Anup Sir PPT All PDF
Anup Sir PPT All PDF
Anup Sir PPT All PDF
Diagrams
Phase Diagram
Microstructure is specified by the number of phases, their proportions, and
their arrangement in space.
Cast Iron
Aluminum-
Copper
Alloy
6
A single component phase diagram:
Unary diagram
13
Criteria for Solid Solubility
Crystal
Structure electroneg r (nm)
14
Binary Isomorphous Phase Diagrams
Number and Types of Phases
Gibbs Phase Rule
F = Degrees of freedom
C = No. of components in the system
P = No. of phases in equlibrium
F=C–P+2
If pressure and temp both are variables
F=C–P+1
If pressure is held constant
Phase Diagrams
Q: Phase present?
Ans: α
Q: Phase composition ?
Ans: 60 wt%Ni
α
Q: Phase amount ?
Ans: 100%
Point B:
35 wt% Ni at 1250ºC
Q: Phases present?
Ans: α + L
Q: Phase compositions ?
Lever Rule
Composition of phases in the two-phase region
Tie Line Rule
α
L
Tie Line
f L + fα = 1
Cα − C0 opposite lever arm
Tie Lever Rule fL = =
Cα − C L total lever arm
Eutectic
• The term comes from the Greek 'eutektos', meaning 'easily melted’.
28
Eutectic
• The phase diagram displays a simple binary system composed of two components,
A and B, which has a eutectic point.
• The phase diagram plots relative concentrations of A and B along the X-axis, and
temperature along the Y-axis. The eutectic point is the point where the liquid
phase borders directly on the solid α + β phase; it represents the minimum
melting temperature of any possible A B alloy.
• The temperature that corresponds to this point is known as the eutectic
temperature.
• Not all binary system alloys have a eutectic point: those that form a solid solution
at all concentrations, such as the gold-silver system, have no eutectic. An alloy
system that has a eutectic is often referred to as a eutectic system, or eutectic
alloy. 29
Copper-Silver Phase Diagram
Eutectic Relation
cooling
L(71.9 wt% Ag) α(8.0 wt% Ag) + β(91.2 wt% Ag)
heating 31
Solder alloy?
An alloy of Pb and Sn
Requirements:
1. should melt easily
2. should give a strong joint
60 - 40 Solder
Pb-Sn Phase Diagram
Liquidus
Solidus
Solidus
Solidus
Solvus Solvus
Pb-Sn Phase Diagram
• For lead & tin the eutectic composition is 61.9 wt% tin and the
eutectic temperature is 183ºC -- which makes this mixture useful
as solder.
35
Solidification of Eutectic Mixture
• Mixtures of some metals, such as copper & nickel, are completely
soluble in both liquid and solid states for all concentrations of both
metals. Copper & nickel have the same crystal structure (FCC) and
have nearly the same atomic radii. The solid formed by cooling can
have any proportion of copper & nickel. Such completely miscible
mixtures of metals are called isomorphous.
• By contrast, a mixture of lead & tin that is eutectic is only partially
soluble when in the solid state. Lead & tin have different crystal
structures (FCC versus BCT) and lead atoms are much larger. No
more than 18.3 weight % solid tin can dissolve in solid lead and no
more than 2.2% of solid lead can dissolve in solid tin (according to
previous phase diagram).
