second and a bequerel is one disintegration
deletion of small pieces of per second.
chromosomes during the process However, while the activity relates to the
of chromosome breakage and decay or disintegration of the source, it does
repair, and if such changes occur not consider the exposure or absorbed dose.
in egg-producing or sperm- Exposure was previously measured by the
producing cells (somatic cells) roentgen (R). One roentgen was defined as the
they may be inherited by the amount of X or radiation that deposits 0.878
–2
offspring. x 10 Joules of energy per kilogram of air.
230 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
a voltage pulse is sent to a detector and for a time, they are returned to an accredited
counter. Most Geiger counters are connected laboratory or provider to determine the dose
to an audible output so a ticking sound is of radiation. The following principles should
heard. As the frequency of ticks or clicks be adopted when wearing these badges:
increases, this reflects the amount of radiation.
It is best for the detection of radiation. • Wear the badge at all times when
A scintillation counter uses a media such as there is a potential for occupational
gas, liquid or solid. This media is called the exposure to ionising radiation.
scintillator. As the radiation particles strike the • Do not wear the badges if receiving
scintillator, it becomes excited and emits diagnostic or therapeutic medical
visible light. This light energy is converted into treatment.
an electrical signal by a photomultiplier tube. • If badges are not being used, they
As a general rule, this type of meter is best for should be stored in an area without
detecting radiation. A typical scintillator is a radiation from activities (background
crystal of sodium iodide (NaI). exposure only) to prevent non-work
related exposure. Refrigeration is
Dosimeters advisable where high temperature or
humidity are encountered.
Dosimeters are able to provide an accurate • Film badges must not be kept in
measure of absorbed dose. Most are small and vehicles or where elevated
can be worn on the worker. Hence they are temperatures may cause damage
particularly useful where workers move around (darkening) to the film. This damage
and can be exposed to various sources of may be indistinguishable from
radiation. The simplest type is the quartz fibre darkening due to radiation exposure.
electroscope. In this dosimeter, electro- • A control badge should be kept with
statically charged quartz fibres are discharged other badges not in use. It should
when they are ionised by the radiation source. also be returned with the rest of the
They are generally used for X and rays. The badges for the same wear period. The
other type is the thermoluminescent control is used to determine
dosimeter (TLD). They are usually available in a background radiation at a location and
number of energy ranges and respond to , any dose received by the badges in
and X emissions. transit. Any recorded dose is
As the radiation interacts with the sensitive subtracted from the other badges, so
crystals, light is stored. The total light is it should not be used for any other
proportional to the amount of radiation energy purpose.
absorbed. TLDs are handy in that they can be • The badge should be clipped on the
reused once the crystals have been annealed. collar of a shirt or dress, the front
The light energy is released when the crystals portion of the torso or at the waist.
are heated at the assessment laboratory. It is advisable to continue using
TLDs have largely replaced the film badge the chosen position for a full wear
dosimeter. The film badge dosimeter is a piece period.
of film wrapped in a light-tight material. As • If the hands are likely to be
ionising radiation passes through the film, it subjected to more radiation
changes so that when the film is developed it exposure than other parts of the
has darkened. body, rings or wrist badges should
After film badges or TLDs have been worn also be worn.
232 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
The magnetic field occurs when the eyes cannot detect this IR radiation
charges are moving and can be measured but our skin feels it as heat
either as the magnetic field strength (H) or • visible light — with wavelengths
magnetic flux density (B). The magnetic field
–1
from about 400 nm for violet light
strength has units of ampere per metre (A.m ). through to about 700 nm for red
Radio frequency (RF) radiation is usually light; our eyes are most sensitive to
expressed in terms of H, with the exposure light in the middle of this range,
standards for magnetic fields of radio waves
2
such as yellow light with a wavelength
and microwaves given in units of H . The of about 550 nanometres (nm)
–9
magnetic flux density has the unit tesla (T), (1 nm = 10 m)
previously gauss (G). • ultraviolet (meaning ‘above violet’)
There are 10 000 gauss in a tesla. Magnetic — causes sunburn and changes in
fields from powerlines, electric motors, skin pigmentation; UV radiation can
monitors and other low-frequency equipment also cause skin cancer and eye
is usually monitored this way. damage
Both the NH&MRC and ACGIH recommend • X rays
occupational exposure standards to static • gamma rays — these can be classed
magnetic flux density. For instance, the ACGIH as either ionising or non-ionising
suggests occupational exposure should not radiation.
exceed 60 mT (600 G) for the whole body or
600 mT for the extremities. A ceiling value of
Ultraviolet radiation
2 T and 5 T has also been suggested for the Ultraviolet radiation is divided into three types
whole body and the extremities, respectively. — A, B and C. Each is characterised by a
For people wearing cardiac pacemakers and different wavelength.
similar medical electronic devices, the ceiling
is 0.5 mT (5 G). • UV-A ranges from 315–400 nm
Electromagnetic waves travel through a
–1
• UV-B ranges from 280–315 nm
vacuum at around 3 x 108 m.s (the speed of • UV-C ranges from 100–280 nm.
light in a vacuum). They are usually expressed
as the electromagnetic spectrum and have a The wavelengths with the highest risk to people
broader range of frequencies (see Table 9.4). In range from 180 to 400 nm, with wavelengths
order of increasing frequency, these are: around 270 nm being the most damaging. The
main organs affected from exposure to UV
• radio frequency radiation are the skin, eyes and possibly the
• infrared (meaning ‘below red’) — the immune system. Reddening or burning
(erythema) of the skin and skin cancer may a monochromatic source of UV radiation at 270
result from excessive skin exposure. Some nm. Individual irradiances are considered,
photosensitising chemicals such as creosote, together with the relative spectral effectiveness
coal tar pitch (from bitumen) and photograph- of the source. Equation 9.5 illustrates how to
developing chemicals can cause the skin to be calculate the effective irradiance (Eeff).
more susceptible to UV-B. Cataracts, conjunc-
tivitis and keratosis may affect the eye. The parts
Equation 9.5
of the eye that may be damaged from exposure
to UV radiation are the conjunctiva, cornea, lens Eeff = ∑ E.S.
and retina. Short wavelength UV radiation Where:
principally absorbs at the cornea, while long Eeff is the effective irradiance relative to
wavelength UV radiation is transmitted through a monochromatic source at 270 nm
–2
the eye and focuses on the retina. (W.cm )
–2 –1
E is spectral irradiance (W.cm .nm )
Exposure standards S is relative spectral effectiveness
is bandwidth (nm)
UV radiation can be measured using a
photoelectric sensor, although from an For a single wavelength, the effective
occupational hygiene perspective it is irradiance is simply the product of spectral
important that we consider the effects of each irradiance and relative spectral effectiveness.
type of UV radiation individually. This is expressed over an eight-hour period.
The exposure standards promulgated by However, where more than one wavelength
the NH&MRC in Australia consider the type of is involved (this is known as broadband
UV radiation and the organ affected. The radiation), the effective irradiance of the
ACGIH also has threshold limit values set for source is calculated by weighting individual
exposure to non-ionising radiation. spectral irradiances against the peak of the
spectral effectiveness curve (270 nm).
UV-A (skin) and UV-B/C (skin or To make the effective irradiance into a
eyes) useable value, the permitted exposure time is
–2
determined by dividing 0.003 J.cm by Eeff
–2
For unprotected skin or eyes, exposure is (W.cm ). This is shown as Equation 9.6, and
calculated as the effective irradiance, relative to Example 9.2 explains this concept.
Example 9.2
A UV radiation source had a spectral irradiance (E) as follows.
–2 –1 –2
E (µW.cm .nm ) S Eeff (µW.cm )
280 1.8 0.88 1.8 x 0.88 x 10 = 15.8
290 2.9 0.64 2.9 x 0.64 x 10 = 18.6
300 3.5 0.30 3.5 x 0.30 x 10 = 10.5
What is the permitted exposure time?
Answer:
Eeff = ∑ E.S.
–2
= 45 µW.cm
Permitted exposure time = 0.003/Eeff
–2 –6 –2
= 0.003 J.cm /45 x 10 W.cm
= 67 seconds
Chapter 9: Radiation and pressure ■ 235
thermal hazard function used in Equation 9.8. AS/NZS2211.1 specifies requirements and
The maximum time of exposure can be procedures designed to protect people from
determined using Equation 9.9, where Lblue is laser radiation. It specifies safe working levels
the product of L and B. The values of L and B of optical radiation, classifies lasers according
are available in the ACGIH TLV booklet. to their degree of hazard and sets out detailed
protective and control measures appropriate
Equation 9.9
to each class. A statement on the effect of laser
–2 4
tmax = 100 J/(cm .sr) (for t ≤ 10 s) radiation on biological tissues is given in
Lblue addition to the maximum permissible
Where: exposures, calculations, a medical surveillance
tmax is permissible exposure duration (s) chart and the design of warning labels and
Lblue is L x B signs. Figure 9.3 illustrates an example of a
warning sign for laser radiation.
Lasers Some other useful standards are:
Common sources of radio frequency fields confirmed by other laboratory studies or their
include: health implications are unknown. Current
scientific evidence indicates that exposure to
• monitors and video display units RF fields is unlikely to induce or promote
(3–30 kHz) cancers.
• AM radio (30 kHz–3 MHz)
• industrial induction heaters Mobile telephones and towers
(0.3–3 MHz)
• RF heat sealers Since this book was originally published in
• medical diathermy (3–30 MHz) 1999, research has continued into the short-
• FM radio (30–300 MHz) and long-term health effects of mobile
• mobile telephones, television telephones and towers. Most research points
broadcast, microwave ovens to no substantiated evidence that living near
(0.3–3 GHz) mobile phone towers or using a mobile
• radar, satellite links, microwave telephone causes any adverse health effects.
communications (3–30 GHz) Since mobile telephones, as well as many
• the sun (3–300 GHz). other electronic devices in common use, can
cause electromagnetic interference in other
Health effects electrical equipment, caution should be
exercised when using mobile telephones
The type of health effect from exposure to around sensitive electro-medical equipment
radio frequencies will depend on its frequency. used in hospital intensive care units.
For instance, fields above 10 GHz are absorbed Mobile telephones can, in rare instances,
at the skin surface, with very little of the also cause interference in certain other
energy penetrating into the underlying tissues. medical devices, such as cardiac pace-
However, if the fields are between 1 MHz and makers and hearing aids. People using such
10 GHz, they can penetrate exposed tissues devices should contact their doctor to
and produce heating due to energy absorption determine the susceptibility of their products
in these tissues. Microwaves are a component to these effects.
of radio frequencies and occupy the spectral
region between 300 GHz and 300 MHz. Extremely low frequency
The depth of tissue penetration with RF radiation
radiation depends on the frequency of the field
and is greater for lower frequencies. Most Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation is
adverse health effects that could occur from most commonly 50 Hz radiation from electrical
exposure to RF fields between 1 MHz and 10 conductors. Since the electric fields from the
GHz are consistent with responses to induced ELF radiation will not penetrate the body, the
heating, resulting in rises in tissue or body main occupational health concern is associated
temperatures higher than 1°C. with the magnetic field. Much media attention
Radio frequencies can also interfere with has been given to the use of electric blankets,
the normal functioning of the body, hair dryers and arc welders due to the
with induced current densities that exceed inconclusive effects of exposure to magnetic
–2
100 mA.m . Other effects on the body fields. Research tends to indicate that there
from exposure to low-intensity RF fields, may be a statistical relationship between
present in the living environment, have been increased childhood cancer rates and exposure
reported; however, either they have not been to powerline frequency magnetic fields.
Chapter 9: Radiation and pressure ■ 239
• gas toxicity — this is due to the effect The AS/NZS2299 series can be used for advice
of oxygen and carbon dioxide inhaled on controls about occupational underwater
at high pressures; the brain and lung diving operations. It includes requirements for
can be damaged and judgement personnel, diving procedures, equipment,
drastically impaired compression chambers and compressed air
• decompression sickness — this supply. It also contains a useful segment on
occurs due to the changing pressure medical standards, medical examinations and
and results in nitrogen bubbles in reports, decompression tables, therapeutic
the body recompression treatment, diver qualifications,
• trapped gas in the blood — this is a employer and diver records, hand and lifeline
painful condition where trapped gases signals and diving operations’ manuals.
are released into the tissues from the For further information about diving safety,
blood before the nitrogen is exhaled; it may be worthwhile to contact the Pro-
many divers now use a mixture of fessional Association of Diving Instructors
helium and oxygen to minimise this (PADI). PADI is a diver-training organisation that
occurrence establishes standards for diver training, trains
• alternobaric vertigo and certifies instructors and provides infor-
— uneven pressure stimulation mation to its members. Otherwise, the best
of the balance mechanism in contact available Australia-wide is the Royal
the ear due to unequal middle ear Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine.
pressures or blockage of the The Diving Medical Officer should be able to
Eustachian tube provide a recent list of recompression facilities
• dental and ear barotrauma available throughout Australia and give imme-
— dental barotrauma is caused diate direction. In some States and Territories,
by air trapped in a cavity beneath the workplace health and safety regulatory
a filling; ear barotrauma can be in the authority may also have diving inspectors who
external, middle or inner ear. are experts in diving safety and health.
SUMMARY
Physical hazards such as pressure and radiation may present a significant risk to workers.
Radiation can be either ionising or non-ionising. Ionising radiation includes , , and X-rays.
Non-ionising radiation or electromagnetic radiation consists of an electric and magnetic field.
Exposure to pressure occurs through specialised work and can be due to high or low
pressure.
