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Magnetic Braking System using Eddy Current Principles

A. Introduction
Based on Andrew Day (2014), performance data of road vehicles still focuses closely on
the ability of engines to accelerate and the maintenance of superior power-to-weight ratio.
However, following the fast-paced growth of the automotive industry, the efficacy of a powerful
and reliable braking system are essential due to the importance of road vehicle safety that has
been increasingly recognized and developed for decades.
Throughout history, friction has been relied upon heavily to provide braking torque as a
way to decelerate the motion of the wheels. However, this system is seen as wasteful because
of the concern over the sustainability of road transportation. One of the problems involve brake
wear in conventional hydraulic braking systems which, in recent phenomena, produced harmful
brake dust particles to the environment as a result of the contact forces.
These drawbacks of a frictional retardation system could be overcome by a new
approach of contactless braking system which practices the electromagnetism principles of
eddy currents. The purpose of this research is to therefore explore eddy current principles and
design a physical prototype of a magnetic braking system that employs the mechanisms of eddy
currents. The advantages of the proposed system will be discussed and evaluated in terms of
its performance and reliability as a competitive alternative to conventional braking systems.
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B. Research
Eddy currents are considered as one of the most powerful electromagnetic induction
phenomena. Despite the huge impact on commercial vehicle industry, introductory physics
textbooks pay little attention the mechanism eddy currents use. The calculations for magnetic
fields and drag forces for braking devices would involve the complicated solving of Maxwell’s
expression in time-dependent situations, which may be the main reason why this subject has
not attracted many textbook authors. A simple qualitative analysis is however possible by
means of a prototype test. This report involves a physical representation that allows the
demonstration of the concept of eddy current, as well its functionality in magnetic braking
systems.
B. I Foundations of Conventional Braking System
Throughout the history, friction braking designs serve an indispensable role by
converting kinetic energy of vehicles to heat and dissipating the converted energy to the
environment. At the basic level, braking is achieved by utilizing friction materials with the goal of
retardation of the wheels’ kinetic movement.
A few problems could arise, however, from the use of this type of hydraulic braking
system. This involves time delay response due to pressure build-up, brake pad wear, and low
braking performance in a high-speed region (Lee, 1999).
Consider the ‘disc’ brake system in the Figure 1.
This type of foundation frictional brake is commonly
used, where stators act as brake pads that are clamped
against the outer surface of the rotor in the form of a
brake disc. The brake pad consists of composition
friction materials called brake lining, which will increase
friction when the brake pad is in contact with the rotor. A
hydraulically operated caliper is used to force the brake
Figure 1. Disc Brake Model lining into contact with the rotating surface of the rotor,
(Taken from www.MathWorks.com) therefore slowing down vehicle motion.
There is a temperature rise when a friction brake is applied, which contributes towards
brake wear. This heat dissipation influences the properties of the friction materials, one of them
being the thermal strength of said materials due to a change in surface microstructure. When
the braking system reaches a higher temperature, brake wear could be a more serious issue. At
the beginning, the coefficient of friction and brake wear increases together with temperature.
However, once the surface temperature surpasses the thermal decomposition temperature of
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the friction material, the friction coefficient will begin to fall whereas the wear rate keeps on
climbing as temperature increases. Therefore, the ‘heat fading’ phenomenon that occurs would
not only weaken the friction material, but also cause sheet debris to fall off, which reduces the
efficacy of the braking torque.
B. II Eddy Currents: Faradays’ and Lenz’ Law
When a conductor moves through a magnetic flux, a circular electric current is induced
in the pole area, which is called an eddy current. When the current interacts with a magnetic
field, electromotive forces (EMF) are set up which, by Lenz’ principle, create their own magnetic
fields which act to decrease the field of the magnet. Hence, it exerts a drag force which opposes
the motion of the conductive material.
This phenomenon was demonstrated in a drop-test experiment conducted by Jae-Sung
Bae on eddy current damping caused by a permanent magnet in a non-ferrous, conductive
tube. It was observed that during the fall of the magnet through the tube, the generation of eddy
currents within the conductors yield the damping force which retard the descent of the magnet.
This is in accordance to the Faraday’s induction that, when alternating currents flow through
conductors, EMFs are created due to the resulting 𝑑𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥⁄𝑑𝑡, which generate force to decrease
the magnitude of 𝑑𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥⁄𝑑𝑡 . The drop-test also shows that the eddy current damping force
reached a constant value when it is in equilibrium with gravitational force, hence reaching a
terminal speed.
B. III Relationship Between Drag Force and Velocity
Wouterse (1991) derived an equation for braking force, 𝐹𝐷 , for low speed in his analysis
of critical torque and speed of eddy current brakes:
𝑣. 𝐵2 . 𝐴. 𝜌
𝐹𝐷 =
𝑡
Where v is velocity, B the magnetic field, t the thickness of the plate, A is the area of magnetic
patch, and 𝜌 is the volume resistivity. The equation reveals that, at low velocity, the magnetic
drag force is proportional to the velocity. However, this proportionality is broken as the speed of
the disc continues to increase. In other words, the brake torque is not always proportional to the
increasing velocity. Instead, the brake torque reaches a peak value at a critical speed and then
decreases. The reason for this being that the electromagnetic field produced by circular eddy
currents interferes with the external magnetic field, causing the drag force to approach an
asymptotic value.
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C. Methodological
C. I Design Overview

Figure 2. 3D Model of Prototype Set Up

A simple eddy current brake is designed to show the working principles of
electromagnetism. The circular disc, which is made of non-magnetic and conductive material,
will be driven by the axle. A pair of timing pulleys are used to transmit torque induced by the DC
motor to the axle and, by continuation, the rotating the disc. A hand lever with strong rear-earth
magnets mounted on the end is positioned so that when the hand lever is held stationary near
the disc, the magnetic flux passes perpendicular to the rotation of the conductor.
C. II Detailed Description of Design: Driving Unit and Braking Unit

Figure 3. Exploded CAD Model of Eddy Current Braking System

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Table 1. List of different parts in exploded view of 3D Motel

PART NO. PART NAME

Frames 1,2 Angled bar frames

3 Metal support 1

4 Metal support 2 with holes to mount DC Motor

Driving Unit 5,6 Bearings

7 Large Timing Pulley

8 Shaft

9 DC Motor Representation

10 Small Timing Pulley

11 Copper disc

Braking Unit 12 Liver Block

13 Liver hand with Neodymium magnet

The overall dimensions of the design are 350 x 168.2 x 230 mm. A copper plate of 3 mm
thickness is machined down into a 148 mm disc in the workshop to act as a rotor. The disc is
going to be driven by the motor with the help of two timing pulleys.
The driving unit involves a DC motor as an actuator that is powered by 3 AA batteries to
convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. The DC motor is mounted on the metal
support to be vertically below the axle, such that the motor shaft is parallel to the wheel axle. To
transmit the rotational motion from the DC motor to the wheel, two different sizes of pulleys with
305mm timing belt are used, and the centre distance between them is obtained using pulley
calculations. Bearings are used to locate and support the shaft; they minimize friction and wear
between the metal support and the shaft where a significant difference in speed exists.
The braking unit consists of five combined neodymium magnets 15mm in diameter on
the end of lever. The lever system is located such that there is a 3mm air gap between the poles
and the disc as a way to induce magnetic flux. Aluminum metal is used for the lever system and
the rest of the frames - metal supports and angled bars - in the design.
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D. Result
D. I Physical Prototype

Figure 4. Front View and Top View of Eddy Current Braking System

A video presentation involving the prototype test and evidences of manufacturing

process could be found at the following link: https://youtu.be/oLlcK7EUSKI

D. II Testing of the Prototype

After the power is switched on, the actuator generates motion output and the rotor
(copper disc) begins to rotate towards a maximum speed. In general, when the lever is raised to
bring the magnet nearby the rotor, the disc reacts by decelerating. Hence, a drag force is
successfully produced by the Neodymium magnet around the pole area, which retards the
torque of the rotor.
The result also shows that the faster the speed, the greater the damping force will be. At
higher speed, a more intense braking response is observed which rapidly decreases the angular
velocity. However, the wheel is not brought to a complete stop and the drag force reached an
asymptotic value such that the disc is left to rotate with a lower velocity.
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E. Discussion
The design of the prototype has allowed the phenomenon of electromagnetism to play a
key role in the retardation system. This is according to theory that conductor develops eddy
currents due to the change in magnetic flux associated to the rotation of wheel. This eddy
currents then produce a magnetic field which, by Lenz’s law, opposes the action that induced it.
Hence, when a certain point in the conductor is moving away from the magnet, the induced field
will attract it. When it is moving towards the magnet, the induced field will repel it, thereby
yielding the damping force that acts on the rotating copper disc.
The proven features of contactless braking could improve the shortcomings of the
conventional system. This system works in a relatively cool condition since it does not involve a
frictional interface and thus the potential “brake fade” could be prevented. This system also
requires less maintenance since no lubrication is needed. Furthermore, when disc is subjected
to heavy braking demands, the risk of a sudden reduction of coefficient of friction as usually
experienced by friction brakes could be reduced significantly.
The result also shows that higher rotating speeds lead to a greater damping force, which
agrees with the linear relationship between the force and speed based on Wouterse’s
mathematical model. This demonstrates the ability of the brake to absorb high energy and
generate corresponding torque in short periods of time. Therefore, contactless braking promotes
reliability in time response compared to frictional braking system. Since fade does not occur,
this in turn gives convenience to the driver because braking effect will always be proportional to
the braking force applied, even after a number of frequent severe stops.
However, the proportionality of brake force to speed could be seen as a disadvantage
since it implies that the braking torque is almost zero when the disc has near zero speed.
Therefore, the designed system is not controllable in low speed regions. One solution to this is
by using an eddy current braking system as a supplementary braking equipment to the
conventional systems. When blending these two mechanisms, the frictional element will not be
used as frequently and practically never reach high temperatures, thereby avoiding the
phenomena of brake fade due to the contact forces.
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F. Conclusion and References

F. I Conclusion
A simple prototype model of an Eddy Current braking system has been presented.
Retarding force is used to create a braking force without mechanical friction. This could
potentially eliminate the drawbacks of conventional systems such as heating and contamination
due to contact friction. However, the proportional relationship between brake force and velocity
in the test shows that the system is not effective for low speed and improvements must be made
in order to make it a reliable system for larger speed ranges.
This project is limited to relying on qualitative observation and does not involve any
numerical calculations. However, it helps demonstrate the powerful practical effect of
electromagnetism without destroying the complexity and context of the principles. The
manufacture of the prototype in this report could provide reference knowledge on the design of
magnetic braking systems for further analysis on the behavior of magnetic fields and magnetic
forces. Advances could be made on the design such as the addition of speed control systems
and the use of tachometer to measure the angular speed if the motor.

F. II References
Bae, Jae-Sung & Hwang, Jai-Hyuk & Park, Jung-Sam & Kwag, Dong-Gi. (2010). ‘Modelling and
experiments on eddy current damping caused by a permanent magnet in a conductive tube’.
Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology.

Day, Andrew J (2014). Braking of road vehicles. Oxford : Butterworth-Heinemann.

Ellinger, Herbert E (1980). Automotive, suspension, steering, and brakes. Englewood Cliffs ;
London : Prentice-Hall.

Lee, K. and Park, K. (1999) ‘Optimal robust control of a contactless brake system using an eddy
current’, Mechatronics, 9, pp. 615–631. doi: 10.1016/S0957-4158(99)00008-2.

Wouterse, J. H. (1991) ‘Critical torque and speed of eddy current brake with widely separated
soft iron poles’, IEE Proceedings: Part B: Electric Power Applications, 138(4), p. 153.
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Xiao, X. et al. (2016) ‘Review on the friction and wear of brake materials’, Advances in
Mechanical Engineering. doi: 10.1177/1687814016647300.
G. Target or Skills Learned
 Stage Gate Innovation Process
This project is divided into a series of stages with gates between them - as is outlined by
the Stage Gate Innovation Model. The process begins with the discovery of interesting eddy
current concepts and the generation of ideas to manifest it in a prototype. Preliminary
investigation - primarily done through the gathering and assessing of information - is then done
to arrive at a defined scope for the study. This is an important part of research in order to make
sure that the goal is clear, as well as prevent ambiguity regarding the objectives. When the aim
of the research is obtained, this then opens the gate for a project plan. It is crucial to have a
detailed and realistic plan - given the time constraint of the project. Having settled on a plan,
conceptual designs are then made on paper to articulate the broad outlines of function and
form. Before working towards a 3D model, I consulted Martin Guille - the workshop technician -
on the design aspects of the prototype and made minor changes where applicable. The
prototype is then built in the workshop according to the design and a test is conducted to prove
the principles of eddy currents. By adopting the Stage Gate Model, the risk has been minimised
by having a good control over the structure of the project and having decisions point along the
way whether or not to continue with the research.
 Strengthen SolidWorks design skills
Drawing a 3D model through design software has been an essential stage of the project.
With prior knowledge of SolidWorks through experience in the previous year, new features have
been explored to be help construct a 3D design of the system and present it on a technical
drawing for guidance in the workshop. The techniques involve ‘mating’ in assembly and an
exploded drawing of the design. This is done with the help of online learning resources - such
as useful YouTube videos and taking the time for practice in order to be familiar with the
features.
 Developed time management and project management skills
The visualised task timing through a Gantt Chart has been developed to manage the
project. Good and detailed planning in the early stages of research has proven to help track the
project. This is true especially when multiple tasks need to be done simultaneously. Another
method that has significant impact on project tracking is the use of a log book. Although this
sounds simplistic, it requires consistency in updating the notes every time progress has been
made. Not only did the log book allow for a detailed record of past actions, but getting into the
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habit of writing in a log book has acted as motivation towards constant updates. In conclusion,
project management skills are met by the help of these powerful tools that has led to good
finishing of tangible product as well as the report.
 Dependability and attention to detail
Thirty hours total of working in the workshop have given valuable experience for
development. Unlike computer-aided design, there was no undo button when a mistake has
been made physically such as wrong side of plate has been machined or hole is too big.
Therefore, attention in detail is highly required in the days of manufacturing. Not only that,
having a focused mind and detail-oriented was essential when working in the workshop. This is
important especially when interacting with heavy machines such as milling machine, where a
lack of attention in the direction in which cutter rotates could potentially damage the machine.
Manufacturing worker must also be dependable. The manufacturing workplace are often busy,
so supervisors need the workers to be accountable with little oversight. Being able to excel
without the supervisors watching would be a useful skill to have for the future. In addition, being
punctual and ready for the day also contributes to dependability.
 Increased hands-on manufacturing skills
The machines used in the workshop are drilling machine, milling machine, band saw,
and the lathe. One of the basic knowledge gained is setting a datum level - such as a plane,
edge, hole - to be a reference for the measurements. The machining process itself may be done
in various ways and it requires creativity to be able to get into the desired shape or size but at
the same time safety needs to become a huge consideration. Milling machine is used for cutting
down the metals plates for the frame and boring two different diameters holes for the bearing.
Drilling machine is used for making holes for the bearing and fasteners. This involves tapping of
holes afterwards for the grove of the bolts which requires a good control. The lathe is used to
machine down the copper into the disc and to shave off 2mm diameter for the wheel axle (Some
of the pictures taken during the workshop could be seen in the video linked before). In the days
of the workshop, strong communication is also hugely beneficial in troubleshooting issues
regarding the design.
 Researching skills
Independence is one of the relevant skills throughout the research project. This has
trained the ability to work without close supervision and independently manage tasks and
projects. Also, having the scope of research at the initial stage is also important to have a clear
direction for what needs to be done. This is evidenced by having clearly defined theories and
being able to arrive in a logical conclusion in relation to the literature review.
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G. Gantt Chart

Figure 6. Gantt Chart Spreadsheet: Project Plan for Eddy Current Braking System

Color indicator
Dark blue - Stage gates
Pink - Planned timeline to finish each sub-activities
Diamonds - Major Milestones