POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

CONTROL CENTRE OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS

Syllabus :
Introduction to SCADA, control centre, digital computer configuration,
automatic generation control, area control error, operation without central
computers, expression for tie-line flow and frequency deviation, parallel
operation of generators, area lumped dynamic model.

General
Electrical Technology was founded on the remarkable discovery by Faraday that a
changing magnetic flux creates an electric field. Out of that discovery, grew the largest
and most complex engineering achievement of man : the electric power system.
Indeed, life without electricity is now unimaginable. Electric power systems form the
basic infrastructure of a country. Even as we read this, electrical energy is being
produced at rates in excess of hundreds of giga-watts (1 GW = 1,000,000,000 W).
Giant rotors spinning at speeds up to 3000 rotations per minute bring us the energy
stored in the potential energy of water, or in fossil fuels. Yet we notice electricity only
when the lights go out!
While the basic features of the electrical power system have remained practically
unchanged in the past century, but there are some significant milestones in the
evolution of electrical power systems.

Topics to be studied
• Introduction to SCADA
• Control Centre
• Digital Computer Configuration
• Automatic Generation Control
• Area Control Error
• Operation Without Central Computers
• Expression for Tie Line Flow
• Parallel Operation of Generators
• Area Lumped Dynamic Model

1.0 Introduction
Electrical energy is an essential ingredient for the industrial and all round
development of any country. It is generated centrally in bulk and transmitted
economically over long distances.
Electrical energy is conserved at every step in the process of Generation,
Transmission, Distribution and utilization of electrical energy. The electrical utility
industry is probably the largest and most complex industry in the world and
hence very complex and challenging problems to be handled by power
engineering particularly, in designing future power system to deliver increasing
amounts of electrical energy. This calls for perfect understanding, analysis and
decision making of the system. This power system operation and its control play
a very important task in the world of Electrical Power Engineering.

Power Quality
Power quality is characterized by –
a. Stable AC voltages at near nominal values and at near rated frequency
subject to acceptable minor variations, free from annoying voltage flicker,
voltage sags and frequency fluctuations.
b. Near sinusoidal current and voltage wave forms free from higher order
harmonics
 All electrical equipments are rated to operate at near rated voltage
and rated frequency.

Effects of Poor Power Quality

- Maloperation of control devices, relays etc.
- Extra losses in capacitors, transformers and rotating machines
- Fast ageing of equipments
- Loss of production due to service interruptions
- Electro-magnetic interference due to transients
- power fluctuation not tolerated by power electronic parts

Major causes of Poor Power Quality

- Nonlinear Loads
- Adjustable speed drives
- Traction Drives
- Start of large motor loads
- Arc furnaces
- Intermittent load transients
- Lightning
- Switching Operations
- Fault Occurrences

Steps to address Power Quality issues

• Detailed field measurements
• Monitor electrical parameters at various places to assess the operating conditions
in terms of power quality.
• Detailed studies using a computer model. The accuracy of computer model is
first built to the degree where the observed simulation values matches with
those of the field measurement values. This provides us with a reliable computer
model using which we workout remedial measures.
 • For the purpose of the analysis we may use load flow studies, dynamic
simulations, EMTP simulations, harmonic analysis depending on the objectives of
the studies.
• We also evaluate the effectiveness of harmonic filters through the computer
model built, paying due attention to any reactive power compensation that these
filters may provide at fundamental frequency for normal system operating
conditions.
• The equipment ratings will also be addressed to account for harmonic current
flows and consequent overheating.

Power Quality Solutions :

Poor power quality in the form of harmonic distortion or low power factor increases
stress on a facility’s electrical system. Over time this increased electrical stress will
shorten the life expectancy of electrical equipment. In addition to system degradation,
poor power quality can cause nuisance tripping and unplanned shutdowns within
electrical system.
In an increasingly automated electrical world, it is important for a facility to evaluate
power quality. Harmonic distortion, low power factor, and the presence of other
transients can cause severe damage to electrical system equipment. PSE provides
system analysis and evaluation of power quality issues and makes recommendations for
system design solutions

1.1 Structure of Power Systems

Generating Stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems are
the main components of an electric power system. Generating stations
and distribution systems are connected through transmission lines, which
also connect one power system (grid, area) to another. A distribution
system connects all the loads in a particular area to the transmission lines.
 For economical technical reasons, individual power systems are organized
in the form of electrically connected areas or regional grids.
As power systems increased in size, so did the number of lines,
substations, transformers, switchgear etc. Their operation and interactions
became more complex and hence it is necessary to monitor this
information simultaneously for the total system at a focal point called as
Energy Control Centre. The fundamental design feature is increase in
system reliability and economic feasibility.

Major Concerns of Power System Design and Operation

• Quality : Continuous at desired frequency and voltage level
• Reliability : Minimum failure rate of components and systems
• Security : Robustness - normal state even after disturbances
• Stability : Maintain synchronism under disturbances
• Economy : Minimize Capital, running and maintenance Costs

1.2 Need for Power System Management

• Demand for Power Increasing every day
- No of transmission line, Sub-stations, Transformers, switchgear etc.,
• Operation and Interaction is more and more complex
• Essential to monitor simultaneously for the total system at a focal point –
ENERGY LOAD CENTRE

Components of power system operation and control

 • Information gathering and processing
• Decision and control
• System integration

Energy Load Centre

The function of energy load centre is to control the function of coordinating the
response in both normal and emergency conditions. Digital Computers are very
effectively used for the purpose. Their function is to process the data, detect
abnormalities, alarm the human operator by lights, buzzers, screens etc., depending on
the severity of the problem.

Control Centre of a Power System

• Human Machine Interface – equipped with
• CRT presentations
• Keyboards – change parameters
• Special function keyboards- alter transformer taps, switch line capacitors etc.,
• Light-Pen cursor – open or close circuit breakers
• Alarm lights, alarms, dedicated telephone communications with generating
stations and transmission substations, neighboring power utilities

Control Features – Control Centre

• System Commands – Mode of control
• Units – base / peak load
• AGC – Automatic Generation Control
• Data Entry
• Alarms – To find source of alarm and necessary action
• Plant/Substation selection
• Special Functions - To send/retrieve data etc.,
• Readout control – Output to CRT/printers etc.,
• CPU control – Selection for the computer
Functions of Control Centre
• Short, Medium and Long-term Load Forecasting
• System Planning
• Unit Commitment and maintenance Scheduling
• Security Monitoring
• State Estimation
• Economic Dispatch
• Load Frequency Control

1.3 SCADA – Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

One of key processes of SCADA is the ability to monitor an entire system in real time.
This is facilitated by data acquisitions including meter reading, checking statuses of
sensors, etc that are communicated at regular intervals depending on the system.
A well planned and implemented SCADA system not only helps utilities deliver power
reliably and safely to their customers but it also helps to lower the costs and achieve
higher customer satisfaction and retention.
SCADA – Why do we need it?
• If we did not have SCADA, we would have very inefficient use of human
resources and this would cost us (Rs,Rs,Rs)
• In today’s restructured environment SCADA is critical in handling the volume of
data needed in a timely fashion
• Service restoration would involve travel time and would be significantly higher
• It is essential to maintain reliability

SCADA - Architecture
• Basic elements are sensors which measure the desired quantities
• Current Transformers CTs – measure currents and Potential Transformers PTs-
measure voltages.
 • Today there is a whole new breed of Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs)
• This data is fed to a remote terminal unit (RTU)
• The master computer or unit resides at the control center EMS

SCADA - Process
• Master unit scan RTUs for reports, if reports exist, RTU sends back the data and
the master computer places it in memory
• In some new substation architectures there could be significant local processing
of data which could then be sent to the control center.
• The data is then displayed on CRTs and printed
SCADA - Logging

• The SCADA provides a complete log of the system

• The log could be provided for the entire system or part of the system
• Type of information provided
– Time of event
– Circuit breaker status
– Current measurements, voltage measurements, calculated flows, energy,
etc.
– Line and equipment ratings

SCADA as a System

There are many parts of a working SCADA system. A SCADA system usually includes
signal hardware (input and output), controllers, networks, user interface (HMI),
communications equipment and software. All together, the term SCADA refers to the
entire central system. The central system usually monitors data from various sensors
that are either in close proximity or off site (sometimes miles away).

For the most part, the brains of a SCADA system are performed by the Remote
Terminal Units (sometimes referred to as the RTU). The Remote Terminal Units consists
of a programmable logic converter. The RTU are usually set to specific requirements,
however, most RTU allow human intervention, for instance, in a factory setting, the
RTU might control the setting of a conveyer belt, and the speed can be changed or
overridden at any time by human intervention. In addition, any changes or errors are
usually automatically logged for and/or displayed. Most often, a SCADA system will
monitor and make slight changes to function optimally; SCADA systems are considered
closed loop systems and run with relatively little human intervention.

SCADA can be seen as a system with many data elements called points. Usually each
point is a monitor or sensor. Usually points can be either hard or soft. A hard data point
can be an actual monitor; a soft point can be seen as an application or software
calculation. Data elements from hard and soft points are usually always recorded and
logged to create a time stamp or history

User Interface – Human Machine Interface (HMI)

A SCADA system includes a user interface, usually called Human Machine Interface
(HMI). The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed and presented to be
viewed and monitored by a human operator. This interface usually includes controls
where the individual can interface with the SCADA system.

HMI's are an easy way to standardize the facilitation of monitoring multiple RTU's or
PLC's (programmable logic controllers). Usually RTU's or PLC's will run a pre
programmed process, but monitoring each of them individually can be difficult, usually
because they are spread out over the system. Because RTU's and PLC's historically had
no standardized method to display or present data to an operator, the SCADA system
communicates with PLC's throughout the system network and processes information
that is easily disseminated by the HMI.

HMI's can also be linked to a database, which can use data gathered from PLC's or
RTU's to provide graphs on trends, logistic info, schematics for a specific sensor or
machine or even make troubleshooting guides accessible. In the last decade, practically
all SCADA systems include an integrated HMI and PLC device making it extremely easy
to run and monitor a SCADA system.

Today’s SCADA systems, in response to changing business needs, have added new
functionalities and are aiding strategic advancements towards interactive, self healing
smart grids of the future. A modern SCADA system is also a strategic investment which
is a must-have for utilities of all sizes facing the challenges of the competitive market
and increased levels of real time data exchange that comes with it (Independent Market
Operator, Regional Transmission Operator, Major C&I establishments etc). A well
planned and implemented SCADA system not only helps utilities deliver power reliably
and safely to their customers but it also helps to lower the costs and achieve higher
customer satisfaction and retention. Modern SCADA systems are already contributing
and playing a key role at many utilities towards achieving :
• New levels in electric grid reliability – increased revenue.
• Proactive problem detection and resolution – higher reliability.
• Meeting the mandated power quality requirements – increased customer
satisfaction.
• Real time strategic decision making – cost reductions and increased revenue

Critical Functions of SCADA

Following functions are carried out every 2 seconds :
• Switchgear Position, Transformer taps, Capacitor banks
• Tie line flows and interchange schedules
• Generator loads, voltage etc.,
• Verification on links between computer and remote equipment

Modern SCADA systems are already contributing and playing a key role at many utilities
towards achieving :
• - New levels in electric grid reliability – increased revenue.
 • - Proactive problem detection and resolution – higher reliability.
• - Meeting the mandated power quality requirements – increased customer
satisfaction.
• - Real time strategic decision making – cost reductions and increased revenue.

1.4 Digital Computer Configuration

Major functions
- Data acquisition control
- Energy Management
- System Security
For best/secured operation 100% redundancy is used – Dual Digital Computers
i) on-line computer – monitors and controls the system
ii) Backup computer – load forecasting or hydro thermal allocations

The digital computers are usually employed in a fixed-cycle operating mode with priority
interrupts wherein the computer periodically performs a list of operation. The most
critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically the following categoties are
scanned every 2 seconds :
• All status points such as switchgear position (open or closed), substation loads
and voltages, transformer tap positions, and capacitor banks etc.,
• Tie line flows and interchange schedules
• Generator loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity
• Telemetry verificationto detect failures and errors in the bilateral communication
links between the digital computer and the remote equipment.

1.5 Important Areas of Concern in power System

- Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

 On-line Computer Control that maintains overall system frequency and net tie-
line load exchange through interconnection
- Economic Load Dispatch
On-line computer control to supply load demand using all interconnected
system’s power in the most economical manner

AGC is the name given to a control system having three major objectives :
a. To hold system frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value (50 or
60Hz)
b. To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control areas
c. To maintain each unit’s generation at the most economic value.

To implement an AGC system, the following information is required :

- Unit megawatt output of each committed unit
- Megawatt flow over each tie line to neighboring systems
- System frequency
Usually, neighboring power companies are interconnected by one or more transmission
lines called Tie Lines. The objective is to buy or sell power with neighboring systems
whose operating costs make such transactions profitable. Also, even if no power is
being transmitted over ties to neighboring system, if one system has a sudden loss of a
generating unit, the units throught all the interconnection will experience a frequency
change and can help in restoring frequency.