Grantham, D.L. 1992, Occupational Health & Hygiene Guidebook for the WHSO, D.L. Grantham, Brisbane
Haski, R. 1994, ‘Conference on Visual Display Terminals, Electromagnetic Fields and Health’, Journal
of Occupational Health and Safety — Australia and New Zealand, no. 10, vol. 2, pp. 170–2
Morrison, H. and Sinclair, S. 1982, Australian Scuba Diver — The Essentials of Scuba Theory, Lion Fish
Publications, Perth
National Health and Medical Research Council 1987, Occupational Standards for Exposure to Ultraviolet
Radiation, NH&MRC, Canberra
National Health and Medical Research Council/National Occupational Health and Safety Commission
1995, Recommendations for Limiting Exposure to Ionizing Radiation, AGPS, Canberra
National Occupational Health and Safety Commission 1991, Guidance Note for the Protection of Workers
from the Ultraviolet Radiation in Sunlight, AGPS, Canberra
Professional Association of Diving Instructors 1990, PADI Open Water Diver Manual, PADI, California
Standards Association of Australia 1990, AS1680.1: 1990 Interior Lighting — General Principles and
Recommendations, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia 1990, AS1680.2: Interior Lighting — Recommendation for Specific
Tasks and Interiors, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia 1990, AS2772.1: 1990 Radio Frequency Radiation — Part 1 —
Maximum Exposure Levels — Hz to 300GHz, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia 1993, AS2243.5: 1993 Safety in Laboratories — Non-ionising
Radiations, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia 1993, AS2397: 1993 Safe Use of LASERs in the Building and
Construction Industry, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia 1994, AS2243.4 (Int): 1994 Safety in Laboratories — Ionizing
Radiations, Standards Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1992, AS/NZS1338.1: 1992 Filters for Eye Protectors —
Filters for Protection Against Radiation Generated in Welding and Allied Operations, Standards
Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1992, AS/NZS1338.2: 1992 Filters for Eye Protectors —
Filters for Protection Against Ultraviolet Radiation, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1992, AS/NZS1338.3: 1992 Filters For Eye Protectors —
Filters for Protection Against Infra-red Radiation, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1994, AS/NZS4173: 1994 Guide to the Safe Use of
LASERs in Health Care, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1997, AS/NZS1336: 1997 Recommended Practices for
Occupational Eye Protection, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1997, AS/NZS2211.1: 1997 Laser Safety — Equipment
Classification, Requirements and User’s Guide, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1997, AS/NZS2211.2: 1997 Laser Safety — Safety of
Optical Fibre Communication Systems, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 2003, AS/NZS1067: 2003 Sunglasses and Fashion
Spectacles, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Chapter 10
Biological hazards
A biological hazard can be described as any microbes surrounding us, very large numbers
micro-organism or material of biological origin inhabit the surfaces of our bodies. Indeed,
that has the ability to cause illness. The body each individual person carries at least 10 000
has several mechanisms for dealing with such times more bacteria than there are people in
invaders beginning with the first line of the world. While this might seem astounding,
defence, the skin and mucous membranes. the presence of microbes does not necessarily
Should the agents enter the body, however, spell trouble. The body has mechanisms to
immunity (cellular and humoral) takes over, on deal with microbial flora without com-
a ‘locate-and-destroy’ mission. Chapter 2 promising homeostasis. The surfaces of the
outlined the role of the immune system in body are the first line of defence. The
defending against foreign agents. Many plants characteristics of the skin and mucous
and animals produce or store pathogenic membranes were identified earlier in Chapter
micro-organisms. These can then be trans- 2. Acidity and antimicrobial substances such as
mitted before a period of incubation and lysozymes take much of the credit for
infection. protecting the body. Imagine working in a
This chapter focuses on the meaning health care centre such as a hospital or nursing
of biological and microbiological hazards, home. Each day workers are bombarded with
categories of biological agents and methods various bacteria and viruses from ill patients.
of transmission including vectors, direct However, it is the body’s first line of defence
transmission and reservoirs. that initially protects against such agents
It will also outline the reservoirs, vectors passing into the body. If the microbes were to
and health effects of various types of enter the body, the second line of defence
occupationally related diseases caused by would take over. Immunity is responsible for a
biological agents. The chapter will conclude highly specific response to a foreign substance.
with options for the control of biological Immunisation can be humoral or cellular.
hazards. Cellular immunity refers to various forms of
white blood cells that move freely throughout
the body, tracking and destroying foreign
HUMAN AND MICROBIAL agents. Table 10.1 shows various cell types for
INTERACTION cellular immunity. Humoral immunity can be
achieved either through an innate system or by
Whether at work or play, we are not alone. adapting to antibodies that have entered the
Although we cannot see the tiny organisms or body. These are outlined in Chapter 2.
244 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Type I hypersensitivities occur where the body symptoms. This means that their body is
becomes sensitised to an allergen (i.e. pollen, actually a ‘home’ for the microbe and it can be
animal hair or moulds). Allergic extrinsic transmitted to others.
alveolitis is a lung condition that is associated The most common routes of transmission
with exposure to such substances. It occurs of occupationally related biological con-
when the immunogloblins (antibodies) attack taminants are through:
these antigens, causing symptoms such as
asthma or allergies. • direct contact with the microbe
Type IV or delayed hypersensitivity shows • air
effects some time after exposure to the • water
antigen. This is due to the response of the • vectors.
macrophages by sensitised lymphocytes.
Allergic contact dermatitis (from exposure to Direct contact might occur by touching an
substances such as nickel, chromium or poison infected surface or person. For instance, a
ivy) is an example of a Type IV delayed veterinarian delivering a calf that is infected
hypersensitivity. with Coxiella burnetii could contract Q Fever; or
cross-infection from one patient to another
Transmission may occur in a health care setting.
Airconditioning systems are renowned for the
An important issue to consider with biological proliferation of airborne particles containing
contaminants is the mechanism of exposure. Is Legionella pneumophila, which could cause
the agent in the workplace due to normal legionnaire’s disease. Infected drinking water
operations or a by-product of the work? Has it could contain high levels of Giardia lamblia,
been accidentally introduced from an outside causing giardiasis. Sewage workers may be
source? How is it passed from one host or exposed to pathogenic agents such as E-coli.
reservoir to another? Transmission describes Vectors allow the movement of microbes.
the path that microbes take from the initial Some examples include lice, rodents and
host (where they may multiply and grow in mosquitoes. Mosquitoes transmit blood-borne
aggression) to the infected host. In some diseases such as dengue and Ross River virus.
cases, a person or animal may be a reservoir Louse-borne typhus has been associated with
for the agent, although they may not show poor conditions and overcrowding. Rats’ urine
246 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
in sugarcane fields has been associated with from ticks. Helminths can be further broken
leptospirosis. down into the platyhelminths and
aschelminths. Platyhelminths (flatworms) have a
flat or leaf shape, often with a head. They
CATEGORIES OF include the beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata),
BIOLOGICAL AGENTS liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) and pork tapeworm
(Taenia solium). Aschelminths are round, elon-
Micro-organisms can be classified into two gated worms that have a complete digestive
main groups: system. Diseases from intestinal worms include
trichinosis (Trichinella spiralis) and hookworm
• Prokaryotae — or single-celled disease (Necator americanus). The other types of
organisms that lack a true nucleus aschelminth are the blood and tissue worms.
• Eukaryotae — or multicellular The vectors for these worms are typically
organisms whose cells contain a true animals such as mosquitoes and flies.
nucleus.
Bacteria
Prokaryotic organisms include bacteria,
chlamydia, rickettsia and mycoplasmas. There is an enormous variety of bacteria,
Eukaryotic organisms include plants, animals, although they all share the common
algae (except blue-green algae), fungi, characteristics of being prokaryotic cellular
parasites and protozoan. organisms. This often is where the similarity in
structure and function of many bacteria ends.
Algae Bacteria are divided into different divisions
depending on their morphology, cell arrange-
Algae are widely found in nature and contain ments, oxygen requirements, motility and nu-
chlorophyll and other pigments that provide tritional and metabolic properties. Their names
their green or red appearance. From an consist of two part — the genus and the species.
occupational hygiene perspective, algae Bacteria morphology or shape is
present a low risk to most workers. The categorised into three types: cocci (spherical),
exception to this is where water is polluted bacilli (rod) and spiral (spirilla and spirochaete).
from the growth of many algae (blooms) which Cocci can be either individual cells or linked
are then consumed. together to form a group of cells. Bacilli are
shaped as rods or cylinders. Where the bacteria
Animals look similar to both a cocci and rod, they are
named coccobacilli. Spiral forms of bacteria
The main types of biological agents that are have a distinctive helical shape.
categorised under the term animals include
arthropods and helminths. Arthropods are Cell arrangements
joint-legged animals such as spiders, mites,
ticks, centipedes, millipedes, bees, flies, crabs The main parts of bacterium are appendages
and crayfish. Some arthropods are merely (e.g. flagella, fimbriae and pili), surface layers,
mechanical vectors (for transferring a cytoplasm and special structure. Flagella are
microbiological agent) while others allow the propulsion mechanism of the cell. Fimbriae
multiplication of the bacteria or microbiological appear on gram-negative bacteria and adhere
agent. An example of an arthropod-borne to other cells. Pili are involved in bacterial
disease is Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) conjugation.
Chapter 10: Biological hazards ■ 247
Bacterium can have several surface layers. for transmission but can be transferred through
Many have an outside layer (the capsule), a cell interpersonal contact. They are known as
wall, plasma membrane and mesosomes. obligate intracellular parasites since they are
A common description of bacteria refers to transmitted to a host where they obtain nu-
its response to a differential staining technique trients to survive. An example of chlamydia is
known as the ‘gram stain’. This results in Chlamydia psittaci which is found in bird
categorisation as either gram-positive or gram- droppings.
negative bacteria. While a full discussion of the
reasoning behind this response is beyond the Fungi
scope of this chapter, it should be said that the
difference in the groups relates mainly to their Fungi are vegetative structures that require
cell wall construction. organic compounds for energy. They include
moulds and yeasts, and are multicellular (except
Oxygen requirements for yeasts). Moulds grow as long filaments of
cells called hyphae.
Some bacterial cells require oxygen for Inhalation of some fungal antigens, such as
respiration (i.e. they are aerobic) while others Thermoactinomyces sacchari from mouldy
function without oxygen (anaerobic). Oxygen sugarcane or Micropolysporis faeni and
requirements are another way of classifying Thermoactinomyces vulgaris from mushroom
bacteria. compost, can cause extrinsic allergic alveolitis.
Yeasts are usually round and larger than most
Motility bacteria. They are different from mould, in that
they exist as individual cells.
The flagellum is the whip-like appendage
attached to bacterium. Some bacteria have Mycoplasmas
several flagella. Another mechanism of
movement for the bacteria is gliding by the Mycoplasmas are bacteria that do not form cell
contracting cytoplasm. walls. They are very small, ranging in size from
0.1 µm to 0.25 µm. The most significant
Nutritional and metabolic human pathogen among mycoplasmas is
properties Microplasma pneumoniae, which is the causative
agent for primary atypical pneumonia.
This classification describes whether the
bacteria are able to photosynthesise or Parasites
require nutrition from outside the cell. Some
bacterial cells are able to form endospores. Technically, all viruses and many bacteria are
These are developed within the cell and are parasites. These include protozoan, fungi,
able to develop into a new organism if helminths and arthropods and are individually
required. explained throughout this chapter.
Chlamydia Protozoan
These are a type of eukaryotic organism that is Protozoan can exist as unicellular or
actually parasitic. They are coccoid bacteria that multicellular organisms and can be divided
range in size from 0.2 µm to 1.5 µm. They are into the following four groups based on their
not motile and do not require insects or ticks method of motility:
248 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
The mastigophora class has flagella and Zoonotic diseases are those acquired through
typically a long cell shape. An example within contact with animals or animal products. The
this category of protozoan is Giardia lamblia industries at particular risk include those
(which causes giardiasis, an intestinal involved in:
infection). The sarcodina class includes
amoebae, which are associated with • animal production and marketing
abdominal complaints such as dysentery. (e.g. farmers, meat processing,
Sporozoans cause diseases such as malaria and abattoirs)
toxoplasmosis and are all parasites of animal • health care (hospital workers and
hosts. The final class, ciliata, have short cleaners, public health care workers,
projections from the cell body. sewage workers)
• research (laboratory technicians
Rickettsias involved in animal experimentation
and testing, pharmaceutical
Rickettsias can reproduce only within a host researchers)
cell, making them similar to viruses, but • handling livestock (veterinarians,
because their morphology and biochemical horse trainers, farriers, stock
structure is similar to that of bacteria, they are workers)
classified as such. Rickettsias are rod-shaped • pet industry (kennel operators, bird
bacteria (coccobacilli), ranging in length from breeders, pet store operators)
1 µm to 2 µm. An interesting feature of • entertainment involving animals
rickettsias is that they are transmitted to (zoos, circuses and wildlife parks).
humans through insects and ticks. The
exception to this is Coxiella burnetii, which This section of the chapter will focus on
causes Q Fever. Q Fever is often found where individual zoonoses and provide a description
animal fluids, dust, wool or straw have been of their nature, reservoirs, vectors and health
contaminated with the bacteria. effects.
