Experiment No: 2

AIM: To study and Simulate Single Phase Semi Control of DC Separately excited Motor.
As Shown in Fig.2 is a separately excited DC motor controlled by a single-phase, half-wave
controlled rectifier. This rectifier provides speed control for the separately excited DC motor by
varying armature voltage and current. The steady state voltage and torque equations for a separately
excited DC motor are:

FIGURE 1 Block diagram of an electric motor drive

FIGURE 2 Single-phase, half-wave, controlled rectifiers

As seen from these equations, speed control can be done by varying Ra, Va, and IF. Varying Ra can
only increase the speed. Also, by varying Ra, we increase the losses I2R. IF can only be decreased.
This is accomplished by putting resistance in the field. Again, this increases
the I2R losses. Control of Vf is limited because of saturation. The best method of controlling the
speed of the motor is to control Va. Using a thyristor, as shown in Fig. 2, the average of Va can be
controlled. Figure 3 shows the voltage and current for a separately excited DC motor controlled by
a single-phase, half-wave, controlled rectifier.
As seen in Fig. 3, a represents the firing angle of the thyristor. This is where the thyristor turns on.
By changing the conduction angle, the average value of Va is varied. When Va is varied, the speedof
the motor is changed. This is a simple but effective speed controller.

FIGURE 3 Voltage and current for Fig. 2.

CONCLUSION:
 Experiment No: 3
AIM: To study and Simulate Single Phase Fully control of DC Separately excited Motor.

The single-phase, full-wave controlled rectifier consists of four thyristors. The increase in thyristors
provides for better control compared to the half-wave controlled rectifier. The obvious disadvantage
of the full-wave rectifier is the increase in price because of the increase in the number of thyristor.
Figure 1 shows a separately excited DC motor controlled by a single-phase, full-wave controlled
rectifier.
There are three different modes of operation for the single-phase, full-wave controlled rectifier. The
first is discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). In DCM, the current Ia reaches zero and stays at zero
for a certain period of time. The next mode is continuous conduction mode (CCM). In CCM, Ia does
not reach zero at any point during the period. The finial mode of operation is critically discontinuous
conduction mode (CDCM). In CDCM, the current Ia reaches zero and then immediately starts to
increase.

FIGURE 1 Single-phase, full-wave, controlled rectifier.

Unlike the half-wave rectifier, the full-wave rectifier has the ability to manipulate the current when
Vs is negative. There are three modes in DCM. The first mode is when from time t = 0 until a. Mode
one is shown in Fig. 2. In mode one, there is no current in the armature; this results in a Va equal to
the back emf Ea.

Mode two occurs when the source voltage Vs is positive. Mode two is shown in Fig. 3 In mode two,
T and T2 are conducting and T3 and T4 are not conducting. Va is equal to the source voltage Vs.

The final mode is mode three. Mode three is shown in Fig. 4. This mode is the opposite of mode two.
In mode three, T3 and T4 are conducting and T and T2 are not conducting. This makes the voltage
Va equal to the negative of the source voltage Vs.

Figure 5 shows the waveforms of the rectifier in DCM. As seen in Fig. 5, the conducting angle occurs
twice per period, once when the source voltage Vs is positive and again when the source voltage is
negative. In addition, in mode one, the voltage Va is equal to the back EMF Ea until a.
Continuous conduction mode is similar to DCM, but in CCM mode one does not exist.
FIGURE 2 Mode one of DCM.

FIGURE 3 Mode two of DCM.

FIGURE 4 Mode three of DCM.

FIGURE 5 Waveforms of a single-phase, full-wave controlled rectifier in DCM.
CONCLUSION:
 Experiment No: 4
AIM: To study control of D.C. motor for (a) Current limit control (b) Closed loop torque
control and (c) Closed loop speed control

Current Limit Control

Current limit control is as shown in fig. It is used to limit the converter and motor current below a
safer limit during transient operating mode. It has a current feedback loop having current sensor.
This current sensor senses the current value and carries forward to feedback loop. As long as the
current is within the set maximum value, feedback loop does not change the operation of the drive.
In transient mode of operation, if current value goes beyond set maximum value, feedback loop is
active and current is forced below the set maximum value.
Thus the current value fluctuates around a set maximum limit during the transient operation mode
e.g. during starting, current will fluctuate around the set maximum value. When machine operates in
steady state operating point, current will not cross the maximum point and feedback loop will not
have on the drive option.