Advantages of interconnected system

• Reduces Reserve Capacity – thus reduces installed capacity
• Capital Cost/kW is less for larger Unit
- in India single unit can support >500MW because of interconnection
• Effective Use of Generators
• Optimization of Generation – installed capacity is reduced
• Reliability
Disadvantages of interconnected system

• Fault get Propagated – calls for fast switchgear

• CB rating increases
• Proper management required – EMS and it must be automated – Economic load
dispatch - Base load and Peak Load

National Regional Electricity Boards

• Northern Regional Electricity Board
• Western Regional Electricity Board
• Southern Regional Electricity Board
• Eastern Regional Electricity Board
• North-east Regional Electricity Board
Goal – To have National Grid to improve efficiency of the whole National
Power Grid

Control Area Concept

All generators are tightly coupled together to form – Coherent Group
- all generators respond to changes in load or speed changer setting
Control Area – frequency is assumed to be constant throughout in static and dynamic
conditions
For the purpose of analysis, a control area can be reduced to a single speed governor,
turbo generator and load system

Interconnected Power System

Functions
- Exchange or sale of power
- Disturbed areas taking other area’s help
- Long distance sale and transfer of power

1.6 Area Control Error – ACE

To maintain a net interchange of power with its area neighbors, an AGC uses real
power flow measurements of all tie linesa emanating from the area and subtracts the
scheduled interchange to calculate an error value. The net power interchange, together
with a gain, B (MW/0.1Hz), called the frequency bias, as a multiplier on the frequency
deviation is called the Area Control Error (ACE) given by,

Pk = Power in Tie lIne - +ve – out of the area

Ps – Scheduled Power Interchange
f0 – Base frequency, fact – Actual frequency
+ve ACE indicates flow out of the area.
ACE – Input to AGC
The real power summation of ACE loses information as to the flow of individual tie lines
but is concerned with area net generation. The tie lines transfer power through the area
from one neighbor to the next, called ‘Wheeling Power’. The wheeling power cancels
algebraically in the ACE. Thus one area purchases or sells blocks of power (MWh) with
non-neighbor utilities.
Power Sale from A to C

• A – selling a power ‘p’ to C, then ACE for A = p

 • Power export starts until its AGC forces ACE to become zero
• Area C introduces ‘-p’ into its ACE
• Power flows in to area C until its ACE becomes zero
• Areas B & C must be aware of the power exchange as they are also
interconnected
The minimum requirements of AGC on controlling the interchange of power and
frequency have been established by NERC – North American Electric Reliability Council,
which is comprised of representatives of the major operating power pools. This
committee specifies the following criteria as minimum performance expected by AGC.
A. Normal System Conditions
- ACE = 0 at least once in 10 min period
- Deviation of ACE from zero must be within allowable limits
B. Disturbances Conditions
- ACE must return to zero within 10 min
- Corrective action from AGC must be within a minimum disturbance

Daily Load Cycle

The allowable limit, Ld of the average deviation on power systems (averaged over 10
minutes) is :
Ld = 0.025∆L + 5.0 MW
 ∆L = ∆P/ ∆t MW/hr
The value of ∆L is determined annually and is taken from the daily load cycle. A power
system is said to be in a disturbance condition if the ACE signal exceeds 3Ld.

1.7 Operation without Central Computers or AGC

Power Systems are capable of functioning even without Central Computer and/or AGC
- Due to a result of Turbine Generator speed controls in the generating station
and natural load regulation
- Thus generators within an area are forced to share load and cause
interconnected areas to share load

1.7.1 Generation Frequency Characteristic Curve

Let there be two independent areas A and B without tie line flow as the circuit breaker
is open. Let there be a sudden change in load occurs in the area D. Area A is
considered as a single operating area representing the remainder of the
interconnection. It is further assumed that the areas share the disturbance in proportion
to their generating capacity and operating characteristics. Let the area generation-
frequency characteristics be represented by the curve GG which is a composite
response curve from all the generators in area A. The characteristic curve has a
negative slope with frequency.
The area connected load is defined by the curve LL as shown. As there is increase in
load the rotating machinery in the area is forced to increase the speed.

Basic Equations
GA = G0 +10β1 (fact – f0) MW LA = L0 +10β2 (fact – f0) MW
GA = Total Generation, G0 = Base generation
LA = Total Load, L0 = Base load, fact = System frequency, f0 = Base frequency
β1 = Cotangent of generation-frequency characteristic,
MW/0.1 Hz < 0
β2 = Cotangent of load-frequency characteristic, MW/0.1 Hz > 0
1.7.2 Isolated Operation in A – response to load change
For Steady State Frequency – Total generation = Total effective load
This is defined by the intersection of GG and LL curves as shown – Io.
Combined characteristic of GG and LL is CC. The composite generation load frequency
characteristics is given by,
GA = G0 +10β1 (fact – f0), LA = L0 +10β2 (fact – f0)
GA - LA = G0 +10β1 (fact – f0) - L0 -10β2 (fact – f0)
Increase in load in ‘A’ moves the load frequency curve to position L’L’. The new system
frequency will now be defined by the intersection labeled as I1 at 49.9Hz.Then it is
desired to return the system frequency to 50.0Hz i.e., point I2.
Setting AGC in ‘A’- shifting of GG to G’G’ takes place to meet frequency demand of
50.0Hz – I2
Resulting combined characteristic is C’C’ In terms of increments,
∆A = GA - G0 + L0 - LA = 10β1 (fact – f0) -10β2 (fact – f0)
= 10BA XA ∆f MW
∆A = GA - G0 + L0 - LA = 10β1 (fact – f0) -10β2 (fact – f0)
= 10BA XA ∆f MW
BA - Natural regulation characteristic - % gen for 0.1Hz
XA – Generating Capacity of A, MW
Frequency deviation = ∆f = ∆A / 10BA XA Hz
Considering Tie line flow, Frequency deviation
∆f = (∆A + ∆TL ) / (10BA XA) Hz
∆A + ∆TL - Net Megawatt change
∆TL = ∆GA - ∆LA

1.7.3 Effect of Tie Line Flow - Interconnected operation

Let two areas A and B are interconnected through a Tie Line. Thus both Generation and
Load frequency are equal to 50.0 Hz. There is no initial Tie Line Power Flow.

- Disturbance occur at B causing frequency to drop to 49.9Hz

- Area generation does not match with effective load in A
- Difference between I1 and I2 – difference between generation and load – net
excess power in the area – flows out of A towards B
- Contributory effects in A are decrease in load power ∆L and increase in
generation ∆G

- Tie Line Flow from A to B = ∆TL = (∆GA - ∆LA ) MW

- If area A has AGC, tie line flows increases – ∆TL’ and ∆TL’’ representing increased
amounts of bias due to AGC.

Frequency change due to disturbance ∆B for a tie line power flow from A to B is

∆f = ∆B - ∆TL / (10BB XB) Hz

∆TL = (10BA XA) ∆AB / (10BA XA +10BB XB) MW

Net power change in B is

= ∆AB - ∆TL
= (10BB XB) ∆AB / (10BA XA +10BB XB)
∆AB = (10BA XA+ 10BB XB )∆f
Hence, ∆f / ∆AB = 1/(10BA XA+ 10BB XB )
Example
Two areas A and B are interconnected. Generating capacity of A is 36,000Mw with
regulating characteristic of 1.5%/0.1Hz. B has 4000MW with 1%/0.1Hz. Find each
area’s share of +400MW disturbance (load increase) occurring in B and resulting tie line
flow.
∆f = ∆AB / (10 BAXA + 10 BBXB = 400 / -10(0.015)(36,000) – 10(0.01)(4000)
= -0.06896 Hz
Tie Line flow = ∆TL = (10BA XA) ∆AB / (10BA XA +10BB XB) = 5400*400/4800
= 372.4MW
Smaller system need only 27.6 MW
Frequency regulation is much better

1.8 Parallel Operation of Generators

Tie line flows and frequency droop described for interconnected power areas are
composite characteristics based on parallel operation of generators. Each area could
maintain its speed w = 2 f, then aload common to both areas, by superposition have

the terminal voltage,

Vload = V1sinw1t + V2sinw2t, Where, 1&2 represents areas and ‘t’ time in secs.
Generator speed versus load characteristics is a function of the type of the governor
used on the prime mover- type 0 – for a speed droop system and type 1 – for constant
speed system.
Parallel operation of generator with infinite bus
The generator characteristic is such that it is loaded to 50% of its capacity when
paralleled to the bus.
Therefore, Unit speed regulation = R = ∆f(pu)/∆P(pu)

If it is desired to increase the load on the generator, the prime mover torque is
increased, which results in a shift of the speed-droop curve as shown below. The real
power flow is given by, P = V1V2 sin(θ1 - θ2) / X , where X = synchronous reactance

Parallel operation of two identical units

Load
Two generators paralleled have different governor-speed-droop characteristics. Because
they are in parallel, power exchange between them forces them to synchronize at a
common frequency. Since the two units are of equal capacity having equal regulation
are initially operating at 1.0 base speed as shown above.
If unit is operated at point A1 satisfies 25% of the total load and unit 2 at point A2
supplies 75%. If the total load is increased to 150%, the frequency decreases to f1.
Since the droop curves are linear, unit 1 will increase its load to 50% of rating and unit
2 to be overloaded.
Parallel operation of two units with different capacity and regulation
The case when two units of different frequency and regulation characteristics are
operated in parallel is as shown below. The regulation characteristics are
R1 = ∆f(pu) / ∆P1 (pu), R2 = ∆f(pu) / ∆P2 (pu)

Initial Loads - P1 and P2, change in load

∆L = ∆P1 + ∆P2 =
Equivalent System Regulation = ∆f / ∆L =
Example :
Two parallel operating generators – 1pu, 60Hz
Unit 1 = 337 MW with 0.03 pu droop, Unit2 – 420MW with 0.05 pu droop
Find each unit’s share for 0.1pu increase in load and new frequency ?

1.9 Area Lumped Dynamic Model

The model discussed so far is one macroscopic behavior because there is no effort
made to indicate instantaneous power flow within the system due to a tie line
disturbance, magnitudes of the internal line flows, the time history of generator phase
angles and so on. The power system macro model may be described by means of a
block diagram as shown in the block diagram.
HA = Effective Inertia of rotating machinery loads
Β2 = Load frequency characteristics, MW/0.1Hz
Pirate = Rated power output of Gen ‘i’
∆Pi = Power Increment for gen ‘i’
1/Ri = Droop characteristic of gen ‘i’, Hz/MW
Analysis – Isolated Power Area without Tie Lines
Steady State value of Frequency deviation ∆f for a load change ∆L
= ∆A/S
Hence,
∆f/ ∆A = 1/(10β1 - 10 β2)
Combining droop characteristics of M gen,
Analysis - Isolated Power Area with AGC
Topics studied
• Present Power scenario
• Requirement for Quality Power
• Tie Lines
- Sale of Power
- System Stability
- Long distance power transmission
• Necessity of AGC
• Area Control Error
• Parallel Operation of Generators
• Area Lumped Dynamic Model
 Automatic Generation Control

2.1 Introduction

The main objective of power system operation and control is to maintain continuous
supply of power with an acceptable quality, to all the consumers in the system. The
system will be in equilibrium, when there is a balance between the power demand and the
power generated. As the power in AC form has real and reactive components: the real
power balance; as well as the reactive power balance is to be achieved.

There are two basic control mechanisms used to achieve reactive power balance
(acceptable voltage profile) and real power balance (acceptable frequency values). The
former is called the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) and the latter is called the
automatic load frequency control (ALFC) or automatic generation control (AGC).

2.2 Generator Voltage Control System

The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation (flux) of the
generator. The speed being constant, the excitation is used to control the voltage.
Therefore, the voltage control system is also called as excitation control system or
automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
For the alternators, the excitation is provided by a device (another machine or a static
device) called exciter. For a large alternator the exciter may be required to supply a field
current of as large as 6500A at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large machine.
Depending on the way the dc supply is given to the field winding of the alternator (which
is on the rotor), the exciters are classified as: i) DC Exciters; ii) AC Exciters; and
iii) Static Exciters. Accordingly, several standard block diagrams are developed by the
IEEE working group to represent the excitation system. A schematic of an excitation
control system is shown in Fig2.1.
 Fig2.1: A schematic of Excitation (Voltage) Control System.
A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system is shown in Fig2.2.
The generator terminal voltage Vt is compared with a voltage reference Vref to obtain a
voltage error signal ∆V. This signal is applied to the voltage regulator shown as a block
with transfer function KA/(1+TAs). The output of the regulator is then applied to exciter
shown with a block of transfer function Ke/(1+Tes). The output of the exciter Efd is then
applied to the field winding which adjusts the generator terminal voltage. The generator
field can be represented by a block with a transfer function KF/(1+sTF). The total transfer
∆V G( s) K AKeKF
function is = where, G ( s ) =
∆Vref 1 + G ( s ) (1 + sT A )(1 + sTe )(1 + sTF )

The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the dynamic
response of the exciter. The input to this block is the exciter voltage and the output is a
stabilizing feedback signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.

Fig2.2: A simplified block diagram of Voltage (Excitation) Control System.

Performance of AVR Loop
The purpose of the AVR loop is to maintain the generator terminal voltage with in
acceptable values. A static accuracy limit in percentage is specified for the AVR, so that
the terminal voltage is maintained within that value. For example, if the accuracy limit is
4%, then the terminal voltage must be maintained with in 4% of the base voltage.