Viruses
BACTERIAL ZOONOSES
Viruses are non-cellular structures with a
diameter of around 20–200 nm. They consist Anthrax
of a nucleic acid centre, which is surrounded
by a protein or protein and lipid coat. Viruses Anthrax is also known as woolsorters’ disease
are obligatory intracellular parasites, which or malignant carbuncle. In people, the disease
means they must have a living host cell to is rare and can be caused by Bacillus anthracis.
multiply. In order for the virus to multiply, it The cycle of transmission begins from an
must invade the host cell and take over its infected source (cows, goats or sheep),
metabolic machinery. This process changes the contaminated animal products (leather, pelts,
host cell and may result in its death. Some bone meal, wool or fur) or spores in the air. It
examples of viruses include influenza, human generally takes around two to five days for
Chapter 10: Biological hazards ■ 249
incubation before symptoms on the skin, in the • handling infected animals or animal
respiratory system or in the gastrointestinal products such as chickens, turkeys,
system appear. ducks, smallgoods and eggs.
Borrelia burgdorferi. After the tick bite, a red six to 72 hours after consuming infected food.
lesion appears on the skin. These lesions can A serious side effect from salmonellosis is
be accompanied by a general feeling of dehydration, due to the vomiting and
unwellness with symptoms such as fever and a diarrhoea. Eating contaminated food or water
stiff neck. It can also lead to arthritis. A few (similar to camphylobacteriosis) usually
people also develop meningoencephalitis. transmits it.
Mycoses Tetanus
Mycoses can be further broken down into: Strictly speaking, tetanus is not a zoonotic
disease because it is common to both humans
• aspergillosis and animals. Tetanus is caused by Clostridium
• histoplasmosis tetami and is also known as trismus or lockjaw.
• zygomycosis. The spores of the microbe are found in soils,
on rust and also in the faeces of animals and
Aspergillosis is relatively uncommon. The people. The route of entry of the bacteria is
bacterium that causes the disease is Aspergillus usually through broken skin or wounds. Dog
fumigatus. The soil is usually the reservoir of bites have been associated with tetanus, as
the bacteria but the fungus is transmitted to have puncture wounds from rusty nails. The
people and animals through the air. Cattle and symptoms include painful spasms of muscles
fowl are also susceptible to aspergillosis. of the neck and face. The reflexes become
Histoplasmosis (also known as Darling’s exaggerated with a rigid abdomen.
disease or cavern disease) is spread from
fungus (Histoplasma capsulatum). Both people
and animals can acquire the disease from soil CHLAMYDIOSES AND
(the reservoir), usually during activities such as RICKETTSIOSES
bulldozing, cleaning or demolishing rural
structures (like chicken coops) and visiting bat
caves. Rural and construction workers are Avian chlamydiosis (psittacosis)
mostly at risk.
Zygomycoses are diseases caused by fungi The common name for avian chlamydiosis is
belonging to the Zygomycetes order. The fungi psittacosis or ornithosis. The two main species
can produce a large number of spores. of concern are Chlamydia trachomatis and C.
Transmission occurs through inhalation of psittaci. The disease is transmitted via the
these spores or contamination with the skin inhalation of C. psittaci which occurs in wild
and inoculation. While animals such as horses, and domestic birds such as pigeons, turkeys,
swine, dogs and cats can contract the disease, ducks and pet birds. Both the bird faeces and
it is generally accepted that transmission feathers are sources of infection. Symptoms
between people and animals is unlikely. show as respiratory illness (cough), sometimes
accompanied with headache, fever, chills,
Salmonellosis sweating, anorexia and muscular aches.
The microbe is usually transmitted in aerosol slaughter of more than a million chickens to
form and the disease occurs frequently in prevent the spread of the disease.
abattoir or meat processing workers, especially
on the kill-floor or hide area. The main source of Measles
infection is from domestic animals (e.g. cattle,
sheep and goats) and their contaminated Measles is caused from an RNA genome virus
products (offal, afterbirth and foetus). Products from the Morbillivirus genus. It has also been
such as hides and wool can also become found in non-human primates such as monkeys,
involved in the transmission of the microbe. chimpanzees and orang-utans. Humans are the
The incubation period of the disease ranges only known reservoir, and the disease is usually
from a few weeks to a month. Symptoms, such transmitted through airborne droplets. It
as chills, sweating, anorexia, fever and malaise, causes fever, a cough, inflammation of the
show suddenly. Sometimes the person will also upper respiratory tract and reddish-brown
becomes nauseous and vomit. spots. Health care workers caring for infected
people with the disease may be at risk.
VIRUSES Rabies
Cowpox and viral haemorrhagic Rabies is extremely rare in Australia. The rabies
fevers virus is an RNA virus that belongs to the
Lyssavirus family. The animal hosts are chiefly
Cowpox is believed to not occur in Australia. It carnivores (e.g. dogs, cats, foxes and skunks)
has been isolated only in the United Kingdom and bats. Infection usually occurs from the bite
and some of the western European countries. of an infected animal. The disease incubates
Viral haemorrhagic fevers (VHF) such as Lassa anywhere from two to eight weeks but it can be
fever, Marburg fever and Ebola virus have not up to eight months. Initial symptoms of the
been identified in Australia. disease include anxiety, malaise and increase in
body temperature. As the disease progresses,
Influenza respiratory muscles begin to spasm. Rabies can
lead to death.
Influenza is an extremely common ailment that
is spread through direct contact by droplets
that penetrate the upper respiratory tract. It PARASITIC DISEASE
can also be spread by close contact such as in
crowded workplaces or on public transport. Giardiasis
Those with direct contact with the public,
health care workers and teachers are at the Giardiasis or lambliasis is caused by the
greatest risk of infection. This virus has protozoan, Giardia lamblia. The main animals at
thousands of strains. From an occupational risk are cats, dogs and guinea pigs. The
health point, influenza has been known to infection can be asymptomatic or show as
occur in animals such as swine, wild and diarrhoea, flatulence and intolerance of
domestic birds and horses. In 1997 in Hong specific foods. While people are the main
Kong, Influenza A H5N1 (bird or avian flu) was reservoir, the source of infection comes from
discovered to affect people. The influenza faeces that contain the parasitic cysts.
presents with sudden and high fever, malaise, Transmission can occur by the oral–faecal
cough and sore throat. The outbreak saw the route or by contaminated drinking water.
252 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Toxoplasmosis
HUMANS AS RESERVOIRS
The protozoan that causes this disease is In many cases of microbial infection, people
Toxoplasma gondii. While this infection is quite are responsible for transmitting a disease (or
common in humans, with about one-third of organism causing the disease) to one another.
the world’s population possessing antibodies The cause, method of transmission and
to the parasite, not all will possess symptoms symptoms will be explained for a selected
of the disease. It is transferred to humans from number of the ailments. Some examples of
domestic and some wild cats. These animals these types of diseases are:
contract the infection by eating raw meat that
is infested with cysts. People then become • E-coli
infected by eating raw or insufficiently cooked • hepatitis A, B, C
meat or through direct contact with cats. The • HIV
major concern with toxoplasmosis is the • multiresistant staphylococcus
damage to the human foetus. • diptheria
• streptococcocis
Trichinosis • tuberculosis.
food outlets may also place other workers via direct contact through blood or bodily
at risk. fluids. It is believed that the viral cells attack
the white blood cells of the body, preventing
Hepatitis A, B, C the development of an effective immune
response.
The hepatitis virus affects the liver. There are at When the body’s immune system is unable
least six commonly known strains of hepatitis to cope with this degradation, normally
(A–F). This section describes hepatitis A, B innocuous microbes will begin to cause
and C. infections. The other effect of HIV is the
Hepatitis A is a very infectious disease that development of malignancies. This indicates
is usually asymptomatic. It occurs where water that the virus is progressing to an ‘AIDS-related
has been contaminated with the virus, usually complex’. The occupations most at risk from
in conditions of poor hygiene. this disease are unprotected sex workers and
The more serious hepatitis B is transmitted health care workers such as doctors, surgeons,
through the blood or bodily fluids. Most nurses, paramedics and dentists.
people who become infected do not progress
to the full development of disease; although Multiresistant staphylococcus
they do carry the virus forever. For about 10
per cent of those infected with hepatitis B, the As the name suggests, members of the
disease progresses and multiplies, causing a Staphylococcus genus are spherical shaped cells.
cirrhosis and carcinoma (cancer) of the liver. For occupational health, S. aureus is the microbe
Workers at risk of this disease include that is of most concern. People at risk of such
health care workers, workers in the sex infections include those with lower immunity
industry, cleaners who may be exposed to such as diabetics, those with respiratory viral
contaminated hypodermic needles and even infections such as influenza or measles and
police officers who may be stabbed with an those receiving immunosuppressive drugs. S.
infected needle. aureus is the microbe behind the production of
Hepatitis C usually occurs in people who boils or abscesses and toxic shock syndrome. It
have received contaminated blood is also notorious for becoming resistant to drug
transfusions. therapy. Therefore, many antibiotics are
ineffective for treating staphylococcal
HIV (human immuno- infections.
deficiency virus)
Streptococcosis
This virus has caused worldwide fear and
pandemonium since its identification in the Streptococcosis is caused by the genus
early 1980s, although significant progress has Streptococcus. The main pathogen in humans is
been made to treat the disease since this time. S. pyogenes which frequently causes sore
There are actually two HIV viruses — HIV1 and throats and tonsillitis. This is known as Group
HIV2. While they produce the same disease A streptococci. Group B streptococci (S.
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome or agalactiae) are particularly hazardous to young
AIDS), the speed and aggression of the children, with meningitis a characteristic of the
progression of disease is the differentiating infection. Group C streptococci (S. equi) are
factor. The HIV virus is a fragile virus that can rare in humans. Transmission of streptococcal
survive outside the body for only a limited infections usually occurs from person-to-
time. For this reason, most transmission occurs person.
254 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Organic dust toxic syndrome sampling will identify the presence and nature
of potential biological hazards. As an example,
This general term is given to illnesses where office workers may be concerned about the
the symptoms are similar to that of allergic quality of air in the ventilation system or
extrinsic alveolitis, except there is no long- perhaps an animal has died unexpectedly and
term damage to the lung. It has been reported the cause of the death is sought.
in farmers who handle moulding hay, grain silo Secondly, identification of the level of risk
workers and sewage treatment workers. to workers or the public may be required. This
can be determined by measuring the con-
centration of organisms and comparing the
HIGH-RISK INDUSTRIES result with a standard.
Thirdly, where biological agents are integral
As we would expect, the industries most at risk to a process (e.g. pharmaceutical, winemaking
of exposure to biological agents are those and brewing industries), it may be necessary to
where workers encounter infected people, ensure the concentrations of organisms are
animals or carriers of microbes. This encom- maintained within a specified window or
passes a broad range of occupations ranging range.
from people with constant contact with the The main methods of collecting samples
public to those involved in biomedical are from air, liquids or surfaces. Beginning with
laboratories. The following list illustrates the air sampling, there are three main techniques
breadth of potential exposure of workers: that are used:
conducted from 30 seconds to eight minutes. deposited onto an agar surface or liquid. The
The agar strips are then sealed for identi- advantage of this form of sampling is its
fication and counting of microbes. incredible efficiency (around 100 per cent). It is
also superior in collecting sub-micron
Filters for biological sampling particles. Thermal precipitators also find
application in collecting sub-micron particles
The most important consideration in filtration although not for viable biological particulate.
sampling of biological contaminants is the
particle size. In most cases the nominal pore Surface sampling
size used in dust sampling will be too large to
collect microbial agents efficiently. Collection In some cases, it may be appropriate to collect
of some vegetative micro-organisms that need a sample directly from the surface of a bench,
to be kept moist to remain viable is not desk or workstation. There have also been
possible using filtration sampling. some cases of indoor air quality checks
involving cutting a section of carpet from an
Electrostatic and thermal office and sending this for analysis. With all
precipitators types of surface sampling, this technique
should be used as an indicator of the presence
These devices are used less frequently in of microbes. It is not necessarily an exposure
Australia. Electrostatic precipitators place a quantity.
charge on the microbe to allow it to be Contact slides are used to determine
attracted to an electrode of the opposite microbial contaminants on equipment and
polarity. The charged particles are then surfaces, microbial loads of personnel and
262 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
SUMMARY
Biological hazards, while not at every workplace, can present a high risk in certain situations.
A biological hazard is a micro-organism or material of biological origin that has the ability to
cause illness. Biological hazards may be human-borne or animal-borne. They can also be
transmitted directly either through air, water or vectors.
Controls for biological hazards should follow AS/NZS3816 and AS/NZS2243.3.