Closed Loop Torque Control

It is used in major application such as closed loop control in battery operated vehicles, rail cars and
electric trains.
Drive allows the accelerator to set torque reference value (T*). Torque sensor senses the torque
value and fetches it to the comparator of the control circuit. Depending on the error value motor
accelerates or de-accelerates to reach stable operating point
Closed Loop Speed Control
It is widely used method in controlling of electrical drives, having an inner current control loop
within an outer speed loop. Inner current loop is provided to limit the converter and motor current
and / or motor torque below a set reference value.
Here reference speed (ωm*) is compared with the actual speed and give rise to the error. If actual
speed is lower than the reference speed then positive error (Δωm).
Speed error is given to the speed controller and applied to the current limiter which stops even for a
small speed error.
Drive accelerates the allowable current limit value until steady state is reached. At the desired speed
and current, motor torque is equal to the load torque.
A decrease in reference speed (ωm*) produces a negative speed error. Current limiter saturates and
sets the current reference value for inner current loop. So drive decelerates in braking mode to the
maximum allowable current limit value.
Here the operation is transferred from braking mode to the motoring mode. Drive runs at a desired
speed when load torque and motor torque are equal. In drive applications the below fig. gets modified
and may consists of proportional and integral controller (PI), or proportional and derivative controller
(PD) or proportional, integral and derivative controller (PID) depending on steady state accuracy and
transient responses.
CONCLUSION:
 Experiment No: 5
AIM: To study control techniques used in DC Chopper.
DC chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output voltage
directly as shown in fig. 1, a chopper may be thought as dc equivalent of an ac transformer since they
behave in an identical manner.
As stated above like a transformer, a chopper can be used to step down or step up the fixed dc input
voltage. It is a high speed on/off semiconductor switch which connects source to load and disconnects
the load from source at a fast speed. In this manner, a chopped load voltage as shown in fig. 2 is
obtained from a constant dc supply of magnitude.

Figure 1

Figure 2 Figure 3
In a converter, there are two basic methods of control used to vary the output voltage. These are

 Time ratio control

 Current limit control

Time Ratio Control

 In time ratio control, a constant k given by TON / T is varied. The constant k is called duty ratio. Time
ratio control can be achieved in two ways.

1. Constant Frequency
 In this control method, the frequency (f = 1/T0N) is kept constant while the ON time T is varied. This
is referred to as pulse width modulation (PWM) as shown in fig. 4.

2. Variable Frequency
 In variable frequency technique, the frequency (f = 1/T) is varied while the ON time T is kept constant.
This is referred to as the frequency modulation control as shown in fig. 5.

Figure 4 Figure 5
Current Limit Control

In a DC to DC converter, the value of the current varies between the maximum as well as the minimum
level for continuous voltage. In this technique, the chopper (switch in a DC to DC converter) is switched
ON and then OFF to ensure that current is kept constant between the upper and lower limits. When the
current goes beyond the maximum point, the chopper goes OFF as shown in fig. 6.

While the switch is at its OFF state, current freewheels via the diode and drops in an exponential manner.
The chopper is switched ON when the current reaches the minimum level. This method can be used either
when the ON time T is constant or when the frequency (f=1/T).

Figure 6
CONCLUSION:
 Experiment No: 6
AIM: To study and simulate AC voltage controller based speed control of AC Motor.
In this method the speed of the squirrel cage induction motor is controlled by varying the stator
voltage, which is possible with the sets of three SCRs connected back to back with each phase of
input supply as shown in below fig.