The performance of the AVR loop is measured by its ability to regulate the terminal
voltage of the generator within prescribed static accuracy limit with an acceptable speed
of response. Suppose the static accuracy limit is denoted by Ac in percentage with
reference to the nominal value. The error voltage is to be less than (Ac/100)∆|V|ref.
From the block diagram, for a steady state error voltage ∆e;
Ac
∆e = ∆|V|ref - ∆|V|t < ∆|V|ref
100
G( s)
∆e = ∆|V|ref - ∆|V|t = ∆|V|ref - ∆|V|ref
1 + G( s)
G( s)
= {1- }∆|V|ref
1 + G( s)
For constant input condition, (s→0)
G( s) G ( 0)
∆e = {1- }∆|V|ref = {1 - }∆|V|ref
1 + G( s) 1 + G ( 0)
1 1
= ∆|V|ref = ∆|V|ref
1 + G ( 0) 1+ K
where, K= G(0) is the open loop gain of the AVR. Hence,
1 Ac 100
∆|V|ref < ∆|V|ref or K>{ - 1}
1+ K 100 Ac

Example1: Find the open loop gain of an AVR loop if the static accuracy required is 3%.
100 100
Solution: Given Ac = 3%. K > { - 1}= K > { - 1} = 32.33. Thus, if the
Ac 3
open loop gain of the AVR loop is greater than 32.33, then the terminal voltage will be
within 3% of the base voltage.
2.3 Automatic Load Frequency Control
The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power balance in
the system. The main functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the steady frequency; ii)
control the tie-line flows; and iii) distribute the load among the participating generating
units. The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ∆Ptie (measured from the tie-
line flows), and the frequency deviation ∆f (obtained by measuring the angle deviation
∆δ). These error signals ∆f and ∆Ptie are amplified, mixed and transformed to a real
power signal, which then controls the valve position. Depending on the valve position,
the turbine (prime mover) changes its output power to establish the real power balance.
The complete control schematic is shown in Fig2.3

Fig2.3: The Schematic representation of ALFC system

For the analysis, the models for each of the blocks in Fig2 are required. The generator
and the electrical load constitute the power system. The valve and the hydraulic amplifier
represent the speed governing system. Using the swing equation, the generator can be
2 Hd 2 ∆δ
modeled by = ∆Pm − ∆Pe . Expressing the speed deviation in pu,
ω s dt 2
d ∆ω 1
= (∆Pm − ∆Pe ) . This relation can be represented as shown in Fig2.4.
dt 2H

Fig2.4. The block diagram representation of the Generator

The load on the system is composite consisting of a frequency independent component
and a frequency dependent component. The load can be written as ∆Pe = ∆P0 + ∆Pf
where, ∆Pe is the change in the load; ∆P0 is the frequency independent load component;
∆Pf is the frequency dependent load component. ∆Pf = D∆ω where, D is called frequency
characteristic of the load (also called as damping constant) expressed in percent change in
load for 1% change in frequency. If D=1.5%, then a 1% change in frequency causes 1.5%
change in load. The combined generator and the load (constituting the power system) can
then be represented as shown in Fig2.5

Fig2.5. The block diagram representation of the Generator and load

The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig2.6

∆Pm (s) K
Gt (s) = = t
∆PV (s) 1+ sTt
Gt(s) is the TF of the turbine; ∆PV(s) is the change in valve output (due to action).
∆Pm(s) is the change in the turbine output
Fig2.6. The turbine model.
The governor can similarly modeled as shown in Fig2.7. The output of the governor is by
∆ω
∆Pg = ∆Pref − where ∆Pref is the reference set power, and ∆ω/R is the power given
R
by governor speed characteristic. The hydraulic amplifier transforms this signal ∆Pg into
valve/gate position corresponding to a power ∆PV. Thus ∆PV(s) = ( Kg/(1+sTg))∆Pg(s).
 Fig2.7: The block diagram representation of the Governor
All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as
shown in Fig2.8

Fig2.8: The block diagram representation of the ALFC

2.4 Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop

In the steady state, the ALFC is in ‘open’ state, and the output is obtained by substituting
s→0 in the TF.
With s→0, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then, (note that ∆Pm =∆PT = ∆PG = ∆Pe = ∆PD ;
That is turbine output = generator/electrical output = load demand)
∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R)∆ω or ∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R)∆f
When the generator is connected to infinite bus (∆f = 0, and ∆V = 0), then ∆Pm = ∆Pref .

If the network is finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (∆Pref = 0), then
∆Pm = – (1/R)∆f or ∆f = -R ∆Pm.
If the frequency dependent load is present, then
− ∆Pm
∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R +D)∆f or ∆f =
D + 1/ R
If there are more than one generator present in the system, then
∆Pm. eq = ∆Pref.eq – (D + 1/Req)∆f
where, ∆Pm. eq = ∆Pm1 + ∆Pm2 + ∆Pm.3 +….
∆Pref. eq = ∆Pref1 + ∆Pref2 + ∆Pref3 +…..
1/Req = (1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R2 +….)
The quantity β = (D + 1/Req) is called the area frequency (bias) characteristic (response)
or simply the stiffness of the system.

2.5 Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)

The ALFC loop shown in Fig2.8, is called the primary ALFC loop. It achieves the
primary goal of real power balance by adjusting the turbine output ∆Pm to match the
change in load demand ∆PD. All the participating generating units contribute to the
change in generation. But a change in load results in a steady state frequency deviation
∆f. The restoration of the frequency to the nominal value requires an additional control
loop called the supplementary loop. This objective is met by using integral controller
which makes the frequency deviation zero. The ALFC with the supplementary loop is
generally called the AGC. The block diagram of an AGC is shown in Fig2.9. The main
objectives of AGC are i) to regulate the frequency (using both primary and
supplementary controls); ii) and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows. A secondary
objective of the AGC is to distribute the required change in generation among the
connected generating units economically (to obtain least operating costs).

Fig2.9: The block diagram representation of the AGC

2.6 AGC in a Single Area System
In a single area system, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained. Thus the function
of the AGC is only to bring the frequency to the nominal value. This will be achieved
using the supplementary loop (as shown in Fig.2.9) which uses the integral controller to
change the reference power setting so as to change the speed set point. The integral
controller gain KI needs to be adjusted for satisfactory response (in terms of overshoot,
settling time) of the system. Although each generator will be having a separate speed
governor, all the generators in the control area are replaced by a single equivalent
generator, and the ALFC for the area corresponds to this equivalent generator.

2.7 AGC in a Multi Area System

In an interconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each control
area (located at the ECC of that area). They are combined as shown in Fig2.10 for the
interconnected system operation. For a total change in load of ∆PD, the steady state
− ∆PD
deviation in frequency in the two areas is given by ∆f = ∆ω1 = ∆ω 2 = where,
β1 + β 2
β1 = (D1+1/R1); and β2 = (D2+1/R2).

Fig.2.10. AGC for a multi-area operation.

2.8 Expression for tie-line flow in a two-area interconnected system
Consider a change in load ∆PD1 in area1. The steady state frequency deviation ∆f is the
same for both the areas. That is ∆f = ∆f1 = ∆f2. Thus, for area1, we have
∆Pm1 - ∆PD1 - ∆P12 = D1∆f
where, ∆P12 is the tie line power flow from Area1to Area 2; and for Area 2
∆Pm2 + ∆P12 = D2∆f
The mechanical power depends on regulation. Hence
∆f ∆f
∆Pm1 = − and ∆Pm 2 = −
R1 R2
Substituting these equations, yields
1 1
( + D1 )∆f = − ∆P12 − ∆PD1 and ( + D2 )∆f = ∆P12
R1 R2
Solving for ∆f, we get
− ∆PD1 − ∆PD1
∆f = =
(1 / R1 + D1 ) + (1 / R2 + D2 ) β1 + β 2

− ∆PD1 β 2
and ∆P12 =
β1 + β 2
where, β1 and β2 are the composite frequency response characteristic of Area1 and Area 2
respectively. An increase of load in area1 by ∆PD1 results in a frequency reduction in both
areas and a tie-line flow of ∆P12. A positive ∆P12 is indicative of flow from Area1 to Area
2 while a negative ∆P12 means flow from Area 2 to Area1. Similarly, for a change in Area
− ∆PD 2
2 load by ∆PD2, we have ∆f =
β1 + β 2
− ∆PD 2 β1
and ∆P12 = −∆P21 =
β1 + β 2
Frequency bias tie line control
The tie line deviation reflects the contribution of regulation characteristic of one area to
another. The basic objective of supplementary control is to restore balance between each
area load generation. This objective is met when the control action maintains
• Frequency at the scheduled value
 • Net interchange power (tie line flow) with neighboring areas at the scheduled
values
The supplementary control should ideally correct only for changes in that area. In other
words, if there is a change in Area1 load, there should be supplementary control only in
Area1 and not in Area 2. For this purpose the area control error (ACE) is used (Fig2.9).
The ACE of the two areas are given by
For area 1: ACE1 = ∆P12 + β1∆f

For area 2: ACE2 = ∆P21 + β2∆f

2.9 Economic Allocation of Generation

An important secondary function of the AGC is to allocate generation so that each
generating unit is loaded economically. That is, each generating unit is to generate that
amount to meet the present demand in such a way that the operating cost is the minimum.
This function is called Economic Load Dispatch (ELD).

2.10 Systems with more that two areas

The method described for the frequency bias control for two area system is applicable to
multiarea system also.

Note:
The regulation constant R is negative of the slope of the ∆f verses ∆pm curve of
the turbine-governor control. The unit of R is Hz/MW when ∆f is in Hz and ∆pm is
in MW. When ∆f and ∆pm are in per-unit, R is also in per-unit.
The area frequency characteristic is defined as β = {1/(D+1/R)}, where D is the
frequency damping factor of the load. The unit of β is MW/Hz when ∆f is in Hz
and ∆pm is in MW. If ∆f and ∆pm are in per unit, then β is also in per unit.
Examples:
Ex 1. A 500 MVA, 50 Hz, generating unit has a regulation constant R of 0.05 p.u. on its
own rating. If the frequency of the system increases by 0.01 Hz in the steady state, what
is the decrease in the turbine output? Assume fixed reference power setting.
Solution: In p.u. ∆f = 0.01/50 = 0.0002 p.u.
With ∆pref = 0, ∆pm = -1/R(∆f) = - 0.004 p.u.
Hence, ∆pm = -0.004 Sbase = - 2 MW.
Ex. 2. An interconnected 60 Hz power system consists of one area with three generating
units rated 500, 750, and 1000 MVA respectively. The regulation constant of each unit is
R= 0.05 per unit on its own rating. Each unit is initially operating at one half of its rating,
when the system load suddenly increases by 200MW. Determine (i) the area frequency
response characteristic on a 1000 MVA system base, (ii) the steady state frequency
deviation of the area, and (iii) the increase in turbine power output.

Regulation constants on common system base are (Rpu new = R pu old ( Sbase new/Sbase old):
R1 = 0.1; R2 = 0.0667; and R3 = 0.05.
Hence β = (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3) = 45 per unit.

Neglecting losses and frequency dependence of the load, the steady state frequency
deviation is ∆f = (-1/β)∆pm = -4.444 x10 -3 per unit = (-4.444 x10 -3 )60 = - 0.2667 Hz.

∆pm1 = (-1/R1)(∆f) = 0.04444 per unit = 44.44 MW

∆pm2 = (-1/R2)(∆f) = 0.06666 per unit = 66.66 MW
∆pm3 = (-1/R3)(∆f) = 0.08888 per unit = 88.88 MW

Ex.3. A 60 Hz, interconnected power system has two areas. Area1 has 2000 MW
generation and area frequency response of 700 MW/Hz. Area 2 has 4000 MW generation
and area frequency response of 1400 MW/Hz. Each area is initially generating half of its
rated generation, and the tie-line deviation is zero at 60 Hz when load in Area1 is
suddenly increases by 100 MW. Find the steady state frequency error and tie line error of
the two areas. What is the effect of using AGC in this system?

In the steady state, ∆f = (-1/β) ∆pm = {∆pm / -(β1 + β2)} = ( -100/2100) = - 0.0476 Hz.

Assuming ∆pref = 0,
∆pm1 = -β1 ∆f = 33.33 MW; and ∆pm2 = -β2 ∆f = 66.67 MW.
Thus in response to 100 MW change in Area1, both areas will change their generation.
The increase in Area 2 generation will now flow through tie line to Area1.

Hence ∆p tie1 = - 66.67 MW; and ∆p tie2 = + 66.67 MW.

With AGC, the Area control error is determined as follows.

ACE 1 = ∆p tie1 + B1 ∆f where B1 is the frequency bias constant.

ACE 2 = ∆p tie2 ( = - ∆p tie1) + B2 ∆f where B2 is the frequency bias constant.
The control will actuate such that in the steady state the frequency and tie line deviations
are zero. Thus till ACE1= ACE2 = 0, the control signal will be present.
 06EE82: Power System Operation and Control

Control of Voltage and Reactive Power

Reactive power is an odd topic in AC (Alternating Current) power systems, and it's
usually explained with vector mathematics or phase-shift sine wave graphs.
However, a non-math verbal explanation is possible.

Note that Reactive power only becomes important when an "electrical load" or a
home appliance contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical load behaves purely as
a resistor, (such as a heater or incandescent bulb for example,) then the device
consumes "real power" only. Reactive power and "power factor" can be ignored,
and it can be analysed using an AC version of Ohm's law.

Reactive power is simply this: when a coil or capacitor is connected to an AC

power supply, the coil or capacitor stores electrical energy during one-fourth of an
AC cycle. But then during the next quarter-cycle, the coil or capacitor dumps all the
stored energy back into the distant AC power supply. Ideal coils and capacitors
consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant electric current. This is
very different from a resistor which genuinely consumes electrical energy, and
where the electrical energy flows continuously in one direction; moving from
source to load.

In other words, if your electrical appliance contains inductance or capacitance, then

electrical energy will periodically return to the power plant, and it will flow back
and forth across the power lines. This leads to an extra current in the power lines, a
current which heats the power lines, but which isn't used to provide energy to the
appliance. The coil or capacitor causes electrical energy to begin "sloshing" back
and forth between the appliance and the distant AC generator. Electric companies
must install heavier wires to tolerate the excess current, and they will charge extra
for this "unused" energy.

This undesired "energy sloshing" effect can be eliminated. If an electrical load

contains both a coil and capacitor, and if their resonant frequency is adjusted to
exactly 60Hz, then the coil and capacitor like magic will begin to behave like a pure
resistor. The "energy sloshing" still occurs, but now it's all happening between the
coil and capacitor, and not in the AC power lines. So, if your appliance contains a
large coil induction motor, you can make the motor behave as a pure resistor, and
reduce the current in the power lines by connecting the right value of capacitance
across the motor coil.

Why is reactive power so confusing? Well, the math is daunting if not entirely
obscure. And the concept of "imaginary power" puts many people off. But this is
not the only problem. Unfortunately most of us are taught in grade school that an
electric current is a flow of energy, and that energy flows back and forth in AC
power lines. This is completely wrong. In fact the energy flows constantly forward,
going from source to load. It's only the charges of the metal wires which flow back
and forth.

Imagine that we connect a battery to a light bulb. Electric charges already present
inside the wires will begin to flow in the circle, and then electrical energy moves
almost instantly to the light bulb. The charge flow is circular like a belt, but the
energy flow is one-way. Now imagine that we suddenly reverse the connections to
the battery. The voltage and current will reverse... but the energy still flows in the
same direction as before. It still goes from battery to bulb. If we keep reversing the
battery connections over and over, we'd have an AC system. So, in an AC system,
only the voltage and current are "alternating," while the electrical energy flows one-
way, going from source to load. Where AC resistive loads are concerned, electrical
energy does not "alternate." To understand energy flow in AC systems, it's critically
important that we understand the difference between charge flow (current, amperes)
and energy flow (power, watts.)

What is imaginary power? Simple: it's the unused power which flows backwards
and forwards in the power lines, going back and forth between the load's coil or
capacitor and the distant AC generator. If your appliance was a pure capacitor or
inductor, then it would consume no electrical energy at all, but instead all the
flowing energy would take the form of "sloshing energy," and we'd call it
"imaginary power." Of course it's not actually imaginary. Instead it's reflected by
the load.

What is real power? Even more simple: it's the energy flow which goes
continuously from the AC generator and into the appliance, without any of it
returning back to the distant generator.

Finally, what is "reactive" power? It's just the combination of the above two ideas:
it is the continuous-forward-moving or "real" energy flow, combined with the
sloshing or "imaginary" energy flow.

9 Power in A.C. Networks

ƒ Active Power
ƒ Reactive Power
ƒ Apparent Power
ƒ Power Factor (p.f.)
ƒ Power Factor Correction
ƒ
9 Instantaneous power, p(t) = v(t)i(t)
9 Power, p(t) value
ƒ positive – power transmit/dissipate by load
ƒ negative – power return from the load
9 Since p(t) is power transmits by load, then it is the average power, P at load
9 Sometimes P is also known as active power, real power or true power measured in unit of Watts.

ACTIVE POWER

Z = R (purely resistive)
 2 2
P = VI = I R = V /R (Watt)

REACTIVE POWER
Z = jXL (inductive)
Instantaneous power p(t) = v(t)i(t) = VI sin 2ωt
9 Average power is zero
9 The product of VI is called reactive power (QL) with unit Volt-Amp
Reactive (VAR)
2 2
9 Reactive power (inductive) QL = VI = I XL = V /XL (VAR)


Z = – jXC (capacitive)
 2 2
9 Reactive power (capacitive) QC = VI = I XC = V /XC (VAR)

Note:

To distinguish between inductive reactive power (QL) and capacitive

reactive power (QC), we use two different signs (+ or –) depending on our
reference (i or v), for example jQL and – jQC or otherwise.

ACTIVE/REACTIVE POWER – Example

 (a) I = 100 V/25 Ω = 4 A, P = VI = (100 V)(4 A) = 400 W,
Q = 0 VAR
(b) I = 100 V/20 Ω = 5 A, P = 0, QL = VI = (100 V)(5 A) =
500 VAR (inductive)
(c) I = 100 V/40 Ω = 2.5 A, P = 0, QC = VI = (100 V)(2.5) =
250 VAR (capacitive) = – 250 VAR

Note: use the magnitude of I and V

Determine the total PT and QT for the circuit. Sketch the series equivalent circuit.
 2 2
R = PT/I = 1200/20 = 3 Ω
2 2
Xeq = XL = QT/I = 1600/20 = 4 Ω
 APPARENT POWER
For load consisting of series resistance and reactance, Z = R ± jX = Z /±ș , the
power produced is called Apparent Power or Complex Power), S or PS with unit
Volt-Amp (VA)

S = V *I

S = V *I

S = P + jQL S = P – jQC

ș positive, inductive load

ș negative, capacitive load
S = VI (VA)
2 2
P = VI cos ș = I R = VR /R (W)
= S cos ș (W)
2 2
Q = VI sin ș = I X = Vx /X (VAR)
= S sin ș
2 2 *
S = √(P + Q ) = V I V/0°

Power Triangle
 POWER TRIANGLE – Example
Sketch the power triangle.

Note that Reactive power only becomes important when an "electrical load" or a
home appliance contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical load behaves purely as
a resistor, (such as a heater or incandescent bulb for example,) then the device
consumes "real power" only. Reactive power and "power factor" can be ignored,

• Reactive power is simply this: when a coil or capacitor is connected to an AC

power supply, the coil or capacitor stores electrical energy during one-fourth
of an AC cycle. But then during the next quarter-cycle, the coil or capacitor
dumps all the stored energy back into the distant AC power supply. Ideal coils
and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant
electric current. This is very different from a resistor which genuinely
consumes electrical energy, and where the electrical energy flows
continuously in one direction; moving from source to load.


 POWER FACTOR

Power factor, p.f. = cos ș = P/S = R/Z

9 p.f. depends on the load type:
9 Purely resistive load, R , p.f. = 1
9 Inductive load, RL, p.f. <1 (lagging) and
9 Capacitive load, RC, p.f. < 1 (leading)
9 Most of the loads are inductive (lagging p.f.) and must be corrected until p.f.
approximately become unity (p.f. = 1) using capacitor.

S(Z)
Q(X)

P (R)

POWER FACTOR – Correction

C jX
V
S QC
Q
θ
θJ QJ

P
Leading p.f. (final) = cos șJ; QJ = P tan șJ
QC = Q – QJ
2 2
QC = V /XC ; XC = 1/ jωC = V / QC

POWER FACTOR – Example

Find the complex power for the circuit. Correct the circuit power factor to
p.f. = 1 using parallel reactance.

Given: Vs = 117∠0 V, R = 50 Ω, jXL = 86.7 Ω, ω = 377 rad/s

ZL = 50 + j86.7 = 100∠60 Ω
IL = VL/ZL= (117∠0 )/(100∠60) = 1.17∠–60 A
*
S = VLIL = 137 ∠60) = 68.5 + j118.65 VA
2
QC = –118.65 VAR XC = VL /118.65 = – j115 Ω
C = 1/ωXc = 23.1 µF
Importance of Reactive Power

Refers to the circulating power in the grid that does no useful work
Results from energy storage elements in the power grid (mainly inductors
and capacitors)
Has a strong effect on system voltages
It must balance in the grid to prevent voltage Problems
Reactive power levels have an effect on voltage collapse
 Significant Differences between Real and Reactive Services
Real power can be delivered over much greater distances.
Reactive resources must be distributed throughout the system.
Generation of real power requires conversion from some energy sources
like thermal, nuclear, wind, hydrogen.
Reactive power requires almost no energy to produce
 Reactive Power is a Byproduct of Alternating Current (AC)
Systems
• Transformers, transmission lines, and motors require reactive
power
• Transformers and transmission lines introduce inductance as
well as resistance (Both oppose the flow of current)
• Must raise the voltage higher to push the power through the
inductance of the lines (Unless capacitance is introduced to offset
inductance)
• The farther the transmission of power, the higher the voltage
needs to be raised
• Electric motors need reactive power to produce magnetic fields
for their operation
Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power
Synchronous Generators - Synchronous machines can be made to
generate or absorb reactive power depending upon the excitation (a form
of generator control) applied. The ability to supply reactive power is
determined by the short circuit ratio.

Synchronous Compensators - Certain smaller generators, once run up to

speed and synchronized to the system, can be declutched from their
turbine and provide reactive power without producing real power.
Capacitive and Inductive Compensators - These are devices that can be
connected to the system to adjust voltage levels.
A capacitive compensator produces an electric field thereby generating
reactive power
An inductive compensator produces a magnetic field to absorb reactive
power.
Compensation devices are available as either capacitive or inductive alone
or as a hybrid to provide both generation and absorption of reactive power.
 Overhead Lines, Underground Cables and Transformers.

• Overhead lines and underground cables, when operating at the

normal system voltage, both produce strong electric fields and so
generate reactive power.
• When current flows through a line or cable it produces a magnetic
field which absorbs reactive power.
• A lightly loaded overhead line is a net generator of reactive power
while a heavily loaded line is a net absorber of reactive power. In
the case of cables designed for use at 275 or 400kV the reactive
power generated by the electric field is always greater than the
reactive power absorbed by the magnetic field and so cables are
always net generators of reactive power.
• Transformers always absorb reactive power.

Relation between voltage, Power and Reactive Power

at a node
The phase voltage V at a node is a function of P and Q at that node.
i. e V = f (P,Q)
The voltage is also independent of adjacent nodes and assume that these
are infinite busses.
the total differential of V,
dV = (˜v/ ˜p) . dp + (˜v/ ˜Q) . dQ
and using the relation (˜p/ ˜v) . (˜v/ ˜p) = 1 and
(˜Q/ ˜v) . (˜v/ ˜Q) = 1


dv = dp /(˜p/ ˜v) + dQ / (˜Q/ ˜v) ---------(1)

From the above equation it is seen that the change in voltage at a node
is defined by two quantities,
(˜p/ ˜v) and (˜Q/ ˜v)
Normally (˜Q/ ˜v ) is the quantity of greater interest and can be
experimentally determined using Network Analyser by injecting
known quantity of VARs at the node in question and measuring the
difference in voltage produced.

Methods of voltage control

• By Reactive Power Injection

• By Tap Changing Transformers
• Combined use of Tap Changing Transformers and Reactive Power
Injection
• Booster Transformers.

Reactive Power Injection

This is the most fundamental method and is used only in places
where the transformer alone is not sufficient to control the
voltage.
since many years we use capacitors to improve the power
factors of industrial loads. The injection of reactive power
required for the power factor improvement is determined like
this.
A load of P kw at a lagging power factor of cosij1 has a KVA
1
of P / cosij1. If this power factor is improved to cosij2,the new
1
KVA is P / cosij2.
1

The reactive power required from the capacitors is

(P tanij - P tanij2) KVAr
1 1 1

Now the question is why the power factor is to be improved.

What if the power is transmitted at non unity power factor.
We all know very well that the voltage drop depends on
reactive power (Q) while the load angle (or) power
transmission angle (į) depends on real power (P)
At non unity power factors if the power is transmitted then it
2
results in higher line currents which increases the I R losses
and hence reduces the thermal capability.
one of the ideal place for the injection of reactive power is at
the loads itself.
Generally reactive power injections are of the following types.

• Static shunt capacitors

• Static series capacitors
• Synchronous compensators

Shunt capacitors and Reactors:

shunt capacitors are used for lagging power factor circuits
whereas shunt reactors are used for leading power factors that
are created by lightly loaded cables. In both the cases the effect
is to supply the required amount of reactive power to maintain
the voltage.
Capacitors are connected either directly to the bus bar or to
the tertiary winding of the main transformer and are distributed
along the line to minimise the losses and the voltage drops.
Now when the voltage drops, the vars produced by shunt
capacitor or reactor falls, so when required most, the
effectiveness of these capacitors or the reactors also falls.
On the other hand, on light loads when the voltage is high, the
capacitor output is large and the voltage tends to rise to
 excessive level, so some of the capacitors or reactors are to be
switched out by over voltage relays.
For fast control of voltages in power systems, switched
capacitors in parallel with semiconductor controlled reactors
are generally used to provide var compensation

• Series capacitors:


Here the capacitors are connected in series with the line. The
main aim is to reduce the inductive reactance between supply
point and the load.
The major disadvantage of the method is, whenever a short
circuit current flows through the capacitor, protective devices
like spark gaps and non linear resistors are to be incorporated.
Phasor diagram for a line with series capacitor is shown in the
figure (b).
 Relative merits between shunt and series capacitors.

• If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors are of

little help.
• If the voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are
effective, also to some extent the voltage fluctuations can be
evened.
• If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very
effective and stability is improved.
• With series capacitors the reduction in line current is small,
hence if the thermal considerations limits the current, little
advantage is from this, so shunt compensation is to be used.

Synchronous compensators.

A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running

without a mechanical load and depending on the excitation
level, it can either absorb or generate reactive power.
when used with a voltage regulator the compensator can
automatically run overexcited at times of high loads and under
excited at light loads.
A typical connection of a compensator is shown in the figure
along with the associated voltage – var output characteristics.
Fig: Typical Installation with synchronous compensator connected
to tertiary (delta) winding of main transformer.


Fig: Voltage-reactive power output of a typical 40MVAr synchronous

compensator

• A great advantage of the method is the flexible operation for
all load conditions.
• Being a rotating machine, its stored energy is useful for riding
through transient disturbances, including voltage drops.

Sub Synchronous Resonance

Series capacitors are installed in series with long lines for
providing compensation of reactive power and giving higher
power transfer ability.
Series compensated lines have a tendency to produce series
resonance at frequencies lower than power frequencies. This is
called Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR)
The sub synchronous resonance currents produce mechanical
resonance in Turbo generator shafts, which causes the
following in the generator shaft-
(i)Induction generator effect
(ii) torsional torques and (iii) transient torques.
These problems have resulted in damage to rotor shafts of
turbine generators.
Therefore the sub synchronous resonance is analysed in the
design of series compensated lines.
Now let us derive a relationship between the normal frequency
and the sub synchronous resonance frequency.
Let f be the normal frequency ( synchronous)
n

let f be the sub synchronous frequency of series compensated

r
line.
2Ȇf L be the series inductive reactance of EHV line at normal
n
frequency.
1/2Ȇf C be the series capacitive reactance of series
n
compensation at normal frequency.
K = X /X be the degree of compensation.
c L

X = (X – X ) = X (1 – K) is the equivalent
L c L
reactance of the compensated line.
Let the SSR occur at a frequency f . Then
r
2
f = (1/ 2ȆL ) * (1/ 2ȆC)
r
2
(OR) (f / f ) = X /X = K
r n c L

or
f = f *sqrt(K)
r n

Thus SSR occurs at a frequency fr which is the product of

normal frequency and the root of the degree of compensation
K.
The condition of SSR can occur during the faults on the power
system, during switching operations and changing system
configurations.
Solution to SSR problems
1. Use of filters: For eliminating/damping the harmonics.
The various filters include: static blocking filters, bypass
damping filters, dynamic filters.
 2. Bypassing the series capacitor bank under resonance
condition
3. Tripping of generator units under conditions of SSR

Reactive Power and Voltage Collapse

Voltage collapse is a system instability and it involves many

power system components and their variables at once. Indeed,
voltage collapse involves an entire power system although it
usually has a relatively larger involvement in one particular
section of the power system.
Voltage collapse occurs in power systems which are usually
Heavily loaded, faulted and/or have reactive power shortages.
Voltage collapses can occur in a transient time scale or in a
long term time scale. Voltage collapse in a long term time scale
can include effects from the transient time scale; for example, a
slow voltage collapse taking several minutes may end in a fast
voltage collapse in the transient time scale.
Changes in power system contributing to voltage collapse

There are several power system disturbances which contribute

to the voltage collapse.
i. increase in inductive loading
ii. Reactive power limits attained by reactive
power compensators and generators.
iii. On Load Tap Changing operation
iv. Load recovery dynamics.
v. Generator outage
vi. Line tripping.
most of these factors have significant effects on reactive power
production, transmission and consumption.
Switching of shunt capacitors, blocking of OLTC operation,
generation rescheduling, bus voltage control, strategic load
shedding and allowing temporary reactive power over loading
of generators may be used as some of the effective
countermeasures against voltage collapse.