Ergonomics
Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary field that is derived from the Greek ergon, meaning work,
closely linked on many fronts to occupational and nomos, the study of. The principles of
hygiene. By definition, ergonomics links ‘work’ ergonomics that take into account the
with the individual worker, to achieve an physiological and cognitive abilities of the
optimal operating interface or relationship. users or workers are incorporated into most
Ergonomics deals with physical stressors and products that we consume or use. For
with cognitive or psychological factors that can instance, motor vehicle designers must
contribute to risk in the workplace. consider the reach abilities of a range of
This means that social, work and physical drivers. Machine interfaces such as automatic
elements are considered when evaluating teller machines (ATM) must be easy to use for
ergonomic hazards. Similarly, the physiology of ages ranging from early teens to the elderly. A
the body, including effector and sensory good ergonomic design will also consider the
organs and processing mechanisms, must be social and biological characteristics of the
taken into account when assessing risk to users. In essence, ergonomics is a science that
workers. combines peoples’ abilities with appropriate
Since a comprehensive discussion of designs. Some of the professions that are
ergonomics would require an entire textbook, frequently involved in the field of ergonomics
this chapter aims to provide an introduction to are human resource personnel, psychologists,
the practice of industrial ergonomics and physiologists, engineers, safety practitioners,
human factors. Its focus concentrates on sociologists, physiotherapists and medical
methods of assessment of manual materials practitioners.
handling tasks, biomechanics and the physical Ergonomics encompasses issues such as:
environment. Discussion is also provided
about issues such as shift work and • muscular work and control of
occupational stress. movements
• work efficiency and process design
• the problems of body size
SOME DEFINITIONS OF (anthropometry)
ERGONOMICS • heavy work and handling loads
(manual materials handling)
Before attempting to define ergonomics, it is • skilled work
important to recognise that ergonomics is a • the person–machine interface
widely used term. The term ergonomics is • mental activity, stimulus and fatigue
268 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
upper limb disorder (WRULD) or cumulative flexed for typing, writing, reading or
trauma disorder (CTD). In Australia, the use of meeting people)
the term RSI has reduced, since the so-called • inadequate breaks.
epidemic of RSI in the late 1980s. For this
chapter, CTD is the preferred generalisation for If the worker maintains a poor posture, the
the following conditions: static loading on a number of muscles
increases. The muscles then become shorter
• carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) and denser, impeding blood circulation,
• tendonitis/tenosynovitis especially in the arms, neck and shoulders.
• adverse mechanical tension.
Carpal tunnel syndrome
The main body areas that are affected are the
neck, shoulder, hand, wrist, lower arm and CTS occurs where nerves are compressed in the
upper arm. The disorders tend to progress wrist’s carpal tunnel, largely due to tendons
through a number of stages including pain, expanding as a result of overuse. The nerve
stiffness, tingling and/or numbness. The risk responds to this compression by sending back
factors that have been identified relating to pain signals and by not carrying normal infor-
these disorders are: mation, which provides sensation and motor
impulses to the hand. High-risk industries
• static posture (e.g. sitting in the include electronic-parts assemblers, musicians,
same position all day, with arms dental hygienists, typists and meat packers.
270 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Force
Fulcrum
Lever
Force is actually a vector (i.e. it has direction). object, the second exerts an equal and
A force exerted in one direction will have an opposite force on the first.
equal but opposite force opposing it in
another direction. For instance, if a worker was Work and power
to push a box on a smooth, flat surface (Case
study 11.1), a force greater and opposite to the So far, we have said that force is the product of
force exerted by the box must be exerted by mass and acceleration. It does not take
the worker to move it (assuming there is no account of the length of the lever. Work is
friction). If there were friction between the box done by an object by a force when the force
and the surface, this would also need to be moves the object through a distance (d). If the
overcome. force is supplied at an angle (), the
This is actually Newton’s third law of relationship between work, force and distance
motion: If an object exerts a force on a second can be determined using Equation 11.2.
A meat packer at an abattoir unloads boxes from a conveyor from point A to point
B. The box has a mass of 16 kg. Assuming there is no friction, the force required
to push the box is calculated using Equation 11.1,
–2
assuming that the acceleration
required to overcome the box’s inertia is 9.8 m.s . –2
Therefore, the force is calculated as 16 kg x 9.8 m.s or about 157
newton (N).
272 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Frequency Multiplier
F DURATION
–1
(lift min ) <1 hour 1–2 hours 2–8 hours
V<60 cm V>60 cm V<60 cm V>60 cm V<60 cm V>60 cm
Table 11.2 The six parameters for the revised NIOSH equation
276 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
should be taken to minimise the probability of • reduction in night work and fewer
an event occurring. These might include: consecutive night shifts
• larger blocks of time for relaxation
• appropriate design of the office or and recuperation
workroom to allow easy access or • improved quality of leisure time
egress • reduction of social problems and
• appropriate design of service pressure associated with seven-day
areas that are welcoming and shifts and permanent night shifts.
calming; consideration should be
given to colours, music and systems However, in the long term, time for relaxing
for dealing with clients in a fair and sleeping are reduced when rostered on,
manner and workers with responsibilities (e.g.
• barriers and emergency alarms childcare) may have trouble.
• distress or personal alarms The literature is conflicting with regard to
• well-lit and accessible parking. the detriment or otherwise of performance
with extended work shifts compared with
traditional eight-hour shifts. Some studies
SHIFT WORK AND indicate that workers may cope with twelve-
WORKING HOURS hour workdays while others suggest that
performance deteriorates. Budnick et al. (1994)
Extended working shifts have the potential report that workers’ perceived an increased
to benefit both management and the difficulty working on the first night of night
workforce. While many workplaces have shift. Productivity and safety were perceived to
introduced ten- or 12-hour shifts under have decreased. Conversely, Williamson et al.
enterprise agreements, either party may (1994) noted that a change to a twelve-hour
not have seriously considered the question shift roster produced improvements in health,
of occupational health and safety impacts. particularly in psychological health, and in
The short-term advantages appear to be reduced feelings of tiredness throughout the
obvious: work period. Generally, increasing the duration
278 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Quantity Description
Luminous intensity Measured in candela (cd). It is defined as the intensity of a black
2
body that has an area of 1/60 cm when heated to the melting
temperature of platinum.
Luminous flux The flux emitted by one candela uniform point source within a
unit sold angle. The unit is the lumen (lm).
Illuminance Measured as lux (lx) and defined as the illuminance produced by
–2
a flux density of 1 lm.m .
–2
Luminance Measurement of the brightness of a surface. Its unit is cd.m .
280 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Retinal arteries
Iris
Cornea
Pupil Optic nerve
Lens Retina
Ceiling
Luminaires
Luminaire plane
Saturation effects occur where the source of • all objects and major surfaces in the
light is so bright that the eye cannot adapt to visual field are equally bright
it. Adaptation effects occur when moving from • no source of light appears in the
a darkened environment to a well-lit visual field during working
environment. Contrast effects are caused by operations
excessive brightness contrasts within the field • lights are provided with shades or
of vision. The eye adjusts itself to the average glare shields to prevent the
luminance of the field of vision and this may luminance of the light source from
–2
result in low luminous areas being invisible exceeding 200 cd.m
and excessively lit areas causing discomfort. • the line from the eye to the light
source makes an angle of more than
Lighting designs 30 degrees with the horizontal
• fluorescent tubes are aligned at right
In general, lighting in the workplace should be angles to the line of sight
evenly distributed and of adequate brightness. • the use of reflective colours and
Glare should also be minimised. This can be materials on machines, tools,
achieved by ensuring: tabletops etc. are avoided.
Chapter 11: Ergonomics ■ 283
SUMMARY
Ergonomics considers the relationship between the worker and work. It aims to obtain an
optimal fit between the two. Ergonomics deals with physical stressors and with cognitive or
psychological factors that can contribute to risk in the workplace.
This chapter has focused on industrial ergonomics and has discussed issues such as
biomechanics, manual materials handling, stress, lighting and shift work.
Risk analysis
Risk analysis is a core aspect of risk exposure or the body’s ability to deal with an
management. Indeed, Australian occupational agent. Risk also places an emphasis on the
health and safety legislation has certainly choices available to minimise an effect. With
increased its focus on the need to characterise, risk assessment, we need to ask what methods
assess, communicate and manage risk. Risk is or controls are available or perhaps how many
more than just a number or value about the people are exposed to an event.
probability of an event occurring. It also For an event, action or object to be
includes our perceptions, whether the risk is considered a risk, there must be an associated
acceptable or tolerable and why. loss, uncertainty or chance involved, and a
This chapter aims to reinforce the choice involved that would mitigate the loss.
meanings of hazard, risk, danger and safety. It Therefore, a high-risk event might not result in
also introduces the types of risk that workers a large magnitude of loss but the outcome may
and the community may be exposed to and be uncertain. It is also important to realise that
offers strategies for their assessment. The risk does not just consider human loss. Many
debatable topic of risk perception is discussed businesses analyse risk associated with their
to provide an overview of other factors that business operations to determine whether a
affect our response to risks. Chapter 14 decision is economically feasible and will result
expands the concept of risk management. in positive outcomes.
A hazard, on the other hand, is fixed and
not dynamic. A hazard might be a toxic
RISK AND HAZARD substance, spillage of liquid on the floor or a
biological pathogen in a Petri dish. The
The terms risk and hazard are often magnitude of hazard is determined by two
interchanged. However, their meanings are factors: its characteristics (e.g. ionising
quite separate. Chapter 1 defined a hazard as radiation from a -source has a higher energy
the potential that an event sequence will cause than non-ionising radiation such as
damage or harm. Risk was the likelihood that microwaves) and its amount (whether there is
an event sequence will cause damage or harm. a lot or a little of the hazard). In other words,
It is the combination of frequency, duration hazards are a potential problem.
and severity of exposure. An alternative When measuring or perceiving risk, it is not
perspective is that risk is concerned with the simply a black or white decision. Imagine an
future and what might cause an event to occur. office worker photocopying in a room with
It also addresses change — changes in limited ventilation. What are the hazards? The
286 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
most significant occupational hygiene hazard Safety means to be free from danger or risks.
is the ozone (O3) caused from the ionisation of With risk analysis, we cannot guarantee that
oxygen. Ozone is a respiratory irritant and workers will be absolutely safe, although an
sensitiser. The worker may be concerned about attempt is made to achieve this level. Given the
their exposure and ask whether they are at inability to finely divide events as risk-free or
risk. The answer would be ‘yes’ — everyone is dangerous, it follows that safety is really a
exposed to risk in some form, each day. But the conditional goal.
important question is ‘what is the magnitude
of risk?’ Is it tolerable or acceptable? The
answer to these questions will depend on the DEFINITION OF
dose, ventilation in the room and the person’s RISK ANALYSIS
response to ozone.
The risk range is a term used to specify There are several terms that lie within the
estimated risk, from the lowest to the highest. category of risk analysis. Risk analysis is
Sometimes the range (despite its simplicity) broadly defined to include risk:
may be a most valuable risk measure. Let’s
consider occupational exposure standards. • assessment
These are developed by considering the effect • characterisation
to most workers, according to current • communication
knowledge. Therefore, it is accepted that some • management and policy relating to
workers may lie outside the ‘capture area’ of risk.
no health effects. Perhaps knowledge about
the hazard will change in the future when new Risk analysis applies to both the occupational
research or information comes to light. setting and individuals, the public and society
generally. When related to occupational
hygiene, risk analysis is composed of the
DANGER AND SAFETY following distinct activities:
of the problems associated with the risk physical and social sciences. This can be
should it occur. In essence, risk projection is performed qualitatively (judgements made
the first component of risk assessment and that are relative to each other) or
involves: quantitatively (a specific, measurable amount).
Qualitative characteristics of risk include:
• establishing a scale that reflects the
perceived likelihood of a risk (the • the types of health effects from
scale may be qualitative or exposure
quantitative) • the estimated frequency of exposure
• delineating the consequences of a (e.g. daily, weekly, monthly)
risk • location of a hazard in relation to the
• establishing the impact of the risk workplace or other sensitive
• appreciating the overall accuracy of populations.
the risk projection.
Quantitative attributes of risk might be:
Risk assessment
• measured exposure data
Risks are weighted by perceived impact and • quantity of a substance
then prioritised. Risk assessment techniques • incidence of mortality or morbidity
for occupational hygiene are discussed later in • consequence analysis modelling of
this chapter. The three factors that affect exposure to an agent
perceived impact are the: • modelling of frequency of exposure.
• nature of the risk (which in turn Both qualitative and quantitative components
indicates whether the problems are of risk should be broad enough to clearly
likely to occur) describe the entire event. We must also
• scope of risk, combining its severity explicitly state any judgements that are made
with its overall distribution in the risk assessment — such as assumptions
• timing of a risk (when and for how and uncertainties. The rationale for these
long the impact will be felt). judgements and their influence on the risk
assessments should also be articulated.
Risk management and control emphasise a
holistic approach to deal with an issue in its Quantitative risk assessments
entirety. This aspect attempts to find solutions
by considering whether the risk can be shifted Quantification of occupational hygiene risks
or transferred and the cost/benefit of risk will depend upon their nature, ability to be
control. Risk strategies might include risk measured and appropriate benchmarks or
avoidance or limitation and risk transfer. standards. Remembering that the three
components to risk are frequency, probability
Risk assessment techniques and outcome, these can be mathematically
expressed to provide a quantitative estimate of
While we can appreciate that risk assessment risk.
is a subjective science, it is still possible to Beginning with frequency (which is simply a
measure the level or range of risk. Risk rate), this should be determined using data
assessment uses the best and most reasonably such as historical exposure information or
obtainable information from the natural, incident records or through modelling.
288 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Modelling is a technique that attempts to show scope of this chapter to provide an in-depth
a pattern using known input parameters. explanation of these quantitative risk
Probability is the chance that an event will assessment techniques, although chemical
occur. It can be rated on a scale of 0 to 1, engineering texts contain further detail.
where 0 represents no chance and 1 is an
absolute certainty that the event will occur. Qualitative risk assessments
When determining the outcome or
consequence of exposure to the hazard, the As the name suggests, risk assessments carried
following data can be measured: out using qualitative methods are subjective
and open to multiple interpretations and many
• the number of lives lost or injuries debates. What one person perceives to be high
caused risk, another may accept as holding minimal
• the cost of damage risk.