• The solid lead-tin alloy consists of a mixture of two solid phases,
one consisting of a maximum of 18.3 wt% tin (the alpha phase)
and one consisting of a maximum of 2.2 wt% lead (the beta phase). 36
Ex:1 Pb-Sn Eutectic System
• For a 40 wt% Sn-60 wt% Pb alloy at 150°C, determine:
-- the phases present Pb-Sn
T(°C)
Answer: α + β system
-- the phase compositions
300
Answer: Cα = 11 wt% Sn L (liquid)
Cβ = 99 wt% Sn
α L+ α
-- the relative amount 200 183°C L+β β
of each phase 18.3 61.9 97.8
Answer: 150
C - C0 100
W = β α + β
α Cβ - Cα
99 - 40 59
= = = 0.67
99 - 11 88 0 11 20 40 60 80 99100
Cα C0 Cβ
Wβ = C0 - Cα C, wt% Sn
Cβ - Cα
40 - 11 29
= = = 0.33 37
99 - 11 88
Ex:2 Pb-Sn Eutectic System
• For a 40 wt% Sn-60 wt% Pb alloy at 220°C, determine:
-- the phases present:
T(°C)
Answer: α + L
-- the phase compositions
300
Answer: Cα = 17 wt% Sn L (liquid)
CL = 46 wt% Sn L+α
-- the relative amount 220 α
200 L+β β
of each phase 183°C
Answer:
CL - C0 100
46 - 40 α + β
Wα = =
CL - Cα 46 - 17
6 0 17 20 40 46 60 80 100
= = 0.21 Cα C0 CL C, wt% Sn
29
C0 - Cα 23
WL = = = 0.79
CL - Cα 29 38
I. Microstructural Developments Pb-Sn System
L+ α
200
α
TE α: C0 wt% Sn
Pb-Sn 100
α+ β
system
0 10 20 30
C0 C, wt% Sn
2
(room T solubility limit)
39
II. Microstructural Developments Pb-Sn System
0 10 20 30
2 C0 C, wt% Sn
(sol. limit at T room ) 18.3
(sol. limit at TE) 40
III. Microstructural Developments Pb-Sn System
• Co = CE
• Results in a
eutectic
microstructure
with alternating
layers of a and b
crystals.
Pb-Sn
system
cooling
L(61.9 wt% Sn) α (18.3 wt% Sn) + β (97.8 wt% Sn)
heating
Lamellar Eutectic Structure
• A 2-phase microstructure
resulting from the
solidification of a liquid
having the eutectic
composition where the phases
exist as a lamellae that Pb-rich
alternate with one another.
Sn-rich
• Formation of eutectic layered
microstructure in the Pb-Sn
system during solidification at
the eutectic composition.
Compositions of α and β
phases are very different.
Solidification involves
redistribution of Pb and Sn
atoms by atomic diffusion.
42
Hypoeutectic and Hypereutectic
Iron Carbon System
Peritectic Reaction
1493o C
α (0.1 wt % C ) + L (0.5 wt % C ) → δ (0.18 wt % C )
Eutectic Reaction
1150 o C
L (4.3 wt % C ) → γ (2.1 wt % C ) + Fe3C (6.67 wt % C )
Eutectoid Reaction
725o C
γ (0.8 wt % C ) → α (0.02 wt % C ) + Fe3C (6.67 wt % C )
Eutectoid Reactions in Fe-C System
Eutectoid Reaction
725o C
γ → α + Fe3C
cool
0.8 0.02 6.67
Pearlite
Fe-C System: Eutectoid Reaction
Eutectoid Reaction
725o C
γ → α + Fe3C
cool
0.8 0.02 6.67
Pearlite
Development of
Microstructure in a
hypoeutectoid steel
Microstructural Development in Fe-C System
Proeutectoid
Ferrite
Pearlite
Proeutectoid
cementite on
prior
austenite
grain
boundaries
Alloying Carbon
Elements Content
XXXX(X)
• 52100 is a medium chromium steel with 1.00% carbon
(used in ball and roller bearings).
Different Classes of Steels
Different Classes of Steels
Alloy Designations for AISI/SAE Steels
- Corrosion resistance
- High strength and ductility
- High chromium content.
• Low-carbon steels
– Chromium 16% ~ 26%
– Carbon <0.15%
• Nickel 6% to 23%
• M-series contain 10 %
molybdenum and have
higher abrasion resistance
than T- series
• T- Series contain 12 % to
18 % tungsten. They
undergo less distortion in
heat treatment and are less
expensive than the M-
series. M- series steel drill bits coated with
titanium
Tool and Die Steels
• Dies are tools used for drawing wire, and for blanking, bending,
cutting, machine forging, and embossing.
Cast iron:
ASTM has prepared several standard comparison charts, all having different
average grain sizes. To each is assigned a number from 1 to 10, which is termed
the grain size number; the larger this number, the smaller the grains.
• Nucleation
• Growth
http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=solidification
Solidification
Grain Structure for Pure Metals
Equiaxed Grains
• If crystals can grow approximately equally in all directions –
equiaxed grains will grow.
Presence of foreign particles or other foreign substance in the liquid alloy (walls of the
casting mold) allows to initiate crystallization at minor value of undercooling (few degrees
below the freezing point). This is heterogeneous nucleation.
Pure Metals
• Have a clearly defined melting point
• Temperature remains constant during freezing
• Solidifies from the walls of the mold toward the center of
the part
Microstructural Changes during Solidification
Alloy
L
T
TL
L+S
TS
S
S
t
Page 313 Callister
Homogeneous nucleation
• No preferred nucleation sites
Heterogeneous nucleation
• Nucleation site
– Mold walls
– Inclusion
– Interface
– Surface
– Impurity
Heterogeneous nucleation
• Nucleation site
– Mold walls
– Inclusion
– Interface
– Surface
– Impurity
Two Contribution to the total free energy change that accompany a solidification
transformation.
• The first is the free energy difference between the solid and liquid phases, or the
volume free energy, ΔGv
• Second energy contribution results from the formation of the solid–liquid phase
boundary during the solidification transformation. Associated with this boundary is
a surface free energy, γ
Finally, the total free energy change is equal to the sum of these two contributions-
that is
Heat Treatment
Heat treating furnace at 1,800 °F (980 °C)
Steel castings after under going 12 hour 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) heat treatment
at Goodwin Steel Castings Ltd
Annealing Processing
Heat Treatment
1. Softening
Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual stresses,
improve toughness, restore ductility, refine grain size
2. Hardening
Hardening of steels is done to increase the strength and wear properties. One of
the prerequisites for hardening is sufficient carbon and alloy content.
- Diffusion treatment hardening
3. Material Modification
Stress relieving, or strength properties, e.g., cryogenic treatment
Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their
Normalizing
The critical temperatures (A1, A6, and Acm) are “arrests” in heating or cooling and
have been symbolized with the letter A, from the French word arret meaning arrest
or a delay point
Ar, or Ar3, the “r” originating from the French word refroidissement, meaning
cooling.
Process Annealing
The temperature range for process annealing ranges from 260°C(500 °F) to 760
°C (1400 °F), depending on the alloy
Full Annealing
Full annealing is the process of slowly raising the temperature about 50 ºC (90 ºF)
above the Austenitic temperature line A3 in the case of Hypoeutectoid steels (steels
with < 0.77% Carbon) and 50 ºC (90 ºF) into the Austenite-Cementite region in the
case of Hypereutectoid steels (steels with > 0.77% Carbon).
Held for sufficient time to allow the material to fully austenitize, to form austenite or
austenite-cementite grain structure.
The material is then allowed to cool slowly so that the equilibrium microstructure is
obtained.
Spheroidizing Annealing
Annealed hypereutectoid steel with a microstructure of pearlite and cementite network
generally gives poor machinability. Since cementite is hard and brittle, the cutting tool
cannot cut through these plates.
Hypereutectoid steel is held for a long time at a temperature just below the lower
critical temperature line or is heated and cooled alternatively between temperatures
that are just above and just below the lower critical line.
Prolonged time at the elevated temperature will completely break up the pearlitic
Structure and cementite network. The cementite will become spheres. The cementite
Particles and the entire structure is called spheroidite.
The purpose of normalizing is to produce harder and stronger steel than full
annealing, so that for some applications normalizing may be a final heat treatment.
Stress Relief Anneal is used to reduce residual stresses in large castings, welded
parts and cold-formed parts. Such parts tend to have stresses due to thermal cycling.
Parts are heated to temperatures of up to 600 - 650ºC (1112 - 1202ºF), and held for
an extended time (about 1 hour or more) and then slowly cooled in still air.
Tempering
Untempered martensitic steel, while very hard, is too brittle to be useful for most
applications. A method for alleviating this problem is called tempering.
Tempering consists of heating a steel below the lower critical temperature, (often
from 400 to 1105 ˚F or 205 to 595 ˚C, depending on the desired results), to impart
some toughness.
• Case hardening is usually done after the part in question has been
formed into its final shape.
Case-Hardening - Processes
• Flame/Induction Hardening
• Carburizing
• Nitriding
• Cyaniding
• Carbonitriding
Case-Hardening - Processes
• Example -> Heat a part with an acetylene torch set with a fuel-rich
flame and quench it in a carbon-rich fluid such as oil
Carburizing
• The carburized section will have a carbon content high enough that it
can be hardened again through flame or induction hardening
Carburizing
• The carbon can come from a solid, liquid or gaseous source.
• Solid source -> pack carburizing. Packing low carbon steel parts
with a carbonaceous material and heating for some time diffuses
carbon into the outer layers.
• The time the part spends in this environment dictates the depth of the
case.
It is then quenched in a natural gas (Oxygen free) atmosphere. This quench is less
drastic than water or oil-thus less distortion. However this process is not suitable for high
precision parts due to the distortions that are inherent. The hardness achieved is similar
to carburizing (60 - 65 RC) but not as high as Nitriding (70 RC). The case depth is from
0.1 to 0.75 mm (0.004 to 0.030 in). The case is rich in Nitrides as well as Martensite.
Tempering is necessary to reduce the brittleness.
Precipitation Hardening
Nonferrous alloys are those based on other metals with particular emphasis on Al, Cu,
Ti, Zn, Zr, and Mg.
Aluminum is an extremely useful engineering material as:
• they are light weight and strong; Al has a density of 2700 kg/m3, which is about 1/3
that of steel.
• their strength to weight ratio is excellent.
• Al is non-toxic.
• Al is one of the best metal electrical conductors
• Al has good corrosion resistance due to its natural oxide layer, which is thin and
passive once formed.
Aluminum
(cont’d)
Aluminum is an extremely useful engineering material as:
• Al stays ductile at low temperatures
• Al has a relatively low price
• It is the third most plentiful element on earth (next to oxygen and silicon).
• Al is easily alloyed and many of its alloys are stronger than pure Al.
• Al alloys are non-magnetic.
• Al alloys have a stable or predictable microstructure.
• Al alloys have an excellent machining, forming, and forging characteristics.
• Al alloys have a relatively high thermal expansion.
• Al alloys have a relatively high thermal conduction.
- Al’s FCC crystal structure retains its strength, ductility and toughness at
cryogenic temperatures. This is why we see many cryogenic tanks made
from Al.
Aluminum
(cont’d)
Disadvantages of Aluminum include:
• Al has a low melting temperature so can’t be used at high temperatures
(above ~ 400 C)
• Al has low hardness so it is not good for wear resistance.
• Because Al’s elastic modulus is 1/3 that of steel, it’s deflection as a
structural component may be too great for the application.
• Al’s FCC structure work hardens so it may become brittle after plastic
deform and fracture easily.
• Al’s high thermal expansion sometimes causes problems with its use as an
interconnect for electronic devices. Good electronics use Cu alloys and the
best use Au.
Hall- Heroult Process
Aluminum Carbon
Cathode Anode
Bauxite
Alumina CO2
Al O
plus
Fluoride salts
Pxxyy
xx = % Si Impurity Typical Grade: P1020
yy = % Fe Impurity 0.10% Si & 0.20% Fe
Once passed through the bath, the electrical current flows into the molten
aluminum deposit and is then collected by the bottom of the pot, usually
called "cathode".
Facility for producing aluminum sheet re-rolled
directly from molten aluminum
•Wrought alloys
•Cast alloys
Wrought alloys are shaped by plastic deformation and have microstructures and
compositions different from the casting alloys because of the differences in
manufacturing requirements.
Within each of these two major groups, they are further subdivided into two
subgroups:
Heat treatable alloys are strengthened by “age hardening”, whereas nonheat treatable
alloys are strengthened by strain hardening.
AWS Welding Handbook
Chemical Composition of Aluminum Alloys
1)The alloy system must display a decreasing solid solubility with decreasing
temperature. In other words, the alloy must form a single phase on heating above the
solvus line, then enter a two-phase region on cooling.
2) The matrix should be relatively soft and ductile, and the precipitate should be hard
and brittle. In most age hardenable alloys, the precipitate is a hard, brittle
intermetallic compound.
3) The alloy must be quenchable. Some alloys cannot be cooled rapidly enough to
suppress the formation of the precipitate. Quenching may, however, introduce residual
stresses that cause distortion of the part. To minimize residual stresses aluminum
alloys are quenched in hot water, at about 80 oC, i.e., a hot quench.
a) b)
1. Solution Treatment – the alloy is heated above the solvus temperature into a
single phase region of the phase diagram to dissolve any secondary phases such
as precipitates. The material is held at this temperature until a homogeneous
solid solution is produced. Al is usually solution-treated between 500 oC and 548
oC.
2. Quench – the alloy is rapidly cooled so the atoms do not have enough time to
diffuse to potential nucleation sites. The alloy remains as a single phase material
that is supersaturated with alloying elements. If the material is work hardened,
the increase in dislocations density can be used as nucleation sites during aging.
3. Aged – The alloy is heated to a temperature below the solvus so the atoms can
diffuse to numerous nucleation sites to produce precipitates Ideally, uniformly
highly dispersed, ultrafine precipitates give the best effect in age hardening or
precipitate strengthening.
The key metallurgical feature of aluminium alloys that may be
hardened (strengthened) by heat treatment is complete solute solid
solubility at high temperature but only very limited solute solid
solubility at room temperature. Historically this was first recognised
with Al - Cu alloy
The strength and hardness of some metal alloys may be enhanced by the
formation of extremely small uniformly dispersed particles of a second
phase within the original phase matrix; this must be accomplished by
appropriate heat treatment. The process is called Precipitation Hardening
or Age Hardening which involves three distinct steps:
The GP-1 zones are eventually replaced by GP-2 zones during the aging
process. GP-2 zones (“θ" phase) are larger than the GP-1 zones and their
number is correspondingly smaller since the amount of solvent in the
zones does not change. The size range for the θ" phase is 10-100 nm
diameter, and 1-4 nm thick. Optimal mechanical properties are achieved
by growing the θ" phase as large as possible without beginning to from
the intermediate θ’ phase.
With continued aging, the intermediate ‘θ’ phase will begin to form
causing recrystallization, softening, and a decrease in strength; this is
known as over-aging. The θ’ phase has a tetragonal structure with a
different lattice parameter from the matrix; no coherency strains exist,
but each particle is surrounded by a ring of dislocations. The size of the
θ’ phase depends on time and temperature; size ranges from 10 to 600
nm diameter with a thickness of 10-15 nm.
Eventually the θ’ phase is replaced by θ-(CuAl2) which has the same
structure and composition as the θ phase found by solidification.
Not all structures form at all aging temperatures.
Below 80°C aging seldom progresses past the GP-1 stage; only above
220°C does the θ’ phase appear within a reasonable time interval, and
temperatures above 280°C are needed for the θ phase to appear.
• Ageing:
• The ageing process can be divided into two main categories after the ageing
temperature
• Natural Ageing:
• The Heat treatable alloys changes properties when stored at room temperature after
solution heat treatment and quenching.
nuclei of the θ
precipitate, which
is eventually forms
in Al-Cu Alloys.
42
The second digit indicates special purity controls
http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=310
http://httd.njuct.edu.cn/matweb/material/m_al.htm
Nickel and Cobalt Alloys
Nickel and Cobalt alloys are used for corrosion protection and for high-temperature
resistance, taking advantage of their high melting points and high strengths.
Nickel is FCC and has good formability. Cu-Ni is the classic example of complete solid
solubility. Monel is the name given to commercial alloys with Ni-Cu ratios of roughly
2:1 by weight.
These alloys are good examples of solution hardening in which the alloys are
strengthened by the restriction of plastic deformation due to solid-solution formation.
Cobalt is used because of its exceptional wear resistance, and because of its resistance to
body fluids, as a biomedical material for prosthetic devices such as hip and knee socket
replacement.
Typical alloys and their uses are listed in the following table.
Superalloys: a broad class of materials with specially high
strength at elevated temperatures
Turbine blade design for active cooling by a gas shown in a) and the increase
in the high-temperature capability of Ni superalloys as a result of improved
manufacturing methods from producing a polycrystalline material to a single
crystal material.
Titanium Alloys
While there are numerous other nonferrous alloys such as Mg, Zn, and Zr,
which can be considered for special applications, the alloys that has received
considerable attention is Titanium, Ti.
These materials resist corrosion and make very good conductors of electricity.
As a result alloys of these materials are often used as electrodes for devices.