Voltage Stability
The voltage stability may be defined as the ability of a power
system to maintain steady acceptable voltage at all busses in the
system at normal operating conditions and after being subjected
to disturbances/ perturbations.
OR
Voltage stability is the ability of a system to maintain voltage
so that when load admittance is increased, load power will
increase, and so that both power and voltage are controllable.
Power system is “Voltage Stable “if voltages at respective
busses after a disturbance are close to the voltages at normal
operating conditions.
So voltage instability is that appears when the attempt of load
dynamics to restore power consumption is just beyond the
capability of the combined transmission and generator system.
Though voltage instability may be a local problem, its
consequences may have a widespread effect.
Voltage collapse is the catastrophic result of a sequence of
events leading to a sudden low-voltage profile in a major part
of the system, i.e. in a significant part of the system.
Voltage Stability can also be called Load Stability. A Power
system lacks the capability to transfer an infinite amount of
electrical power to the loads. The main factor causing voltage
instability is the inability of the power system to meet the
demands for reactive power in the heavily stressed system
keeping desired voltages. Other factors contributing to voltage
instability are the generator reactive power limits.
Transfer of reactive power is difficult due to extremely high
reactive power losses, which is why the reactive power required
for voltage control is generated and consumed at the control
area.
A classification of power system stability is shown in the table
below. The driving forces for instability are named generator–
driven and load-driven. It is to be noted that these terms do
not exclude the effect of other components to the mechanism.
The time scale is divided into short and long-term time
scale.
Now let us analyse voltage stability using Q-V curves.
Consider a simple system as shown below and its P-V curves.

Fig: Normalised P-V curves for fixed (infinite) source.

Now map the normalised P-V curves onto V-Q curves.

for constant value of P, note the values of Q and V and then re
plot to get Q-V curves as shown below.
from P-V curves it is observed that the critical voltage is very
high for high loadings. V is above 1.0p.u for P = 1.0p.u
 The right side represents normal conditions where applying a
capacitor bank raises voltage.

Fig : Normalised Q-V curves for fixed (infinite) source.

Fig : Q – V Curves

Figure shows the Q-V diagram of a bus in a particular power
system at four different loads: P , P , P , P . the Q axis shows
1 2 3 4
the amount of additional reactive power that must be injected
into the bus to operate at a given voltage. The operating point is
the intersection of the power curve with the voltage axis, where
no reactive power is required to be injected or absorbed. If the
slope of the curve at the intersection point is positive, the
system is stable, because any additional reactive power will
raise the voltage and vice-versa.
Hence for P load, there is a reserve of reactive power that can
1
be used to maintain stability even if the load increases.
For load P the system is marginally stable.
2

For higher load P3 and P4 the system is not stable

(Since a certain amount of reactive power must be injected into
the bus to cause an intersection with the voltage axis.)
Thus the measure of Q reserve gives an indication of the
margin between stability and instability.
The slope of the Q-V curve represents the stiffness of the test
bus.
when nearby generators reach their Var limits, the slope of the
Q-V curve becomes less steep and the bottom of the curve is
approached.
V-Q curves are presently the workhorse method of voltage
stability analysis at many utilities. Since the method artificially
stresses a single bus, conclusions should be confirmed by more
realistic methods.
 Fig: Reactive Power Margins


POWER SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION
• Introduction
• Problem of economic load scheduling
• Performance curves
• Constraints in economic operation of power systems
• Spinning reserve
• Solution to economic load dispatch
(i) Solution to ELD without inequality constraints
(ii) Solution to ELD with capacity constraints
(iii) Solution to ELD with Transmission losses considered- PENALTY
FACTOR METHOD
(iv) Solution to ELD with Transmission losses considered- LOSS
COEFFICIENTS METHOD (Transmission loss as a function of plant
generation- B Coefficients)
• Examples

INTRODUCTION

Electric Power Systems (EPS): Economic Aspects:

In EPS, the first step is to properly assess the load requirement of a given area where
electrical power is to be supplied. This power is to be supplied using the available
units such as thermal, hydroelectric, nuclear, etc. Many factors are required to be
considered while choosing a type of generation such as: kind of fuel available, fuel
cost, availability of suitable sites for major station, nature of load to be supplied, etc.

Variable load: The load is not constant due to the varying demands at the different
times of the day. The EPS is expected to supply reliable and quality power. It should
ensure the continuity of power supply at all times.

{Qn.: write a note on the choice of the number and size of the generating units at a
power station from economic operation point of view}

Single unit Vs. multiple units: the use of a single unit to supply the complete load
demand is not practical since, it would not be a reliable one. Alternately, a large
number of smaller units can be used to fit the load curve as closely as possible. Again,
with a large number of units, the operation and maintenance costs will increase.
Further, the capital cost of large number of units of smaller size is more as compared
to a small number of units of larger size. Thus, there has to be compromise in the
selection of size and number of generating units within a power plant or a station.

Electric Power Systems (EPS): Operational Aspects:

Electric energy is generated at large power stations that are far away from the load
centers. Large and long transmission lines (grid lines) wheel the generated power to
the substations at load centers. Many electrical equipment are used for proper
transmission and distribution of the generated power. The grid lines are such that:
• GRID: The transmission system of a given area.
 • Regional GRID: Different grids are interconnected through transmission lines.
• National GRID: Interconnection of several regional grids through tie lines.
Each grid operates independently, although power can be exchanged between various
grids.

Economic loading of generators and interconnected stations:

Optimum economic efficiency is achieved when all the generators which are running
in parallel are loaded in such a way that the fuel cost of their power generation is the
minimum. The units then share the load to minimize the overall cost of generation.
This economical approach of catering to the load requirement is called as ‘economic
dispatch’. The main factor in economic operation of power systems is the cost of
generating the real power. In any EPS, the cost has two components as under:
• The Fixed Costs: Capital investment, interest charged on the money borrowed,
tax paid, labour, salary, etc. which are independent of the load variations.
• The Variable Costs: which are dependant on the load on the generating units,
the losses, daily load requirements, purchase or sale of power, etc.
The current discussion on economic operation of power systems is concerned about
minimizing the variable costs only.

Further, the factors affecting the operating cost of the generating units are: generator
efficiency, transmission losses, fuel cost, etc. Of these, the fuel cost is the most
important factor.

Since a given power system is a mix of various types of generating units, such as
hydel, thermal, nuclear, hydro-thermal, wind, etc., each type of unit contributes its
share for the total operating cost. Since fuel cost is a predominating factor in thermal
(coal fired) plants, economic load dispatch (ELD) is considered usually for a given set
of thermal plants in the foregoing discussion.
PROBLEM OF ECONOMIC LOAD SCHEDULING:

There are two problem areas of operation strategy to obtain the economic operation of
power systems. They are: problem of economic scheduling and the problem of
optimal power flow.

* The problem of economic scheduling: This is again divided into two categories:
• The unit commitment problem (UCP): Here, the objective is to determine the
various generators to be in operation among the available ones in the system,
satisfying the constraints, so that the total operating cost is the minimum. This
problem is solved for specified time duration, usually a day in advance, based
on the forecasted load for that time duration.
• The economic load dispatch (ELD): Here, the objective is to determine the
generation (MW power output) of each presently operating (committed or put
on) units to meet the specified load demand (including the losses), such hat the
total fuel cost s minimized.

2
* The problem of optimal power flow: Here, it deals with delivering the real power
to the load points with minimum loss. For this, the power flow in each line is to be
optimized to minimize the system losses.

{Qn.: compare ELD and UCP and hence bring out their importance and objectives.}

PERFORMANCE CURVES:

The Performance Curves useful for economic load dispatch studies include many
different types of input-output curves as under:

1. Input Output Curve: A plot of fuel input in Btu/Hr. as a function of the MW

output of the unit.
2. Heat Rate Curve: A plot of heat rate in Btu/kWH, as a function of the MW
output of the unit. Thus, it is the slope of the I-O curve at any point. The
reciprocal of heat rate is termed as the ‘Fuel Efficiency’.
3. Incremental Fuel Rate Curve: A plot of incremental fuel rate (IFC) in
Btu/kWH as a function of the MW output of the unit, where,
IFC= ∆input/∆output = Incremental change in fuel
input/ Incremental change in power output (1)
4. Incremental Fuel Cost Curve: A plot of incremental fuel cost (IFC) in
Rs./kWH as a function of the MW output of the unit, where,
IFC in Rs./kWH = (Incremental fuel rate
in Btu/kWH) (Fuel cost in Rs./Btu) (2)
The IFC is a measure of how costlier it will be to produce an increment of power
output by that unit.

The Cost Curve can be approximated by:

* Quadratic Curve by the function: Ci(Pi) = ai+biPi+ciPi2 Rs./Hr. (3)
* Linear curve by the function: d(Ci)/dPi =bi+2ciPi Rs./MWHr. (4)

Generally, the quadratic curve is used widely to represent the cost curve, with the IC
curve given by the linear curve as above.

CONSTRAINTS IN ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS:

Various constraints are imposed on the problem of economic operation of power

systems as listed below:

1. Primary constraints (equality constraints):

Power balance equations:
Pi - PDi - Pl =0; Qi - QDi - Ql =0; i=buses of the system (5)
where, Pl= Σ‖ViVjYij‖ cos (δij-θij);
Ql= Σ‖ViVjYij‖ sin (δij-θij);
j = 1,2,….n, are the power flow to the neighboring system. (6)

The above constraints arise due to the need for the system to balance the generation
and load demand of the system.

3
2. Secondary constraints (inequality constraints):
These arise due to physical and operational limitations of the units and components.
Pimin ≤ Pi ≤ Pimax
Qimin ≤ Qi ≤ Qimax
i = 1,2,….n, the number of generating units in the system. (7)

3. Spare Capacity Constraints:

These are used to account for the errors in load prediction, any sudden or fast
change in load demand, inadvertent loss of scheduled generation, etc. Here, the total
generation available at any time should be in excess of the total anticipated load
demand and any system loss by an amount not less than a specified minimum spare
capacity, PSP (called the Spinning Reserve) given by:
PlG (Generation) ≥ Σ Pl (Losses) + PSP + PDj (Load) (8)

4. Thermal Constraints:
For transmission lines of the given system:
- Simin ≤ Sbi ≤ Simax i = 1,2,….nb, the number of branches,
where, Sbi is the branch transfer MVA. (9)

5. Bus voltage and Bus angle Constraints:

Bus voltage and Bus angle Constraints are needed to maintain a flat bus voltage
profile and to limit the overloading respectively.
- Vimin ≤ Vi ≤ Vimax i = 1,2,….n
min max
- δij ≤ δij ≤ δij i = 1,2,….n; j = 1,2,….m (10)
where, n is the number of nodes and m is the number of nodes neighboring each node
with interconnecting branches.

6. Other Constraints:
In case of transformer taps, during optimization, it is required to satisfy the constraint:
Timin ≤ Ti ≤ Timax (11)

where Ti is the percentage tap setting of the tap changing transformer used.

In case of phase shifting transformers, it is required to satisfy the constraint:

PSimin ≤ PSi ≤ PSimax (12)

where PSi is the phase shift obtained from the phase shifting transformer used.

SPINNING RESERVE

Spinning reserve (SR) is the term used to describe the total amount of generation
available from all the synchronized (spinning) units of the system minus the present
load plus the losses being supplied. i.e.,

Sp.Res., PSP = {Total generation, Σ PlG} - { Σ PDj(load) + Σ Pl (losses)} (13)

4
The SR must be made available in the system so that the loss of one or more units
does not cause a large drop in system frequency. SR must be allocated to different
units based on typical Council rules. One such rule is as follows:
‘SR must be capable of making up for the loss
of the most heavily loaded unit in the system’

Reserves must be spread around the system to avoid the problem of ‘bottling of
reserves’ and to allow for the various parts of the system to run as ‘islands’, whenever
they become electrically disconnected.

{Qn.: Write a brief note on the following: Spinning Reserve, constraints in economic
operation, performance curves}

SOLUTION TO ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH

{Qn.: Derive the EIC criterion for economic operation of power systems with
transmission losses neglected, MW limits considered/ not considered}

The solution to economic load dispatch problem is obtained as per the equal
incremental cost criterion (EIC), which states that:
‘All the units must operate at the same incremental fuel cost for economic operation’
This EIC criterion can be derived as per LaGrangian multiplier method for different
cases as under.

CASE (i) Solution to ELD without inequality constraints:

Consider a system with N generating units supplying a load PD MW. Let the unit MW
limits and the transmission losses are negligible. Suppose the fuel cost of unit ‘i’ is
given by:
Ci(Pi) = ai+ biPi+ ciPi2 Rs./Hr. so that
ICi = d(Ci)/dPi = bi+ 2ciPi Rs./MWHr. (14)

Hence, the total cost, CT = Σ Ci(Pi) i= 1,2,… N

The ELD problem can thus be stated mathematically as follows:

Minimize CT = Σ Ci(Pi) i = 1,2,… N

Such that Σ Pi = PD (15)

where, CT is the total fuel cost of the system in Rs./Hr., PD is the total demand in MW
and Pi is the MW power output of unit i. The above optimization problem can be
solved by LaGranje’s method as follows.

The LaGranje function L is given by:

L = CT + λ (PD – ΣPi) (16)

The minimum cost value is obtained when:

∂L/∂Pi = 0; and ∂L/∂λ = 0 (17)

∂CT/∂Pi – λ = 0 and PD - Σ Pi = 0 (which is same as the constraint given)

5
Further, since the cost of a given unit depends only on its own power output, we have,
∂CT/∂Pi = ∂Ci/∂Pi = dCi/dPi i= 1,2,… N (18)
Thus,
dCi/dPi – λ = 0 i = 1,2,… N or

dC1/dP1 = dC2/dP2 = … .. = dCi/dPi = …. … = dCN/dPN (19)

= λ, a common value of the incremental fuel cost of generator I, in Rs./MWHr.

The equation above is stated in words as under:

‘For the optimum generation (power output) of the generating units, all the
units must operate at equal incremental cost (EIC)’

Expression for System Lambda, λ:

Consider equation (14); ICi = d(Ci)/dPi = bi+2ciPi Rs./MWHr.

Simplifying, we get, Pi = [λ-bi]/2ci MW so that
ΣPi = PD = Σ [λ-bi]/2ci

Solving, we get, λ = {PD + Σ [bi/2ci]}/ {Σ [1/2ci]} (20)

CASE (ii) Solution to ELD with capacity constraints:

Consider a system with N generating units supplying a load PD MW. Let the unit MW
limits be considerable and the transmission losses be negligible. Suppose the fuel cost
of unit ‘i’ is given by:
Ci(Pi) = ai+ biPi+ ciPi2 Rs./Hr. so that the total cost,
CT = Σ Ci(Pi) i= 1,2,… N
The ELD problem can now be stated mathematically as follows:

Minimize CT = Σ Ci(Pi) i = 1,2,… N

Such that Σ Pi = PD and
Pimin ≤ Pi ≤ Pimax (21)

where, CT is the total fuel cost of the system in Rs./Hr., PD is the total demand in MW,
Pi is the MW power output of unit i, Pimin is the minimum MW power output and
Pimax is the maximum power output by the unit i.

The necessary conditions for the solution of the above optimization problem can be
obtained as follows:

λi = dCi/dPi = λ Rs./MWHr. for Pimin ≤ Pi ≤ Pimax

λi = dCi/dPi ≤ λ Rs./MWHr. for Pi = Pimax
λi = dCi/dPi ≥ λ Rs./MWHr. for Pi = Pimin (22)

From the above equations, if the outputs of the unit, according to optimality rule, is:
* Less than its minimum value, then it is set to Pimin, the corresponding IC will be
greater than the system λ,

6
* More than its maximum value, then it is set to Pimax, the corresponding IC will be
less than the system λ,
* With in its maximum and minimum values, then the corresponding IC will be equal
to the system λ.

In other words, the sequential procedural steps are as follows:

1. First, find the power output according to the optimality rule (EIC Criterion)
2. If the power output of any unit is less than its minimum value, then set the
value to be equal to its Pimin,
3. Similarly, if the power output of any unit is more than its maximum value, then
set the value to be equal to its Pimax,
4. Adjust the demand for the remaining units after accounting for the settings
made for the above units (those units which have violated the limits)
5. Finally, apply the EIC criterion, for the remaining units. Here, the system
lambda is determined by only those units whose power output values are with
in the specified MW limits.

CASE (iii) Solution to ELD with Transmission losses considered- PENALTY

FACTOR METHOD
{Qn.: Derive the EIC criterion for economic operation of power systems with
transmission losses considered. Use penalty factor method}

Consider a system with N generating units supplying a load PD MW. Let the
transmission losses be considerable. Suppose the fuel cost of unit ‘i’ is given by:
Ci(Pi) = ai+ biPi+ ciPi2 Rs./Hr. so that the total cost,
CT = Σ Ci(Pi) i= 1,2,… N
Let PL be the total transmission losses in the system. The ELD problem can now be
stated mathematically as follows:

Minimize CT = Σ Ci(Pi) i = 1,2,… N

Such that Σ Pi = PD + PL (23)

where, CT is the total fuel cost of the system in Rs./Hr., PD is the total demand in MW,
Pi is the MW power output of unit i, PL is the transmission losses in the system. This
above optimization problem can be solved by LaGranje’s method as follows.

The LaGranje function L is given by:

L = CT - λ (ΣPi - PD – PL) (24)

The minimum cost value is obtained when:

∂L/∂Pi = 0; and ∂L/∂λ = 0 (25)

∂CT/∂Pi –λ(1-∂PL/∂Pi)=0 and ΣPi-PD–PL=0 (which is same as the constraint given)

7
Further, since the cost of a given unit depends only on its own power output, we have,
∂CT/∂Pi = ∂Ci/∂Pi = dCi/dPi i= 1,2,… N

Thus,
dCi/dPi – λ (1- dPL/dPi) = 0 i = 1,2,… N or

dCi/dPi = ICi = λ (1- dPL/dPi)

So that we have for optimal operation,
λ = ICi /(1- dPL/dPi) = ICi (1- dPL/dPi)-1 = Pni ICi
Where, Pni is the penalty factor of unit i = (1- dPL/dPi)-1 = (1-ITLi)-1 ; ITLi = dPL/dPi
is the Incremental Transmission Loss of unit i, and λ is in Rs./MWHr. (26)

The equation above is stated in words as under:

‘For the optimum generation (power output) of the generating units, when the
transmission losses are considered, all the units must operate such that the product of
the incremental fuel cost and their penalty factor must be the same for all units’

Note: in equation (26), if losses are negligible as in case (i) above, then,
ITLi = dPL/dPi = 0, Pni=1.0 so that λ = ICi i = 1,2,… N, as before.

CASE (iv) Solution to ELD with Transmission losses considered- LOSS

COEFFICIENTS METHOD
{Qn.: Derive the EIC criterion for economic operation of power systems with
transmission losses considered. Use B- Coefficients method OR
Derive an expression for the transmission loss as a function of the plant
generations.}

Consider a system with two generating units supplying currents I1 and I2 respectively
to the load current IL. Let Ik1 and Ik2 be the respective currents flowing through a
general transmission branch element k of resistance Rk, with current Ik as shown in
figure 1 below.

8
 Figure 1. Branch currents in a 2 unit system

Ik = Ik1 + Ik2 = Nk1 I1 + Nk2I2 (27)

Where, Nk1 and Nk2 (assumed to be real values) are the current distribution factors
of units 1 and 2 respectively.

It is assumed that the currents Ik1 and IL as well as Ik2 and IL have the same phase angle
or they have a zero phase shift. Thus, they can be added as real numbers as under.

Let I1 = │I1│∠σ1 = │I1│cos σ1+ j│I1│sin σ1

I2 = │I2│∠σ2 = │I2│cos σ2+ j│I2│sin σ2 (28)

Where σ1 and σ2 are the phase angles of currents. Consider now, the magnitude of
current Ik, in branch k, given by

Ik = {Nk1│I1│cos σ1+ j Nk1│I1│sin σ1} + {Nk2│I2│cos σ2+ j Nk2│I2│sin σ2}

= {Nk1│I1│cos σ1+ Nk2│I2│cos σ2} + j{Nk1│I1│sin σ1+ Nk2│I2│sin σ2}

Thus,
│Ik│2 = Nk1│I1│2 + Nk2│I2│2 + 2 Nk1Nk2│I1││I2│ cos(σ1-σ2) (29)

However, we have,
P1 = √3V1I1cosθ1; P2 = √3V2I2cosθ2; PL = Σ3│Ik│2Rk (30)

where, P1 and P2 are the MW power output values by the units 1 and 2 respectively,
V1 and V2 are the respective line voltages and θ1, θ2 are the respective power factor
angles and PL is the transmission loss in the system. From equations (29) and (30),

9
after simplification, an expression for the transmission loss as a function of plant
generation can be obtained as:

PL = ΣNk12RkP12/(V12cos2θ1) + ΣNk22RkP22/(V22cos2θ2) +
2 ΣNk1Nk2RkP1P2 cos(σ1-σ2)/ (V1V2cosθ1cosθ2)
= B11P12 + B22P22 + 2 B12P1P2 (31)

Where, the B coefficients are called as the loss coefficients. Thus, in general, for a
system of n units we have,
PL = Σ Σ PiBijPj Where,
i j
Bij = Σ {cos(σi-σj)/ (ViVjcosθicosθj) NkiNkjRk (32)
Note:
1. The B coefficients are represented in units of reciprocal MW, (MW-1)
2. For a three unit system , equation (32) takes the form:
PL = B11P12 + B22P22 + B33P32 + 2 B12P1P2+2 B13P1P3+ 2 B23P2P3
= PTBP (33)
Where, P = [P1 P2 P3], the vector of unit power output values and
B = [B11 B12 B13; B21 B22 B23; B31 B32 B33]
the loss coefficient matrix for the 3 unit system.
3. The B coefficient matrix is a square, symmetric matrix of order n, n being the
number of generating units present in the system.
4. The following are the assumptions made during the above analysis:
• All load currents maintain a constant ratio to load current (Nki=constant).
• The voltage at any bus remains constant.
• The power factor of each bus source is constant (θi=constant).
• The voltage phase angle at load buses is constant (σi=constant).
5. The Incremental Transmission loss, ITLi of a given unit can be expressed in
terms of its MW power output values as under:
Consider, PL = Σ Σ PjBjkPk
j k
= Σ Σ PjBjkPk + Σ PjBjiPi
j k≠i j
= Σ Σ PjBjkPk + Σ PjBjiPi + BiiPi2
j k≠i j≠i
= Σ Σ PjBjkPk + Σ PiBikPk + Σ PjBjiPi + BiiPi2
j≠i k≠i k≠i j≠i
(34)
Thus,
ITLi = dPL/dPi = 0+ Σ BikPk + Σ PjBji + 2 BiiPi
k≠i j≠i
= 2 Σ PkBik
k (35)

-----------

10
 Examples on Economic operation of power systems
Part A: Transmission losses negligible

Example-1:
The I-O characteristics of two steam plants can be expressed analytically as under
(with P1 and P2 in MW):
F1 =(2.3P1+0.0062 P12 + 25)106 kCals/Hr.
F2 =(1.5P1+0.01 P22 + 35)106 kCals/Hr.
The calorific value of coal at plant#1 and plant#2 are respectively equal to 4000
kCals/kg. and 5000 kCals/kg. The corresponding cost of coal is Rs.55/- and Rs.65/-
per Ton. Find the following: (i)Incremental Fuel Rate in kCals/MWHr (ii)Incremental
Fuel Cost in Rs./MWHr and (iii)Incremental Production Cost in Rs./MWHr if the cost
of other items can be taken as 10% of the incremental fuel cost/plant.

Solution:
(i)Incremental Fuel Rate in kCals/MWHr
IFR1=dF1/dP1 = (2.3+0.0124P1)106 kCals/MWHr
IFR2=dF2/dP2 = (1.5+0.02P2)106 kCals/MWHr

(ii)Incremental Fuel Cost in Rs./MWHr

IC1= [dF1/dP1 in kCals/MWHr] [cost of coal in Rs./ton] [calorific value-1 in kg./kCals] 10-3
= (2.3+0.0124P1)106 (55) (1/4000) (10-3)
= 31.625 + 0.1705 P1 Rs./MWHr.
IC2= [dF2/dP2 in kCals/MWHr] [cost of coal in Rs./ton] [calorific value-1 in kg./kCals] 10-3
= (1.5+0.02P2)106 (65) (1/5000) (10-3)
= 19.9 + 0.26 P2 Rs./MWHr.

(iii)Incremental Production Cost in Rs./MWHr if the cost of other items can be taken
as 10% of the incremental fuel cost/plant.
Effective value of IC are given by:
IC1eff = 1.1 (IC1)
= 1.1 (31.625 + 0.1705 P1) Rs./MWHr.
= 34.7878 + 0.1875 P2 Rs./MWHr.

11
IC2eff = 1.1 (IC2)
= 1.1 (19.9 + 0.26 P2) Rs./MWHr.
= 21.45 + 0.286 P2 Rs./MWHr.

Example-2:
The incremental costs of a two unit system are given by: IC1 = (0.008 PG1 + 8.0);
IC2 = (0.0096 PG2 + 6.4) Find the incremental cost and the distribution of loads
between the two units for optimal operation for a total load of 1000 MW. What is this
value if the same total load is equally shared among the two units?

Solution:
For the total load values of PT = 1000 MW, if the load is shared equally among the
two units then:
PG1 = 500 MW; PG2 = 500 MW with
λ1 = 12 Rs./MWHr and λ2 = 11.2 Rs./MWHr. (unequal lambda values)

Now, for optimal operation, we have as per EIC principle, the IC’s to be equal.
i.e., IC1=IC2; PT = P1+P2 = 1000
are the equations to be solved for the output power values. Thus,
IC1 =0.008 PG1 + 8.0= IC2 = 0.0096 PG2 + 6.4
= 0.0096 (1000 - PG1) + 6.4
Solving, we get, PG1 = 454.54 MW; PG2 = 545.45 MW
Further, λsystem is calculated using any one of the IC equations as:
λsystem = λ1 = λ2 = 11.64 Rs./MWHr.
Thus, with λsystem = λ1 = λ2 = 11.64 Rs./MWHr, the total load is optimally shared
between the two units and the operating cost would be at its minimum.

Example-3:
The fuel costs in Rs./Hr. for a plant of three units are given by:
C1=(0.1P12+40P1+100); C2=(0.125P22+30P2+80); C3=(0.15P32+20P3+150); Find
the incremental cost and the distribution of loads between the three units for optimal
operation for a total load of 400 MW, given that the max. and min. capacity limits for
each of the units as 150 MW and 20 MW respectively.

12
Solution:
Consider the incremental cost curves given by: ICi= dCi/dPi = (2ciPi+bi) Rs./MWHr
IC1=dC1/dP1 = (0.20P1+40) Rs./MWHr
IC2=dC2/dP2 = (0.25P2+30) Rs./MWHr and
IC3=dC3/dP3 = (0.30P3+20) Rs./MWHr

For the total load values of PT = 400 MW, for optimal operation, as per EIC
principle, the IC’s are equal. i.e., IC1=IC2=IC3; and PT = P1+P2+P3 = 400 MW. Also,
the system lambda is given by:
λ = {PD+Σ(bi/2ci)}/ {Σ(1/2ci)} ∀ i= 1,2,3
Substituting the values, we get after simplification,
λ = 63.78 Rs./MWHr.
Using this value of common system lambda, the MW output values of all the 3 units
are obtained from their IC curves as:
P1= 118.9 MW, P2= 135.12 MW and P3=91.90 MW.
(All the MW output values are found to be within their capacity limits specified)
Thus, with λsystem = λ1 = λ2 = λ3 =63.78 Rs./MWHr, the total load is optimally shared
between the three units and the operating cost would be at its minimum.

Example-4:
The incremental costs of a two unit system are given by:
IC1 =0.008 PG1 + 8.0 ; IC2 =0.0096 PG2 + 6.4
Find the incremental cost and the distribution of loads between the two units for
optimal operation for a total load of 900 MW. Also determine the annual saving in
cost in optimal operation as compared to equal sharing of the same total load.

Solution:
For a total load of PT = 900 MW, if the load is shared equally among the two units
then: PG1 = PG2 = 450 MW.
Now, for optimal operation, we have as per EIC principle, the IC’s to be equal. i.e.,
IC1=IC2; PT = P1+P2 = 900 are the equations to be solved for the output power values.
Thus, IC1 =0.008 PG1 + 8.0 = IC2 = 0.0096 (900 - PG1) + 6.4 Solving, we get,
PG1 = 400 MW; PG2 = 500 MW. (λ= 11.2 Rs./MWHr.)

13
The increase in cost of operation by Unit 1 if it supplies 450 MW (equal sharing)
instead of 400 MW (optimal sharing) is given by:
C1= ∫ IC1 dPG1 = ∫ (0.008PG1+8) dPG1 = |(0.004PG12+8PG1)|400450 = Rs.570/hr.
Similarly, the decrease in cost of operation by Unit 2 if it supplies 450 MW (equal
sharing) instead of 500 MW (optimal sharing) is given by:
C2= ∫ IC2 dPG2 = ∫ (0.0096PG2+6.4) dPG2 = |(0.0096PG22+6.4PG2)|500450 = Rs. - 548/hr.
Thus, the net saving in cost in optimal operation is given by:
Rs. 570 – 548 = Rs. 22/- per hour or it is equivalent to an annual saving in cost of
(assuming continuous operation): Rs.(22)(24)(365) = Rs. 1,92, 720/- PA.

Example-5:
The fuel costs of a two generator system are given by:
C1 =α1 + β1P1+ γ1P12; C2 =α2 + β2P2+ γ2P22
Where, β1=40, β2=30, γ1=0.1, γ2=0.125, and α1,α2 are constants. How will the load of
150 MW be shared optimally between the two units? Also determine the saving in cost
in Rs./Hr. in optimal operation as compared to equal sharing of the same total load.

Solution:
Consider the incremental cost curves given by:
IC1=dC1/dP1 = β1+ γ1P1 = 40+0.2P1 Rs./MWHr
IC2=dC2/dP2 = β2+ γ2P2 = 30+0.25P2 Rs./MWHr
For a total load of PT = 150 MW, if the load is shared equally among the two units
then: PG1 = PG2 = 75 MW.
Now, for optimal operation, we have as per EIC principle, the IC’s to be equal. i.e.,
IC1=IC2; PT = P1+P2 = 150 are the equations to be solved for the output power values.
Thus, IC1 =40+0.2P1 = IC2 = 30+0.25P2 = 30+0.25 (150-P1) Solving, we get,
P1 = 61.11 MW; P2 = 88.89 MW (λ= 52.222 Rs./MWHr.)
The increase in cost of operation by Unit 1 if it supplies 75 MW (equal sharing)
instead of 61.11 MW (optimal sharing) is given by:
C1= ∫ IC1 dPG1 = ∫ (40+0.2P1) dP1 = |(40P1+0.1P12)|61.1175 = Rs.737.344/hr.
Similarly, the decrease in cost of operation by Unit 2 if it supplies 75 MW (equal
sharing) instead of 88.89 MW (optimal sharing) is given by:
C2= ∫ IC2 dPG2 = ∫ (30+0.25P2) dPG2 = |(30P2+0.125P22)|88.8975 = Rs. - 707/hr.

14
Thus, the net saving in cost in optimal operation is given by:
Rs. 737.344 – 707 = Rs. 30.344/- per hour
(or it is equivalent to an annual saving in cost of (assuming continuous operation):
Rs.(30.3)(24)(365) = Rs. 2,62,800/- PA)

Example-6:
The fuel cost function in Rs./Hr. for three thermal plants is given by the following
(with P’s in MW):
F1 = 350 + 7.20 P1 + 0.0040 P12
F2 = 500 + 7.30 P2 + 0.0025 P22
F3 = 600 + 6.74 P3 + 0.0030 P32
Find the optimal schedule for a total load of 450 MW. Also compute the costs of
operation for this schedule. Compare the same when the three generators share the
same total load equally among them.

Solution:
Consider the IC curves in Rs./MWHr for the 3 units as under:
IC1=dF1/dP1 = 7.2+0.008P1 Rs./MWHr
IC2=dF2/dP2 = 7.3 + 0.005P2 Rs./MWHr and
IC3=dF3/dP3 = 6.74 + 0.006P3 Rs./MWHr
For optimal operation, we have as per EIC, the common lambda of the system given
by: λ = {PD+Σ(bi/2ci)}/ {Σ(1/2ci)} ∀ i= 1,2,3
Substituting the values, we get after simplification, λ = Rs. 8/ MWHr.
Using this value of common system lambda, the MW output values of all the 3 units
are obtained from their IC curves as:
P1= 100 MW, P2= 140 MW and P3=210 MW.
The operating costs for this schedule are found by using the cost curves as:
FT(Optimal operation) = F1+F2+F3 = 1110+1571+2147.7 = 4828 Rs./Hr.

Similarly, the operating costs for the equal sharing of total load are also found by
using the cost curves as: (with P1= P2= P3=150 MW.
FT(Equal sharing) = F1+F2+F3 = 1520+1621.25+1078.5 = 4849.5 Rs./Hr.
Thus, saving in cost in optimal operation is: 4849.5 – 4828 = Rs.21.75/- per hour.

15
Example-7:
Given that IC =(40+0.2P1) ; IC2 =(30+0.25P2) Calculate and tabulate the load
1

shared by each unit for optimal operation if the total load varies from 50 to 250MW,
in steps of 50MW, given that max.MW is 125 and min. MW is 20 for both the units.

Solution:
Stage 1: Consider the IC’s at Pmin:
IC1|P1=P1min = 20MW = 40+0.2(20) = 44 Rs./MWHr
IC2|P2=P2min = 20MW = 30+0.25(20) = 35 Rs./MWHr
Thus, IC2 < IC1; i.e., the EIC holds good only from the stage where, the system
lambda is equal to 44 Rs./MWHr. Now find P2 corresponding to this Lambda:
P2|λ2=44 = (44 – 30)/0.25 = 56 MW so that then PTotal = 20 + 56 = 76 MW
Thus, until PT=76 MW, EIC will not be feasible, Unit 1 will work at its minimum
load 20 MW and all the additional load is shared by unit 2 alone till λ=44 Rs./MWHr.

Stage 2: Consider the IC’s at Pmax: since the Unit 2 is expected to reach its max.
limit earlier, find:
IC2|P2=P2max = 125MW = 30+0.25(125) = 61.25 Rs./MWHr
P1|λ1=61.25 = (61.25 – 40)/0.2 = 106.25 MW so that then
PTotal = 106.25+125= 231.25 MW

Thus, after PT=231.25MW, EIC ceases to hold good; Unit 2 will work at its
maximum load sharing of 125 MW only and all the additional load variations are
shared by unit 1 alone untill P1 also reaches 125 MW.

Stage 3: In summary, EIC holds good only for PT and λsystem values which satisfy the
limits: 76 ≤ PT ≤ 231.25 MW and 44 ≤ λsystem ≤ 61.25 Rs./MWHr

For the total load values of PT = 100, 150 and 200 MW, the equations to be solved for
the output power values are: IC1=IC2; PT = P1+P2 and λsystem is calculated using any
one of the IC equations. The values so obtained for the said range of load values are
tabulated as under.

16
 Sl. No. PT P1 P2 λsystem Remarks
20 44 Unit 2 only shares
1. 50 30
(fixed) (fixed) the additional load
2. 76 20 56 44 Unit 1 and Unit 2 share
3. 100 33.33 66.67 46.67 the total load as per EIC
4. 150 61.11 88.99 52.22 Criterion. The system
5. 200 88.88 111.11 57.78 works with a common
6. 231.25 106.25 125 61.25 system lambda
125 61.25 Unit 1 only shares
7. 250 125
(fixed) (fixed) the additional load

Example-8:
Given that F1 =110 + 30P1+ 0.09P12 12 ≤ P1 ≤ 125 MW
F2 =135 + 12P2+ 0.1P22 25 ≤ P2 ≤ 125 MW
Calculate and tabulate the load shared by each unit for optimal sharing of the total
load in the range 50-250 MW in steps of 100 MW. Also find λsystem in each case.

Solution:
Consider the incremental cost curves given by:
IC1=dC1/dP1 = 30+0.18 P1 Rs./MWHr
IC2=dC2/dP2 = 12+0.2 P2 Rs./MWHr

Stage 1: Consider the IC’s at Pmin:

IC1|P1=P1min = 12MW = 32.16 Rs./MWHr
IC2|P2=P2min = 25 MW = 17 Rs./MWHr
Thus, IC2 < IC1; i.e., the EIC holds good only from the stage where, the system
lambda is equal to 32.16 Rs./MWHr. Now find P2 corresponding to this Lambda:
P2|λ2=32.16 = 100.8 MW so that then PTotal = 112.8 MW
Thus, until PT=112.8 MW, EIC will not be feasible, Unit 1 will work at its minimum
load, 12 MW and the additional load is shared by unit 2 alone till λ=32.16 Rs./MWHr.

Stage 2: Consider the IC’s at Pmax: since the Unit 2 is expected to reach its max.
limit earlier, find:
IC2|P2=P2max = 125MW = 37 Rs./MWHr
P1|λ1=37 = 38.88 MW so that then
PTotal = 163.88 MW

17
Thus, after PT= 163.88 MW, EIC ceases to hold good; Unit 2 will work at its
maximum load sharing of 125 MW only and all the additional load variations are
shared by unit 1 alone untill P1 also reaches 125 MW.

Stage 3: In summary, EIC holds good only for PT and λsystem values which satisfy the
limits: 112.8 ≤ PT ≤ 163.88 MW and 32.16 ≤ λsystem ≤ 37 Rs./MWHr
For the total load value of PT = 150 MW, where the EIC holds good, the equations to
be solved for the output power values are: IC1=IC2; PT = P1+P2 and λsystem is
calculated using any one of the IC equations. The values so obtained for the said
range of load values are tabulated as under.

Sl. No. PT P1 P2 λsystem Remarks

12 32.16 Unit 2 only shares
1. 50 38
(fixed) (fixed) the additional load
2. 112.8 12 100.8 32.16 Unit 1 and Unit 2 share
the total load as per EIC
3. 150 31.58 118.42 35.67 Criterion. The system
works with a common
4. 163.88 38.88 125 37 system lambda
125 37 Unit 1 only shares
5. 250 125
(fixed) (fixed) the additional load

Example-9:
A system is fed by two steam plants with IC functions as under:
IC1= 28+0.16P1 Rs./MWHr ; IC2= 20+0.25P2 Rs./MWHr
The maximum and minimum loads on the units are 100 MW and 10 MW respectively.
Determine the minimum cost of generation for supplying a load as follows based on
the EIC criterion:
Load 12 Midnight 6 am 12 noon 2-6 6-9 9pm –
Duration – 6 am – 12 noon -2 pm pm pm 12 Midnight
Load in
60 100 80 120 175 50
MW

Solution:
Stage 1: Consider the IC’s at Pmin:
IC1|P1=P1min = 10MW = 29.6 Rs./MWHr
IC2|P2=P2min = 10 MW = 22.5 Rs./MWHr

18
Thus, IC2 < IC1; i.e., the EIC holds good only from the stage where, the system
lambda is equal to 29.6 Rs./MWHr. Now find P2 corresponding to this Lambda:
P2|λ2=29.6 = 38.4 MW so that then PTotal = 48.4 MW
However all the required loads to be supplied are above this total load of 48.4 MW!

Stage 2: Consider the IC’s at Pmax:

IC1|P1=P1max = 100MW = 44 Rs./MWHr
IC2|P2=P2max = 100MW = 45 Rs./MWHr
P2|λ1=44 = 96 MW so that then PTotal = 196 MW
Again, it is observed that all the required loads to be supplied are below this total
load of 196 MW!
In summary, EIC holds good for all the load values specified. Now for the total load
value of PT = P1+P2, where EIC is shown to holds good, the equations to be solved
for the output power values are: IC1=IC2; PT = P1+P2 and λsystem is calculated using
any one of the IC equations. The values so obtained for the said range of load values
are tabulated as under.

PT P1 P2 λsystem
48.4 10 (min.) 38.40 29.60
50 10.97 39.03 29.75
60 17.07 42.13 30.73
80 29.27 50.73 32.68
100 41.47 58.53 34.63
120 53.66 66.34 38.59
175 87.20 87.80 41.95
196 100 (max.) 96.00 44.00

Example-10:
Assume that the fuel input in Btu/Hr. for unit 1 and unit 2 of a plant are given by:
F1 = {P1+ 0. 024P12+80}106; F2={6P2+ 0.04P22 +120)106
The maximum and minimum loads on the units are 100 MW and 10 MW respectively.
Determine the minimum cost of generation for supplying a load as follows with the
fuel cost at Rs.2 per MBtu.
Load 12 Midnight – 6 am – 6 pm –
Duration 6 am 6 pm 12 Midnight
Load 50 MW 150 MW 50 MW

19
Solution:
Consider the incremental cost curves given by:
IC1=dC1/dP1 = 2+0.096 P1 Rs./MWHr
IC2=dC2/dP2 = 12+0.16 P2 Rs./MWHr
Consider the IC’s at Pmin:
IC1|P1=P1min = 10MW = 2.96 Rs./MWHr
IC2|P2=P2min = 10 MW = 13.6 Rs./MWHr
Thus, IC2 >IC1; i.e., the EIC holds good only from the stage where, the system lambda
is equal to 13.6 Rs./MWHr. Now find P1 corresponding to this Lambda:
P1|λ1=13.6 = 120.833 MW (>P1max) (so that then PTotal = 130.833 MW)
Thus, until PT=130.833 MW, EIC will not be feasible, Unit 2 will work at its
minimum load of 10 MW and the additional load is shared by unit 2 alone till λ=13.6
Rs./MWHr. However, this is not further feasible since the unit 1 reaches its max.
value of 100 MW within this range!!! Hence, EIC ceases to exist for any given range
of load. The load sharing is thus constrained by the MW limits for the various loads
specified: 50 MW and 150 MW, as shown by the table below:

PT MW P1 MW P2 MW Remarks
<20 Infeasible
20 10 10 Here unit 2 is at its min. limit of 10
50 40 10 MW, only unit 1 shares the load till it
100 90 10 hits its own max. limit of 100 MW and
unit 1
110 100 10 determines the system λ
150 100 50 Here unit 1 is at its max. limit of 100
180 100 80 MW, only unit 2 shares the load and
200 100 100 determines the system λ
>200 Infeasible

Example-11:
Determine the economic operating point for the system of three units when delivering
a total load of 850 MW, with the unit details as follows:
I/O Curve (MBtu/Hr.)
Sl. Type of Max. Min. Fuel Cost Hi=(ai+biPi+ciPi2)
No. plant MW MW Rs./MBtu
ai bi ci
1 Coal fired Steam Plant 600 150 1.1 510 7.2 0.000142
2 Oil fired Steam Plant 400 100 1.0 310 7.85 0.00194
3 Oil fired Steam Plant 200 50 1.0 78 7.97 0.00482

20
Solution:
Consider the IC curves in Rs./MWHr for the 3 units as under:
IC1=dH1/dP1 = (1.1) (7.2+0.000284P1) Rs./MWHr
IC2=dH2/dP2 = (1.0) (7.85 + 0.00388P2) Rs./MWHr and
IC3=dH3/dP3 = (1.0) (7.97 + 0.00964P3) Rs./MWHr
For optimal operation, we have as per EIC, the common lambda of the system given
by:
λ = {PD+Σ(bi/2ci)}/ {Σ(1/2ci)} ∀ i= 1,2,3
Substituting the values, we get after simplification,
λ = 9.148 Rs./MWHr.
Using this value of common system lambda, the MW output values of all the 3 units
are obtained from their IC curves as:
P1= 393.2 MW, P2= 334.6 MW and P3=122.2 MW.
(All the MW output values are within their capacity limits specified)

Example-12:
Three plants of total capacity 500 MW are scheduled for operation to supply a total
load of 310 MW. Find the optimal load schedule if the IC curves and limitations are: :
IFC1 = 30+ 0.12P1 30 ≤ P1 ≤ 150 MW
IFC2 = 40+ 0.20P2 20 ≤ P2 ≤ 100 MW
IFC3 = 10+ 0.16P3 50 ≤ P3 ≤ 250 MW

Solution:
For optimal operation, we have as per EIC, the λsystem given by:
λsystem = {PD+Σ(bi/2ci)}/ {Σ(1/2ci)} ∀ i= 1,2,3
Substituting the values, we get after simplification,
λsystem = 42 Rs./MWHr.
Using this value of λsystem, the MW output values of all the 3 units are obtained from
their IC curves as:
P1= 100 MW, P2= 10 MW and P3= 200 MW.

Thus, P2<P2min (of 20 MW) and P1,P3 are within the limits.
In such cases, for optimal operation, we set P2=P2min = 20

21
And hence the total load to be shared only between the unit 1 and unit 3 is:
310-10=290 MW;

Now, for optimal operation, IC1=IC3. i.e., 30+ 0.12P1= 10+ 0.16P3 and P1+P3=290.
Solution thus yields:

λ1= λ3= 41.316 Rs./MWHr.;

P1= 94.3 MW; P3 = 195.7 MW with P2=P2min = 20 MW (fixed).

Example-13:
Determine the economic operating point for the system of three units when delivering
a total load of 850 MW, with the unit details as follows:
I/O Curve (MBtu/Hr.)
Sl. Type of Max. Min. Fuel Cost Hi=(ai+biPi+ciPi2)
No. plant MW MW Rs./MBtu
ai bi ci
1 Coal fired Steam Plant 600 150 0.9 510 7.2 0.000142
2 Oil fired Steam Plant 400 100 1.0 310 7.85 0.00194
3 Oil fired Steam Plant 200 50 1.0 78 7.97 0.00482

Solution:
Consider the IC curves in Rs./MWHr for the 3 units as under:
IC1=dH1/dP1 = (0.9) (7.2+0.000284P1) Rs./MWHr
IC2=dH2/dP2 = (1.0) (7.85 + 0.00388P2) Rs./MWHr and
IC3=dH3/dP3 = (1.0) (7.97 + 0.00964P3) Rs./MWHr
For optimal operation, we have as per EIC, the common lambda of the system given
by:
λ = {PD+Σ(bi/2ci)}/ {Σ(1/2ci)} ∀ i= 1,2,3
Substituting the values, we get after simplification,
λ = 8.284 Rs./MWHr.
Using this value of common system lambda, the MW output values of all the 3 units
are obtained from their IC curves as:
P1= 704.6 MW, P2= 111.8 MW and P3= 32.6 MW.

Thus, P1>P1max (of 600 MW) ; P3<P3min (of 50 MW)

and P2 is within the limits.

22
In such cases, for optimal operation, we have:
P1=P1max = 600 so that λ1=8.016 Rs./MWHr;
P3=P3min = 50 so that λ3=8.458 Rs./MWHr and thus
P2=PD-600-50 = 850-650=200, so that λ2=8.626 Rs./MWHr
Thus between units 2 and 3, the optimal operation may be feasible since IC3<IC2.
For this, we solve the equations:
7.85+0.00388P2=7.97+0.00964P3 and PT= P2+P3=250.
The solution thus yields:
λ2= λ3=8.576 Rs./MWHr.;
P2= 187.13 MW; P3 = 62.82 MW
with P1=P1max = 600 MW (fixed).

Example-14:
If the total load at a certain hour of the day is 400 MW for a 3 unit system, obtain the
optimum generation schedule, if the IC curves of the three units are as under (with
IC’s in Rs./MWHr. and PG’s in MW):
PG1= -100 +50 (IC1)- 2 (IC1)2
PG2= -150 +60 (IC2)- 2.5 (IC2)2
PG3= -80 +40 (IC3)- 1.8 (IC3)2

Solution:
Consider the EIC condition:
IC1=IC2=IC3= λsystem and PT=PG1+PG2+PG3=400
Thus,
400= [-100+50(IC)-2(IC)2]+ [-150+60(IC)-2.5(IC)2]+ [-80+40(IC)-1.8(IC)2]
i.e., 6.3(IC)2-150(IC)+730=0;
Solving we get two solutions: IC=6.82 and IC=16.989 Rs./MWHr.,
of which, the lower and economical value is considered for further analysis:
With IC= 6.82 Rs./MWHr,
we have, PG1= 148 MW, PG2= 142.9 MW and PG3= 109.1 MW.

----

23
 Unit 7 & 8

Power System Security




 Introduction
The Power System needs to be operationally secure, i.e. with
minimal probability of blackout and equipment damage. An
important component of power system security is the system’s
ability to withstand the effects of contingencies. A contingency
is basically an outage of a generator, transformer and or line,
and its effects are monitored with specified security limits.
The power system operation is said to be normal when the
power flows and the bus voltages are within acceptable limits
despite changes in load or available generation. From this
perspective, security is the probability of a power system’s
operating point remaining in a viable state of operation.
System security can be broken down into TWO major functions
that are carried out in an operations control centre:
(i) Security assessment and (ii) security control. The former
gives the security level of the system operating state. The latter
determines the appropriate security constrained scheduling
required to optimally attaining the target security level.
Before going into the static security level of a power system, let
us analyse the different operating states of a power system.

The states of power system are classified into FIVE states:

Normal
Alert
Emergency
Extreme Emergency and
Restorative.
 Fig below depicts these states and the ways in which transition
can occur from one state to another.

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The operation of a power system is usually in a normal state.
Voltages and the frequency of the system are within the normal
range and no equipment is overloaded in this state. The system
can also maintain stability during disturbances considered in
the power system planning. The security of the power system is
described by Thermal, voltage and stability limits. The system
can also withstand any single contingency without violating
any of the limits.
The system transits into the emergency state if a disturbance
occurs when the system is in the alert state. Many system
variables are out of normal range or equipment loading exceeds
short-term ratings in this state. The system is still complete.
Emergency control actions, more powerful than the control
actions related to alert state, can restore the system to alert
state. The emergency control actions include fault clearing,
excitation control, fast valving, generation tripping, generation
run back-up, HVDC modulation, load curtailment, blocking of
on-load tap changer of distribution system transformers and
rescheduling of line flows at critical lines.
The extreme emergency state is a result of the occurrence of an
extreme disturbance or action of incorrect of ineffective
emergency control actions. The power system is in a state
where cascading outages and shutdown of a major part of
power system might happen. The system is in unstable state.
The control actions needed in this state must be really
powerful. Usually load shedding of the most unimportant loads
and separation of the system into small independent parts are
required.

• Factors Affecting Power System Security

• Contingency Analysis
– Illustrative Example
– Procedure
– Methods of of Security Analysis
• Study with fast but approximate algorithms
• Detailed analysis with AC power flow (Ex: NR
Method)
• Contingency Selection and Detailed analysis
Introduction
• System Security involves Procedures involved which ensure
that the Power System can operate when components fail.
For Example:
 – Maintaining Adequate Spinning Reserve ensures that
when a generator fails, the remaining units can take up the
deficit load without too much of a drop in frequency
– Taking care of Transmission Line Flows When generation
is dispatched ensures that, when a Line is taken out, the
remaining lines do not get overloaded

• The time at which failures occur are unpredictable

• Any initiating event should not result in Cascading Failures

leading to Blackout
• Major Functions of System Security
– System Monitoring
– Contingency Analysis
– Security Constrained Optimal Power Flow (SCOPF)

System Monitoring

• Provides up-to-date information

• Telemetry Systems: Critical Quantities are measured and
transmitted to a central location
• Measured Quantities
– V, I, Line Flows, f, Unit Outputs, C.B Status,
Transformer Taps etc
• Measured data is very large
• Difficult for human operators to process
• Digital Computers at control centres
– Gathers Telemetered Data
– Process this Data
– Stores the Data in a Data Base
– Generate Alarms
 – Operator can display this data
– Combines data with system models for on-line and off-
line analysis
– Telemetering is combined with Supervisory Control to
provide operators with a capabality to control components
such as switches etc (SCADA)

Contingency Analysis
• Power System Problems due to events such as Transmission
Line and Generator Outages etc, can cause serious damage
within very short duration
• Contingency Analysis Programs
– Model the events before they occur
– Combined with standard analysis procedures such as
Power Flow etc to study the system
– Generate Operator Alarms
• Other Features
– Fast Solution Methods
– Automatic Contingency Selection
– Automatic Initialization of Contingency Power Flows
using Actual System Data and State Estimation
Procedures

 Security Constrained Optimal Power Flow (SCOPF)
• Third Major Security Function
• Contingency Analysis Combined with OPF
• Four States of Power System
– Optimal Dispatch (Figure A)
• State Prior to a Contingency
• Optimal w.r.t Economic Operation
• May not be secure
• Post Contingency (Figure B)
o State after contingency has occurred
o A Security Violation may have occurred
o Ex: Tn Line Flow or Bus Voltage outside
Limit
• Secure Dispatch (Figure C)
o State with no contingency outages
o Corrections to dispatch parameters taking
security violations into account
• Secure Post Contingency (Figure D)
o State when contingency occurs at the base
operating condition- with corrections
 Summary of Contingency Analysis
• Line and Generator outages may result in line flow and Bus
Voltage limit violations
• The way in which lost generation is distributed among
remaining units is important
• Contingency Analysis procedures are used to predict effects of
outages
• Lost Generation is picked up by units in its own area as well
as neighboring areas
• Contingency analysis procedures Model
• Single Event outages (Ex: 1 Line, 1 Generator out)
• Multiple Event Outages (2 Line, 2 Generators)
• All Credible Outages are Studied one after another
• The C.A procedure tests lines and voltages against their
respective limits
• Difficulties
• Speed of Solution
• Selection of All Credible outages
• Changed system conditions over time
 Overview of Security Analysis
• Thousands of outages may have to be studied before they
occur
• A Security Analysis procedure run at an Energy Control
Centre must be very fast
• Three Techniques commonly used
– Study the Power System with Approximate but fast
Algorithms (DC Power Flow Methods, Linear Sensitivity
factors)
– Select only important cases for detailed analysis
(Contingency Selection)
– Use Multiple Processors or Vector Processors: running
cases in parallel (Still in research stage)