• the incidence of serious ill health In deciding upon a qualitative risk assess-
cases. ment technique or tool to use, it is important
to consider the degree of knowledge of the
A limitation of quantitative risk assessment is workforce and the technique’s simplicity and
that, by its very nature, it does not consider accuracy of application. There are various
our perceptions or attitudes to the hazards. As methods of risk assessment used in Australian
a ranking tool, quantitative risk assessment is workplaces. This section outlines four tools
invaluable; however, its sole use as a measure that see use and are presented as options.
of overall risk is not recommended. However, the selection of a qualitative risk
Generally, quantification of occupational assessment tool should be at the discretion of
hygiene hazards is left to epidemiologists and the organisation, which should review its
statisticians. Toxicological data is a typical suitability and acceptance.
example of quantitative risk assessment. In
Chapter 1, terms such as the LD50 and LC50 AS/NZS4360 risk score
were identified. These are calculated by calculator
measuring the duration of exposure, Australia/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS4360
concentration or dose of contaminant and Risk Management was released in 1999 and
outcome (death). The outcomes of fire and has broad application in general business risks,
explosion can be modelled using quantitative including occupational health and safety. The
risk assessments. Chemical or process magnitude of risk is determined using a 2-D
engineers usually conduct this. It is beyond the matrix and considers the likelihood and
consequence of a hazard event occurring. or chances that the event will occur!
Likelihood is evaluated via a 5-scale rank, from Unfortunately, Fine’s nomogram has the
rare to almost certain. Consequence is following limitations:
evaluated via a 5-scale rank, from minor/
personal injury to death and/or multiple
injuries (catastrophic). A risk assessment rating • the value of input data is not
is then given (extreme, high, moderate or low) necessarily based on solid grounds
and controls implemented according to this (an educated ‘guess’ or estimation is
rating. Table 12.1 shows this matrix. used)
• personal bias and experience will
Fine’s nomogram affect the final result
Fine (1971) has developed a risk score that • the nomogram should be used as a
incorporates the potential consequences of baseline level of risk and not as a
the incident, exposure factors and probability fine dividing line between safe and
factor. The formula (Figure 12.1) is the product unsafe.
of these factors. Each of the three parameters
(consequence, exposure and probability) are A handy component of Fine’s nomogram is the
given a rating according to Table 12.2. justification rating that can be obtained from
The calculated risk score can then be used the risk score and projected costs of mitigating
to prioritise the hazard event against other the risk. It suggests that a high-risk event that
hazard events, to allocate resources and could be controlled using low-cost solutions
control the risks. Once the risk score has been could be easily justified. As the risk diminishes
calculated, a cost justification calculation can and costs increase, it becomes more difficult to
be conducted by considering the degree of justify the intervention. This philosophy has
correction and cost of the intervention. been summarised in Table 12.2.
The user makes a decision about the most
likely outcome if a particular hazard event TTC hazard rating system
were to occur, how often exposure occurs and The TTC hazard rating system uses letters of the
the chance that the event will occur. It is alphabet to rank potential loss-producing
important that the hazard event is clearly incidents. A letter is given for the level of
defined before the risk assessment is severity, level of probability and cost of cor-
performed, otherwise it becomes easy to lose rective action (Table 12.3). These codes are then
one’s way and predict disastrous consequences converted to a numerical rating (Table 12.4).
R=CxExP
Where:
R is the risk score
C is the consequence
E is the exposure factor
P is the probability factor
Table 12.2 Ratings for risk calculation (adapted from Fine 1971, p. 159)
Therefore, this style of risk assessment is nomogram and the TTC hazard rating system.
useful to compare various hazard events to It calculates a risk value by combining the
one another, especially when deciding on following variables:
controls; however, caution should be exercised
about the financial values, as they may date • Frequency of process
over time. • Likelihood of the hazardous event
• Anticipated loss
• Mission effects
FLAME model • Exposed people or systems.
The FLAME model is a mission-oriented risk The risk value (R) is calculated using Equation
assessment that was developed from Fine’s 12.1.
Chapter 12: Risk analysis ■ 291
Table 12.3 TTC code for qualitative risk assessment (adapted from Weaver 1982,
p. 38)
Table 12.4 Rating the TTC hazard rating system (adapted from Weaver 1982, p. 39)
assigned a value between 1 and 100, based on risk and their referent levels. Sets of referent
whether the process has been known to occur points that define a region of termination are
(1) or if it occurs constantly (100). then predicted. Comparing the evaluated risk
Likelihood is based on an estimated with its risk referent has three possible
probability and is then converted to a scoring outcomes — that the risk is:
value. So, if it is inconceivable that the event
will occur, it is scored 1. If the event occurs • acceptable (if the evaluated risk is less
often as part of a process and is expected, then than the referent)
it scores 100. • impossible (where the evaluated risk is
Anticipated losses are scored similarly. If much greater than the referent)
there would be no apparent disruption to the • infeasible (if the evaluated risk is
process, a score of 1 is nominated. An event greater than, but almost equal to, the
that results in wide-scale destruction to referent).
equipment, systems or facilities and causes
many fatalities would have a value of 100.
Table 12.5 Risk scores for the FLAME
Mission effects relate to the overall
model (adapted from
objective of the system and whether it would
Strohm & Opheim 1993,
be affected by the event. It is scored with
p. 47)
values ranging between 1 and 100.
The final component, exposed people or
Risk value Risk classification
systems, allows the number of people or
systems exposed to be correlated with a value. ≥8.00 Very high risk
The calculated risk value is compared with a 6.00–7.99 High risk
risk classification (Table 12.5). 4.00–5.99 Substantial risk
2.00–3.99 Possible risk
<2.00 Doubtful risk
CONDUCTING A RISK
ASSESSMENT RISK PERCEPTION
In order to conduct a risk assessment with a Why is it that what one person perceives as
meaningful and acceptable score, it is acceptable risk, another cannot tolerate? Risk
important to define the scope of the hazard perception is the term used to describe our
event and its benchmark or standard. This insight or opinions about the acceptability
benchmark is also known as the risk referent of risk. The very nature of risk is subjective.
level, and is stated as a probability of failure or Beliefs and values impact on community,
the probability of success level for each government and industry’s perception of risk. It
individual risk or the system as a whole. It can is therefore important that the application of
be: quantitative risk assessment also addresses the
uncertainty associated with such a subjective
• an aggregate of individual risks science.
• one or more prioritised high-impact While there are many methods that can be
risks. used to assess the risk associated with
occupational hygiene hazards, their overall
The next step is to try to develop a relation- effectiveness can be questioned. Ultimately,
ship between each of the three parameters of the aim of the risk assessment tool should
Chapter 12: Risk analysis ■ 293
be to ensure decisions relating to occu- exposed to high sound pressure levels when
pational health and hygiene hazards are playing in a rock band on weekends. Long
made on a sound basis, will be acceptable latency periods also affect whether we
both scientifically and socially, and are accept risk. So if the health effect is chronic
aimed at minimising the outcome or effect (rather than acute), the exposure may be
on the physical environment or the perceived to be tolerable. How often have
community. we heard the adage that ‘if a hazard or
One of the reasons for risk being such an agent has been around for years, then it
uncertain science is a growing distrust of can’t hurt anyone’? A mentality of ‘she’ll
institutions and ‘experts’. This has led to an be right’ abounds in this area. Yet, if new
instinctive questioning of all government or technology introduces a hazard, people
business recommendations. Such distrust is are concerned. Similarly, the severity of
deepened by governmental and private outcome will affect the acceptability of risk.
sector examples of incompetence in assess- If it kills, it is definitely perceived to be a
ing risks or criminality in communi- higher risk.
cations about risks associated with the Why is there this disparity of risk
development and use of some technologies. perception? The major reason is influence
So what determines a person’s acceptance from the media. Most people rely on the
or tolerance of risk? Some parameters media to provide information. Unfortunately,
include: the media also sensationalises issues for
the interest of their audience, often to the
• voluntary vs. involuntary exposure detriment of objective data. People react
• immediate vs. future health effects more to outrage than hazard; however, in
• old (familiar) vs. new (unfamiliar) risk fairness to the media, they are only the
• natural vs. artificial risks proponents of outrage, not the creators. The
• injure vs. kill hazards (magnitude of outraged public pays little attention to hazard
consequences) data.
• individual vs. external control The other main problem lies in the way that
• monetary or other benefits vs. no risks are measured. Very often, a person’s
benefits perception of risk does not match the actual
• ‘fairness’ of risk distribution vs. risks risk. This may be due to their misunder-
concentrated among particular standing of risk data or the unavailability of
groups or locations reliable data.
• self-appraisal of risk vs. external
decision about risk
• familiarity with those BIAS AND RISK
producing risk vs. unknown risk PERCEPTION
producer
• complex expression of risk vs. simple Bias refers to our prejudice or inclinations.
language expression of risk Personal biases can have a significant impact
on our assessment of risk. Each of the
The first parameter illustrates where risk may following biases affects people’s perceptions
be more likely to be tolerated. If an individual of the probabilities of risk.
has control, it is more likely to be accepted. Availability bias refers to the recall between
For instance, an individual may refuse to work a risk and similar events that occurred. For
in noisy conditions at a workplace but is instance, an outbreak of legionnaire’s disease
294 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
in a shopping centre may lead to an increased and the likely feedback from the workforce. In
perception of probability of the event some cases, it may be appropriate to attempt
occurring again, compared with if a similar several forms of risk communication before an
event had not occurred. optimal approach is found. The four methods
Representativeness bias describes whether of risk communication are:
the sample is judged to be similar to the main
population. • none — ignore others
Anchoring bias relates to where the in- • one way — show others they are
formation was obtained and whether it relates wrong
to the population. In some cases, estimates of • two way — exchange information
probability are derived from some outside and learn
source and then adjusted upwards or down- • internalised — each becomes an
wards in light of new information. integral part of the process.
Vernacular bias refers to how the results are
framed. If the risk assessment presents the The principles for effective risk communication
findings with a positive perspective, in the workplace are:
perception of risk is definitely affected. For
instance, if 30 per cent of a workforce con- • risk communication should involve
tracted a form of cancer related to work, the the open, two-way exchange of
findings that 70 per cent of workers did not information between professionals
contract the disease are more positive and and workers
acceptable. • questions and honest, open
dialogue should be encouraged; it is
best to honestly answer such questions
in a way that is easily understood
RISK COMMUNICATION • an organisation should make its
risk management goals clear to
Effective communication of hazards and their
workers; the aims of risk assessments
risks is an issue that can be somewhat difficult
and risk management decisions should
to manage. The influence of perceptions can
be communicated accurately and
severely affect even the most rational worker’s
objectively in a meaningful manner
ability to comprehend and accept arguments
• data, models and inferences used or
about agents. The media, especially, tend to
relied upon in the risk assessment or
sensationalise ‘hot’ occupational health and
decision should be described, in
hygiene issues. This not only raises the issue’s
order to maximise worker
profile but the ire of workers who may be
understanding and participation in risk
affected. The issue of asbestos always tends to
analysis
cause workers’ blood to boil, even if the full
• information sources and
extent of exposure is not known. Similarly,
uncertainties should be identified
issues such as exposure to radio frequencies
• appropriate risk comparisons should
around overhead power lines and telecommuni-
be made; this might include taking
cations causes dissension in the community.
into account public attitudes with
Risk communication can be approached in a
respect to voluntary versus
number of ways. The decision about appro-
involuntary risks
priate strategies will depend on the nature of
• feedback and information should be
workforce, the hazard that is being discussed
provided in a timely manner
Chapter 12: Risk analysis ■ 295
• workers should be allowed access to The second step relates to the characteris-
relevant documents. ation of health and social aspects of risk. This
could be conducted through the use of tools
The first step of successful risk analysis and such as toxicology, modelling, epidemiology
communication should be to involve both and surveillance.
quantitative methods of risk assessment and an The final aspect of the combined process
evaluation of the health risks as perceived by involves reassessment, assurance and
the population. The exclusive use of quanti- evaluation. Since the ultimate goal of the
tative risk assessments limits the effectiveness combined approach is to utilise the benefits of
of an agreeable outcome, as many risk assess- risk assessment to achieve better decisions
ment studies overstate exposure and risk regarding occupational hygiene risks, it is
estimates due to methodological problems. This imperative that the interventions are reviewed.
compounds as a negativity and loss of con- Success could be measured through the
fidence in the risk assessment process in the improvement of workers’ health.
view of the workforce.
SUMMARY
Risk analysis can be objective or subjective. There are several terms that lie within the
category of risk analysis. Risk analysis is broadly defined to include risk assessment,
characterisation, communication and management relating to risk. Risk analysis applies to
both the occupational setting and individuals, the public and society generally. This chapter
has identified four methods for risk analysis: the AS/NZS4360 risk score calculator, Fine’s
nomogram, TTC hazard rating system and FLAME model.