The stator voltages can be reduces rather controlled by delaying the triggering pulses of the SCR
which causes the decrease in the speed of the induction motor. As we already know that the torque
developed is proportional to the square of the supply voltage and current is proportional to the voltage
and slip at the maximum torque is independent of the supply voltage. The variation in the supply
voltage does not alter the synchronous speed of the induction motor.
The torque speed characteristics of the induction motor is as shown in the below fig.
By varying the supply voltage, the speed can be controlled. The voltage is varied until the torque
required by the load is developed at the desired speed.
Hence, to reduce the speed for the same value of the current, the value of the voltage is reduced and
as a result, the torque developed by the motor is reduced. This stator voltage control method is
suitable for the applications where the load torque decreases with the speed, e.g., fan and pump loads.
CONCLUSION:
 Experiment No: 7
AIM: To study and simulate Inverter based speed control of Induction Motor.
For providing adjustable – frequency power to industrial applications, three phase inverters are more
common. They take their dc supply from a battery or more usually from a rectifier.
A basic three phase inverter is a six step bridge inverter. It uses a minimum of six switches. In inverter
terminology, a step is defined as a change in the firing from one switch to the next switch in proper
sequence. For one cycle of 360 degrees, each step would be of 60 degree interval for a six – step
inverter.
Below fig. shows the power circuit diagram of a three phase bridge inverter using six switches.
Presently, the use of IGBTs in three phase inverters is on the rise. Here, three phase bridge inverter
is using 180 degree conduction mode and switches are gated using Sine PWM technique.
CONCLUSION:
 Experiment No: 8
Aim: - To study and simulate Cycloconverter based speed control of Synchronous Motor.
Cyclo converter is a device which perform the action of fixed AC frequency to variable. The below
block diagram shows self-controlled synchronous motor fed from a three phase cyclo converter.

The three phase supply is given to cyclo converter and the output is fed to synchronous motor. The
rotor position sensor is an integral part of the self-controlled synchronous motor drive.

Applications of synchronous motor drives:

 Compressors, cement plants
 Fan steel rolling mills
 Electro optical sensors
 Hall Effect sensors
 Digital encoders.
CONCLUSION:
 Experiment No: 9
Aim: - To study solar and battery powered drives.
It mainly consist of following components:

 Solar panel
 Sun tracker
 MPPT Controller with inverters
 Dc to dc converter
 Buck converter
 Boost converter
 Filters
 Battery
 Drives etc…

1. Solar panel
 Solar panels are used to collect solar radiation and convert it in to electrical energy.
 It is made up of solar cells which are responsible for converting solar energy into
electrical energy.
 Classification of solar cells: Silicon cells - Thin film cells

2. Sun tracker
 A Sun tracker is a device that changes the solar panel toward the sun.
 Sun light has two components: i) direct beam ii) diffused sunlight.

3. MPPT(Maximum Power point tracker):

 It adjusts the power output of the solar array to match with the load requirement.
 It consists of Dc to DC converter which increases or decreases the dc voltage
level of the solar array output.

4. Dc to Dc converter:
 It accepts Dc input voltage and produce a DC output voltage.
 The output is at a different voltage than the input.

5. Buck converter:
 The buck converter is used for current boosting.

6. Boost converter:
 A boost converter is a DC to DC power converter with an output voltage greater
than its input voltage.

7. Filters:
 They are made up of the capacitors.

8. Battery:
 A battery is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy into
electrical energy.
9. Drive:
  Solar and battery powered drives are using variable frequency drives.
 In VFDs frequency is directly correlated to the motor speed.
 VFD drive is an electric motor which adjusts the frequency and voltage supplied
to it.
 As motor speed requirement changes, the VFD can simply turn up or down the motor to
meet the speed requirement.
CONCLUSION:
 Experiment No: 10
Aim: To study traction drives.
Driving forward a vehicle is called a traction and the systems, which uses a mechanism is called the
traction system.
1) Non electric traction system
2) Electric traction system
Requirements of traction system:

