Brazilian Journal of Physics, vol. 34, no.

4B, December, 2004 1587

Plasma Processing of Municipal Solid Waste

Edbertho Leal-Quirós
Scientific Research Department
Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico
PO Box 192017, San Juan, PR 00919-2017

Received on 03 February, 2004; revised version received on 04 June, 2004

In this paper a review and assessment of the Hot Temperature Plasma Processing of Waste is presented. The
environmental advantage of this method over incineration is clearly demonstrated. The present technology
of Plasma Arcs and the Modern Plasma Torches Applications are also shown. An Assessment of the Heavy
Duty Gasification Combined Cycle Turbines, Gasification Process, Magmavication/Vitrification process, and
Environmental Engineering Protection are also described.

1 Introduction 2 Plasma and it’s technological evolu-

Imagine a process in which we convert the inorganic compo- tion: from discharge tubes to tor-
nents of the municipal solid waste in architectural tiles and ches
construction bricks, at the same time we convert all the orga-
nic contents of the waste into Synthesis gas, (basically a mix
of H2 + CO, almost a green fuel) and in addition we gene- Plasma is the ionized state of matter, it’s conformed by a
rate electrical power. Furthermore, could we have a system quasi-neutral gas composed of charged and neutral parti-
that doesn’t generate ashes, and doesn’t pollute the air, the cles, which exhibit a collective behavior; plasma is the most
water nor the soil, as incineration does? The answer is yes. abundant form of matter in the universe. It is formed whe-
The plasma torches that operate at very high temperatures never ordinary matter is heated over 5,000 o C, which results
(between 5,000 oC and 100,000 oC) can process all kinds of in electrically charged gases or fluids. They are profoun-
waste: municipal solid, toxic, medical, biohazard, industrial dly influenced by the electrical interactions of the ions and
and nuclear waste at atmospheric pressure. Effectively, the electrons by the presence of a magnetic field.
inorganic waste is vitrified in solid-like glass materials that
are used to manufacture aggregates for the construction in-
dustry (Magmavication process) and the organic materials
(plastics, paper, oil, bio-materials, etc.) are converted into
Syngas with caloric value, fuel that is used on the Heavy-
duty advanced gas turbines for the generation of electrical
power (Gasification process). No ashes are produced be-
cause at more than 5,000 oC, all the organic molecules are
disintegrated and only the mix of H 2 + CO remains at high
temperature.

Figure 2. Universal voltage-current curve characteristic of the DC

low-pressure electrical discharge tube.

Plasma produced with DC electrical discharge has been

the precursor of a modern and more efficient Plasma Torch
Figure 1. Chemical properties and components of average munici- device1 . Taken an electrical discharge tube [2,3,4] -like the
pal solid waste. classical schematic shown in the Fig. 1 and raising the vol-
tage V, while measuring the current I following through
1 Reed J. Roth [3] gives a comprehensive review of the evolution of the plasma technology to the modern Transferred and Non-Transferred Plasma torch

and it is used for this review.

1588 Edbertho Leal-Quirós

the discharge, the result is a high nonlinear Voltage-Current

curve. The three major regimes of industrially important DC
low-pressure electrical discharges tubes are:the Dark Dis-
charge, the Glow Discharge and the Arc Discharge (Shown
in Fig. 2).
The arc regime is comprised of three regions: the glow
to arc transition, the non-thermal arcs, and the thermal
arcs. When the current density is great enough to heat the
cathode to incandescence, then a discontinuous glow-to-arc Figure 5. The coaxial flow stabilized arc with laminar flow of sta-
transition region appears in the Voltage-Current characteris- bilizing gas.
tic curve. This glow-to-arc transition happens for currents
between1 and 10 Amperes at low pressures.
As we can see in Fig. 3, thermal arcs always are found
at higher pressures and higher gas temperature than non-
thermal arcs; however, non-thermal arcs may also exist at
atmospheric pressure.

Figure 6. The axe symmetric, non-transferred, unmagnetized arc

jet or plasma torch. An are is struck between the cathode and the
coaxial anode, and working gas is heated by passage through the
arc region.

Figure 3. The operation of area as a function of pressure.

3 Cascade process of ionization

The total current of arcs is always more than 1 ampere
and the current density ranges from several amperes per In a cascade process, one incident electron (e − ) colli-
square centimeter to more than thousand amperes per square des with a neutral atom ( (../../../Plasma/Documentsisn’t
centimeter. The electron density of thermal arcs is higher in document ) to produce a second electron and an ion
than in non-thermal arcs. ( (../../../Plasma/Documentsisn’t in document ). There are
In non-thermal arcs, low emission arcs usually require then two electrons and one ion. After these two electrons
thermionic emission from cathodes, whereas in thermal arcs, have each collided with another neutral atom, there are pro-
high intensity arcs usually operate in field emissions. duced four electrons and three ions. This process continues
Thermal arcs can be considered in thermodynamic equi- and, after about 20 successive sets of collisions, millions of
librium. Figs. 4, 5 and 6 show different types of arcs and electrons and ions will have been formed rapidly (the mean
torches: the transpiration stabilized arc, the coaxial flow sta- free path between collisions is very small at atmospheric
bilized arc and the axe symmetric, non-transferred, unmag- pressures).
netized arc jet or plasma torch.

Figure 4. The transpiration stabilized arc, with the arc column

maintained in a centered position by radial, inward injection of co-
oling water or gas. Figure 7. Cascade process of ionization
Brazilian Journal of Physics, vol. 34, no. 4B, December, 2004 1589

The Debye length is a measure of the width of the ef- 5 Plasma magmavication or vitrifica-
fective electric field of an ion and is given approximately by
the next formula, in which T e is the electron temperature tion process
and ne is the number density of electrons (per mL). λ D =
Plasma torches provide efficient means for melting solids
6.9 (Te /ne )1/2 . For a plasma temperature of 8,000 o K and
or waste materials into magma or a lava form, after a short
ne = 1014 /cm3 , λD is about 0.0006 mm, which is very much
time of interaction of the plasma (T > 5000 oC) with the so-
smaller than the 1mm sampler orifice and so ions can pass
lids. In a longer cooling time, the resulting mass forms a
through easily. Hot gases from the plasma impinge on the
chemically and physically durable igneous rock. Depending
edges of the sampler orifice so that deposits build up and
upon the original mineralogy and rate of cooling, the final
reduce its diameter with time. The surroundings of the sam-
product consists of either amorphous glassy material resem-
pler orifice suffer also from corrosive effects due to bom-
bling volcanic obsidian or a crystalline igneous rock similar
bardment by hot species from the plasma flame. These pro-
to granite or basalt. Several applications have been done in
blems necessitate replacement of the sampler from time to
the construction industry (Circeo [6,7,8] et al., 2000 at Ge-
time. As the gas leaves the other side of the sampler orifice,
orgia Tech). The Georgia Tech group found a formula for
it experiences a vacuum of about 10 −5 Torr and the expan-
the amount of vitrified mass produced, as a function of the
ding jet of gas cools very rapidly and reaches supersonic
plasma torches energies. The mass produced obeys the re-
speeds.
lation: M (kg) = 0.35 P (kW-hr), where M is the vitrified
mass-produced in Kg, and P is the electrical energy consu-
med in the process. One application is for remediation of ra-
dioactive waste, where highly radioactive liquid and sludge
are mixed with glass particles and heated to very high tem-
peratures to produce a molten glass. This molten glass is
then poured into stainless steel canisters. When the mixture
cools, it hardens into a stable glass that traps the radioac-
tive elements and prevents them from moving through the
air or water into the environment. DOE is currently opera-
ting vitrification plants at the Savannah River Site in South
Carolina and the West Valley Demonstration Project in New
York. In Japan, Kobe [9,13,14] Steel LTD and The Kansai
Figure 8. Photograph of a high power plasma torch, manufactured Electric Power Company developed a Plasma vitrification
by Westinghouse [10]. system.

6 High temperature plasma proces-

sing of waste
4 Modern high power plasma torches
Solid waste from municipalities can be processed using
Westinghouse in his Plasma Center 2 , has produced modern high-energy plasma torches. Plasma can process any kind
High Power Plasma Torches [4,5]. The author visited that of waste. The chemical properties and the contents of the
facility, inspected one torch, and noticed the excellent per- average municipal waste are shown in Table 1.
formance. There are several manufacturers of plasma tor- Westinghouse [12] has conducted many successful ex-
ches (a list of them is available on the web). However, to periments, designs and developments involving the gasifica-
the author knowledge, only Westinghouse manufactures tor- tion and/or Vitrification of simulated MSW (municipal solid
ches of high power even in the order of 10 MW (Fig. 8). waste), ASR (auto shredder residue), fossil fuels, and indus-
Models similar to this torch are commercially available even trial liquid and solid wastes in a plasma reactor.
in the range of 75 KW to 10,000 kW of power. A thermal The gasification test material feed ranged from low Btu
efficiency of 90% is easily possible; the efficiency repre- MSW (1600 kcal/kg) to medium Btu simulated auto sh-
sents the percentage of arc power that exits the torch and redder residue (4500 kcal/kg) and to high Btu coal (8,000
enters the process. However, the operational characteristics kcal/kg).
of each torch depend of the gas composition. The most com- Experiments were conducted where fuels were gasified
mon gases used in plasma torches are Argon, and Helium. to produce primarily carbon monoxide, CO and hydrogen,
The quality of the plasma produced depends on the plasma H 2 . The inorganic components of the feed were converted
density and the plasma temperature; at atmospheric pres- to molten slag that was removed as vitrified by product. The
sure plasma torches may produce a density of 10 14 cm−3 . slag passed the EPA-mandated Toxicity Characteristic Lea-
As more power is given to the torch, there is better quality chate Procedure (TCLP) requirements. Emissions are very
of plasma. Due to the broad range of plasma temperatures much reduced and the slag is a glassy product with value
and densities, plasmas have several applications in research, as a construction material base. Dioxins were measured at
technology and in the industry. levels approximately 100 times lower than from an
2 Waltz Mill Site, Madison Pennsylvania Plant.
1590 Edbertho Leal-Quirós

TABLE 1. Chemical properties and components of average municipal solid waste.

Chem. Melting Normal Ionization Dry solid Food Sludge Grey & Grey & Oily Oily Medical Σ total
Comp. Point Boiling Potential Waste Waste Oil Black Black Filters Rags waste [mg/kg]
o
[mg/kg] C Point [31.63%] [36.61%] [11.65%] Water Water [0.02%] [0.10%] [0.02%]
o
[1 atm] C [eV] Sludge pre-
[19.82%] filtration
C 4,492.00 3,642.00 11.260 90,440.07 24,597.89 68,789.64 11,303.82 757.28 132.16 460.64 58.20 196,548.69
H -259.34 -252.97 13,598 11,959.64 3,513.98 9,184.76 1,909.61 127.93 20.69 62.36 8.31 26,787.29()
O -218.79 -182.95 13,618 56,326.60 17,643.13 820.22 4,178.20 279.91 0.32 218.88 58.20 79,525.46
N -210.00 -195.79 14,434 382.63 1,537.37 246.07 981.80 65.77 0.10 25.48 0.26 3,239.47
S 115.21 444.60 10,360 343.55 73.21 2,895.74 23.18 1.55 1.60 12.16 0.40 3,351.38
Cd 321.07 767.00 8,993 0.23 0.39 0.03 0.0058 0.00025 0.00003 0.6436
Cr 1,907.00 2,671.00 6,766 6.04 0.79 0.05 0.0051 0.02888 0.0345 6.9193
Cu 1,084.62 2,562.00 7,726 12.75 50.88 3.41 .0073 0.0156 0.17 67.2243
Ni 1,455.00 2,913.00 7,639 2.25 1.96 0.13 0.0018 0.00860 0.00157 4.3536
Pb 327.46 1,749.00 7,416 26.01 1.99 0.13 0.0159 0.06 0.00345 28.2185
Zn 419.53 907.00 9,394 30.79 59.09 3.96 0.0177 0.0376 0.08753 93.9698
Sn 231.93 2,519.00 7,343 1.03 0.09 .0061 0.0028 1.1246
Cl -101.50 -34.04 12.967 1,034.93 549.06 172.42 11.55 2.96 2.24 1.80 1,774.97
F -219.62 -188.12 17.422 21.19 0.05 0.0035 0.016 21.2468
Al 660.32 2,519.00 5.985 2,860.54 4.07 0.0010 0.0060 0.23 2,864.85
Fe 1,538.00 2,861.00 7.902 11,473.79 11,473.79
Hg -38.83 356.73 10.437 0.02 0.0011 0.00001 0.0179
As 817.00 614.00 9.815 0.42 0.03 0.0028 0.4451
Sb 630.63 1,587.00 8.640 0.00056 0.00056
Tl 304.00 1,473.00 6.108 7.95 0.53 0.00028 8.4870
Ag 961.78 2,162.00 7.576 2.83 0.19 3.0185
Br -7.20 58.80 11.813 1.05 0.07 1.1253
Ba 727.00 1,897.00 5.211 3.95 0.26 4.2113
Se 221.00 685.00 9.752 3.79 0.25 4.0474
Si 1,414.00 3,265.00 8.151 4.07 0.0010 0.0060 4.0747
V 1,910.00 6.746 49.41 0.0230 0.1440 49.5798
Na2 CO3 858.10 96,805.03 96,805.03
CaCO3
SiO3
(Glass)
H2O 0.00 100.00 12.612 32,644.59 311,134.00 22,975.58 181,253.89 332.00 1.60 202.00 32.00 548,575.67
Ash/Inert 11,919.84 6,991.36 11,481.46 1,118.72 74.95 0.49 15.93 0.33 31,603.09

incineration plant (e.g., < 0.01 ng/nm 3 measured in stack were scrubbed to control chlorine and sulfur emissions. The
gas), and predicted fuel gas production is observed. For inorganic and metals in the molten pool of the furnace were
organic waste, the production of power via a combus- tapped, and vitrified (glass-like) slag and metal product was
tion/turbine combined cycle at much higher efficiencies (ap- obtained. The electrical power requirement for conversion
proximately 40% thermal efficiency versus approximately of one ton of municipal solid waste into the final products of
20% for an incineration steam boiler plant) is an added be- vitrified solids and metals, hydrogen and carbon monoxide
nefit which makes the project cost attractive compared to in- gas was 550-790 kW h. Typically 20% of the initial waste
cinerator/steam boiler MSW plants. Additionally, the high is converted into solid products. The remainder is converted
quality glassy material produced can be sold as a roadbed or into gas. Combustion of the hydrogen and carbon mono-
construction material and the need and expense to dispose xide in the gas could be used to offset the electrical power
of ash is eliminated. requirement.

7 Metal-electrode-plasma furnace 8 Plasma gasification processes of

applications waste
The plasma energy corporation has investigated the use of Gasification [9,11,13] is a simple and commercially well-
this plasma technology for treatment of municipal waste, proven technology. It involves the conversion of various fe-
used tires, polychlorobenzyl (PCB), oils and medical was- edstocks to clean syngas, through a reaction with oxygen
tes (Pocklington and Corox [3], 1992; Camacho [5], 1990) and steam; this reaction is spontaneous at high temperature
since plasma can provide thermal decomposition of some and pressure under reduction conditions, and consumes half
toxic molecules into simple benign one’s. A 300-kW level of the oxygen required for total combustion. The raw syn-
power operation has been used in a range of experiments. gas product is cooled and purified, it is then used in one
Hydrocarbon waste is fed into the furnace through a dou- or a combination of many product applications: syngas for
ble door air lock system. A molten pool was formed in the chemicals, gaseous fuels, for liquid fuels burned in commer-
earth. In some experiments, steam was injected to generate cial boilers to produce steam or in heat transfer process and
hydrogen-rich gas that could be used in future applications in internal combustion engines to produce electrical energy.
for energy production. The gases produced by the furnace Combined cycles are also possible leading to co-generation
Brazilian Journal of Physics, vol. 34, no. 4B, December, 2004 1591

Figure 9. Artistic drawing of the plasma waste processing plant.

of electrical energy. The energy efficiency of biomass gasi-

fication varies from 75 to 80%, this depends of the compo-
sition and heat capacity of the raw material; Humidity and
the inorganic inert matter content reduce the efficiency. The
traditional market for syngas is focused in gas production as
an intermediate step during the production of important che-
micals, such as ammonia for fertilizer. However, application
of gasification in other processes is increasing due to market
changes associated with improved gas turbines, deregulation
of electrical power generation, and stringent environmental
mandates. Gasification plant capacity is reported in units of
volumetric output of syngas (i.e., normal cubic meters per
day). However, the Department of Energy (DOE) conver- Figure 10. From all the organic components of waste, only the mo-
ted all the gasification input and output capacities to MW th. lecules of CO and H2 (syngas) resist the high temperature of the
(1MWth = 3,413,000Btu/hr). Gasification is an alternative plasma torch.
to combustion, and has an energy efficiency of 50%. The
advantage consists on reducing both the atmospheric emissi-
ons and the volume of solid residues to be land filled. Since
the solid residues come from a high temperature at normal 9 Synthesis gas cleaning island
conditions, they’re inert materials that can be used as part of
The purpose of this system is to remove pollutants such as
the bulk material in concrete production.
sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter, hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2 S) vapors from the synthe-
sis gas. The primary design requirements are environmental
protection and safe operation of the gas turbine. The basic
unit operations are those of gas cooling, particulate removal,
and acid gas neutralization. First, the syngas is sufficien-
tly cooled prior to gas cleanup it is passed through a partial
1592 Edbertho Leal-Quirós

quench. The gas leaves the chamber at 350 o C. The goal NOx , mercury, metals, and particle emissions from the plant
is to lower the gas temperature sufficiently so as not to da- are fractions of those of a conventional pulverized coal boi-
mage the downstream equipment while maintaining the gas ler power plant. Consequently, IPGCC plants require signi-
above saturation temperature. The gas then passes through a ficantly less effort and time to meet air emissions regulati-
fabric filter bag-house to remove particulates. The blowers ons and to obtain local and state governmental environmen-
are each sized at 100% to provide full redundancy. The gas tal permits. The process is approximately 5% more efficient
is then in a saturation tank, which lowers the gas temperature than other coal power technologies; thus, CO 2 emissions per
to 50 o C, then it passes through a packed bed aqueous scrub- kW are also 5% lower. Additionally, in the process, carbon
ber for acid remove. Sodium hydroxide solution is used to can be removed from the syngas to create a high hydrogen
neutralize the acid. The gas, still “sour” at this point, then fuel that effectively eliminates CO 2 emissions. The advan-
undergoes first stage compression for use in the gas turbine. tage of IPGCC over conventional boiler plants for CO 2 re-
It then enters the lower section of the H 2 S Absorber Vessel duction is that the carbon can be removed from the fuel gas
and flows countercurrent to a regenerated solution of che- (pre-combustion) instead of having to remove it from the
lated iron oxide (FeO 2 ) fluid for removal of any H 2 S. The exhaust (flue) gas (post-combustion), which is far more cos-
H2 S absorbed by the solution is removed from the bottom tly because of the larger SCR volume required (about 10:
of the H2 S Absorber Vessel and circulated by the Rich So- 1).
lution Pump, through a Solution Cooler, and into the Solu-
tion Oxidizer Tank, where Air Blower introduces air. The
air blower agitation causes the elemental sulfur to precipi-
tate, forming slurry at the bottom of the Solution Oxidizer 12 Conclusion and general assess-
Tank. The slurry is removed from Solution Oxidizer Tank ment
by a Sulfur Slurry Pump Tag and sent to a conveyor Sulfur
Filter. The filtrate solution drains off and is returned to the The Plasma Torches technology is mature, reliable and a
Solution Oxidizer Tank, while the wet inert sulfur cake is well-known method of producing plasma at atmospheric
collected for disposal to a non-hazardous landfill. At this pressure and temperatures larger than 5,000 o C; this may
point, the gas exiting the H 2 S Absorber Vessel is conside- disintegrate all mater, in particular solid waste, creating ga-
red ‘clean’ for use as a fuel gas. Specific Heat Capacity of sification because the organic materials are converted in syn-
Syngas = 1.488 kJ/kg. K gas, which is cleaned before being used in the Turbine. Mag-
mavication or Vitrification is the result of the interaction
between plasma and inorganic materials, in presence of a
10 Gas turbine excess of energy and coke bed in the cupola or reactor, a vitrified material is pro-
green energy duced and products are used in the manufacture of architec-
tural tiles and construction materials.
The Lower Heating Value (LHV) of the natural gas supply is Integrated Plasma Gasification Combined Cycle System
assumed to be 11,900kcal/kg. The minimum LHV accepta- (IPGCC) generates green electrical power using heavy duty
ble to the CTG is assumed to be 3,600kcal.kg. The ability of Turbines; the heat from the non-transferred electric plasma
the Integrated Plasma Gasification Combined Cycle System torch is used to gasify the waste, producing a synthetic fuel
(IPGCC) to use low calorific value (LCV) feedstock, and gas that is then cleaned. The cleaned syngas will then be
produce high value co-products, along with energy, enhance combusted in two simple cycle combustion turbines to pro-
the economic viability of new projects. The ability to suc- duce electricity for internal consumption, as well as for ex-
cessfully burn LCV fuels like the case of municipal solid port to the electric grid. The reactor will be designed to han-
waste required that GE modified the can-annular combus- dle some liquid waste mixed with the solids. The plant is
tion systems since 1990. GE concluded that a Syngas fu- designed for continuous operation, twenty-four hours a day,
eled combined cycle plant can have the same Reliability- seven days a week and about 330 days per year. Although
Availability-Maintenance (RAM) performance as a natural at first look the IPGCC process appears new, it is in fact a
gas-fueled combined cycle plant. IPGCC shows superior en- repackaging of existing, proven technologies.
vironmental performance and viability, also the power plant
emissions are far below any other coal technology, for all To the author knowledge, the IPGCC plasma process
the major pollutant categories (NO x , SOx , metals, mercury, MSW is the only environmentally ideal technology that we
CO2 , sludge, water). have today to process waste.

11 IPGCC environmental perfor- References

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