Grose, V.L. 1990, ‘Assessing Risk by the Numbers’, Professional Safety, July, pp. 39–43
Proctor, S.P., Marchant, G. and Baram, M.S. 1991, ‘Evaluation of Risk Assessment as Evidence for
Decision Making’, Risk Analysis — Prospects and Opportunities, Plenum Press, New York
Pybus, R. 1997, Safety Management Strategy and Practice, Butterworth-Heinemann, London
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1999, AS/NZS4360: 1999 Risk Management, Standards
Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Strohm, P.F. and Opheim, G.S. 1993, ‘Mission-Oriented Risk Assessment’, Professional Safety, June,
pp. 38–43
Weaver, D.A. 1982, ‘The TTC Hazard Rating System’, Professional Safety, July, pp. 36–41
Chapter 13
Control
Much of the practice of occupational hygiene and comply with regulatory requirements. An
concentrates on hazard identification and accountant or risk manager, on the other hand,
evaluation of risk; however, if the hazard is not may consider the financial loss associated with
controlled these first two steps are futile. It is an incident or failure to control risk. Chapter
imperative that control is always an outcome 14 expands our discussion about occupational
of the correct recognition and assessment of hygiene risk management. Whatever the
agents that can harm workers’ health. The aim reason, controls need to be realistic and cost-
of occupational hygiene risk control is to efficient. Indeed, an indirect outcome of
design or find methods that will minimise control may be an increase in efficiency and
exposure, whether the hazard is physical, overall reduction of costs. The six aims of
chemical, ergonomic or biological. occupational hygiene risk control are:
This chapter deals with the concept of
control including its aims, types and the • protection of exposed workers’
hierarchy of control. It focuses on ventilation health
such as local exhaust ventilation, general • ensuring workers’ comfort and
dilution ventilation and the design of safety
ventilation systems. The use of personal • compliance with legislation
protective equipment as a control option is • protection of other workers and
also discussed, along with guidance on how to people who may be affected by the
select, use and maintain respiratory protection risks created by a process or
devices. Controls relating to noise, vibration workplace
and biological hazards are discussed in the • reduction in environmental pollution
chapters that dealt with these specific hazards. and damage to the environment
• minimisation of economic loss from
raw materials, products or valuable
THE AIMS OF CONTROL wastes.
There are six fundamental reasons for In many cases, there are several options
implementing occupational hygiene controls. available for control. Sometimes, the optimal
The impetus may be financial, regulatory, control may not be the most practicable and an
ethical or industrially related. For instance, the alternative needs to be considered. Perhaps
occupational health and safety professional more than one control is required to reduce
aims to minimise exposure to protect workers exposure to an acceptable level. While control
298 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
may not eliminate the hazard, it will reduce the on the type of contaminant to which they are
magnitude of exposure to some extent. exposed. Some questions that need to be
asked include:
Asbestos is a mineral fibre that has exceptional thermal and abrasion resistant
properties. Due to these characteristics, it was used as a form of insulation or
lagging around high-temperature and high-pressure pipes in chemical processing
industries. Since asbestos has been associated with lung conditions such as
asbestosis, lung cancer and mesothelioma, its use has gradually decreased and
during routine maintenance it has been replaced with synthetic mineral fibre
lagging. Synthetic mineral fibres are believed to present less risk than asbestos,
according to current knowledge.
spray-painting that prevents drift of paint and buildings and workplaces depend on ventilation
exposure to solvents of adjacent workers or either for comfort, temperature regulation or
closing the lid of a photocopier when copying contaminant control. Table 13.1 shows the most
to minimise exposure to high-intensity light and common categories of ventilation used in
premature wearing of the photosensitive drum. industrial workplaces or office environments. A
In the workplace, signage is often used detailed discussion about these types of
extensively to provide information or warnings ventilation systems and their applications is
(Figure 13.1). Therefore, it is actually a barrier included later in this chapter.
whose information or instructions should bring
compliance. For this reason, signs must be Administrative controls
easily understood and interpreted, otherwise
their use as a control is extremely limited. Since As we move further down the hierarchy of
signage relies on our responses and interpre- control it becomes apparent that administrative
tation to make a decision not to enter an area, controls become one of the least preferred
it uses time as a control. AS1319 is the options. The main reason for this is that these
recommended standard to which occupational controls rely on human behaviour and compli-
health and safety signs should comply. ance for success. Where the risk is low, admin-
istrative controls may be considered; however, if
Ventilation the risk is significant, administrative controls by
themselves should be viewed with caution.
For atmospheric contaminants, ventilation is Indeed, many workplaces incorporate
the most effective control (once elimination and administrative controls into a holistic approach
substitution have been negated). In fact, most to control. In other words, several control
Type Characteristics
techniques are used to reduce exposure to a workers can make an informed decision about
level as low as reasonably achievable. Some their exposure. Some examples of information
instances where administrative controls may sources include:
be used include:
• material safety data sheets for
• low-level exposure
hazardous substances
• infrequent exposure
• ‘toolbox talks’ and sharing
• minimal health or safety
information between supervisors or
consequences if exposure does
management and workers
occur.
• technical documents or brochures
In these situations administrative controls about tools, equipment and plant
which concentrate on the worker rather than • on-the-job training such as the
the workplace may be appropriate. Some ‘buddy–buddy’ system, apprentice
examples of these controls are: training at group training
organisations and demonstrations
• worker rotation and job placement • professionals who provide training
• education and training about occupational health and safety
• good housekeeping and hygiene hazards.
• maintenance
• scheduling of work Good housekeeping and hygiene
• monitoring and health surveillance.
Not only will housekeeping minimise safety-
Worker rotation and job placement related incidents such as trips, slips and falls but
it also serves to reduce the amount of dusts and
This method aims to reduce an individual’s other contaminants that may become airborne.
overall exposure by sharing the work amongst Personal hygiene is also an issue in controlling
several workers. For instance, hot work such as accidental exposure. Substandard hygiene can
welding the crushing drums in a sugar mill lead to inadvertent ingestion of contaminants,
could be performed by a team of welders. Multi- for instance, by smoking, eating food without
skilling of workers in a dry-cleaning establish- washing the hands first or drinking from a
ment means that the time spent exposed to contaminated source.
perchlorethylene is minimised by swapping to Cross-contamination between the work-
an alternative task such as ironing. Job place and home can also occur where dirty
placement incorporates a number of issues such work clothes are taken home for washing. A
as fitness-for-work and a person’s ability to poignant reminder of the danger of this
perform the task. If a worker suffers a pre- practice is the families of Wittenoom asbestos
existing condition or illness, they should not be miners who contracted asbestos-related
placed in a job that is likely to exacerbate the diseases from exposure to the contaminated
condition or cause deterioration of health. clothing of their partners or fathers.
Education and training assist workers in per- Scheduled maintenance of tools, equipment and
forming their work safely. With knowledge and plant is necessary to minimise wear and
understanding about the risk associated with a associated loss of performance. This inefficiency
task and methods of combating exposure, can be transformed into an alternative damaging
304 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Exposure to inorganic lead chiefly occurs through inhalation of dust and fume.
However, an often overlooked route of entry is through accidental ingestion. In
the radiator repair industry, lead-based solder is used to repair holes in the
radiators. This can generate significant amounts of lead oxide (PbO) fume. If the
hands are not protected, the dust also can settle on the skin and become
embedded beneath the fingernails.
Exposure to inorganic lead occurs after repairing the radiators and eating,
drinking or smoking without washing and scrubbing the hands first. The lead dust
is transferred to the food, tip of cigarette or drinking container where it is taken
through the mouth and into the digestive system. Some absorption of lead occurs
in the gut.
must be taken into account. Table 13.2 shows hour or air changes per second. Equation 13.6
some typical values of K, which vary from shows how to calculate air changes per
1.0 to 3 in most situations. second. To convert this to air changes per hour,
Therefore, the dilution airflow rate that is the calculated value of N is multiplied by 3600.
required in most situations (Qeff) will take
account of the airflow rate, mixing factor and
Equation 13.6
the occupational exposure standard (Equation
13.5). N = Q/V
Where:
–1
N is the air change rate (changes.sec )
3 –1
Equation 13.5 Q is the airflow rate (m .s )
3
Qeff = E/L x K V is volume of space (m )
Where:
Qeff is the effective ventilation rate In Australia, there are no legislative require-
3 –1
(m .s ) ments for air change rate; however, it is
–1
E is the emission rate (mg.s ) generally recommended that higher rates are
K is the mixing factor required in areas that generate contaminants or
–3
L is the exposure limit (mg.m ) odour. Public places also require a higher air
change rate. Table 13.3 shows some rec-
ommended air change rates for various areas.
In general, the following principles should be
adopted when designing a dilution ventilation Table 13.3 Air change rates
system:
Air changes Typical
• locate the fresh air intake away from per hour situation
possible contamination sources (such 2–3 Homes, churches, storage
as driveways with car exhaust 2–4 Libraries, banks, classrooms
emissions) 4–7 Offices, public halls
• an equal volume of air removed by 5–10 Laboratories
general ventilation systems must be 6–8 Hospital wards
supplied by make-up air 10–12 Public toilets
• make-up air should be supplied by 10–15 Public bars
fans and ducts, as it is difficult to 6–10 Theatres, cinemas
control the quality of air drawn in other 8–12 Cafes, dance halls
ways (e.g. through doors or openings 10–15 Restaurants
in the building) 24–40 Laundries
• make-up air should be heated or 15–30 Restaurant kitchens
cooled to approximately the same as 30–60 Paint shops, foundries
desired in the room being supplied.
Air change rates are used by ventilation The term purging relates to clearing the air by
engineers and describe the number of times air evacuation. It can be performed by either
is moved out of a room in a given time. These sucking or blowing air into or from a
rates are usually expressed in air changes per contaminated space. Blowing or pushing air
Chapter 13: Control ■ 311
into the area allows more effective mixing than LOCAL EXHAUST
sucking. The concentration of contaminant is VENTILATION
reduced exponentially over time. This
reduction can be expressed mathematically, as Local exhaust ventilation systems are designed
shown in Equation 13.7. to collect contaminants as close to the origin
or source as possible. They can be used:
Equation 13.7
–Qt/V • for relatively toxic contaminants
C = Co.e • where the generation of
Where: contaminants occurs intermittently
C is the final concentration • if the source of emission is a point
Co is the concentration at time source
3 –1
Q is the airflow rate (m .s ) • where the emission source is
t is time (sec) relatively fixed
3
V is volume of space (m ) • where the worker is located close to
the source of emission
Therefore, the time that it would take to • if other cost-effective options are
reduce the concentration of a contaminant to a not viable.
specific level can be determined by
extrapolating Equation 13.7 to Equation 13.8. An LEV system has the following basic elements:
An example is provided in Example 13.3.
• a hood to capture the contaminant
Equation 13.8 • ducts to transport the contaminant
• air-cleaning devices to remove
t = V/Q.ln [Ci/Cf] contaminants from the air
Where: • fans that move the air through the
3 –1
Q is the ventilation rate (m .s ) system and discharge exhausted air
ln is natural log outside
Ci is the initial concentration • a stack or emission point.
Cf is the final concentration
t is time (sec) The hood or canopy provides a point of ingress
3
V is volume of space (m ) for the contaminant. It can have an open face or
flanges to help direct air movement. A correctly
Example 13.3 designed hood is integral to the efficiency of
3 LEV. If the hood is poorly designed and cumber-
A confined space with a volume of 100 m some, the worker may not use the system.
has a measured concentration of 1000 Similarly, if it does not encourage the contam-
ppm of carbon monoxide (CO). The inant into the LEV, it is useless. Ducts or piping
3 –1
airflow rate is 0.5 m .s . How long would are transport mechanisms for the contaminant
the space have to be purged to reduce to travel from the source to its eventual emission
the concentration to 30 ppm? point. The construction of ducts will depend
Answer: upon the contaminant (i.e. corrosive or acidic
t = V/Q. ln [Ci/Cf] dusts will abrade steel ducts) and its velocity.
3 3 –1
t = 100 m /0.5 m .s . ln [1000/30] Where the contaminants negotiate a bend, the
= 701 seconds or 12 minutes angle of the duct must not affect the airflow.
312 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Some LEV systems utilise an air-cleaning • Does the LEV need to be portable or
system that scrubs or removes the contam- fixed in one location?
inant before its emission into the environment.
The term scrubbing usually refers to chemical Each of the components of the LEV will be
removal from the airstream. Filtration of dusts considered in turn later in the chapter. It is
is the mechanism for cleaning dusts from the important to realise that designing a LEV
air before being released to the ambient air. system is not a typical task for an occupational
Since LEV systems incorporate forced hygienist. However, a team approach
ventilation, a fan is installed between the hood incorporating the skills of a ventilation
and emission point. The fan must generate engineer, maintenance personnel and the
sufficient air velocity within the ducts to occupational hygienist should result in optimal
capture the contaminant and keep it entrained outcomes. Each party has individual strengths
in the airstream, while achieving the most that they bring to the project.
economical efficiency.
The final component is the stack. A Hoods
comprehensive discussion of the types of
stacks will not be provided in this chapter. The purpose of the hood is to capture and
Since emission of the contaminant (or cleaned collect contaminants (outside or inside the
air) occurs to the environment, it is mostly an hood), and draw them into the exhaust for
environmental issue. removal. The main categories of hoods are:
The most commonly used document that • enclosing hoods
occupational hygienists have to assist in • receiving hoods
developing and designing LEV systems is the • capturing hoods
ACGIH’s Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of • push–pull systems
Recommended Practice. This manual is extensive • exterior hoods.
in its coverage of types of systems, duct design
and equations for calculating airflow. For An example of an enclosing hood is a
further information about ventilation that is laboratory cabinet, shown in Figure 13.4.
beyond the scope of this chapter, it is strongly An enclosing hood fully or partly covers the
recommended that this text be consulted. contaminant source or process. For con-
taminant removal, it is the most efficient. How-
Designing local exhaust ever, it presents problems with access to the
ventilation process and acceptability for use in the
workplace. Some other examples that are
When planning to install an LEV system it is first commonly used include a glove box for dealing
necessary to characterise the emission source, with highly pathogenic biological agents or an
most likely path of exposure and workplace con- abrasive blasting box that uses glass beads to
ditions. Questions that could be asked include: remove rust or paint from small articles.
The receiving hood collects an already
• Is the contaminant a dust, fume, gas moving contaminant by directing it into the
or vapour? hood. It is strategically placed to make the
• What is the emission rate and most of the natural velocity of the particle
velocity of emission? (exerted through mechanical energy or thermal
• What cross-draughts or eddies could buoyancy). Your local fish-and-chips shop
affect the collection of the utilises the principles of the receiving hood
contaminant? above the deep fryers. As the oil heats, it emits
Chapter 13: Control ■ 313
Capture velocity
Examination of Example 13.4 and Example • increase air velocity (in effect, this
13.5 illustrates that higher velocities are means that to achieve a required
obtained from a circular shaped hood, rather airflow rate, Q, the capture velocity
than one with a square opening. Minimising may be significantly improved by
cross-draughts will further assist the capture adding a flange)
velocity. Opposing air currents cause cross- • decrease the airflow rate required to
draughts. By utilising a number of slots or a achieve a particular capture velocity
flange, the airflow can be greatly improved. at a given point.
Example 13.4
Slots, baffles and plenums
A contaminant is being drawn into a plain Exterior hoods are often designed to
square hood with a length of 30 cm. If Q incorporate slots, baffles and plenums. Slots
3 –1
is 5 m .s , what is the air velocity at 5 cm, are essentially openings that have a length to
10 cm, 20 cm and 1 m from the hood? width ratio of 0:2 or less. The benefit of slots
Answer: is that they reduce turbulence and allow for a
2
v = Q/10X + A more uniform airflow. They are often used
–1
At 5 cm, v = 43 m.s where it is important to minimise the
–1
At 10 cm, v = 26 m.s occurrence of eddies or excessive evaporation
–1
At 20 cm, v = 10 m.s of a contaminant. A plenum is usually
–1
At 1 m, v = 0.5 m.s incorporated with a slot to assist in the
uniform distribution of air.
Baffles are similar to flanges, except that
Example 13.5
they restrict airflow from the front or sides of
A contaminant is being drawn into a plain the hood. This means that the area available
circular hood with a radius of 15 cm. If Q for airflow is restricted and any air sucked
3 –1
is 5 m .s , what is the air velocity at 5 cm, through the baffle increases in velocity and can
10 cm, 20 cm and 1 m from the hood? be easily directed through the LEV system. The
Answer: basis for this theory lies with Equation 13.1
2 2
v = Q/10X + A (Note: A = π.r ) (Q = v.A). So, to maintain a constant airflow
–1
At 5 cm, v = 52 m.s rate, velocity increases as the area decreases.
–1
At 10 cm, v = 29 m.s
–1
At 20 cm, v = 11 m.s
–1
Ducts
At 1 m, v = 0.5 m.s
After identifying the type of contaminant that
Flanges will be drawn into the hood and through the LEV
system, the next step is to decide on the duct
In its simplest form, a flange is a surface that construction, shape and diameter. Consider-
lies parallel to the hood face. Its purpose is to ation should be given to the type of material from
prohibit unwanted air from behind the hood which the duct is constructed. Some materials
from flowing into the hood. Therefore, the may be rigid (such as aluminium or other metals)
flange will increase the effectiveness of airflow while others may be flexible — these are
rate by carefully directing contaminated air generally used where the LEV is movable and can
from in front of the hood. be located at different workstations.
From Equation 13.9, we can see that the The selected duct diameter and shape will
flange can do either of two things: depend on the type of contaminant that is
Chapter 13: Control ■ 315
being transported and the required duct either propellers (that move large volumes of
transport velocity. For instance, circular ducts air but are unable to deal with high resistance)
are best for transporting aerosols, resist or impeller blades. Impellers can be mounted
collapse and can be made from lightweight on the fan axis. A tube axial fan is an example
materials without failure. They also have less of this.
internal friction than other shapes such as Centrifugal fans operate using the principle
squares and rectangles. of centrifuge. As air passes towards the blades
The process for selecting appropriate duct of the fan, it is rotated at an angle of up to 90
diameters is to consider the required velocity degrees. The advantage of centrifugal fans is
for a known contaminant (available from the their ability to handle large volumes of air. This
ACGIH’s Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of is achieved through either simple impellers or
Recommended Practice) and then use Equation blades that are curved. The blades can be
13.1 to calculate the required area. Depending curved either forwards or backwards.
on whether a square, rectangular or circular Forward-curved blade fans usually have
duct is chosen, this can then be extrapolated many blades placed in an arc configuration.
back to the dimensions of the duct. Due to this configuration, the air is accelerated
to high velocities and the fans are especially
useful for moving great volumes of air. The
Example 13.6
backward-curved blade fans are most suitable
If an LEV system required a duct with an where high-pressure drops occur.
2
area of 0.3 m , what diameter of circular
and square duct could be used?
Answer: Stacks and emission points
Square duct:
d = √A Once the contaminant has been collected from
=√0.3 the workplace and transported through the
= 0.55 m ducting, it must be ejected from the
Circular Duct: workplace. Often, an air-cleaning device such
d = √4A/π as a scrubber or filtration system may be
= √4(0.3)/3.14 installed in series with the duct. In other cases,
= 0.62 m the contaminant-laden air is released directly
into the atmosphere. Since the capture velocity
of the contaminated air affects its movement
Fans and dispersion in the ducts, it is vital that
the type of stack that is attached does not
In most situations, a fan provides air affect this.
movement through the LEV system. Fans Some stacks are merely open pipes that
consist of a series of blades that are mounted allow the contaminant to be forced from them
on a rotating shaft usually driven by an electric due to the positive pressure after the fan. It is
motor. The main types of fans are: generally accepted that the stack should be
located at a height at least equal to the highest
• axial flow fans point of the building. If the stack is not high
• centrifugal or radial flow fans. enough, the contaminant could be caught in
turbulent eddies surrounding the roof
With axial flow fans the air travels parallel to structure and enter the workplace again. In
the fan axis. The blades of the fans can be particularly wet conditions, a weather cap or
316 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
witch’s hat is placed on top of the stack. This To measure the air pressure, both the static
prevents water from entering the stack and and velocity pressure must be considered. This
ducting. Unfortunately, it also creates is known as the total pressure (Pt) and is shown
turbulence at the top of the duct as it joins the in Equation 13.10.
stack. Therefore, the use of this type of cap is
not recommended.
Equation 13.10
Measurement of air velocity and Pt = Ps + Pv
pressure in LEV systems Where:
Pt is the total pressure
The fundamental principle of operation of an
Ps is the static pressure
LEV system is to draw air from one location
Pv is the velocity pressure
before transporting it to another for removal.
The device that performs this inducement of
A double-tubed probe called a Pitot tube
contaminants in an airstream is the fan. As the
(Figure 13.5) can be inserted into the wall of a
fan moves air from one area to another, it
duct and used to measure pressure inside the
causes a partial vacuum or area of lower
duct. The Pitot tube is connected to a
pressure from where the air has been removed.
manometer by flexible tubing and inserted
Due to the nature of gases, air quickly moves
carefully into a hole drilled in the duct. The
into this space.
Pitot tube has holes both at the end of the
At the face of the hood, air pressure is
tube and along its length. As it is inserted into
slightly less than atmospheric pressure since
the duct, the Pitot tube can be connected to
the fan is sucking air into the hood. Therefore,
the manometer in three ways, to measure Pv, Ps
the outside air will move along this pressure
or PT:
gradient and pass into the hood. As the air
passes through the fan the pressure increases,
• The tubing from the manometer
causing the air to move along the path of least
can be connected to the outer
resistance until it meets with the stack and is
tube outlet to measure static
emitted from the duct.
pressure. Static pressure will be
Now imagine the air that is passing through
negative on the suction side of
the duct on the stack side of the fan. It has
the fan.
positive pressure. This difference of pressure
• For velocity pressure, both the
between the air inside the duct and the
inner and outer tubes are
ambient air is known as static pressure (Ps).
connected to the manometer.
Static pressure is perpendicular to airflow
Velocity pressure is always
movement. As expected, the static pressure is
positive.
negative on the suction side of the fan. At the
• For total pressure, the inner tube of
outlet side of the fan, it is positive.
the Pitot tube is connected to the
The air also places pressure in the direction
manometer. Total pressure is
of the airflow. This is called the velocity
negative on the suction side of
pressure (Pv). The velocity pressure acts only in
the fan.
the direction of the airflow. It has no effect at
right angles to the flow so it does not exert any
force on the walls of a straight duct, whereas If velocity pressure is measured, the velocity of
the static pressure is exerted on the duct and the airstream can be calculated from Equation
in all other directions as well. 13.11.
Chapter 13: Control ■ 317
• carefully selected for the individual sideburns, beards and unusual facial features
worker and task for which it is will affect the fit) and other conditions such as
intended to be used heat and humidity.
• readily available and used when
needed Maintenance, repairs and cleaning
• clean and operational
• maintained by appropriately trained When respiratory protection becomes relied
personnel. upon as a control measure, regular maintenance
must be conducted to ensure its integrity. All
In its selection, it is also important to consider respirators must be inspected for wear and
the type of work — its physical demands, deterioration of their components before and
including workload, heat and movement after each use. Except for disposable
requirements, and the need to wear other respirators, attention must be given to rubber
forms of personal protective equipment. or plastic parts of the face-pieces. This is
AS/NZS1715 should be referred to, as it especially applicable to the face seal surface,
provides a flow chart that must be used in headband, valves, connecting tube, fittings and
conjunction with tables of respirators and filter cartridge. The connections should also be firmly
types. tightened. Gas and vapour cartridges must be
When selecting a respirator, the protection replaced as necessary to provide complete
factor and required minimum protection factor protection. It is best to follow the manufac-
(RMPF) should be determined. The protection turer’s recommendations and seek advice when
factor (Equation 13.12) is defined as the uncertain of the service life of the cartridge.
expected reduction in exposure that should be Mechanical filters must be replaced as
provided by a particular respirator. necessary to avoid high resistance to breathing.
Emergency-use respirators (such as self-
rescuers) and SCBA must be inspected at least
Equation 13.12
monthly. In this inspection process, the air and
Ambient air concentrate oxygen cylinders must be fully charged accord-
Concentration in respirator ing to the manufacturer’s instructions. The
regulator and warning devices are also checked
The RMPF (Equation 13.13) is the factor by to ensure they are operating correctly. It is
which the exposure of the wearer must be diligent to maintain records of the inspection
reduced to ensure the concentration of dates and findings. If a fault or defect has been
contaminant inside the respirator is equal to or discovered, only experienced people should
less than the occupational exposure standard. repair the respiratory protection devices.
For hygiene reasons, workers should clean
their own respirators or a system should be
Equation 13.13
implemented in the workplace to ensure they
RMPF = Ambient air are cleaned and disinfected. This is especially
concentration/Occupational exposure important where the use of respiratory
standard protection devices is limited and a worker may
not have their own equipment. For storage,
RMPF is measured in laboratory conditions and many manufacturers suggest that the
does not provide a good indication of the respirators need to be stored to protect
actual protection which is likely to be achieved against dust, sunlight, heat, extreme cold,
in the workplace due to facial fit (e.g. excessive moisture or damaging chemicals.
324 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
Cartridges should be placed in a plastic bag to infectious wastes or hot materials. When
prevent undue adsorption onto the filter. choosing gloves, consider carefully the extent of
protection required, size and the amount of
Training flexibility and dexterity that is required.
For hazardous substances, the best infor-
In order for workers to understand why they mation source to determine the correct type of
are being asked to wear respiratory protection glove is the material safety data sheet. It should
devices, they should be informed of how to specify the type of material and size of glove
select, use and maintain the respirators. As a that is appropriate. The choice of glove for pro-
minimum, the training should include: tection against chemicals requires knowledge of
the chemicals to be handled and the resistance
• how to recognise occupational
of the glove material. Gloves must be able to
hygiene hazards
resist permeation, degradation and damage.
• the possible consequences of
The main materials used in the con-
exposure to the hazard if respiratory
struction of chemical protection gloves are:
protection devices are not used
• an explanation of why the controls
• nitrile
towards the top of the hierarchy of
• rubber
control are not viable, but with a
• PVC
commitment that alternative control
• neoprene.
methods are being pursued
• details about the capabilities and
If information about insulating gloves for
limitations of the respiratory
electrical purposes is required, AS2225 should
protection devices
be perused. The AS/NZS2161 series provides
• instruction and hands-on training
advice about occupational protective gloves
about how to use the devices,
generally, for mechanical risks and for cold.
including supervision to ensure that
The full bibliographic details are included at
they continue to be properly used.
the end of this chapter.
Hand protection While it is important to choose the correct
glove to protect against a hazard, comfort must
Gloves and mittens are a form of PPE which are not be forgotten. For instance, if the hands
often used when handling hazardous substances, inside gloves become extremely hot and
sweaty, they are less likely to be worn. Similarly, on chemical resistance where the footwear
if workers feel they are unable to obtain an forms part of a suit. The soles of safety footwear
adequate grip of a tool or equipment, they may are usually made from hard-wearing materials
prefer not to wear the glove or mitten. All of such as polyurethane or nitrile. They are slip-
these must be taken into account in the resistant and provide insulation against
selection of hand protection. temperature extremes and electricity.
AS/NZS2210 describes the type of footwear
Eye protection incorporating a steel toecap. Debate still
continues about whether toecaps are
While eye protection is recommended for use recommended in all workplaces. As a general
when handling many types of hazardous sub- rule, steel-capped footwear is advised where
stances, it does come with the following objects may fall on the foot and would cause
limitations: damage. Some incidences of amputated toes
have occurred where an object impacted on the
• the lenses and shields may become footwear, causing the cap to depress and cut the
scratched or dirty toes. The specifications for impact resistance (in
• the lenses and shields may become Joules) of safety footwear are given below:
foggy
• the lenses and shields may restrict • Type 1 (heavy) — 200 J
vision due to distorted vision • Type 2 (medium) — 130 J
• it is often hard to use eye and face • Type 3 (light) — 80 J
protection when wearing • Type 4 (waterproof) — 200 J.
prescription glasses
• the attenuation of hearing When selecting safety footwear, both the
protectors may be affected. aesthetic and safety components must be
considered. The questions that should be
The main types of eye and face protection that asked include:
would be used to protect against the harmful
effects of hazardous substances include spec- • Is the footwear comfortable?
tacles, goggles, face shields and hoods or • Will the workers appreciate its
helmets. appearance and style?
AS/NZS1336 gives guidelines on recom- • How resistant is the material to
mended practices for occupational eye water and chemicals?
protection. Where hot work such as welding or • Are a variety of fittings available?
cutting is performed, the eye protection must • What forces are likely to impact on
contain filters to protect against non-ionising the foot?
radiation. The AS/NZS1338 series specifies the
required filters for this protection. AS/NZS1337 Coats, suits and overalls
is also a useful reference in the selection of eye
protection for workplaces. A variety of materials are used to protect the
body against hazardous substances, in a similar
Foot protection way to the protection of hands. Clothes may be
used to protect against chemical agents such as
Safety footwear is designed to protect against corrosives or solvents or physical hazards such
chemical substances, as well as protect against as irritant dusts (e.g. fibreglass, rock-wool,
impact from materials. AS3765 provides detail ceramic fibres), fire, heat and general abrasion
326 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
caused through mechanical irritation of dirt or time or based on the extent to which the
other substances. external environment is excluded. The main
Chemical protective suits have a types of suits that are available are gas-tight
classification, which is detailed in AS3765. This suits, air-line ventilated suits and full splash
can either be in the form of a breakthrough suits for dealing with chemicals.
SUMMARY
Controlling occupational hygiene hazards is an integral component in managing risk. The
hierarchy of control may be used as a guide to select controls that are practicable, cost-
effective and minimise risk.
The hierarchy begins with elimination; then substitution; engineering controls such as
ventilation, isolation and guarding; administrative controls; and personal protective
equipment. As much as possible, controls should be selected from the top of the hierarchy of
control. However, in certain circumstances, the use of personal protective equipment may be
the only option open to workplaces.
Filters for Protection Against Radiation Generated in Welding and Allied Operations, Standards
Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1992, AS/NZS1338.2: 1992 Filters for Eye Protectors —
Filters for Protection Against Ultraviolet Radiation, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1992, AS/NZS1338.3: 1992 Filters for Eye Protectors —
Filters for Protection Against Infrared Radiation, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1994, AS/NZS1715: 1994 Selection, Use and
Maintenance of Respiratory Protective Devices, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1994, AS/NZS1716: 1994 Respiratory Protective Devices,
Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1994, AS/NZS2210 Occupational Protective Footwear,
Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1994, AS/NZS2210.1: 1994 Guide to Selection, Care and
Use, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1994, AS/NZS2210.2: 1994 Specification, Standards
Australia, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1997, AS/NZS1336: 1997 Recommended Practices for
Occupational Eye Protection, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1997, AS/NZS4011: 1997 Single-use Examination Gloves
— Specification, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1997, AS/NZS4179: 1997 Single-use Surgical Rubber
Gloves — Specification, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS2161.2: 1998 Occupational Protective
Gloves — General Requirements, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS2161.3: 1998 Occupational Protective
Gloves — Protection Against Mechanical Risks, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Standards Association of Australia/New Zealand 1998, AS/NZS2161.5: 1998 Occupational Protective
Gloves — Protection Against Cold, Standards Australia/New Zealand, North Sydney
Chapter 14
Since this book was first published in 1999, derived over the decades, it has taken
much progress has been made in Australia to considerable time for these to be embraced
use a planned or systematic approach to and applied to the management of
managing risk. Legislative changes in some occupational hygiene hazards. However, now
States and Territories have all but required that more than ever, the importance of integrating
organisations implement an occupational an occupational hygiene program within the
health and safety management system organisation’s existing management system is
(OHSMS). Indeed, many workplaces that paramount. To do this we focus on managing
choose to participate in schemes to self- people, resources and time. Indeed, the theory
manage (and self-insure) workers’ compen- of risk management adopts such an approach,
sation risk do so with the mandatory which consists of:
implementation of an OHSMS.
This chapter attempts to describe the • anticipation
philosophy of management and practical ways • recognition
to best deal with occupational hygiene • evaluation
hazards. The chapter asks why, how and what • control.
occupational hygienists manage, and describes
a systems approach to managing risks with In Australia, the principles and practices of risk
reference to AS/NZS4801. management are explained in AS/NZS4360:
1999. Indeed, many organisations use the
methodology and tools suggested in this
MANAGING AND standard to identify hazards, assess the level of
MANAGEMENT risk and prioritise controls.
performance. While the term performance may organisation. In his ideal bureaucracy, there
appear a little harsh, it should be noted that a was an authoritarian hierarchy, division of
number of factors impinge on performance. It labour, formal rules and regulation, formal
encompasses workers’ production capacities in selection, separate career orientation for
addition to personal issues such as morale, managers and no attention given to
satisfaction and motivation. personalities or individualism.
Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) suggested Later, a more behavioural approach caused
a scientific management theory that describes a review of the scientific and administrative
the worker as a component of a production theories that considered the individual. This
system. He suggested that there was only one was the real birthplace of industrial psychology
efficient way to perform a job. Taylor’s theory and considered issues such as motivation,
(Taylorism) related to workflow and involved group dynamics, leadership and communi-
segmenting a large task into smaller repetitive cation. Recently, more emphasis has been
ones. The workflow was designed so that the placed on a systems approach. This approach
worker, tools and process were selected for argues that an organisation is a set of
each specific task. Taylor theorised that work interrelated and interdependent parts. Each of
and responsibility were equally divided these parts impacts on the others and needs to
between management and the workers, with be considered in decision-making.
management taking over work for which it was
more suited.
Around the same time, administrative REASONS FOR MANAGING
theorists developed theories of what managers OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE
do and what constitutes good management RISKS
practice. Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Max
Weber (1864–1920) are the most famous of Financial costs
these theorists. Fayol proposed the following
principles of management: While the selection and implementation of a
holistic or systems approach requires
• division of work commitment and ongoing support, the
• centralisation outcomes of success are certainly worth the
• authority effort. For many managers, the main impetus of
• straight-line chain of authority managing occupational hygiene hazards is
• discipline financial. Adverse exposure to an agent may
• order result in lost time from work and cost an
• unity of command organisation through medical expenses.
• equity However, this is a simplified view of the real
• unity of direction costs of workplace injury and disease from
• stability exposure to occupational hygiene hazards.
• inattention to personal need and Since the latency period of many agents is years
interests or decades, the individual, community and
• initiative other employers may absorb the costs. There
• remuneration have been a number of estimates relating to the
• team spirit. total costs in Australia because of poor
performance in the area of occupational health
Weber was the first to suggest that and safety.
bureaucracy was the optimal form of In 1994, Worksafe Australia put the annual
Chapter 14: Using a systematic approach to risk management ■ 331
cost (in 1992–93 dollar terms) at between $14.9 individual or societal perception of what is
billion and $37.2 billion (Foley et al. 1995). This right and worthy. Management of occupational
converts to between $16.2 billion and $40.5 hygiene risk is viewed by society as an ethical
billion in 1995–96 dollar terms if the consumer issue since the actions of an employer are seen
price index is used as the inflator. In September as immoral if they do not control exposure to
1995, the Industry Commission estimated the agents that may harm workers’ health. Just as
annual cost of serious cases as $20.1 billion, in consumers or clients have boycotted organis-
1992–93 dollars (approximately $21.9 billion ations or companies because of their environ-
in 1995–96 dollar terms). The costs of in- mental records or stance, a similar viewpoint is
appropriate risk management can be being taken against encroachments on
categorised according to the parties who are workers’ health.
burdened with the cost, chiefly the individual,
workplace and community (Table 14.1). Industrial relations reasons
While these costs do not all represent
immediate financial losses, they reflect on the Industrial relations refers to the ongoing
overall impact of failing to manage risk. dynamics between workers (and their
representatives) and the employer. Australia
Ethical reasons has a long history of confrontation between
workers and employers about many issues
Ethics refers to the morality associated with a (health and safety included).
particular event or situation. It is based on an A systematic approach to managing
332 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management
occupational hygiene hazards at work will for management lies chiefly with the employer,
assist in reducing disputes and aid con- but manufacturers, designers, suppliers,
sultation between the parties. importers, other people and workers may also
have duties. The legislation is based on the
Legal reasons concept of self-regulation, whereby the
workplace is responsible for identifying,
Australia’s legal system is divided into the evaluating and controlling risks.
following types of law: statute and common The other type of law is common law. The
law. precedence set by judges’ determinations form
All of Australia’s States and Territories and the basis of common law. Under common law
the Commonwealth have statute legislation every person has a duty not to commit a
that protects workers by minimising risk. In ‘wrongdoing’, also known as a tortious act. For
these Acts, duties of care or obligations are such an action to be brought against a person,
imposed on parties who may cause or be the incident must have been reasonably
affected by hazards in the workplace or work- foreseeable or able to be controlled and a
related activities. If these laws are breached, cause–effect relationship proven.
severe fines and even imprisonment can result Effective management of occupational
(depending upon the Act). hygiene risks can minimise the likelihood
Management of risk forms the cornerstone of prosecution under either common or
of these pieces of statute legislation. The onus statute law.
Chapter 14: Using a systematic approach to risk management ■ 333
Overcoming these barriers may be difficult and Step 2: Planning and setting
take time; however, patience and continuing goals
discussion will only help in the quest for
continual improvement. Management can be approached from two
levels: strategic and operational.
Support, benchmarking and policy Senior management is typically involved at
the strategic level, as it requires the setting of
Where to begin? Having obtained commitment targets or objectives for performance. At this
to develop and integrate occupational hygiene point, a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,
into a management system, the next stage is to opportunities and threats) analysis is usually
assess the current state of affairs. This will conducted. The SWOT provides an estimation
involve asking the following series of questions of potential factors that may influence the
about who currently has responsibility for success of the organisation.
managing risks: Operational management refers to the
‘shop-floor’ or implementation of strategies,
• What resources are allocated? policies and procedures. Once the existing
• What systems are in place? occupational hygiene and safety management
• Are these systems working system has been reviewed, the next stage
effectively? involves planning and setting goals and
targets. The issues that may need to be
At this stage, an occupational hygiene audit considered in this phase are:
may be a useful technique to obtain this
information. The outputs should include: • risk identification techniques
• risk management protocols
• risk control techniques and
• identification of hazards and justification
processes • setting performance targets that are
• a gauge of compliance with achievable and measurable
legislation • setting performance indicators
• identification of work procedures • a method for developing and
(effectiveness and appropriateness) implementing the management
and whether they are followed system plan
• a clear picture of how • allocating financial and people
responsibilities are allocated and resources for the management
whether such performance is system
reviewed. • identifying legal requirements and
accessing information.
This initial review will allow the occupational
hygienist or risk manager to benchmark the Once the opportunities for and threats to the
current system for managing occupational success of the occupational hygiene and safety
hygiene hazards. This should include reviewing management system have been identified, it is
or developing a written policy to show that time to set performance targets that are
occupational hygiene management lies within measurable and achievable. It is ideal to adopt
the organisation’s overall plan for managing positive goals that encourage continual
occupational health and safety risks. improvement, rather than negative indicators
Chapter 14: Using a systematic approach to risk management ■ 337
a compromise between management and be critical of systems and hazards that are
workers will reflect the parties’ own cultures encountered each day. This is where external
and priorities. consultants may provide a non-biased
appraisal of the occupational hygiene and risk
Step 4: Measurements and management system. They may also provide an
evaluation of performance alternative perspective and additional skills
and knowledge of the hazards.
Measuring progress and performance of
occupational hygiene and risk management Step 5: Review and
initiatives can be conducted in many ways. The improvement
outputs can be described as injury rates,
environmental performance, health statistics The review of systems should be aligned with
and total financial losses. Whatever the the organisation’s goals and objectives. It will
output, performance should be checked incorporate Steps 1 to 4 in assessing:
against goals or standards. Such standards
might include: • whether the system obtained
management support
• legislation • whether the aims and objectives
• Australian standards were measurable and achievable
• industry standards or best-practice • whether the system was user-
guidelines friendly.
• codes of practice or advisory-style
standards The ultimate aim should be for continual
• occupational exposure standards. improvement — even if, after an initial review
is conducted, nonconformances or deficiencies
This measurement can either be conducted are identified in the system. This is the
internally or through the use of external building block for future improvement. Once
consultants or auditors. Internal evaluations the review has been completed, it is important
have the benefit of knowing the organisation’s to document the findings and keep records.
systems intimately; however, it may be difficult This will be used for future reviews of
to be objective, especially when attempting to performance and improvements.
SUMMARY
Managing occupational hygiene risks should use a systematic approach that incorporates the
principles of risk management into an organisation’s management system. While there are
many theories about management, a systematic approach to problems and issues can
enhance communication and conditions in the workplace.
340 ■ Occupational Hygiene and Risk Management