 High starting torque for pulling effort in order to have rapid acceleration in speed.
 Capability to withstand fluctuations of supply during operation.
 Equipment should be capable of withstanding overload for short period without affecting its
performance.
 Parallel running in operation should be possible basically more than one motor.
 The locomotive should be capable to run on any route.
Components of AC locomotives;
A) Catenary:
This is the overhead wire having specific cross section area to connect with supply system.
B) Pantograph:
This is a device used to collect currents from the catenary i.e. the overhead lines fed it to the
train system.
C) On load tap change:
In order to control the speed of the motor on load tap changers are used.
D) Circuit breaker:
The basic use of circuit breaker is to disconnect the engine from supply terminals in case of
fault.
E) Rectifiers:
Rectifiers are used to conversion of ac power in to dc power at specified frequency to utilize
it for feeding the dc motors.
F) Transformer:
A tap changing transformer is used in the locomotives for stepping down the voltage
according to the requirement of the traction motors.
G) Smoothing reactors:
 It is connected on output side of rectifier or eliminates the any ripples found on the output
side of the rectifier.
 Above figure shows the Ac locomotive with dc motors. Ac locomotive with dc motors system
mainly consist of two parts, a rotating armature and fixed field winding.
 The fixed field winding is placed in slots fitted inside the motor case.
 The armature is rotating part carrying coils placed on central shaft. The armature is connected
to the field winding through the brushes which are called the commutator. Output is
controlled with the help of thyristor connected to the field coils.
 In a locomotive with dc separately excited dc motor system sliding mode control can be used.

 Above figure shows the AC locomotive with AC drive.

 In that transformer ac output is fed to the rectifier which converts ac to dc output.
 Rectifier and inverter are controlled together through dc link and capacitor. Inverter converts
dc output into ac output and fed to the 3 phase motor. Here capacitor is used for the storing
charge and for the power factor improvement.
 In a locomotive Ac drive system model reference adoptive control method.
In electric braking in traction motors are classified in to three categories:
Braking:
Regenerative braking:
The speed-torque curves obtained by the reversal of the phase sequence of the motor terminal
voltages are also shown by dotted lines. With a positive sequence voltage across the motor
terminals, the operation above synchronous speed gives the regenerative braking operation (portion
BAE).Similarly, with a negative sequence voltage across the motor terminals, regenerative braking
is obtained for speeds above the synchronous speed in the reverse direction (portion bae). In
regenerative braking, the motor works as an induction generator, converting mechanical energy
supplied by the load to electrical energy, which is fed to the source. Thus the generated energy is
usefully employed.
Plugging:
An induction motor operates in the plugging mode for slips greater than l. For positive sequence
voltages, a slip greater than 1 is obtained when the rotor moves in the reverse direction (portion
CD). Since the motor is running in the reverse direction, a positive torque provides the braking
operation. With negative sequence voltages, plugging takes place on portion cd, shown by the
chain-dotted line. When running in the forward direction, the motor can be braked by changing
the phase sequence of the motor terminal voltages by simply interchanging the connections of
any two motor terminals. This will transfer the operation from point F to f and braking will
commence. The motor torque is not zero at zero speed. When braked for stopping, the motor
should be disconnected from the supply at or near zero speed. An additional device will be
required for detecting zero speed and disconnecting the motor from the supply. Therefore,
plugging is not suit-able for stopping. It is, however, quite suitable for reversing the motor. From
the forward motoring (portion BC), the reverse plugging operation (portion CD) is obtained
when an active load drives the motor in the reverse direction, as in crane and hoist applications.
When operating this way, plugging is some-times called counter-torque braking

Dynamic braking:
In dc dynamic braking, the motor is disconnected from the ac supply and connected to a dc
supply. The flow of direct current through the stator windings sets up a stationary magnetic field.
The relative speed between the stationary stator field and the moving rotor is now negative.
Consequently, 3-phase voltages of reverse polarity and phase sequence (compared to the
motoring in the same direction) are induced in the rotor. The resultant three-phase rotor currents
produce a rotating field, moving at the rotor speed in the direction opposite to that of rotor, thus
giving a stationary rotor field. Since both stator and rotor fields are stationary and rotor current
flows in the reverse direction, a steady braking torque is produced at all speeds. It, however,
becomes zero at standstill due to zero rotor currents.
CONCLUSION: