Ento231 PDF
Ento231 PDF
Ento231 PDF
Study Material
for
Insect Systematics, Ecology and Integrated Pest Management
Course No. Ento.231 (2+1)
(2011-12)
Editors
Prof G Raghavaiah
Head of Department of Entomology
Agricultural College Bapatla
Co-Editors
Dr K Hari Prasad
Dr K Manjula
Dr K Sridevi
Dr P Seetha Ramu
Prof P V Krishnayya
Dr S R KoteswaraRao
Dr S Upendhar
2
Specific Objectives
Practical: By the end of the practical exercises, the student will be able to
3) Know about light traps, pheromone traps and insecticides in pest management
4) Identify the biological agents know insecticide formulations and dosage calculation
20 Importance and history crop losses due to pests - plant protection 65-71
measures in India - Cultural control- normal cultural practices which
incidentally control the pests and agronomic practices recommended
specifically against the pests with examples; Mechanical control-
different mechanical methods of pest control with examples.
21 Physical control – use of inert carriers against stored product insects 72-75
- steam sterilization – solarization - solar radiation - light traps - flame
throwers etc.; Legislative measures - importance of quarantine -
examples of exotic pests - different legislative measures enforced in
different countries and including India.
32 Application techniques of spray fluids - high volume, low and ultra low 131-142
volume sprays - phytotoxic effects of insecticides - advantages and
8
PRACTICALS:
3. Study of characters of Orders, Hemiptera and its Sub-Order, Heteroptera and their
families
9. Study of distribution patterns of insects in crop ecosystems, sampling techniques for the
estimation of insect population and sampling techniques for the estimation of insect pest
damage
10. Pest surveillance through light traps, pheromone traps and field scouting , and
forecasting of pest incidence
REFERENCES:
1) Richards O W and Davies R G. 1977. Imm’s General text Book of entomology (vol II).
Chapman and London.
9
2) Metcalf RL and Luckman WH 1982. Introduction to insect pest management. Wiley inter
science publishing, New York.
3) Dhaliwal GS and Ramesh Arora 2001. Integrated pest management: Concepts and
approaches, Kalyani Publishers New Dlehi.
4) Larry P Pedigo 1991. Entomology and pest management, Mc Millan publishing Co. New
York.
6) Nair KK , Anantha Krishnan TN and BV David 1976. General and applied entomology,
Tata Mc Graw Hill publishing co. Ltd, New Delhi.
10
LECTURE NO. 1
INSECT TAXONOMY
Scientific Nomenculture
The opposite sex specimen which is described along with the holotype is
termed as allotype. The other specimens of the species kept along with the holotype
and allotype are called paratypes. The names are to be given in Latin. The authors
name in full should be written at the end of species name without any punctuation.
Class – Insecta
Sub class 1. Apterygota
Order 1. Thysanura (Bristle tails, Silverfish, firebrats)
Order 2 .Diplura (Diplurans)
Order 3 : Protura (Telson tails)
Order 4: Collembola (Spring tails, snow fleas)
Sub class 2: Pterygota
Exopterygota (Insects having simple metamorphosis)
Order 5. Ephemeroptera (May flies)
Order 6: Odona ta (Dragon flies & damsel flies)
Order 7: Plecoptera (Stone flies)
Order 8: Grylloblattodea (Grylloblattids)
Order 9: Orthoptera (Locusts and grass hoppers )
Order 10: Phasmida (Walking sticks, leaf insects & stick insects)
Order 11: Dermaptera (Ear wigs)
Order 12: Embioptera (Web spinners)
Order 13 Dictyoptera ( Cockroaches and mantids)
Order 14: Isoptera ( White ants or termites)
Order 15: Zoraptera ( Zorapterans)
Order 16: Psocoptera ( Psocids, book lice)
Order 17: Mallophaga ( Bird lice)
Order 18: Siphunculata or Anoplura (sucking lice)
Order 19: Hemiptera ( Plant bugs)
Order 20: Thysanoptera ( Thrips)
Endopterygota ( Insects having complex metamorphosis)
Order 21: Neuroptera ( Ant lions and lace wings)
Order 22: Coleoptera ( Beetles, weevils)
Order 23: Strepsiptera ( Stylopids)
Order 24: Mecoptera ( Scorpion flies)
Order 25: Siphonoptera ( Fleas)
Order 26: Diptera ( Flies, midges, mosquitoes)
Order 27: Lepidoptera ( Moths and butterflies)
Order 28: Trichoptera ( Caddis flies)
Order 29: Hymenoptera ( Ants ,bees, wasps)
Classification of insects:
The basic biological unit in the classification is species.
Species: These are a group of individuals which are similar in their structure, capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile off spring , but at the same time reproductively
isolated from other groups.
Subspecies: is an aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species,
inhabiting a geographic subdivision of the range of a species and differing taxonomically
from other populations of the species.
Genus : A group of species having some definite similar characters or relationships is
called a geneus
Subfamily is a group of allied genera to form a subfamily
Family is a taxonomic category containing a single genus or a group of genera of
common phylogenetic origin which is separated from related families by a decided gap.
Such families showing similar characters form order.
The classification of animals was first started by Aristotle (384-322BC). Later by
Linnaeus who is considered as the father of the classification of animals and plants,
classified insects into only seven orders viz Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera,
Neuroptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Aptera.
Jeannel recognized 40 orders
Brues, Melander a nd carpenter recognized 27 orders
Imms and pruthi gave 29 orders
Essig and Mani listed 33 orders
Ross 28 orders
The class insecta is divied in to two subclasses Apterygota and Pterygota
Sub Class: Apterygota
These are primitive wingless insects with pregenital abdominal appendages with no or
slight metamorphosis. Mandibles articulate with head capsule at a single point. The
malpighian tubules are rudimentary. There is no pleural suture in the thoraccic region.
Sub class pterygota: These are insects with developed wings and showing definite
metamorphosis. The pregenital appendages are absent in these insects. A pleural
suture divides the thoracic pleura in to episternum and epimeron. The mandibles
articulate at two points with the head capsule.
Division 1: Exopterygota (Hemimetabola). Metamorphosis simple, wings develop
externally. Immatue stages (nymphs) usually resemble adults in structure and habits
Division 2: Endopterygota (Holometabola). Metamorphosis complex accompanied by
a pupal instar, wings develop internally. Immature stages (larvae) differ from adult in
structure and habit.
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LECTURE NO. 2
ORDER: ORTHOPTERA
Orthos = straight
Pteron = wings
Straight winged insects eg. Crickets, grasshoppers, locusts etc.
Ensifera Caelifera
1. Antennae filiform shorter than the body with less than 30 segments
2. Pronotum saddle shaped
3. Auditory or tympanal organs situated one on either side of 1 st abdominal segment
4. Stridulation femoro – alary type. The ridge on inner side of hind femur with
Peglikeprojections (acting like a file) is rubbed against the hardend radial vein of
Tegmina
5. Hind legs modified for jumping. Tarsus 3 segmented.
6. Ovipositor short and well develpped. Its valves are short and curved.
7. These are plant feeders and are often very destructive.
Eg: Rice grasshopper -Hieroglyphus banian
Rice small grasshopper - Oxya chinensis
Cotton grass hopper - Cyrtacanthacris ranacea
Calotropis grasshopper - Poecilocerus pictus
1. Cryptic colouration
2. Antenna as long as or longer than the body
3. Tarsus 4 segmented
4. Stridulation - alary type
5. Mainly herbivorous but some carnivorous
Eg :Surface grasshopper - Conocephalusindicus
15
LECTURE NO. 3
ORDER: DICTYOPTERA
Dictyo: Net and Pteron: wings
Cockroaches, Mantids
Though cockroaches and mantids were included in orthoptera earlier, they
are kept in a separate order, dictyoptera, in the present day classification
Characters of Dictyoptera
1. Head is usually hypognathous
2. Mouth parts mandibulate
3. Antennae filiform, invariable
4. Forewings modified into tegmina with marginal costal vein. Hind wings have a
largeanal lobe in a fan like fashion.
5. Tarsus – 5 segmented
6. A pair of many segmented cerci are present
7. Specialized stridulatory and auditory organs are absent.
8. Eggs are laid in ootheca
Then order is divided in to 2 suborders
Blattaria Mantodea
The forelegs are unmodified Forelegs are modified for raptorial purpose
This contains the family mantidae that include the praying mantids. They are well
characterized by possessing front pair of raptorial legs with tibiae and femora bearing
prominent spines. Head is triangular and deflexed with filiform antennae. Prothorax
greatly elongated meso and matathoracic segments short, abdomen flattended, cerci
short and segmented. The mantids exhibit cryptic colouration thus simulating well with
the background. The eggs are laid in water tight egg cases which are fixed to the plants.
The case is prepared from a frothy gum, secreted by the female. After exposure to air,
the case hardens and nymphs resembling ants emerge from them. The nymphs and
adults are predators on other insects, small animals and even scorpions.
Eg: Gongylus sp.,
Mantis religiosa
16
LECTURE NO. 4
Order: Isoptera
Iso – Similar; Pteron – wings
Similar winged insects; Termites or white ants
1. These are small to medium sized social living and polymorphic insects with well
developed caste system
2. Antennae are moniliform (some times filiform also)
3. Compound eyes present in winged forms, median ocillus wanting.
4. Mouth parts typical biting type with powerful mandibles.
5. Apterous, brachypterous or winged. In winged forms, the front and hind wings
are similar in size, shape and venation, when at rest the wings are held flat over
the body and extend beyond the tip of abdomen. Wings are membranous with
some what reduced venation and are capable of being shed by means of basal
structures.
6. Legs short and stout. Tarsus usually 4 segmented
7. Frontal gland is a characteristic termite organ which attains its greatest
Developmentin soldiers.It is formed by a group of hypodermal cells in the median
line of frons. It is sac like gland which communicate to the exterior by frontalpore,
which opens in a shallow depression, on the surface of the head where the
cuticle is pale , which is known as frontanella. It appears to have defensive
functions
8. Anal cerci short or very short.
9. Metamorphosis simple or incomplete
10. Caste system : following are the difference castes that are usually seen in a
termite colony.
B) Supplementary reproductives:
They have short wings and less heavily pigmented, usually have smaller eyes.
They sometimes carry on extensive reproduction in the colony and supplement the
queen in building the colony.
C. Workers:
These are sterile wingless adults. They are pale in colour, lack compound eyes.
Mandibles relatively small. They collect food and feed queens, soldiers and newly
hatched young ones. They build up nests, passage ways, tunnels and galleries. They
form the bulk of the colony.
D. Soldiers:
These are also sterile wingless adults with greatly enlarged head and mandibles.
Slightly larger than workers, may or may not have compound eyes. They protect the
colony. Two types of soldiers may be seen. (1) Mandibulate type (2) Nasute type
(Nasuti). In nasute type, the individuals have the head prolonged anteriorly into a
narrow snout through which a sticky secretion is exuded. Mandibles are reduced in
these.
The food of termites is the cast skins and feaceses of other individuals, dead
individuals and plant materials such as wood and wood products. Termites frequently
groom each other with their mouth parts as a result of the attraction of some secretions
available on the body (trophallaxis – Mutual exchange of food i.e secretions on the
body).
Family: Termitidae
Order: Thysanoptera
Thysano: Fringed and pteron: wing Eg. Thrips (fringed wings)
1. Terebrantia Tubulifera
Ovipositor sawlike Absent
Apex of abdomen conical in females Apex of abdomen tubular
and bluntly rounded in males
Eggs inserted into plant tissues Eggs are laid on the exterior in crackes or
crevices
Fore wings larger with few longitudinal Forewings with venation almost absent
veins
Family : Thripidae Urothripidae
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Family: Thripidae
LECTURE NO. 5
ORDER: HEMIPTERA
Hemi: Half; Pteron: Wings
Gymnocerata Cryptocerata
Medium to large insects, most common and abundant of bugs that produce
disagreeable odour.Broad shield like.
1. Antennae 4 segmented sitiuated well upon the sides of the head above a line
drawn from the eyes to the base of the beak. Ocelli present.
2. Head narrower, shorter than pronoutm, scutellum smaller.
3. In hemelytra, richly branched veins are present.
4. In most of the species, either or both the hind femora and tibiae may have
conspicuous enlargements or leaf like dilations and hence the name leaf
footedbugs.
5. Tarsi – 3 segmented pulvilli present.
6. Metathoraccic gland openings present
Eg Rice gundhi bug- Leptocorisa varicornis
Pod bugs :Clavigralla gibbosaon pulses
22
1. Antennae 4 segmented inserted down on the sides of the head, apical segment
is larger
2. Compound eyes and ocelli are well developed
3. 4 to 5 unbranched simple veins in the membrane of hemelytra. Cuneus is
lacking, clavus is elongate
4. Metathoracic gland openings are present.
5. In some, the front femora moderately swollen with 2 rows of teeth beneath
6. Coxa rotator, tarsi 3 segmented, pulvulli present
Eg. Dusky cotton bug – Oxycarenushyalinipennis
Groundnut pod bug –Aphanussorididus
LECTURE NO. 6
ORDER:HEMIPTERA
Heteroptera Homoptera
2 Gular region present and it is Gular region absent or very small and
sclerotized (the maxillary plates membranous
meet and fuse ventrally to form
gula)
4 Wings fold flat over the body at rest Wings held roof like over the body
5 Beak or rostrum arise from the front Beak or rostrum arise from the posterior
part of the head and base of the part of the head and base of rostrum
rostrum not touching anterior coxae extending between anterior coxae
This suborder contains a large and diversified group of insects and is closely related to
the hemiptera.
7. Winged or wingless when winged the four wings are uniform in consistency and
the wings are held roof like over the body at rest. Alary polymorphism is
prevalent. In male coccids only one pair i.e forewings are present.
8. Wax glands or honey tubes usually well developd in most of the members of this
order.
9. In most of the species, the life history is very complex involving sexual and
parthenogenetic generations winged and wingless individuals.
10. Usually undergo simple metamorphosis. In some species, the last nymphal instar
Is quiescent and pupalike.
Delphacidae Coccidae,Aleurodidae,
Pseudococcidae
This family constitute a large group of small soft bodied, pear shaped, fragile
phytophagous insects that are frequently found in large numbers sucking the sap from
various parts of plants
1. Females are wingless, elongate oval with distinct segmentation. Body covered
with powdery wax or filamentous waxy secreations.
2. Legs well developed. No instar is sessile. All the insect stages are able to move
because of legs
3. Eggs are placed in a loose cottony waxy material
Eg: Brinjal mealy bug – Planococcus insolitus
Citrus mealy bug - Planococcus citri
Sugarcane mealy bug - Saccharicoccus sacchari
1. The females in this group are flattened, elongate oval insects with obscure
segmentation and hard smooth exoskeleton or covered with wax or tough scales.
They are wingless, legs present or absent and the antennae absent or much
reduced.
2. Males are active, 1 st pair of wings well developed, 2 nd pair reduced to halters.
3. Tarsus if present 1 – segmented with a single claw.
4. Metamorphosis complex. 1st instar nymph has legs & antennae and active
known as crawlers after 1stmoult, become sessile a waxy or scale like covering is
secreted. In males last instar preceeding adult is queicent and called pupa.
Females have one less instar than males.
5. Oviparous, ovoviviparous
6. Excrete honey dew like aphids
Eg: Pulvinaria psidi – Guava scale, Icerya purchasi - cottony cushion scale
1. These are minute insects 1 to 3 mm in length and resemble tiny moths with
opaque body
2. The adults have the wings covered by a fine whitish dust or powdery wax giving
white colour
3. Antennae well developed usually 7 segmented
4. Adults of both sexes are winged and the wing venation is highly reduced
5. Tarsi with two equal segmented with paired claws
6. The characteristic feature of this family is the presence of vasiform orifice which
opens on the basal surface of the last abdominal segment in both nymphs and
adults. The opening is provided with an operculum and beneath it a tongue
shaped organ known as linguae is present. The anus opens within the orifice at
the base of the linguae. Honey dew is excreted through this orifice
27
LECTURE NO. 7
ENDOPTERYGOTA
ORDER: LEPIDOPTERA
One of the largest orders. Small to large insects with flat overlapping scales and hairs
on the body, wings and other appendages giving various beautiful colours to the insects
1) Head relatively small free with small neck. Compound eyes are relatively large,
two ocelli present one on each side close to the margins of compound eyes.
2) Mouthparts siphoning type represented by a long coiled proboscis formed by the
galeae of maxillae. Maxillary palpi small or acking.Mandibles nearly always
lacking except in one family micropterygidae. A few species have vestigial mouth
parts and do not feed in adult stage. Labial palpi usually well developed.
3) Forewings usually large. In males of various insects, groups of more specialized
scales known as androconia occur on the upper surface of wings serving as
outlets of odoriferous glands. These are fringed distally with each tip finely
divided.
4) Larvae are called caterpillars usually eruciform. Most of the larval stages are
phytophagous and are very serious pests of crops. Caterpillars are with well
developed head and cylindrical body consisting 13 segments (3 thoracic and 10
adbominal). Head bear 2 ocelli on each side and very short bristle like antennae.
Mouth parts mandibulate with well developed mandibles. Labium with a
spinneret, a median process for spinning silk. Each of the thoracic segments
bears a pair of legs which end in a point. Abdominal segment 3 to 6 and 10th
usually bear a pair of prolegs which are fleshy and broad bearing a number of
tiny hooks known as crochets at their end. Caterpillars have well developed silk
glands and are usually peripneustic.
5) Pupae are usually obtect and generally enclosed in a cocoon. Butterflies do not
makea cocoon and their pupae are called chrysalis.
6) Adults are harmless except fruit sucking moths.
7) Natural silk is a product of this order
8) Undergo complete metamorphosis.
29
Suborders
Lack frenulum. Wings held vertically on Have frenulum. Wings held roof like over
abdomen at rest abdomen at rest
Generally small and slender bodied Generally large and robust bodied
Usually pollinators and weed killers Usually very serious pests of crops
Family : Noctuidae
1. This is the largest family in the order comprising medium size nocturnal, moths
attracted to light and sugar mixture
2. Antennae generally filiform, maxillary palpi normally vestigial and labial palpi long
and ocelli present
3. The forewings cryptic and some are coloured similarly with the surrounding
4. In forewing M2 arises close to M3 than to M1. Cubitus appears four branched. In
hind wings Sc and R fuse for very short distance at the base of the discal cell.
5. In the larvae, only primary setae are present and the crochets are generally in a
uniordinal series. Usually 5 pairs of abdominal legs are present but in some 1st or
1st and 2nd pairs may be aborted and the larvae are semiloopers. Most of them
are highly polyphagous and nocturnal. They are called army worms / cut worms
by their habits. Majority feed on foliage and some are stem borers
6. Pupation is in an earth cell in the soil and some pupae are characterized by the
presence of labial palpi and maxillae extending to the caudal margin of the wings
7. Adults have a pair of well developed tympanal organs at the base of abdomen
Eg: Climbing cutworm of paddy - Mythimna separata
Redgram podborer - Helicoverpa armigera
Tobacco cutworm- Spodoptera litura
Fruit sucking moth of citrus - Othereis fullonica
30
Family: Lymantriidae
1. Medium sized, dull coloured, nocturnal moths with females of most species
having only rudimentary wings (Notolophus sp) proboscis is atrophied
2. Ocelli absent. Antennae bipectinate in males and pectinate or plumose in
females – sexual dimorphism
3. Wing venation resembles the Noctuidae. Sc and R fused to some extend and
basal areole is larger in some species in hind wings
4. The caudal extremity of females is often provided with the large tuft of anal hairs
which are ddeposited as a covering on egg masses
5. Caterpillars are densly hairy, often with thick compact dorsal tufts on certain
segments
6. Osmeteria are frequently present on 6th and 7th abdominal segments. Some are
provided with urticating hairs which cause irritation
7. Pupation takes lace in a cocoon above ground and are charecterized by specific
evident setae
Eg. Yellow hairy caterpillar on Paddy – Psalisrecuris
Hairy caterpillar on fruit trees, pulses and castor – Euproctisfraternaand
E.Scintillans
Casuarina hairy caterpillar – Lymantriaincerta
Family: Sphingidae
Sphinx or hawk moths or horn worms
1) Medium to large sized, heavy bodied powerfully flying moths with spindle shaped
body tapering and pointed both anteriorly and posteriorly.
2) Antennae are thickened in the middle or towards the tip and hooked at tips
3) The proboscis is very long in most of the species and attains its greatest length in
the family and usually the adults produce sound by forcing air through proboscis.
4) The forewings are elongate (long and narrow) with oblique outer margin. Hind
wings small and usually brightly coloured. Sc and Rs in wings connected by a
cross vein near middle of discal cell.
5) Larvae of most species have a conspicuous horn on the dorsal surface of 8th
abdominal segment which is relatively longer in 1st instar and hence the name
horn worms.
6) Pupation occurs freely in a cell in the ground or in a very loose cocoon on the
surface among leaves. In some genera the proboscis projects from the body
resembling the handle of a pitcher.
Eg: Gingelly deaths head (robs honey from honey comb)- Acherontia styx
Sweet potato sphinx - Herse convolvuli
LECTURE NO. 8
31
Family: Pyralidae
Snout moths
1. These are small and delicate moths with well developed antennae and ocelli
present
2. Labial palpi well developed and projected forward appearing as a snout infront of
the head and hence are called snout moths.
3. Forewings elongate or triangular with cubitus appearing four branched. Hind
wings are usually broad with SC and R usually close together, fused or closely
parallel for a short distance beyond discal cell.
4. Larvae are naked, prolegs variable but always present in VI segment. Generally
internal feeders.
5. Adult females are generally provided with a tuft of anal hairs at the caudal
extremity which are deposited as a covering on the egg masses
Eg: Paddy stem borer-Scirpophaga incertulas,
Jowar stem borer-Chilo partellus –
Brinjal shoot and fruit borer-Leucinodes orbonalis
Family: Gelechidae
1. Labial palpi are long and curved, the terminal segment is long and pointed
2. The venis R4 and R5 in the forewings are stalked at the base. Forewings are
trapezoidal and narrower than the hind wings
3. Hindwings usually have the outer margin, curved and RS and M1 stalked.
Eg: Angoumois grain moth -Sitotroga cerealella,
Cotton pink boll worm - Pectinophora gossypiella
Groundnut leafminer – Aproaerema modicella
5. Larvae are characteristically onisciform with both ends tapering end with broad
projecting sides concealing the legs
6. Pupa is attached to the surface by its anal end and is held by a central grith of
silk, rarely it is subterranean
7. Larvae are voracious feeder, some species are carnivorous
Eg.ViracholaIsocrates – Pomegranate fruit borer or Anar butterfly
Lampidesbeoticus and catechrysopscnejus – Red gram blue butterfly
Family: Papilionidae
1. Medium sized to large butterflies, most of which have tail like prolongation in the
hindwings
2. Cubitus in the forewings appears 4 branched.
3. Larva is smooth with a series of fleshly dorsal tubercles or occasionally a raised
prominence on the 4 th segment
4. Pupa, characteristic in having two lateral cephalic projections
Eg: Papilio demoleus, Papilio polytes -Citrus butterflies
Family: Arctiidae
LECTURE NO. 9
33
ORDER: COLEOPTERA.
1. This is the largest order in class insecta comprising about 1/3 rd or 40% of the
known insect species.
2. Minute to large sized with leathery or horny integument.
3. Head highly sclerotized free, normal or prolonged in to a snout as in weevils.
Ocelli usually absent.
4. Antennae variable usually 11 segmented
5. Mouth parts are chewing type with well developed mandibles. The mandibles
attain their greatest length in the males of many of the stag beetles (Lycanidae)
6. Prothorax large and freely movable, mesothorax much reduced and fused with
metathorax and the tergum of these segments is divisible in to prescutum,
scutum and scutellum.
7. Two pairs of wings present. Forewings are horny or leathery known as elytra
which atleast always meet to form a straight mid dorsal suture. Hindwings
membranous. The wings are highly reduced in few beetles.
8. Legs well developed for walking, running and tarsal segments are variable.
9. Abdomen usually 10 segmented. First tergum membranous and one or more of
the sterna from the first to third are aborted in many species, the terminal
abdominal segments are refractile and tubular, thus functioning as an ovipositor
(eg: cerambycidae).
10. The larvae are known as grubs and generally thoracic legs are present.
11. Pupa exarate, pale coloured and are invested by a thin soft cuticle .
12. Most of the adults possess stridulatory organs and these are variable.
13. Metamorphosis is complete and complex.
Sub order
Adephaga Polyphaga
Family: Coccinellidae
34
1. Beetles of moderate size, oval, convex dorsally and horizontal ventrally, brightly
coloured or spotted.
2. Head partly concealed from above by the pronotum.
3. Antennae usually clavate, short and partly concealed.
4. The legs are short and hidden under the body. Tarsi 4 segmented but appear to
be 3 segmented since this 3rd segment is small and concealed in the deeply
bilobed second segment. Tarsal formula is 4:4:4. Tarsal claws are teethed at the
base.
5. Grubs are usually covered with minute tubercles or spines known as setose or
rugose and are usually flattened.
6. Elytra coveres the abdomen completely.
7. Both adults and grubs of most of the species are highly predacious feeding on
aphids, coccids, mites, psyllids and other soft bodied insects.
8. Genus epilachna are phytophagous
Family: Bruchidae
LECTURE NO. 10
35
Family : Scarabaeidae
Family: Curculionidae
Family: Chrysomelidae
36
1. Usually small to medium, oval or spherical beetles with the upper surface of the
body generally bare and shining, frequently with metallic colouration
2. Antennae short or of moderate length usually with 11 segments and except in
this they resemble to cerambycids
3. Legs short, hind femora enlarged for jumping in many forms. Tarsi 5 segmented,
but appear to be 4 segmented since the 4th segment is small and concealed in
the notch of the bilobed 3rd segment. Tarsal formula is 5:5:5, tibial spurs absent
usually.
4. Adults generally feed on leaves causing numerous holes and also on flowers.
Some grubs feed on foliage, some act as leaf miners and some feed on roots
and stems also
5. Abdomen short with 5 visible sternites
Eg: Sweet potato tortoise beetle - Metriona circumdata
Rice hispa - Dicladispa armigera
Pumpkin beetles - Raphidopalpa foveicollis.
Family: Cerambycidae
Longicorn beetles
1. These are elongate and cylindrical beetles with very long filiform / serrate
antennae atleast two thirds as long as the body, capable of being flexed
backwards and usually inserted on prominent tubercles.
2. Prothorax is narrow or as wide as mesothorax usually spined or tuberculate
3. Elytra usually cover the body but sometimes may leave the posterior one or two
segments exposed in few cases.
4. Legs well developed tarsi 5 segmented but appear to be 4 segmented since the
4th segment is small and concealed in the notch of the bilobed 3rd segment. All
tibiae with two well developed spurs. Tarsal formula is 5:5:5
5. Most of the grubs are tree borers. Few are confined to roots with powerful
mandibles boring into deep and hardwood also and are highly destructive.
6. Most of the adults feed on flowers and some of them produce squeaking sound
when picked up.
Eg.Mango stem borer - Batocera rufomaculata
Grapevine stem gridler - Sthenias grisator
Longicorn beetles on cucurbits - Apomycyna pertigera
Family: Apionidae
37
LECTURE NO. 11
ORDER: HYMENOPTERA
1) This is the most beneficial order in the class insecta comprising of parasites,
predators and bees involved in poliination and honey production. Most of them
are social living.
2) Varied in size and shape. Head prominent remarkably free with small neck.
3) Compound eyes well developed and ocelli usually 3 or absent.
4) Antennae variable usually exhibit sexual dimorphism being longer in males
5) Mouth parts primarily adopted for biting and o ften for lapping and sucking also.
mandibles always present
6) Usually two pairs of naked membranous wings are present with reduced
venation. Hind wings are smaller and have a row of tiny hooks on their anterior
margin by which they attach to the front wings. Usually stigma is present in the
forewings along the costal margin near the apex.
7) Legs slender, trochanter 1 or 2 segmented
8) Abdomen usually basally constricted to form pedicel or petiole. The 1 st abdominal
segment fused with metathorax and known as propodaeum. Second segment
forms pedicel. The remaining region of the abdomen is bulged one known as
gaster.
9) Ovipositor very well developed and modified for sawing, boring, piercing,
stingingetc.
10) Larvae are known as grubs with well developed head and usually apodous
11) Pupa exarate and a cocoon is generally present
12) Metamorphosis complete and complex also
Sub orders
Family : Tenthredinidae
Sawflies
1. Stout wasp like insects without abdominal pedicel. Adults feed on flowers, foliage
or while some feed on small insects (carnivorous). Medium sized and
brightlycoloured insects.
2. Antennae 3 to 6 or 8 to 11 segmeted, filiform or setaceous
3. Trochanter 2 –segmented, front tibia posses 2 apical spurs.
4. ovipositor well developed with 2 pairs of flattended plates
5. In many species, the two sexes are different coloured. Parthenogenesis is very
common
6. Larvae are eruciform, exclusively phytophagous. The body segments are usually
subdivided by transverse folds in to annulets. Resemble to those of lepidopteran
larvae but are provided with 6 to 8 pairs of abdominal legs which are devoid of
crochets. Many larvae are provided with glands resembling osmoteria which
open on the sternum of each of the first seven abdominal segments.
7. Pupation takes place in an elongated oval silken cocoon or in an earthern cell
Eg: Mustard sawfly - Athalia lugens proxima
Family: Ichneumonidae
1. One of the largest families in the entire class – insecta. They are slender wasp
like insects.
2. Antennae longer with more than 16 segmentes and filiform
3. Trochanter 2 segmented. Legs are provided with conspicuous tibial spurs and
strong claws, tarsus 4 segmented
4. In forewings, the costal cell is wanting and have two recurrent veins while
braconids have one or none
5. Abdomen long and slender, petiolate, petiole usually curved and expanded
apically.
6. Ovipositor very long often longer than the body arising anterior to the tip of
abdomen
7. Most of the members are endoparasites and undergo complete metramorphosis
i.e. hypermetamophosis. Caudal prolongation of tail is present, in 1 st instar larvae
Eg: Larval parasite on jowar stem borer - Xanthopimpla stemmator –
Larval parasite on stem borers of paddyand
sugarcane top borer - Isotima javensis
40
Family: Branconidae
Braconids
Family: Trichogrammatidae
LECTURE NO. 12
ORDER: DIPTERA
1. These are small and soft bodied insects with prominent head and small neck
2. Eyes large : usually larger in males, holoptic / dichoptic
3. Ptilinum or frontal sac is characteristic feature of cyclorrhapha indicated by the
frontal or ptilinal suture. It is a retractile bladder like organ employed to break
open the puparium
4. Antennae mostly 3 segmented (except in Nematocera ) and aristate
5. Mouth parts sucking type usually forming a proboscis. In many they are piercing
and sucking and in others they are sponging (lapping) with labium distally
expanded in to a pair of fleshy lobes.
6. Mesothorax large supporting the functional wings, pro and metathoracic
segments small and fused with mesothorax
7. Only front pair of wings present. Hind pair modified into halters which act as
balancers
8. Legs well developed, tarsus usually 5 segmented pulvilli and an empodium
Usuallypresent
9. Metamorphosis is complete
10. Larvae eruciform and apodous known as maggots mostly amphipneustic
11. Pupa either free or enclosed in the hardened larval cuticle known as puparium
(coarctate pupa)
Family: Agromyzidae
Family: Muscidae
Family: Cecidomyiidae
Family: Tachinidae
LECTURE NO. 13
INSECT ECOLOGY
The word ecology is the modified form of ‘Oekologie’ derived from the Greek
‘Oikos’, meaning ‘Home’ and ‘Logos’ meaning ‘Discourse’ introduced by Reiter in 1869
and later anglicized to ‘Ecology’.
Ecology is a multidisciplinary subject and derives support from other
sciences. Individual organisms of the same species live together as a ‘Population’.
Population can be defined as ‘a group of individuals or a species occurring in a given
area or locality at a specific time’. Populations of different species live together and form
a ‘Community’, meaning ‘all populations in the area at a specific time’. The community is
influenced by its physical environment. The complex system of biotic and abiotic
factors constitutes an ‘Ecosystem’. Whereas the crops, insects, other animals and the
physical abiotic factors together constitute an ‘Agro-ecosystem’.
Ecology is ‘the science of inter-relations between living organisms and their
environment including both the physical and the biotic environments and emphasizing
inter species and intra species relations’ (Allee, 1949).
Odum (1953) defined ecology as ‘the study of the structure and functions of
nature (or Environmental biology)’.
Ecology is divided mainly into ‘Autecology’ and ‘Synecology’. Autecology is the
study of individual organisms or an individual species in relation to the environment
while Synecology is the study of the group or groups of organisms associated in a
community in the same environment i.e., in relation to various other species living in the
same environment.
Importance of Ecology in Pest Management:
Indiscriminate uses of pesticides lead to a regular resurgence of pests due to the
fact that the natural enemies get killed. The increase in pest population is also due to
the interference of man by monoculture, using high yielding and susceptible varieties,
giving more number of irrigations, use of high nitrogenous fertilizers etc. Because of
which the balance of life in nature gets upset and the pest appears in severe form every
year. The importance of ecology was then felt and integrated approaches in pest
management are now made to avoid the violent fluctuations in pest populations.
Ecological studies assist pest control programmes by explaining pest problems
and suggesting alternate ways of combating insects. The outbreaks of the pests can
also be predicted. The ecological studies investigate the causes for the changes in
population number and the mechanism of natural control. The key mortality factors in a
natural population help to integrate the various methods of control, without disturbing
the balance of nature. The pest surveillance programmes form a part of ecology.
Forecasting of the possible attack by different pests can be done and accordingly the
control measures can be initiated in time. Suitable chemicals can be selected
depending on the presence or absence of natural enemies. As such ecological studies
form a basic part of the approach to the integrated pest management (IPM).
45
500C -
-50C
LECTURE NO. 14
c) Rainfall:
Relative humidity is dependent on rainfall. The total amount of rainfall
distribution in time influences the abundance of insects in an area. More than 12.5 cm
rain during May-June results in increase in soil moisture which is not favorable to the
cutworms and hence forced to come out of the soil and fall a ready prey to their
parasites and predators. On the other hand if the rainfall is less than 10 to 12.5 cm
during summer, cutworms remain protected in soil and there is outbreak of the pest in
next season. Hence, the outbreak of pest can be forecasted, if the number of wet days
(0.8 cm) during May-July isnoted. If there are less than 10 wet days there will be an
increase of cutworms in the following year. If there are more than 10 wet days there will
be a decrease. Desert locust does not lay eggs and even if laid does not hatch unless
soil has sufficient moisture. Rainfall also plays an important role in movement of
swarms of desert locust. Saturated condition of moisture is injurious for the
development of spotted boll worm Earias fabia Stoll. Red pumpkin beetle Aulacophora
foveicollis Lucas withholds eggs until it come across moist soil. Rain induces
emergence of most of the insects from soil.
Eg: Ants, termites, red hairy caterpillar, root grub beetles etc., emerge out from the soil
after the receipt of rains.
d) Light:
Sunlight is the greatest single source of energy for all most all biological
systems. Light as an ecological factor has been defined as all shorter wavelengths of
radiant energy up to and including the visible spectrum which is measurable.
Wavelengths of visible parts of spectrum range from 4000 (Violet) to 7600 (Red)
Angstroms.
Light is a non lethal factor. It helps in orientation or rhythematic behaviuour of
insects, bioluminescence, period of occurrence and inactivity. The different properties of
light that influence organisms are illumination, photoperiod, wave length of light rays,
their direction and degree of polarization. Visible and ultra violet light influences the
following:
1. Growth, moulting and fecundity: silkworms develop faster in light than in
darkness. Grubs of Trogoderma also develop more rapidly in light. Moths of spotted
boll worm of cotton and red hairy caterpillar lay most of their eggs during periods of
darkness. The bean weevil lays more eggs in total darkness than in light.
2. Other activities:
In honey bees there is a correlation between hours of sunshine and their activity.
Orientation of animals through directed movements by light is called phototaxis which
also depends on temperature, moisture, food and age. Green leafhopper, Nephotettix
spp. are attracted to light on hot and humid evenings but is indifferent to it during dry
weather. Chafer beetles, many moths pass the day in concealment. Cockroaches hide
during day time. Dusk is most usual time for flight and copulation of moths, for
emergence of winged whiteants etc.
51
Photoperiodism: The number of hours of light in a day length (24 hours) is termed as
photoperiod and the response of organisms to the photoperiod (length of the day) is
known as photoperiodism, photoperiod induces diapause. Insects in which dispause is
induced by long day are known as short day species. Eg: Mulberry silkworm Bombyx
mori (Linnaeus).While the insects in which diapause in induced by short day lengths are
known as long day species. Eg. Pink bollworm of cotton, Pectinophora gossypiella.
Photoperiod also known to control mode of reproduction, body form etc. In reduced
photoperiod sexual forms (winged) are produced in aphids.
Bioluminescence: Famous luminous insects are the glow-worms and fireflies. The
enzyme luciferase in the presence of oxygen and adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
promotes the oxidation of luciferin. This causes the production of light in insects. In most
cases, females produce flash of light to attract males for mating.
e) Other factors:
i) Atmospheric pressure:
it is generally of little importance.Locust show great excitement and abnormal
activity about half an hour before the occurrence of storm when the atmospheric
pressure is low.
Drosophila flies stop moving when put under vacuum.
52
LECTURE NO.15
BIOTIC FACTORS
A) Food:
Each insect species has certain nutritional requirements for completion of its life
cycle. Under normal conditions there is a happy adjustment between the host and
particular species of insect. But in the event of sudden increase in population, the
densities of population become too high to be supported by the food available in the
area. Hence competition for food as well as space will be there.
According to nutritional requirements, insects are categorized into:
1. Omnivorous: Which feed on both plants and animal. Eg. Wasps, cockroaches
2. Carnivorous: which feed on other animal as parasites and predators.
Eg: Predators (Lady bird beetles and Mantids)
3. Herbivorous: which feed on living plants (crop pests) and these can again be
categorized into
(a) Polyphagous: which feed on wide range of cultivated and wild plants.
Eg. Locusts, grasshoppers
(b) Monophagous:which feed on single species of plants. Eg: Rice stem
borer
(c) Oligophagous:which feed on plants of one botanical family.
Eg: Diamondback moth, Cabbage butterfly.
4. Saprophagous (Scavengers): which feed on decaying plants and dead organic
matter. Eg: Drosophila flies, House flies, scarabaeid beetles.
B) Other organisms: Includebeneficial and harmful insects. Associations of individuals
of the same species is known as intra specific relations and it may be beneficial. Such
association of two sexes, parental care, associations of social insects etc., phenomenon
like overcrowding is harmful since shortage of food and space results. Disease
outbreak may occur. Cannibalism may occur.
Eg. Preying mantids, larvae of Helicoverpa, Tribolium feeds on its own eggs.
Associations of individuals of different species are known as inter-specific
relations and these may be beneficial or harmful.
Beneficial associations:
i) Symbiosis: Inter relationship between organisms of different species which live in
close union without harmful effects are known as symbiosis, each member being
known as symbiont.
ii) Commensalism: One insect is benefited by living on or inside another insect without
injuring the other and is known as comensal and it lives on the surplus food or the
waste food of its host. Eg: Gall forming insects. When the commensal uses its host as
a means of transport the phenomenon is termed as phoresy.
54
A predator is one, which catches and devours smaller or more helpless creatures
by killing them in getting a single meal. Insect killed by predator is known as prey.
Insect Predator:
- Large in size
- Active in habits
- Capacity for swift movements
- Structural adaptations with well developed sense organs to catch the prey
- May remain stationary and sedentary
- Suddenly seize the pray when it comes with in its reach Eg. Antlions
- Feed upon large number of small insects every day
- May have cryptic colourations and deceptive markings
Eg. Preying mantids and Robber flies
55
LECTURE N0. 16
CONCEPT OF BALANCE OF LIFE
The population of an insect or any animal may be defined as the number of
individuals of a particular species existing in a particular area at a time. The population
never remains constant for long, but it tends to oscillate all the time about a theoretical
optimum for the species. Balance of life in nature is the maintenance of a more or less
fluctuating population density of an organism over a given period of time within certain
definite upper and lower limits by the action of biotic and abiotic factors.
Factors Contributing to Population Increase
Any organism will multiply enormously if the environment is optimum. Different
organisms multiply at different rates. Hence it is well known that every organism has an
inherent capacity to survive, reproduce and multiply in numbers. The extent to which a
species can multiply in a given period of time if no adverse factors interfere is called its
‘Biotic potential’ which is also known as ‘Maximum reproductive power’. This
concept was first introduced by R.N. Chapman in 1928. The biotic potential or innate
capacity to increase depends on
1) Initial population: The more the initial population of an organism the more
will be its progeny,
2) Fecundity: It is the average number of eggs laid by a female in its life. The
more the fecundity the more will be the resultant population.
3) Sex ratio: It is the ratio of females to the total population and is represented
by number of females / Total number of males and females. Up to a limit the
more the proportion of females, the more the multiplication capacity.
4) Number of generations in an unit time or a year: Obviously the greater the
number of generations in a unit time the larger will be the resultant population.
Based on the above factors the biotic potential can then be represented by the
formula,
B. P. = P (f s )n
Where, P = Initial population
f = Fecundity
s = Sex ratio
n = Number of generations in a unit time.
Some insects like whiteant queens and house flies lay large number of eggs
while others lay very few eggs. Some insects reproduce very fast. Mustard aphid has
over 40 generations a year. If all survive, a single pair of house flies may produce 191,
010, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, flies from April to August which if spread over the entire
earth form a layer about 14 meters deep. Similarly a progeny of a pair Drosophila flies
produced in a year would cover the whole of Indian subcontinent and Myanmar with a
solid cake of flies. Such is the biotic potential of insects when there is no interference of
biotic and abiotic factors of the environment.
56
Following are a few of factors that have contributed in outbreak of crop pests
1. Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers:
Excess use of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers creates congenial conditions for
rapid multiplication and subsequent outbreaks of pests. Application of
nitrogenous fertilizers gives luxurious growth of the crop and makes it more
vulnerable to insect attack as in case of rice and cotton which show higher
incidence of yellow stem borer and sucking insects like aphids, whiteflies and
leafhoppers, respectively, because there will be no competition for food.
2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides:
Sometimes use of insecticides as a prophylactic or curative measure results in
reducing one of the competitive species of pests while allowing the others to
multiply.Repeated use of same insecticides may also lead to the secondary
infestation in which it is not effective. Continuous spraying of carbaryl on cotton
against bollworms and on brinjal against shoot and fruit borer results in the mite
infestation which is often very severe.
Indiscriminate use of pesticides also destroys the natural enemies of the pest
and sometimes leads to the pest outbreak. Application of deltamethrin, phorate
etc in rice fields against BPH destroy its natural enemies like mirid bugs and
spiders which are bioagents of BPH and sometimes enhance the population of
BPH. Similarly, indiscriminate use of insecticides on cotton resulted in the
outbreak of whitefly in Guntur and Prakasam districts during 1985.
3. Use of high yielding varieties and introduction of new crops:
Mostly improved strains of crop plants are susceptible to pests. Sometimes, the
insects which are considered of minor importance, become major importance
with the introduction of new varieties and strains. The improved combodia cotton
strains are highly susceptible to the spotted bollworm Earias sp. and the stem
weevil Pempherulus affinis. The hybrid sorghum CSH-1 was severely attacked
by shoot fly, Atherigona varia soccata stem borer Chilo partellus and ear head
gall midge Stenodiplosis sorghicola. The rice variety RP 4-14 was subjected to
severe attack by BPH. Spread of the gall midge resistant varieties surekha and
kakatiya in Telangana region made the gall midge incidence negligible while
other pests like BPH, stem borer and whorl maggot became serious pests on
paddy.
The growing of cabbage crop in the plains of Madurai district (Tamil Nadu) as a
new venture resulted in the wide spread incidence of the green semilooper,
Trichoplusia ni
58
8. Destruction of natural enemies: The natural enemies keep the insect pests
under check. The destruction of these either by man or other agencies tends to
increase the population of insect pests in an area. Sometimes the weather
conditions may be favourable to the pest and unfavourable to its natural
enemies. The insecticides may often affect the parasitoids and predators more
than the host insects. DDT kills parasitoids and predators and thus encourages
aphids, scales mealybugs and spider mites to multiply into enormous
proportions.
9. Large scale storage of food grains: Large scale storage of food grains also
leads to pest problems since there is ple nty of food for stored product insects to
feed, breed and multiply.
60
LECTURE NO. 17
PEST SURVEILLANCE
Pest surveillance is the systematic monitoring of biotic and abiotic factors of the
crop ecosystem in order to predict the pest outbreak or it is the study of the ecology of
the pest which provides the necessary information to determine the feasibility of a pest
management programme. By the Pest surveillance programmes, the population
dynamics and the key natural mortality factors operating under field conditions can be
known which in turn helps in devising the appropriate management strategies.
Advantages
1. One can know how a pest is multiplying in an area and when it is expected.
2. Minimize the cost of plant protection by reducing the amount of pesticides used
and in turn reduce environmental pollution.
3. Pest control measures can be initiated in time due to advance forecasting.
4. Useful for pest forecasting.
5. To find out natural enemy population
6. To study the influence of weather parameters on pests
7. Mark endemic areas
8. Maintain the stability of the agro ecosystem.
Pest surveillance and monitoring in India :Pest surveillance and monitoring form an
integral part of IPM technology. Directorate of Plant Protection , Quarantine and Storage
(DPPQS), Faridabad, is organizi ng regular rapid roving pest surveys on major field
crops in different agro ecosystems in collaboration with ICAR and SAU’s and a
consolidated report then issued by Plant Protection Adviser (PPA) to the Government
of India.
INSECT PESTS
The word ‘Pest’ derived from the Latin word ‘Pestis’ meaning Plague. An insect
reaches the status of a pest when its number increases and inflicts significant damage.
‘Pest’ is defined as insect or other organism that causes any damage to crops,
stored produce and animals. Damage boundary is the lowest level of injury where the
damage can be measured.
Insect pests are divided into a) negligible 2) minor and 3) major depending upon the
severity of damage caused on the plant.
Pests that cause less than 5% loss in yield, is said to be negligible. Insects which
normally cause a loss ranging from 5 to 10% are said to be minor pests and those
which cause a loss of 10% or more in general called as major pests.
Different Categories of Insect Pests
The different categories of insect pests are
1. Regular pest: Occur most frequently (regularly) in a crop and have close
association with that particular crop. Eg: Chilli Thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis , brinjal
shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis
2. Occasional pests: Here a close association with a particular crop is absent and
they occur infrequently. Eg: Rice case worm, Nymphula depuctalis castor slug
caterpillar, Parasa lepida , mango stem borer, Batocera rufamaculata
62
3. Seasonal pests: Occur mostly during a particular part of the year, and usually
the incidence is governed by climatic conditions. Eg: Red hairy caterpillar on
groundnut-June - July, Rice grasshoppers –June-July, Paddy climbing cutworms.
4. Persistent pests: Occur on a crop almost throughout the year.Eg: Scales and
mealybugs on many crops, thrips on chillies, paddy stem borer.
5. Sporadic pests: Occur on a few isolated localities. Eg: coconut slug caterpillar –
Macroplectra nararia, Contheyla rotunda, Rice earhead bug - Leptocorisa acuta,,
castor slug caterpillar-Latoia lepida
6. Epidemic pest: Occur in a severe form in a region or locality at a particular
season or time only. Eg: Rice hispa, Dicladispa armigera, rice leaf roller,
Cnaphalocrocis medinalis
7. Endemic pest: Occur regularly and confined mostly to a particular area or
locality. Eg: Red hairy caterpillar Amsacta albistrigaon groundnut in Kurnool,
Ananthapur, Kadapa, Chittoor, Srikakulam and Vizag districts, stem borers of
rice, paddy gall fly in Warangal districts.
63
LECTURE 18
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
Modern concept of pest management is based on ecological principles and
integration of different control tactics into a pest management system
Integrated control was defined by Stern et al., (1959) as applied pest control
which combines and integrates the biological and chemical control. Later the concept of
pest management has gained importance .The idea of managing pest population was
proposed by Geier and Clark 1961 who called their concept as protective management
which later was shortened as pest management.
Later Smith and Van Den Borsch in 1967 mentioned that the determination of the
insect numbers is broadly under the influence of total agro ecosystem and the role of
the principle element is essential for integrated pest management.
In 1972 the term IPM was accepted by CEQ (Council of Environmental Quality)
where IPM includes
I - Integration that is harmonious use of multiple methods to control the impact of
single pest as well as multiple pests.
P - Pest- any organism that is detrimental to humans including vertebrates and
invertebrate or weed or pathogens.
M - Management refers to a set of decisions or rules based on ecological
principles, economic and social consideration.
The backbone of management of pest in an agricultural ecosystem is the concept
of economic injury level (It is the level of the pest up to which the damage can be
tolerable)
According to FAO (1967), IPM was defined as “a pest management system in the
context of associated environment and population dynamics in pest species. It utilizes
all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible and maintains
the pest population at levels below those cause economic injury.
OR
Protective management of the noxious pest in which all available techniques
should be evaluated and consolidated to manage pest population so that economic
damage is avoided and adverse side effects on the environment are minimized (Gieir
and Clark, 1961).
Evolution of IPM
Green revolution has attain self sufficiency in food through introduction of hybrids
and high yielding varieties. Intensive cultivation of HYV invited or demanded more of
inputs in the form of fertilizers especially inorganic which in turn attracted more of pest
and diseases. This necessitated intensive control measures to curtail the damage
caused to the crops and the control was achieved mainly through chemical pesticides.
Continuous use of chemical pesticides led to pest resurgence, resistance, residues and
ecological imbalance by killing predators and parasitoids thus affecting prey-predator
dynamics and resulting in environmental pollution. The importance of integrated
approaches to pest control was then felt and the concept of IPM evolved.
64
C) Crisis phase
After few years in exploitation phase, more frequent applications of pesticides and
higher doses are needed to obtain effective control. Insect populations often resurge
rapidly after treatments and the pest population gradually becomes tolerant to the
pesticide. Another pesticide is substituted and pest population becomes tolerant to it
too. Occasional feeders become serious pests. Excessive use of insecticides over a
number of years led to serious problems like
i) Pest resurgence
ii) Pest resistance to insecticides
iii) Change of pest status
iv) Increase of production costs, etc.
65
D) Disaster phase
As a result of all deleterious effects, the cost of cultivation got increased and the
crops were not grown profitably. There were frequent encounters of crop failures and
produce not acceptable at market (rejection of the produce due to residues), and finally
collapse of the existing pest control system.
E) Integrated control phase
In this phase it is aimed to give the control measures to the optimum and not to
the maximum. Pest management concept is followed to avoid crisis and disaster phases
by
a) Combination of the resources
b) analysis of eco- factors
c) optimization of techniques
d) recognizing or restoring the pest at manageable level
3) Environmental contamination
Presence of residues in foods, feed and organisms caused widespread concern
about contamination of Environment
Concepts of IPM
IPM seeks to minimize the disadvantages associated with use of pesticides and
maximizing socio, economic and ecological advantages.
The EIL may be at any level from well bellow to well above the GEP. Based on
this insects can be grouped into FOUR categories
a) Negligible pest: Pop density never increases high enough to cause economic injury.
---------------------------- EIL
Time
67
b) Occasional pest: Occasionally their density reaches EIL when their population is
affected by unusual weather conditions or the injudicious use of insecticides. At their
peaks of population density, some sort of intervention usually an insecticide is required
to reduce their numbers to tolerable level.
---------------------------- EIL
density GEP
Time
c) Perennial pest: EIL’s are slightly above the GEP and intervention is necessary at
nearly every upward population fluctuation. The general practice is to intervene with
insecticides whenever necessary to produce a modified average population density well
below the EIL.
---------------------------- EIL
density GEP
Time
d) Severe pest: They have EIL below the GEP. Regualr and constant interventions with
insecticides are required to produce marketable crops.
__________________ GEP
---------------------------- EIL
EIL decreases as the value of crop increases. It also depends on the stage of
the crop, stage of the pest etc.
68
1) Pest serviellance
2) Cultural methods
3) Mechanical methods
4) Physical methods
5) Biological methods
6) Legislative methods and
7) Chemical methods
69
LECTURE No 19
HOST PLANT RESISTANCE
Relative amount of heritable qualities possessed by the plant which influence the
ultimate degree of damage done by the insect is called ‘Host plant resistance’ to insect
attack.
Lesser damage than average damage is taken as resistance while more damage
than average damage constitutes susceptibility. A resistant variety produces higher
yield than susceptible variety when both are subjected to the same extent of infestation
by same insect at the same time. Resistance is a relative term only compared with less
resistance or susceptibility.
Absolute resistance or Immunity refers to the inability of a specific pest to
consume or injure a particular variety under any known-conditions. Immune varieties
are rare.
Ecological Resistance or Pseudo Resistance or Apparent Resistance
Ecological resistance relies more on environmental conditions than on genetics.
Certain crop varieties may overcome the most susceptible stage rapidly and thus avoid
insect damage. Early maturing crop cultivars have been used in agriculture as an
effective pest management strategy. However, plants that evade insect attack by this
mechanism are likely to be damaged if the pest populations build-up early.
Pseudoresistance may be one or combination of the following:
1. Host evasion: Under some conditions , a host plant may pass through the most
susceptible stage quickly or at time when insects are less in number .
Eg:Early planting of paddy in kharif minimize the infestation of stem borer Scirpophaga
incertulas
Sowing of sorghum soon after onset of monsoon in June helps to overcome shoot fly
infestation
2. Induced resistance: is a form of temporarily increased resistance asresulting from
some conditions of plant or its environment such as changes in the amount of nutrients
or water applied to the crop.
Eg: Application of potassium fertilizers.
3. Host escape: It refers to lack of infestation or injury to the host plant because of
transitory circumstances like incomplete infestation, thus finding of uninfested plant in a
susceptible population does not necessarily mean that it is resistant.
Genetic Resistance
The factors that determine the resistance of host plant to insect establishment
include the presence of structural barriers, allelochemicals and nutritional imbalance.
These resistance qualities are heritable and operate in a concerted manner, and tend to
render the plant unsuitable for insect utilization.
70
2. Host finding: After locating habitat the insect pest makes a purposeful
search to locate its appropriate host plantfor its establishment. The essential
visual or olfactory mechanisms help the contact. Once the pest reaches
orcontacts the host plants, tactile and olfactory sensory organs arrest further
movement causing the insects to remain on the plant.
3. Host recognition: Although larvae are with sensorial receptors for host
recognition, this phase is usually taken care of by ovipositing female adult. It
is usually done with the help of specific volatile from the plants. Eg:-Onion
maggots,Delia sp attracted to its host by the odour of propryl disulphide.
Cabbage maggot fly,Delia brassica get attracted by crucifer due to presence
of few glucocyanolides.
4. Host acceptance: Various chemicals present in the host species actually
govern the feeding process of insects. These chemicals responsible for initial
biting,swallowing and continuation feeding. Eg: Presence of phagostimulants
like morin in mulberry Morus albais key in continuation of feeding of silkworm
Bombyx mori.
5. Host suitability: The nutritional value in terms of sugars, proteins, lipids and
vitamins or absence of deleterious toxic compounds determines the suitability
of the host for the pest in relation to the development of larvae, longevity and
feeding.
Eg. Hairy varieties of soybean and cotton are not preffered by leafhoppers for
oviposition
Open panicle of sorghum supports less Helicoverpa armigera
Wax bloom on crucifers deter diamondback moth Plutella xylostella
Antibiosis:
Antibiosis refers to the adverse effect of host plant on the insect due to the
presence of some toxic substances or absence of required nutritional components.
Such plants are said to exhibit antibiosis and hence do not suffer as much damage as
normal plants. The adverse effects may be reduced fecundity , decreased size , long
life cycle , failure of larva to pupate or failure of adult emergence, and increased
mortality. Indirectly, antibiosis may result in an increased exposure of the insect to its
natural enemies.
Eg: The most classical example ofhost plant resistance is DIMBOA (2,4 Di hydroxy -7-
methoxy – 1,4 benzaxin – 3) content in maize which imparts chemical defense against
the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis. Nutrionally related antibiotic effect in rice
variety Mudgo which is resistant to BPH. When young females fed on variety Mudgo,
ovaries of BPH are underdeveloped andcontain few mature eggs in it due to less
quantity of aminoacid asparagine content in the resistant variety.
Tolerance:
Some plants withstand the damage caused by the insect by producing more
number of tillers ,roots, leaves etc in the place of damaged plant parts such plants are
said to be tolerant to that particular pest .Tolerance usually results from one or more of
the following factors
1. General vigour of the plant, 2.Regrowth of the damaged tissues 3.Strength of stems
and resistant to lodging 4. Production of additive branches 5. Efficient utilization of non
vital plant parts by the insect and 6. Compensation by growth of neibhouring plants
Eg: Early attack by the sorghum shoot fly on main shoot induced the the production of a
few synchronous tillers that grow rapidly and survive to produce harvestable ear
heads. LRG 41 Red gram for H. armigera
B.t a naturally occurring gram positive soil bacterium, upon sporulation forms a
parasporal crystal proteins called delta endotoxins. The cry proteins have selective
toxicity to certain category of insects and require certain specific conditions for their
effective action. The protein has to be ingested by the target insects which happens
when they feed on the transgenic plant tissues. It requires an alkaline pH of 9.5 or
above for effective processing into an active molecule which binds to specific receptors
for binding before it can kill the target insect. All these conditions are available in the
target insects and therefore they succumb when they feed on Bt-plants. Toxins binds to
midgut and creates pores in the intestinal lining resulting in ion imbalance , paralysis
of digestive system, after a few days that leads to insect death
To develop a B.t transgenic plant,
• Selection of strain of B.t
• Identify the genome
• Isolation of genes (Cry genes,Cry1A, Cry1Ac &Cry3Ab)
• Introduction into plants through genetic engineering methods
Transgenic technology can be utilized to develop plants with various beneficial traits
such as
a) Crop protection traitswhich include resistance to pests, diseases and herbicides
b) Abiotic stressin the form of tolerance to drought, heat, cold or salinity, thus
enabling plants to be grown in inhospitable habitats, adding more land for
cultivation; and
c) Quality traitsleading to enhanced nutrition; prolonged shelf-life or improved taste,
colour or fragrance of fruits, vegetables and flowers; and increased crop yield
India made its long-awaited entry into commercial agricultural biotechnology when
the Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC), Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt of India, at its 32nd meeting held in New Delhi on 26th March 2002
approved three Bt-cotton hybrids for commercial cultivation. This is a historic decision
as Bt-cotton became the first transgenic crop to receive such an approval in India.
These transgenic hybrids were developed by MAHYCO (Maharashtra Hybrid Seed
Company Limited) in collaboration with Monsanto.
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LECTURE NO. 20
I) Cultural methods
II) Mechanical methods
III) Physical methods
IV) Biological methods
V) Legislative methods and
VI) Chemical methods
(a) Normal agricultural practices, which incidentally ward off certain pests:
By adopting these, the farmers get two-fold benefits
(1) Improvementof crop yields and
(2) The population of certain pests do not increase abnormally
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i) Proper preparatory cultivation: Several insects which live or hide in the soil get
exposed to sun as well as predators like birds etc due to Proper preparatory
cultivation. Eg.Pupae of moths, roots grubs etc.
ii) Clean cultivation: Removal of weeds which act as alternate hosts.
Eg. Paddy gall fly Orseolia oryzae breeds on grasses such as Panicum sp.,
Cynodon dactylon etc.
Fruit sucking moth larvae Eudocima ancilla on weeds of Menispermaceae
iii) Systematic cutting and removal of infested parts: Keeps down subsequent
infestation.
Eg. Removal of sugarcane shoots affected by borers,
Cutting and removal of infested parts of brinjal attacked by Leucinodes orbonalis
Pruning of dried branches of citrus eliminates scales and stem borer.
Clipping of tips of rice seedlings before transplanting eliminate the egg masses of
stem borer.
Clipping of leaf lets in coconut reduces the black headed caterpillar Ploughing
and hoeing help to burry stages of insects or expose soil inhabiting insects to be
picked up by birds.
Pests like coccids get carried over to the next season through stubbles, which
should be promptly removed.
iv) Changes in the system of cultivation :
Change of banana from perennial to annual crop reduced the infestation of
banana rhizome weevil Cosmopolitus sordidus in addition to giving increased
yields.
Avoiding ratoon redgram crop during offseason helps in reducing the carry over
of pod fly Melangromyza obtusa and eriophyid mite Aceria cajani
v) Crop rotation: Crop rotation is most effective practice against pests that have a
narrow host range and dispersal capacity. Lady’s finger followed by cotton will
suffer from increased infestation of pests. Hence if a non-host crop is grown after
a host crop,it reduces the pest population.
Eg. Cereals followed by pulses.
Cotton should be rotated with non hosts like ragi, maize, rice to minimize the
incidence of insect pests.
Groundnut with non leguminous crops is recommended for minimizing the leaf
miner incidence.
vi) Mixed cropping: Intended for getting some return when one crop is attacked, the
other escapes.
Eg. Garden peas and sunhemp
vii) Growing resistantvarieties: certain varieties resists pest attack .
Eg: GEB-24 and MTU–5249 resistance to paddy BPH, Surekha variety to gall
midge, TKM -6 and Ratna for stem borer.
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3. Trimming field buds: Grasshopper eggs, which are laid in field bunds are destroyed
by trimming field bunds
4. Flooding the field: Flooding of fields is recommended for reducing the attack of
cutworms, army worms, termites, root grubs etc,.
Eg: For cutworms like paddy swarming caterpillar (Spodoptera mauritinana and S.
exiqua) and ragi cutworm by flooding the fields caterpillars float and leave the plants
5. Draining the fields: In case of paddy case worm Nymphula depunctalis which travel
from plant to plant via water. it can be eliminated by draining or drying the field.
Draining the rice fields for 3-4 days during infestation controls BPH and whorl maggot.
Alternate drying and wetting at 10 days interval starting from 35 DAT reduces the BPH
and WBPH.
6. Alley ways: Formation of alley ways for every 2 m in rice field reduces the BPH
Nilaparvata lugens
(c) Other cultural methods
1. Root weevil, Echinonemus oryzae damage in rice can be overcome by applying
20 kg ammonium sulphate and 40 kg single super phosphate in rice .
2. Raking up and hoeing of the soil around gourds, mango and other fruit trees
serves to destroy pupae of fruit flies.
3. Adoptation of high seed rate in sorghum and later removal and destruction of
shoot fly (Atherigona soccata) affected ones.
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5. Systematic shaking of root grub adults harbored trees during evening hours to
dislodge and destroy by dumping in fire.
6. Shaking ofredgram plantsto collect and destroy later instars of Helicoverpa
armigera
7. Shaking the trees and bushes by which the insects fall to the ground and they
can be collected
8. Sieving and winnowing against stored grain pests
9. Using mosquito nets fly proof cages etc.
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LECTURE NO. 21
PHYSICAL AND LEGISLATIVE METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
II) Physical Methods of Pest Control: Use of certain physical forces to
minimize the pests
- A material called drie-die, consist of highly porous, finely divided silica gel which
when applied abrades the insect cuticle thus encouraging loss of moisture
resulting in death. It is mainly used against stored product pests.
- Kaolinic clay after successive activation with acid and heat can be mixed with
stored grain. The clay minerals absorb the lipoid layer of the insect cuticle by
which the insects lose their body moisture and die due to desiccation.
- Artificial heating and cooling of stored products will prevent insect damage.
Usually high temperatures are more effective than low temperatures.
- Stored products can be exposed to 550C for 3 hours to avoid stored product
pests
- Steam sterilization of soil kills soil insects
- Vapour Heat Treatment (VHT): Heated air is saturated with water (>RH 90%) for
specified period of 6 to 8 hours for raising pulp temperature to 43-44.5°C in case
of mango against fruit flies.
- Oxygen stress and carbon dioxide concentration: In air tight containers small
volume of air is enclosed, the available oxygen is quickly utilized by insects and
raise concentration of carbon dioxide. High concentration of carbon dioxide leads
to death of stored products insects.
- Male insects can be made sterile by exposing them to gamma radiation or by
using chemicals. When sterile males are released in normal population they
compete with normal males in copulation and to that extent reductive capacity of
the population are reduced. By sterilizing the pupae of screwworm, livestock pest
(Cochliomyia hominivorax) with radiations, sterile males were obtained. They
were released @ 400/sq mile for 7 weeks. By this method total eradication was
achieved in South East parts of America and in the Curacao islands in case of
screwworm.
- Light traps are arranged for attracting the insects, which are trapped by keeping
water or oil in a container or a killing bottle below the light trap. Light traps are
useful for monitoring the population of important insect pests in an area. Eg: Most
of the moths and beetles.
- Flame thrower is a compressed air sprayer with kerosene oil for producing
flames. There is a lance, which is fitted with a burner. When the burner is heated,
the kerosene oil is released and it turns into flames. Used for burning locust
populations, congregation of caterpillars, patches of weeds etc.
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LECTURE NO. 22
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Parasite:A parasiteis an organism which is usually much smaller than its hostand a
single individual usually doesn’t kill the host. Parasite may complete their entire life
cycle (eg. Lice) or may involve several host species. Or Parasite is one, which attaches
itself to the body of the other living organism either externally or internally and gets
nourishment and shelter at least for a shorter period if not for the entire life cycle. The
organism, which is attacked by the parasites, is called hosts.
Parasitism: Is the phenomena of obtaining nourishment at the expense of the host to
which the parasite is attached.
Parasitoid: is an insect parasite of an arthopod, parasitic only in immature stages,
destroys its host in the process of development and free living as an adult. Eg:
Braconid wasps
Qualities of a Successful Parasitoid in Biological Control Programme
A parasitoid should have the following qualities for its successful performance.
1. Should be adaptable to environmental conditions in the new locally
2. Should be able to survive in all habitats of the host
3. Should be specific to a particulars sp. of host or at least a narrowly limited range
of hosts.
4. Should be able to multiply faster than the host
5. Should be having more fecundity
6. Life cycle must be shorter than that of the host
7. Should have high sex ratio
8. Should have good searching capacity for host
9. Should be amendable for mass multiplication in the labs
10. Should bring down host population within 3 years
11. There should be quick dispersal of the parasitoid in the locality
12. It Should be free from hyperparasitoids
Some successful examples
• Control of cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi on fruit trees by its predatory
vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis in Nilgiris. The predator was imported from
California in 1929 and from Egypt in 1930 and multiplied in the laboratory and
released. Within one year the pest was effectively checked.
• For the biological suppression of Water Fern, Salvinia molesta,the weevil,
Cyrtobagous salviniae, was imported from Australia in 1982. Exotic weevil, C.
salviniae was released for the control of water fern, S. molesta in a lily pond in
Bangalore in 1983-84. Within 11 months of the release of the weevil in the lily
pond the salvinia plants collapsed and the lily growth, which was suppressed by
competition from salvinia resurrected.
• Biological Control of Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes ,three exotic natural
enemies were introduced in India viz.,hydrophilic weevils – Neochetina bruchi
and N. eichhorniae ( Argentina) and galumnid mite Orthogalumna terebrantis
(South America) in 1982 for the biological suppression of water hyacinth.
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Predatism
Based on the degree of use fullness to man, the predators are classified as on
1. Entirely predatory, Eg. lace wings, tiger beetles lady bird beetles except
Henosepilachna genus
2. Mainly predator but occasionally harmful. Eg. Odonata and mantids occasionally
attack honey bees
3. Mainly harmful but partly predatory. Eg. Cockroach feeds on termites. Adult
blister beetles feed on flowers while the grubs predate on grass hopper eggs.
4. Mainly scavenging and partly predatory. Eg. Earwigs feed on dead decaying
organic matter and also fly maggots. Both ways, it is helpful
5. Variable feeding habits of predator, eg: Tettigonidae: omnivorous and
carnivorous but damage crop by lying eggs.
6. Stinging predators. In this case, nests are constructed and stocked with prey,
which have been stung and paralyzed by the mother insect on which the eggs
are laid and then scaled up. Larvae emerging from the egg feed on paralyzed but
not yet died prey. Eg. Spider wasps and wasps.
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LECTURE No. 23
MICROBIAL CONTROL
Microbial control refers to the exploitation of disease causing organism to reduce the
population of insect pest below the damaging levels. Steinhaus (1949) Coined the term
‘Microbial Control’ when microbial organisms or other products (toxins) are employed by
man for the control of pests on plants, animals or man.
1. Bacteria : More than 100 pathogenic bacteria were recorded of which i. Bacillus
thuringiensis (B.t.) is important and is isolated from flour moth, Ephestia kuhniella
by Berliner (1915) B.t. known as a bacterial insecticide is now being using by
farmers mostly on lepidopterous larvae. It can infect more than 150 species of
insects. The entry of the bacteria is by ingestion of the bacteria, which infect the
mid gut epithelia cells and enter the haemolymph to sporulate and cause
septicemia.
Properties of B.t.
1. Highly pathogenic to lepidopterous larvae
2. Non-toxic to man
3. Non-phytotoxic
4. Safer to beneficial insects
5. Compatible with number of insecticides
6. So far no resistance is developed in insects
7. Synergistic in combination with certain insecticides like carbaryl
8. Available in different formulations(Trade names Thuriocide, Delfin, Bakthane,
Biobit, Halt, Dipel etc).
9. Formulation is so standardized that 1 gm of concentration spore dust contains
100 million spores
Bacillus popillae (available as Doom) causes milky disease on Japanese beetle,
Popillia japonica
2. Viruses: NPV (Borrellina virus): About 300 isolates of Nuclear polyhedral virus have
been isolated from the order Lepidoptera. Among these viruses Baculoviruses
(Baculoviridae) are successful in IPM. The NPV is observed to affect 200 species of
insects like Corcyra cephalonica, Pericallia ricini, Amsacta albistriga, Spodoptea litura,
Heliothis armigera etc., by ingestion. The virus infected dead larvae hanging upside
down from plant parts (Tree top disease). The cuticle becomes fragile, rupturing easily
when touched, discharges liquefied body fluids. NPV multiplies in insect body wall,
trachea, fat bodies and blood cells. The polyhedra are seen in nuclei. The polyhedral
bodies enlarge in size destroying the host nuclei to get released into the insect body
cavity.
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More than 5000 species of entomopathogenic fungi are recorded. Important species
are, Entomophthora, Metarhizium, Beauveria, Nomuraea and Verticillium.
Eg: Entomophthora grylli on grasshoppers; Aspergillus flavus on Epilachna beetles;
Spicaria sp. on castor whitefly: Metarhizium anisopliae (Green muscardine) on
Orthoptera, white muscardine, Beauveria bassiana on Leptinotarsa decemlineata.
Protozoa : Their mass production is difficult. They infect insect orders like Lepidoptera,
Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera and Diptera.
Eg: Farinocystis triboli on Tribolium castaneum, Malpighamoeba locustae on
grasshoppers and Nosema bombycis (Pebrine disease) on silk worms. Here it is
harmful since silk worm is a productive insect.
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The EPNs Steinernema sps and Heterorhabditis sps from the families,
Heterorhabditidae and Steinernematidae have the mutualistic association with bacteria
Photorhabdus and Xenorhabdus spp., respectively.
EPN are obligatory requiring living host for its survival. The only stage that survives
outside the host is the non – feeding 3rd stage Infective Juvenile (IJ). The IJ carries cells
of their bacterial symbiont in their intestinal tract. After locating suitable host insect, the
IJ enters into its haemocoel through natural openings or through the thin cuticle. Once
the nematode (IJ) enters into haemocoel it releases the bacteria into the blood where
they multiply. The bacteria propagate and produce substances that rapidly kill the host
and protect the cadaver from colonization by other micro organisms. The nematode
starts developing inside the cadaver, feeding on bacteria and host tissues metabolized
by the bacteria and go through 1-3 generations. New colony of IJ emerges from the
insect cadaver and start searching for new living host insect.
Many insects feed upon unwanted weeds, just the same manner they do with
cultivated plants. As they damage the noxious and menacing weeds, these insects
are considered to be beneficial to man and called as weed killers. Successful
eradication of certain weeds due to specific insects is achieved. Later certain insects
are specifically employed against deleterious weeds and got rid of them. The
classical example being prickly pear control with cochineal insect, Dactylopius
tomentosusLantana, a troublesome weed was kept in check by the coccid, Orthezia
insignis. Water hyacinth was controlled by bruchids, Neochetina eichhorniae and
Neochetina bruchi
A successful weed killer
a) Should not itself be a pest of cultivated plants or later turn into a pest of
cultivated crops.
b) Should be effective in damaging and controlling the weed
c) Should preferably be a borer or internal feeder of the weed and
d) Should be able to multiply in good numbers without being affected by
parasitoids and predators.
In South Indian, Opuntia dilleni was wrongly introduced in 1780 in place O.
coccinellifera for cultivating commercial cochineal insect Dactylopius cocci, valued for its
dye. For controllingOpuntia dilleni, the insect D. tomentosus was introduced from
Srilanka in 1926 and within 2 years it gave effective control of O. dillenii. The prickly
pear Opuntia inermis in Australia was kept under check by the moth borer Cactoblastis
cactorum.
Control of water-hyacinth: Water-hyacinth is a free-floating fresh water plant. It impedes
flow of irrigation water, interferes with pisciculture etc. and can be effectively controlled
by two weevils namely Neochetina eichhorniae and N. bruchi andmite Orthogalumna
terebrantis. Control of Parthenium hysterophorus by beetle Zygogramma bicolorata
Advantages of Biological control
1. Control of the insect is achieved in a wide area.
2. The pest is hunted out and thus complete control over a large area is possible.
3. Biological agent survives as long as the pest is prevalent and hence control is
effective over longer periods.
4. Though the initial cost is more it will be cheaper in a long run since after, few
years of field, release, when it got established there may not be any necessity to
propagate it further.
5. Compatible with other methods
Disadvantages:
1. It is a slow process and takes a long time.
2. Natural enemies can not be restricted to particular pest, crop or areas.
3. Presence a lternate hosts delays the biological control
4. If hyper parasites are there the effect of parasites is adversely affected.
5. Expensive to develop and supply bioagents
LECTURE NO. 24
95
BENEFICIAL INSECTS
Pollinators
In the higher plants, sexual reproduction and perpetuation of species are brought about
through pollination. These plants may be self-fertile or self-infertile, which require cross
pollination. The good example of the dependence of plants upon insects for pollination
is Smyrna fig that is dependent on agaontid fig wasp, Blastophaga psenes that transfers
pollen from Capri fig. The process of fertilizing figs with fig wasps is called caprification.
To aid the cross pollination for effective seed/fruit set, pollinators are required. There
are different species of pollinators that are found in the nature. The important one being
honey bees. The practice of rearing bee colonies for pollination service started in USA
by about 1910. The number of colonies to be kept in a field for obtaining maximum
yields also matters and it is generally recommended that five colonies are required for
two hectares of crop.
Management of honey bees for pollination
• Place bee hives very near to the field to save bee’s energy
• Place bee hives in field at 10% flowering of crop
• Place2- 3 colonies per ha
• The colonies should have full strength of bees
• Allow sufficient space for pollen and honey storage
• Provide artificial sugar syrup and water if required
Pollination Syndromes
Pollination syndromes are suites of flower traits that have evolved in response to natural
selection imposed by different pollen vectors, which can be abiotic (wind and water) or
biotic, such as birds, bees, flies etc. These traits include flower shape, size, colour,
odour, reward type and amount, nectar composition, timing of flowering, etc. For
example, tubular red flowers with copious nectar often attract birds; foul smelling flowers
attract carrion flies or beetles, etc.
Two basic types of pollination exist: abiotic pollination and biotic pollination. Abiotic
pollination occurs without intervention from another living organism. Biotic pollination
occurs with the help of insects or other living creatures. Abiotic and biotic pollination
may occur through different methods.
Pollination syndromes are
1. Abiotic pollination syndromes
Anemophily: Anemophily, or wind pollination, refers to the process in which the
wind carries pollen from one plant to another, without being assisted by a living
organism.
Hydrophily: The process of pollination by water is referred to as hydrophily
Scavengers
These are insects which feed upon the dead and decaying plant and animal
matter. Since insects help to remove from the earth surface the dead and decomposing
bodies, which would otherwise be a health hazard, they are referred to as scavengers.
In addition to cleaning the filth from human habitations, these insects help to convert
those bodies into simpler substances before recycling them back to soil, where they
become easily available as food for growing plants. In this respect termite, maggots of
many flies and larvae and adults of beetles are important.
The following are the important groups of insects that serve as scavengers in nature:
Coleoptera:
Rove beetles; Chafer beetles; Ptilinid beetles; Darkling beetles; Skin beetles; Nitidulids;
The carrion beetles; Jewel beetles; Water scavenger beetles; Powder post beetles and
bostrychids.
Diptera
Dady-long legs; Sand flies or moth flies; Midges or gnats; Fungus gnats; Hover flies;
Root maggot flies; Muscids
Isoptera (whiteants) and Hymenoptera (ants) also live and feed upon dead wood,
dead animal or decaying vegetable matter.
LECTURE NO. 25
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CHEMICAL CONTROL
Control of insects with chemicals is known is chemical control. The term pesticide
is used to those chemicals which kill pests and these pests may include insects,
animals, mites, diseases or even weeds. Chemicals which kill insects are called as
insecticides.
Insecticide may be defined as a substance or mixture of substances intended to
kill, repel or otherwise prevent the insects. Similarly pesticides include nematicides –
which kill nematodes, miticides or Acaricides which kill mites, Rodenticides – which kill
rats, weedicides- that kill weeds,Fungicides- that kill fungus etc.
Importance of chemical control:
Insecticides are the most powerful tools available for use in pest management.
They are highly effective, rapid in curative action, adoptable to most situations, flexible
in meeting changing agronomic and ecological conditions and economical.
Insecticides are the only tool for pest management that is reliable for emergency
action when insect pest populations approach or exceed the economic threshold. A
major technique such as the use of pesticides can be the very heart and core of
integrated systems. Chemical pesticides will continue to be essential in the pest
management programmes.
There are many pest problems for which the use of chemicals provides the only
acceptable solution. Contrary to the thinking of some people, the use of pesticides for
pest control is not an ecological sin. When their use made on sound ecological
principles, chemical pesticides provide dependable and valuable tools for the biologist.
Their use is indispensable to modern society.
General Properties of Insecticides
1. Pesticides are generally available in a concentrated from which are to be diluted
and used except in ready to use dust and granules.
2. They are highly toxic and available in different formulations.
Properties of an ideal insecticide or pesticide:
1. It should be freely available in the market under different formulations.
2. It should be toxic and kill the pest required to be controlled.
3. It should not be phytotoxic to the crops on which it is used.
4. It should not be toxic to non target species like animals, natural enemies etc.
5. It should be less harmful to human beings and other animals.
6. Should not leave residues in crops like vegetables.
7. It should have wide range of compatibility.
8. It should not be toxic to bees and fish and other beneficial organisms.
9. It should have higher tolerance limits.
10. Should possess quick known down effect.
11. Should be stable on application.
12. Should not possess tainting effects and hould be free from offensive odour.
13. Should be cheaper
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II. Based on the mode of entry of the insecticides into the body of the insect
they are groups as
Contact poisons: These insecticides are capable of gaining entry into the insect body
either through spiracles and trachea or through the cuticle itself. Hence, these poisons
can kill the insects by mere coming in contact with the body of the insects. Eg.DDT and
HCH.
Stomach poisons: The insecticides applied on the leaves and other parts of plants
when ingested act on the digestive system of the insect and bring aboutthe kill of the
insect. Eg: Calcium arsenate, lead arsenate.
Fumigants: A fumigant is a chemical substance which is volatile at ordinary
temperatures and sufficiently toxic to the insects. Fumigation is the process of
subjecting the infested material to the toxic fumes or vapours of chemicals or gases
which have insecticidal properties. Chemical used in the fumigant and a reasonably
airtight container or room is known as fumigation chamber or “Fumigatorium”.
Fumigants mostly gain entry into the body of the insect through spiracles in the trachea.
Commonly used Fumigants and their doses:
1. Aluminium phosphide, marketed as Celphos tablets used against field rats ,
groundnut bruchids etc
2. Carbon disulphide 8-20 lbs/1000ft3 of food grains
3. EDCT (Ethylene Dichloride Carbon Tetrachloride) 20-30 lbs/1000cft of food
grains
4. EDB Ethylene dibromide 1 lb/1000ft3 of food grains.
5. SO2: By burning sulphur in godowns SO2 fumes are released.
Systemic insecticides
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Chemicals that are capable of moving through the vascular systems of plants
irrespective of site of application and poisoning insects that feed on the plants. Ex:
Methyl demeton, Phosphamidon , Acephate
‘Non systemic insecticides’ are not possessing systemic action are called non systemic
insecticides.Somenon systemic insecticides, however, have ability to move from one
surface leaf to the other. They are called as ‘trans laminar insecticides’ . Eg.Malathion,
Diazinon, spinosad etc.
Red
Yellow
Danger
Caution
1. Ovicides
2. Larvicides
3. Pupicides
4. Adulticides
VI. Generation wise:
Formulations of Insecticides
It is essential that the toxicant must be amenable to application in an effective
manner so as to come into direct contact with the pest or leaf and uniform and
persistent deposit upon the plant surface. Since very small quality of toxicant is required
to be distributed over a large area, insecticides are formulated in a form suitable for use
as a spray, dust or fumigant.Formulation is the processing of a compound by such
methods that will improve its properties ofstorage, handling, application, effectiveness
and safety to the applicator and environment and profitability. It is the final physical
condition in which insecticide is sold.
A single insecticide is often sold in several different formulations. Following are the
different formulations of insecticides.
1. Dusts (D): These are ready to use insecticides in powder form. In a dust
formulation the toxicant is diluted either by mixing with or by impregnation on a
suitable finely divided carrier which may be an organic flour or pulverized mineral
like lime, gypsum, talc etc., or clay like attapulgite bentonite etc.The toxicant in a
dust formulation ranges from 0.15 to 25% and the particle size in dust
formulations is less than 100 microns and with the decrease in particle size the
toxicity of the formulation increases. Dusts are easy to apply, less labour is
required and water is not necessary. However if wind is there, loss of chemical
occurs due to drift hence dusting should be done in calm weather and also in the
early morning hours when the plant is wet with dew.
Eg. HCH 10% dust; Endosulfan 4% D.
2. Granules or Pelleted insecticides(G): These are also ready to use granular or
pelleted forms of insecticides. In this formulation the particle is composed of a
base such as an inert material impregnated or fused with the toxicant which
released from the formulation in its intact form or as it disintegrates giving
controlled release. The particle size ranges from 0.25 to 2.38 mm, or 250 to 1250
microns and contains 1 to 10% concentration of the toxicant. The granules are
applied in water or whorls of plants or in soil. Action may be by vapour or
systemic. In application of granules there is very little drift and no undue lose of
chemical. Undesirable contamination is prevented. Residue problem is less since
granules do not adhere to plant surface. Release of toxicant is achieved over a
long period. Easy for application as water is not required for application. Less
harmful for natural enemies.
Eg: Carbofuran 3G, Phorate10 G, Cartap hydrochloride 4G
3. Wettable Powders (WP): It is a powder formulation which is to be diluted with
water and applied. It yields a stable suspension with water. The active ingredient
(toxicant) ranges from 15 to 95%. It is formulated by blending the toxicant with a
diluent such as attapulgite, a surface active agent and an auxiliary material.
103
LECTURE NO. 26
INORGANIC INSECTICIDES
Arsenic compounds:
In an arsenical compound, the total arsenic content and the water soluble arsenic
content are of importance, the water solubility of arsenic may result in entering the
foliage and causing burning injury to plants, and hence water insoluble compounds
are preferred for insect control. Arsenates are more stable and safe for application
on plants then arsenites. Arsenites are mainly used in poison baits since they are
phytotoxic. However arsenates are less toxic to insects then arsenites.
In insects arsenates cause regurgitation, torpor (sluggishness) and quiescence.
Disintegration of epithelial cells of the midgut and clumping of the chromatin of the
nuclei are the effects noticed in poisoned insects. Slow decrease in oxygen
consumption is also evident and kill of the insect is primarily due to the inhibition of
respiratory enzymes. Water soluble arsenic causes wilting followed by browning and
shriveling of the tissue.
1. Calcium arsenate: It was first used by about 1906 as an insecticide. It is a white
flocculent power, formulated as a dust of 25 to 30% metallic arsenic equivalent.
Dosage – Calcium arsenate at 0.675 to 1.350 kg with equal quantity of slaked
lime in 450 litres of water. LD50.for mammals oral – 35 to 100. Being a stomach
poison it was mainly used for control of leaf eating insects.
2. Lead arsenate: It was first used as in insecticide in 1892 for the control of gypsy
moth. It is a stomach poison with little contact action LD50.for rat oral 10-100,
dermal 2400 mg/kg. . It is rarely used as dust. 450 g to 1800 g of load arsenate is
diluted with 200-240 litres of water. An equal quantity of hydrated lime is some
time added to prevent phytotoxicity to tender foliage. In baits it is used at 450
or900 g in 1200 g to 45000 g of carrier such as wheat bran or rice husk
respectively.
3. Arsenite:
Paris green:It is a double salt of copper acetate and copper arsenite. It was first
used in 1867 for the control of Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa
decemlineata. It is now used as bait for the control of slugs. LD50for rat oral- 22
mg/kg.Very good against termites.
Flourine Compounds
These compounds were used since 1890. They are principally stomach poisons
and to a limited extent contact poisons. The kill is more rapid than that of arsenicals.
Their insecticidal properties are related to the fluorine content and solubility in the
digestive juices of insect. Flouride poisoning produces spasms, regurgitation, flaccid
paralysis and death.
1. Sodium fluoride: It is a white power. Available in 93 to 99% purity in commercial
products. It is highly phytotoxic and used in poison baits used exclusively against
cockroaches, earwigs, cutworms, grasshoppers etc.
106
Preparation of Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE 5%): Take 50 g of powdered neem
seed kernels soak it in one litre of water for 8 hours and stir the contents often. Squeeze
the soaked material repeatedly for better extraction of the azadirachtin in the aquous
suspension. Filter the contents through muslin cloth. Make the filtrate to one litre. Add
1ml teepol or triton or sandovit or soap water (2%) and spray.
107
3) Rotenone: It is extracted from the roots of Derris plant which many contain 4 to 11%
rotenone depending on the variety. Though rotenone is reported from 68 species of
leguminous plants, principal commercial sources are Derris ellipticaD. malaccensisfrom
Malaysia and Lonchocarupus utilis andD. uruca from S. America. Rotenone occurs in
Derris roots (4-9%), Lonchocarpus (8-11%).
108
It is oxidized to non-insecticidal compound in the presence of light and air and hence
rotenone residues are difficult to find after 5 to 10 days in normal sunlight. Insects
poisoned with rotenone show a steady decline in oxygen consumption followed by
paralysis and deaths. It is very specific being highly toxic to fishes and to most insect
species but almost harmless to warm blooded animals except pigs LD50.to white rat
oral-130 to 1500. Dust or spray containing 0.5 to 1.0 per cent and 0.001 to 0.002
percentrotenone are used commercially.
4) Plumbagin:
Plumbagin is naturally occurring napthoquinone of plant origin from the roots of
Plumbago europea L. (Plumbaginaceae) and named so in 1828 by Bulong d’ Astafort.
Plumbagin is known for its medicinal, antifertility, antimicrobial, molluscicidal,
nematicidal and other pharmacological properties on diverse fauna. The yield of
plumbagin ranges between 0.5-3.000percent on dry weight basis.
The elucidation of structure of plumbagin and its synthesis in 1936 led to
detailed studies. More recently, its IGR properties viz., inhibition of chitin synthetase and
ecdysteroid titres have been demonstrated (Kubo et al., 1982)
The cold alcoholic extract (5%) of roots of P. zeylanica L was toxic to
Euproctis fraterna larvae as contact spray. Contact toxicity of 5% petroleum ether
extracts of P. zeylanica root against Spodoptera litura Fab. , Dystercus
koenigiiFab.,Dipaphis erysimi Kalt, Dactynops carthami H.R.L, Coccinella
septumpunctata L was also reported.
Pyrethrum powder is prepared by grinding the flowers. The powder mixed with a
diluent such as talc or clay is known as pyrethrum dust. It is prepared just before use.
Otherwise it gets deteriorated rapidly. It is also used as emulsions, solutions, and
aerosoles. Pyrethrum is unstable to light, air moisture and alkali. The residues
109
deteriorate very rapidly after application. Pyrethrins are powerful contact insecticides but
appear to be poor stomach poisons. A characteristic action of Pyrethroid is the rapid
paralysis or ‘knock down’ effect and substantial recovery that follow it. This recovery is
due to rapid enzymatic detoxification in the insect. To bring about mortality equivalent to
knock down effect three times increase in dosage may be required.
Compounds such as piperonyl butoxide, propyl isome and sulfoxide are known to
inhibit the detoxication enzyme and increase the toxicities of pyrethroids. These
synergists are used at 10 parts to 100 part of pyrethroid. LD50. for white rat oral-200
dermal for rat-1800. Pyrocon E 2/22 (1 part of pyrethrin + 10 parts of piperonyl butoxide)
is used for the control of coconut red palm weevil. In household sprays and as a
repellent against external parasites of livestock pyrethrum is useful. It is also mixed with
grains in storage to protect from stored grain pests. Its use alone or in combination with
piperonyl butoxide as food packages has been permitted by the food and Drug
Administration in the U.S.A. and no other chemical has been approved.
Properties
1. Highly unstable in light, moisture and air.
2. Have no residual effect.
3. Paralyse by more contact.
4. Gains entry through spiracle and cuticle.
5. Act on central nervous system.
6. Having rapid knock down effect.
7. Practically no mammalian toxicity.
8. Good insecticides against household and cattle pests.
110
LECTURE NO. 27
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC INSECTICIDES
1. DDT
DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler. In 1939 a Swiss
entomologist, Paul Muller, found its insecticidal property for the first time. This discovery
brought the `Nobel Prize' for medicine to Paul Muller in 1948 for the life saving
discovery.
Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT) is stomach and contact insecticide. It
has got long residual action. It is also non-phytotoxic except to cucurbits. It is not much
effective against phytophagous mites. Due to low cost of DDT and effectiveness against
a variety of insects particularly against house flies and mosquitoes, it is much
popularized but due to long residual life and accumulation, it is banned in several
countries. The acute oral LD50 for rats is 113-118 mg/kg.
It does affect the nervous system preventing normal transmission of nerve
impulses. DDT causes a violent excitatory neurotoxic system in most insects which are
having uncoordinated movement and DDT Jitters (tremor of the entire body).
II) Cyclodines
Cyclodienes also act as neurotoxicants which disturb the balance of sodium and
potassium ions within the neuron resulting into tremors, convulsions, prostration and
ultimately the death.
III) Organophosphates
Organophosphate came to limelight during Second World War. The biological activity
of these compounds was first discovered by W. Lange and Krueger in 1932. OP
compounds as insecticides were mainly due to the work of Gerhard Schrader in 1937 in
Germany. First OP compound TEPP (Tetra Ethyl Pyro Phosphate) followed by
parathion and schradan, the first systemic insecticide. Organophosphate insecticides
have two most important properties such as higher potency and low residual life. The
organophosphates (OPs) inhibit the cholinesterase (Ch E) enzyme leading to blockage
of synaptic transmission of nerve impulses and finally death.
1) Malathion
It is a non systemic contact and stomach insecticideand acaricide of low mammalian
toxicity. Hence it is recommended on fruits and vegetables till a few days prior to
harvest. It is also recommended for storage insects and also for external application
for parasites on animals.
Formulations: EC 50 and Dusts 40
Trade names: Cythion and Himala
LD50 value: 2800 mg/kg
2) Methyl parathion:
It is a contact and stomach poison with slight fumigant action. It is widely used in for
sucking insects and foliage feeders.
Formulations: EC 50 and Dusts 2
Trade names: Folidal, Metacid, Paratox, Dhanumar
LD50 value: 13 mg/kg
3) Diazinon:
It is a contact persistent insecticide with nematicidal properties. It is very much useful
against household insects such as flies and cockroaches.It has contact, stomach poison
and also fumigant action.
Formulations: EC 20 and 5G
Trade names: Basudin
LD50 value: 300-850 mg/kg .
4) Dichlorvos (Dimethyl Dichloro Vinyl Phosphate - DDVP)
It is contact poison but due to high vapour pressure it has got strong penetrating power.
It is very effective against hidden insects due to its fumigation action. It is recommended
for leaf miners and leaf webbers. It brings quick knock down effect. It does not leave
toxicresidues. It is highly toxic to bees. It is acontact and stomach poison with fumigant
action.
Formulations: EC 76 and 5G
Trade names: nuvan, vapona , Doom, Divap
LD50 value: 56 – 108 mg/kg.
113
5) Fenitrothion:
It acts as contact and stomach poison with broad spectrum activity and a selective
acaricide. It is effective against sucking pests including mealy bugs, borer and mites
and external parasites of livestock.
Formulations: EC 35, ULV 0.05 – 0.1 and 5 Dusts
Trade names: Sumithion, Folithion
LD50 value: 50 – 250 mg/kg.
6) Quinolphos:
It is contact poison having good penetrating power and It is having acaricidal
properties.It is widely used against caterpillars and borer on cotton, vegetables and
other crops.
Formulations: EC 25 and 5 G
Trade names: Ekalux, Shakthi Quick, Quinguard, Quinaltaf, Smash, Flash
LD50 value: 62–137 mg/kg.
7) Phosolone:
It is a non systemic contact insecticide and acaricide, effective against wide spectrum of
species.
Formulations: EC 35
Trade names: Zolone
LD50 value: 135 mg/kg
8) Chlorpyriphos:
It is a non-systemic contact insecticide very effective against sucking and chewing
insects.It is also recommended against house hold insect pests. It is widely
recommended as seed treatment chemical against white grub and termites.
Formulations: EC 20
Trade names: Dursban, Chloroban, Durmet, Radar
LD50 value: 135-163 mg/kg
9) Phosphomidon:
It is a systemic insecticide ha ving low contact action. It is very effective against sap
sucking insect pests. On application it is absorbed in the plant tissues within 1-3 hours
and is translocated more towards the top. It is less toxic to fish and more toxic to bees.
Formulations: 40 SL
Trade names: Demecron, Sumidon, Chemidan, Hydan, Phamidon
LD50 value: 17-30 mg/kg
10) Monocrotophos:
It is a systemic insecticide and acaricide with contact action. It has wide range of
susceptibility of insects. It is toxic to bees.
Formulations: 36 SL
Trade names: Monocil, Nuvacron, Monophos, Monochem, Monostar
LD50 value: 14-23 mg/kg
114
CARBAMATES
All carbamates are derivatives of carbamic acid. Many of the carbamic esters
areinsecticidal and a few are effective molluscicides Like organophosphates, the
carbamate insecticides interfere in cholinergic transmission. The carbamate enters the
synapse and inhibits the acetylcholine-esterase as a result the acetylcholine contains to
depolarize the post synaptic membrane, causing prolonged stimulation resulting into the
failure of the nerve or effector tissue. Carbamates have an analogous action,
carbamylating rather than phosphorylating the enzyme and the ChE recovers more
readily from carbamates than from organophosphates. Thus, unlike,
organophosphates, they are known as reversible inhibitors.
1. Carbaryl:
Carbaryl is a contact and stomach insecticide. It is most popular insecticide because it
is effective against a wide range of insects and possesses very low mammalian
toxicity. It is compatible with many pesticides except Bordeaux mixture lime sulphur
and urea. It is not effective against mites.
Formulations: WP 50%, Granule 4% and Dusts 5%
Trade names: Sevin.
LD50 value: 400 mg/kg
2. Propoxur(Arprocarb)
It is a broad spectrum, contact and stomach poison with good knock down properties.
It is effective in controlling house hold pests such as cockroaches, crickets, flies etc. It
has long residual action.
Formulations: 20% EC, 50% WP
Trade names: Baygon, Bla ttamen, Saphaer
LD50 value: 90-128 mg/kg
3. Carbofuran.
It is a plant systemic broad spectrum and long residual insecticide, miticide and
nematicide. It is recommended as soil insecticides against plant sap sucking and borer
pests.
Formulation: 3G,48F
Trade names: Furadan
LD50 value: 8-14 mg/kg
4. Carbosulfan.
It is a systemic insecticide, and nematicide. It is recommended as seed dresser
insecticide
Formulation: 25 DS
Trade name: Marshal
5. Thiodicarb
It is a insecticide with ovicidal properties, and molluscicide.
Formulation: 75 WP
Trade name: Larvin
116
6. Aldicarb
It is systemic pesticide usually applied in soil as seed furrow, band or broadcast
treatments either pre-plant or at planting as well as post emergence side dress
treatments. It has also possessing acaricidal property and toxic to higher animals
Formulation: 10 G
Trade names: Temik
LD50 value: 0.93 mg/kg
5. Methomyl:
It is a systemic with contact and stomach insecticide and nematicide. It is very
effective against a wide variety of pests particularly army worms, cabbage semilooper,
Okra stem fly, fruit borers, leaf defoliators, cotton boll worms, etc.
Formulations: 90 WP,12.5 EC, 40 SP
Trade names: Lannate, Dunnate
LD50 value: 30 mg/kg
117
LECTURE NO. 28
SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS AND INSECTICIDES OF OTHER GROUPS
Fourth generation: Offer the most resistance to exposure to sunlight and air and,
therefore, are more persistent. This group is more toxic to people than other
pyrethroids and therefore requires more care in use. More stable in the environment.
7) λ cyhalothrin
Non-systemic insecticide with contact and stomach action, and repellent
properties.gives rapid knockdown and long residual activity. It is an insecticide and
acaricide used to control a wide range of pests.
Formulations: 2.5 EC, 5% EC
Trade names: Kung-Fu,Reeva, Charge, Excaliber, Grenade, Hallmark, Karate,
Matador, Samurai and Sentinel.
LD50 value: 56 mg/kg
8) Cyfluthrin
It is a non-systemic contact and stomach poison,with rapid knock down effect. It is
for control of chewing and sucking insects on crops. Cyfluthrin is also used in public
health situations and for structural pest control.
Formulations: 5 EC, 10% EC
Trade names: Contur, Laser, Responsar, Tempo
LD50 value: 869 - 1271 mg/kg
9) Cypermethrin
It is stomach and contact insecticide. It is very effective against different types of
pests on various crops.
Formulations: 10 EC, 25 EC
Trade names: Cyper guard, Ripcord, Cymbush and Cyper kill
LD50 value: ha Oral LD50 303-4123 MG /KG, dermal more than 2400mg/kg
10) Fenpropathrin
It is contact insecticide and of broad spectrum in nature.It is extremely toxic to fish,
wildlife.and aquatic organisms. It have acaricidal and miticidal property.
Formulations: 2.4 EC, 10 or 20% EC.
Trade names: Danitol, Rody and Meothrin
LD50 value:54 mg/kg
11) Flucythrinate
Flucythrinate is a synthetic pyrethroid used to control insect pests in apples,
cabbage, field corn, head lettuce and pears, and to control Heliothis spp. in cotton.
Trade names: AASTAR, AC 222705, Cybolt, Fuching Jujr, OMS 2007, and Pay-Off.
LD50 value: 81 mg/kg .dermal LD50 in rabbits of greater than 1000 mg/kg
120
NOVEL INSECTICIDES
Neonicotinoids
They represent a novel and distinct chemical class of insecticides with remarkable
chemical and biological properties. Similar to nicotines in activity partially to structure.
Imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids interact with acetyl choline binding site of nicotinic
Ach receptor which cause excitation and eventually paralysis leading to death of
insects. These are selective and safe to non target organisms.
121
1) Imidacloprid:
Systemic insecticide with translaminar activity and with contact and stomach action.
Used as a seed dressing, soil application and foliar application against sucking insects
including leaf hoppers, plant hoppers, aphids, thrips and whitefly, also effective against
soil insects, termites. It is highly toxic to birds.
Formulations: 17.8 SL ,70 WS
Trade names: Confidor, Gaucho, Admire, Merit, Premier, Stalone. Tatamida, Maratho ,
Provado
LD50 value: 450 mg/kg
2) Acetamiprid:It is a systemic insecticide with contact and stomach action. Used as a
soil and foliar application against homoptera especially aphid and leafhoppers.
Thysonaptera and Lepidoptera.
Formulations: 20 SP
Trade names: Pride, Assail Intruder, Profil, Supreme
LD50 value:>2000 mg/kg
3) Thiomethoxam :
Contact and stomach poison with translaminar and systemic movement used as a seed
treatment and foliar application against sucking insects . It has very strong effect on viral
transmitting insects.
Formulations: 25 WG, 70 WS
Trade names: Actara, Cruiser, Crux, Flagship, Meridian, Adage, Rinova
LD50 value: 1563 mg/kg
4) Clothianidin: It is systemic and translaminar in action It shows inhibitory action on
oviposition and feeding.
Formulations: 50 WG
Trade names: Dantop, Celeso
LD50 value: >5000 mg/kg
5) Thiacloprid: Used as a foliar spray against sucking pests such as aphids, thrips,
whitefly, beetles and leaf miner. It act as an acute and stomach poison.
Formulations: 36 WG, 70 WG
Trade names: Calypso, Bariard, Alanto
LD50 value: 500mg/kg
Phenyl pyrazoles (Fiproles):
1) Fipronil
GABA receptors is the target site for fipronil. Blockage of GABA gated chloride channel
reduces neuronal inhibition which leads to hyper exitation of the central nervous system,
convulsions and death of an target pest.
Broad spectrum systemic insecticide with contact and stomach poison activity. Used as
a foliar application against stem borer, leaf miner, hoppers, root worm and mites
Formulations: 0.3 G, 5 SC
Trade names: Regent, Front line,Tremidor, Zoom, Icon Tempo, Bilgran
122
LECTURE NO. 29
MACROCYCLIC LACTONES
Macrocyclic lactones
1. Spinosyns - Spinosad
The extract of the fermentation broth that contains spinosad is
produced by the microorganism, Saccharopolyspora spinosa. The primary components
are spinosyn A and spinosyn D.
Spinosad kills insects by causing rapid excitation by activation of nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors of the insect nervous system, leading to involuntary muscle
contractions, prostration with tremors, and paralysis. It also effects GABA receptor
functioning.
Spinosad is a contact and stomach poison with some translaminar movement in
leaf tissue.
Formulations: 45 SC, 2.5 WSC
Trade names: Tracer, Spintor, Precise, Success, Naturalyte, Laser, Credence Caribstar,
Boomerang, and Conserve
LD50 value: 3738 mg/kg
2. Avermectins:
Avermectins form a new class of compounds having nematicidal, miticidal and
insecticidal activity. These are produced by the soil microorganism Streptomyces
avermitilis. Avermectins activate the GABA gated chloride channel, causing an inhibitory
effect, which, when excessive, results in the insect’s death. This channel normally
blocks reactions in some nerves, preventing excess stimulation of CNS.
Emamectin benzoate and abamectin are the two major compounds in this group.
.contact and stomach poisons. These are used as bait, foliar application against
Homoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and mites
Emamectin benzoate: It is non systemic insecticide which penetrates by translaminar
movement and effective against Lepidopterous pests It has low toxicity to non target
organisms and environment.
Formulations: EC 5, SG 5
Trade names: Proclaim
LD50 value: 300 mg/kg.
Abamectin:
It is a broad spectrum insecticide acting on mites of Tetranychidae, Eeriophyidae and
Tarsonemidae. It is also effective against tobacco hornworm, diamondback moth,
tobacco budworm, serpentine leaf miner and less potent against certain Homoptera
(aphids) and Lepidoptera. It is less toxic to beneficial arthropods
Formulations: EC 1.8
Trade names: Avid, Agrimec, Vertimec, Argi-mek, Affirm and Avert
123
3. Oxadiazines
Indoxacarb:
The active ingredient indoxacarb works by inhibiting sodium ion entry into nerve cells,
resulting in paralysis and death of targeted pests.
Indoxacarb is a stomach poison with slight contact action. Indoxacarb affects
insects from direct exposure and through ingestion of treated foliage/fruit. Once
indoxacarb is absorbed or ingested, feeding cessation occurs almost immediately. It
kills by binding to a site on sodium channels and blocking the flow of sodium ions into
nerve cells. The result is impaired nerve function, feeding cessation, paralysis, and
death.
Formulations: SC 14.5, WDG 30
Trade names: Avaunt, Steward.Torando
4. Thio-Urea Derivatives
Diafenthiuron is new types of thiourea derivative which acts specially on sucking
pests such as mites, whiteflies and aphids. Diafenthiuron is photochemically converted
within a few hours in sunlight to its carbodimiide derivative which is much more powerful
acaricide/insecticide than diafenthiuron. It is a inhibitor of oxidative phosphorylation, via
distruption of ATP formation (inhibitor of ATP synthase).
It acts as Acaricide cum-insecticide as a foliar sprays against mites, sucking pests,
lepidopteran insect pests
Formulations: 50 WP
Trade names: Polo
LD50 value: 2068 mg/kg.
5. Pyridine Azomethines
Pymetrozine is a new insecticide highly active and specific against sucking insect
pests. Pymetrozine is the only representative of the pyridine azomethine. It has high
degree of selectivity, low mammalian toxicity and safety to birds, fish and non-target
arthropods.
When the insertion of the stylets of sucking insects into the pymetrozine treated
plant tissues, stylets are almost immediately blocked. The sucking insects die by
starvation a few days later (feeding depressant)
Formulations: 50 WDG
Trade names: Full fill, Chess
LD50 value: 5693 mg/kg
124
6. Pyrroles
Pyrroles are oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors. It works by uncoupleing
oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport process in mitochondria.( Oxidative
phosphorylation is the process through which ATP is synthesized in plants and
animals). It interferes with formation of ATP which is essential for muscle contraction.
Formamidines
Formamidines are represented by Chlordimeform and Amitraz with very unique
actions for the control of phytophagous mites, ticks and certain insects (Lepidoptera and
Hemiptera) by acting as agonists of octapamine receptors octapamine act as
neurotransmitter,neuromodulator and is involved in energy metabolism and stress
responses.
1. Chlordimeform: It has marked translaminar and systemic activity. It shows a strong
repellent-antifeedant action on both lepidopterous larvae and mites. It has good ovicidal
activity. Non toxic to non target organisms except predaceous mites.
Formulations: 50 SP, 4 EC
Trade names: Galecron, Fundal, Fundal, Spike
LD50 value: 340 mg/kg
2. Amitraz:It is a non systemic insecticide and acaricide with contact and respiratory
action It is used to control red spider mites, leaf miners, scale insects, and aphids.
Formulations: 50 SP, 20 EC
Trade names: Acarac, Amitraze,Baam
LD50 value: 523- 800 mg/kg
125
Ketoenols
Ketoenols act as insecticide and acaricides against against all developmental
stages and is a valuable new tool in the resistance management. They
arehttp://www.alanwood.net/pesticides/class_insecticides.html - tetronic_acid_insecticides tetronic
acid insecticides with acaricidal action. Their mode of action is to inhibit lipogenesis in
treated insects, resulting in decreased lipid contents, growth inhibition of younger
insects, and reduced ability of adult insects to reproduce.
1. Spiromesifen:
Spiromesifen is effective against whitefly, spider mites and psyllids. It is is particularly
active against juve nile stages. However, it also strongly affects fecundity of mite (and
whitefly adults by transovariole effects.
Formulations: 2 SC, 4 F
Trade names: Oberon, Forbid
LD50 value: >2000 mg/kg
2. Spirodiclofen:
Spirodiclofen is a selective, non-systemic foliar insecticide and acaricide. It is effective
against mites and sanjose scales.
Formulations: 2 SC,
Trade names: Envidor
LD50 value: >2500 mg/kg
3. Spirotetramat:
Spirotetramat is effective against aphids, whiteflies, scales, mealybugs, psylla,
phylloxera, thrips, and mites on crops like citrus, vegetables, grapes, potato, other
tuberous crops, livestock commodities, and greenhouses/nurseries.
Formulations: SC 14.5, SC 22.4
Trade names: Movento, Ultor
LD50 value: >2000 mg/kg
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LECTURE NO. 30
CHITIN SYNTHESIS INHIBITORS, INSECT HORMONE MIMICS, AGONISTS AND
RECENT METHODS OF PEST CONTROL
Chitin synthesis inhibitors disrupt molting by blocking the formation of chitin, the
building block of insect exoskeleton. Without the ability to synthesize chitin, molting is
incomplete, resulting in malformed insects that soon die. It suppresses egg-layi ng and
causes egg sterility in treated adults through secondary hormonal activity.
S. Name & Mode of action Tradename LD50
No &Formulation mg/kg
1 Diflubenzuron: Dimilin 4640
Stomach and contact poison that acts by 25 WP
inhibiting chitin synthesis so it interferes with
formation of cuticle.
2 Flufenoxuron : Cascade 3000
Broad spectrum Insect and mite growth 10 WDC
regulator with contact and stomach action.
3 Chlorfluazuron: Chlorfluazuron is used in Atabron 8500
subterranean termite baiting stations. 5 SC
4 Triflumuron: Alsystin , Baycidal >5000
Broad spectrum Insect growth regulator Starycide25 WP
5 Teflubenzuron: Nomolt,Dart, 2250
It is effective against Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Nemolt
Diptera, Hymenoptera Aleyrodidae, and 15 SC
Psyllidae
6 Novaluron: It acts mainly by ingestion, but has Rimon 5000
shown some contact activity. It does not have 10 EC
ovicidal activity, but a high percentage of
mortality of first instars hatching from eggs laid
on sprayed foliage occurs.
7 Buprofezin: Applaud 2198
Contact and stomach, persistent chitin 25 SC, 70 WP
synthesis inhibitor with miticidal action.
Effective against specifically on Homopteran
pests.
8 Flufenoxuron: Cascade ? 3000
Contact and stomach, inhibits chitin synthesis Casette
in nymphal mites and lepidopteran larvae. Tenope
Compatible with a-Cypermethrin. 10%EC, 5%EC
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Juvenoids:
i) Juvabione (Fernesol - extracted from excreta of Tenebrio sp)
ii) Methoprene (Altosid )
iii) Hydroprene (Gentrol, Altozar)
iv) Kinoprene (Enstar)
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I) Insect Repellents: Chemicals which cause insects to move away from their
source are referred to as repellents (or) Chemically that prevent insect damage to
plants (or) animals by rendering them unattractive, unpalatable (or) offensive are
called repellents.
Desirable traits of a good repellent
a) It should be effective for a long time and on a wide range of insects.
b) Weathering effects on it should be the least.
c) Should not be toxic (or) irritating to man and animals.
d) Should leave an acceptance odour, taste and touch
e) Should be harmless to clothes.
f) Should be cheap.
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Types of repellents
Repellents are broadly classified as Physical repellents and Chemical
repelle nts
1) Physical repellents
These produce repellence by physical means and are of the following
kinds.
i. Contact stimuli repellents
These are substances (Such as dusts, granules, water, oils, leaf hairs, spines
and waxes) that influence the surface texture of the plants to produce a
disagreeable effect on the tactile sense of the insects.
ii. Auditory repellents
Theses employ sound to ward off insects. For instance, an amplified sound has
been found effective in repelling mosquitoes, pyralid moths and files.
iii. Visual repellents
White light normally attracts insects but the yellow colour light is the least
attractive and to some extent acts as a visual repellent to insects.
iv. Excitatory repellents
Chemicals such as pyrethrum, DDT, BHC etc., which excite the insect’s tarsi by
stimulating the sensory nerves and force them to leave the treated surface.
v. Feeding repellents
Substances that inhibit feeding in insects are called feeding repellents (or)
Antifeedent.
2. Chemical repellents
These are chemicals that affect tactile, olfactory (or) gustatory receptors of
insects and could be plant origin (or) synthetic as follows.
i. Repellents of plant origin
The oil of citronella remained a commonly used mosquito repellent and
still continues to be a constituent of a popular brand of commercial mosquito repellent,
Odomos. The oil is extracted from the lemon grass, Cymbopogon nardus and contains
citronellol, geraniol (as the main constituents), boreneol and terpenes (insmall amounts)
of which the first two are regarded as the main repellents for mosquitoes.
Pyrethrum is another plant product which not only acts as an insecticide
but in low concentrations, also as a repellent for blood – sucking insects. Clothes
impregnated with some pyrethroids have been found to afford protection against the
attack of many insects vectors of diseases like Aedes aegypi, Anopheles
quardrimaculaius etc.,
ii. Synthetic repellents
Diethyl toluamide, protects the bearer against mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and
biting files. The others Bordeaux mixture, Dimethyl pthalate, and Indalone acts as .
repellents for insects.
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Uses of repellents
Repellents can find several uses such as
1. They can be used on the body in some formulation to ward off insects.
2. They can be used as fumigants in an enclosed area of insects.
3. They can be used as dusts and sprays on domestic animal to protect them
from noxious biting and blood – sucking insects.
4. They can be used to drive insects from their natural breeding grounds to
areas treated with an insecticide (or) a chemosterilant to kill (or) sterilize
them.
Insect Antifeedants
Antifeedant is a chemical that inhibits feeding but does not kill the insect directly;
the insect often may remain on the treated plant material and possibly may die of
starvation. These are also caused as “Feeding deterrents”
There are three main sites for the sense of taste in insects located in the mouth, on the
tarsi and on the antennae. Insect feeding deterrents may be perceived either by
stimulation of specialized receptors (or) by distortion of the normal function of neurons
which perceive phagostimulating compounds. Since the sugars are very important
components of an insects sustained feeding, the inhibition of its receptors is an effective
antifeedant action
Groups of antifeedants
a) Triazines
Acetanilide.is an odourless and tasteless solid and not phytotoxic and inhibits
feeding of most chewing surface feeders such as caterpillars, beetles and cockroaches.
b) Organotins
Triphenyl tin acetate (Brestan) was one of the earliest organotins that was found to have
an antifeedant effect on the foliage – feeding insects such as the cotton leaf worm,
colorado potato beetle, larvae of potato tuber moth, Agrotis ipsilon and grasshoppers.
c) Carbamates
Several thiocarbamates inhibit the feeding of Mexican beetle, Colorado potato
beetle and japanese beetle. The carbamate, arprocarb (Propoxur) is systemic
antifeedant against the boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis.
d) Botanical Extracts
i) Pyrethrum
From the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium , is not only insecticide but in
small doses also acts as an antifeedant for the biting fly, Glossina.
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Disadvantages of Antifeedants:
1. Only the chewing type of insects are effected by antifeedants, the sucking pests
remain unaffected.
2. New growths of plant are not protected.
3. As the insects are not immediately killed, they could move to untreated parts (or)
other plants and damage them.
4. Antifeedants are not effective enough to become a sole control measure. They
could only be promising when included in the integrated control schemes.
Insect Attractants
Chemicals that cause insects to make oriented movements towards their
source are called insect attractants. They influence both gustatory (taste) and olfactory
(smell) receptors (or) sensilla.
Types of Attractants
1. Pheromones
2. Natural food lures
3. Oviposition lures
4. Poison baits
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1) Pheromones
In 1959 Karlson and Butenandt coined the term pheromone. For a
Chemical that is secreted into the external environment by an animal and that elicits a
specific response in a receiving individual of the same species. It is also referred to as
“ectohormone”. Depending on their mode of action pheromones are divided into two
general classes.
i) One which gives a releaser effect – an immediate and reversible
behavioural change is produced in the receiving animal.
ii) One which gives a primer effect - a chain of physiological changes is
triggered off in the receiving animal. Eg : Gustatory stimulation, controlling
caste determination and reproductive control in social Hymenoptera (Ants
and Bees), Isoptera (Termites).
Behaviour – releasing pheromones are typically odorous and act directly on the
central nervous system of the receiving animal. Eg: Alarm, trail following, aggregation
for mating, feeding (or) oviposition, The pheromones that promote aggregation are sex
pheromones and aggregation pheromones.
a) Sex pheromones
A Sex pheromone released by one sex only triggers off a series of behaviour
patterns in the other sex of the same species and thus facilitates mating. The male
insects respond to the odorous chemical released by the female. In certain species of
insects the males are known to produce the sex pheromone which attracts the females.
Ex : In the cotton boll weevil Anthonomus grandis
The sex pheromones are specific in their biological activity, the males responding
only to a specific pheromone of the female of the same species, and their reactions are
directed towards the air currents carrying the odour. The time of release of the
pheromones by the females and response by male to them appears to be specific for
each species. Effective distances for sex pheromones depend on the threshold
concentration for male stimulation and release rate from the female.
The following sex pheromones have been isolated and identified.
Bombycol : Silkworm, Bombyx mori
Gyplure : Gypsy moth, Perthetria dispar;
Gossyplure : Pink bollworm, Pectionophora gossypiella
Trimedlure : Meditarrnian fruifly, Ceratitis capitapa
Cuelure : Melon fly, Bactroceracucurbitae
Litlure :Tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura
Helilure : Red gram pod borer, Helicoverpa. armigera
Amlure : Chaffer beetle, Amphimallon sp
Looplure :Cabbage looper ,Trichoplusia ni
Ferrolure : Coconut Red Palm Weevil , Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
Leucilure : Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer Leucinodes orbonalis
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b) Aggregation pheromones
The pheromone released by one sex only elicits response in both sexes of a
species. In scolytid (or) bark beetles the males secrete the pheromone into the hind gut
which gets incorporated in to the faceal pellets and through them attracts flying males
and females towards the galleries. In Trigoderma granaria mixture of fatty acid esters
and methyl and oleate function as aggregation pheromones.
d) Alarm pheromones
These substances are elaborated by mandibular glands, sting appartus, anal
glands which typically results in fight or aggression. Dolichoderine ants – release a fruity
odour by the worker that results in a erratic behavour of workers, when this is
discharged into mandibles onto an intruding insects that becomes marked as agreessor.
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Oviposition Lures
These are chemicals that govern the selection of suitable sites for oviposition by
the adult female for example, P-methyl acetophenone attracts adult female rice stem
borers to oviposit.
Poison Baits
Poison baits are a mixture of food lures and insecticides. The effort is
made to make the bait more attractive to insects than their natural food and also a
smaller quantity should be able to attract the largest number of insects. Baits are used
when for some reason spraying (or) dusting of insecticides is not practicable. For
instance, when insects live hidden under the soil, inside the fruits and vegetables (or)
for household insects like ants, cockroaches and houseflies.
Advantages of Attractants
1. Attractants do not kill the insects and, therefore, do not disrupt the ecosystem
(or) food chain.
2. They are specific for some insects and so do not affect the non-targets.
3. They can be used to mass trap the insects to be subsequently killed by
insecticides.
4. Since they are not long lasting, they do not cause environmental pollution.
5. They can be employed to misguide the insects to wrong host plants, wrong
mating partners (or) wrong oviposition sites where by their number will go down
by starvation (or) by producing unfertilized eggs.
Disadvantages of Attractants
1. Insects can always fi nd untreated hosts, so their number may not be affected.
2. The attractants can not be relied as a sole control measure – can only be used in
integrated control programmes.
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C) Hybrid Sterility:
In some insect cross-types or races which produce fertile females but sterile
males among progeny. These sterile hybrids are excellent material for use in insect
control. These sterile males are more vigorous and competitive than the sterile males
produced after radiation or chemosterilization.
D) Population Replacement:
The ability of disease transmission of vectors ie replacement of specific vector
populations can as well be changed by genetic methods.
E) Auto-Sterilization:
Sterilization of native insects in their natural environment by using
chemosterilants along with the species specific attatractants / lures/ bait traps. Through
this both the sexes can be sterilized, and also negate the reproductive ability of those
insects which have escaped the lure/bait treatment.
137
LECTURE NO. 31
RODENTICIDES AND ACARICIDES
Rodenticides
Compounds, which kill the rodents by their chemical action, are known as
rodenticides. Rodents belong to order Rodentia, class Mammalia and phylum
Vertebrata. Rodents such as rats, mice, gophers and ground squirrels spread diseases
like plague, rat bite fe ver and leptospiral jaundice in human beings. They damage the
standing crops and cause substantial loss during storage of the produce.
Characteristics of ideal rodenticide:
1. Toxic action should be slow so as to allow the animal to consume a lethal dose.
2. Palatable and odourless.
3. Bait shyness must be avoided.
4. Poison is specific to species to be controlled.
5. Manner of death not be cruel and make surviving population suspicious.
6. Susceptibility should be age, sex or strain dependent.
7. No danger of secondary poisoning through animals eating poisoned rodents.
8. Consumption of chemical should not lead to development of resistance.
9. Chemical mixed with bait be stable under various environmental conditions.
10. For easy removal of corpses, animal should preferably die in the open space.
Aluminium phosphide:
Aluminum phosphide is an inorganic phosphide used to control insects and rodents in a
variety of settings. It is mainly used as an indoor fumigant at crop transport, storage or
processing facilities for both food and non-food crops It may also be used as an outdoor
fumigant for burrowing rodent control, or in baits for rodent control in crops. Aluminum
Phosphide is available in pellet and tablet form. Under optimum moisture conditions, it
liberates ‘Phosphine’ gas, which is highly toxic. ¼ to ½ of a 3 g tablet is put in a live-
burrow; a little water is added if necessary and the burrow closed with mud. Repeat the
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operation if the burrow remains closed. Also used to fumigate the godowns @ 1tab/ ton
/ 5 days and also@ 1 or ½ tab/tree against red palm weevil.
Formulation: Tablets ( 3g)
Trade name: Celphos, Fumitoxin, Phostoxin, and Quic k Phos.
LD50: 11.5 mg/kg
Anti-Coagulant Rodenticides:
Anticoagulants are defined as chronic single-dose or multiple-dose rodenticides, acting
by effectively blocking of the vitamin K cycle, resulting in inability to produce essential
blood-clotting factors
Bromodiolone:It act by depressing the hepatic vitamin K dependent synthesis of
substances essential to blood clotting.A single dose anticoagulant rodenticide from
Coumarin group The technical material (97% pure) is an odourless, yellow-white
powder.
Bromadiolone is vitamin K antagonist. The main site of its action is the liver,
where several of the blood coagulation precursors under vitamin K dependent post
translation processing take place before they are converted into the respective
procoagulant zymogens. The point of action appears to be the inhibition of K1 epoxide
reductase..
Formulation: Solids
Trade names: Roban, Moosh moosh, Bromard; Bromatrol; Bromone R; Bromorat
Deadline; Hurex
LD50: 1-3 mg/kg
Acaricides:
The substances exercising toxic effects on mites are specifically called as
miticides or may be generalized as ‘Acaricides’. Most of the organophosphatic
insecticides are also effective acaricides, whereas, most of the organochlorines (except
dicofol) are ineffective against mites. Thus, use of organochlorines in situations where
mites are present, may aid in the increase of mite population substantially by killing their
natural enemies.
The following are some of the specific acaricides:
i) Sulphur: It is a fungicide and acaricide. It is formulated as a fine dust (80–90%)
to which about 10% inert material is added to prevent ‘balling’. Flowability of the
dust is increased by adding 3% tricalcium phosphate. The finer the dust the
more effective it will be. Also available as a Wettable Powder (50%).
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LECTURE NO. 32
On the basis of Volume of spray fluid per unit area, Spraying is classified as
1. High volume spraying (HVS) or Full Cover spraying or conventional
spraying:Pesticide is diluted with water and droplet size is larger. Spray fluid
requirement is 500 – 1000 lit/ha in case of field crops (1500 – 2000 lit/ha – Orchard
crops).
Advantages :
1. Meant for chewing insects.
2. Drift is very less
Disadvantages :
1. Less area is covered
2. More water is required
3. More time , labour and cost of application due to labour cost
2. Low volume spray (LVS): The low volume sprays are 8-25 times more
concentrated than high volume spraying. Spray fluid requirement ranges from 12-
125 lit/ha. The droplet size is 70 – 150 µ.
Advantages :
1. Less time and less cost are involved in transport of water and
hence the cost of application is minimized
2. More area is covered (6 – 8 acres in a day)
3. Control of pests is in time
141
Disadvantages :
1. Loss of chemical due to the drift
2. Application of LVS is preferred when wind velocity is less than 8
km/hour.
3. Ultra low volume spray (ULVS): ULV sprayer or air craft with special nozzles
require 0.5 - 5.6 lit/hac with droplet size of 20 – 70 µ.
Advantages:
1. Very less time is required
2. No water requirement
3. Labour cost is less
4. Larger area covered (8 hac/day).
Disadvantages:
1. Drift is more
2. More hazardous
3. Special foundations are needed
4. High cost
4. Aerial spraying: Aerial Air crafts has been employed for application of
agricultural and public health pesticides. It is used for spraying, dusting and
application of baits. However, Spray formulations are more suitable than dusts
because of wind speed should not be more than > 5 KMPH. It has to be done at low
heights and in the early hours of the days to ensure uniform deposition of dust
particles.
Advantages:
1. Large area covered
2. Locusts, cut worms, army worms could be checked before much
damage is done.
3. Cost of application is cheap per unit area.
4. Inaccessible areas are also can be protected.
Disadvantages :
1. Drift is more
2. Undersurface of leaves is not fully covered
3. Depend on weather conditions
4. Preplanning and collaboration with other agencies is required
5. Pollution is more
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Symptoms of phytotoxicity
Ø Chlorosis or yellowing of leaves
Ø Bronzing of leaves
Ø Necrosis of complete plant or parts of it
Ø Scorching
Ø Deformation and curling of leaves
Ø White spots on leaves
Ø Burning effects on leaves
Ø Premature falling of leaves
Ø Mottled leaves
Ø Poor germination of seeds
Examples :
Organo chlorines – Curcurbits
Carbaryl – Soybean & Redgram
Dimethoate and Malathion – Sorghum
Methyl parathion – All Cucurbits
Sulphur - Crcurbits, Apples and Tea
Advantages of chemical control:
1. Chemicals are powerful tools for pest management.
2. Highly effective, rapid curative action and adoptable to most situation.
3. Flexible in changing agronomic and ecological conditions.
4. It is economical.
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5. Insecticides are only tools available when pest is crossing threshold levels.
6. For many of pest problems chemical control is the only acceptable solution.
7. They are easy to obtain and apply
Limitations of chemical control:
1. Harmful to non target organisms.
2. Many pesticides bring about the secondary infestation of non target pests and
resurgence of target pests.
3. Other beneficial insects like pollinators, honeybees, weed killers may also be
killed.
4. There is a risk to man and livestock.
5. Some pesticides may cause phytotoxicity.
6. Some insecticides leave residues which cause environmental pollution.
7. Some insects may develop resistance to insecticides.
8. Some insecticides accumulate in body tissue become dangerous even without
any prior indications.
9. Some insecticides have a tendency to be passed over from one food source to
another food source.
Safe use of Insecticides:
1. Mixing and loading operations are the most hazardous because they generally
result in possibilities of exposure i.e. spills
2. Read label carrying out the necessary calculations for the required dilution of the
insecticide
3. Obtain proper equipment, including protective clothing, etc
4. Never work alone while handling highly hazardous insecticides
5. Mix insecticides outside or in a well ventilated area. Never position any part of
the body directly over the seal while opening .Always stand upwind when mixing
or loading the insecticides
6. Clean up spilled insecticide immediately from skin, clothing etc.
7. Persons engaged in handling, mixing or applying insecticides should not smoke,
eat or drink while working.
8. Do not use mouth to siphon an insecticide from the container.
9. Avoid drift.
10. Guard against drift of insecticides on to near by crops, field, fish pond, stream or
livestock
11. Do not spray when it is windy .
12. Do not spray or dust when it is likely to rain.
13. Do not use poor quality or leaky equipment
14. Take the most needed parts/tools to the field (site of application)
15. Never allow the children to apply insecticides
16. Do not blow out the clogged nozzles with the mouth
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Zinc phosphide
1. Nausea
2. Vomiting
3. Diarrhea
4. Severe abdominal pain followed by symptom free period of eight hours or longer
Alluminium phosphide
1. Headache
2. Giddiness
3. Nausea
4. Diarrhea and mental confusion
5. If treatment is delayed, coma, loss of reflexes may develop and death may
occur from respiratory or circulatory collapse
146
Skin contamination:
1. Drench the skin with water.
2. Apply a stream of water on the skin while removing clothing.
3. Rapid washing is most important for reducing the extent of injury
147
Eye contamination:
1. Hold eye lids open
2. Wash the eyes gently with a stream of running water immediately
3. Delay of even a few second greatly increase the extent of injury
4. Continue washing until physician reaches
5. Do not use chemicals as they may increase the extent of injury.
Antidotes:
General antidotes:
1. Remove poison by inducing vomiting
2. Universal Antidote: It is a mixture of 7 g of activated charcoal, 3.5 g of
magnesium oxide and 3.5 g of tannic acid in half a glass of warm water may be
used to absorb or neutralize poisons. Except in cases of poisoning by corrosive
substances, it should be fallowed by gastric lavage.
3. Removal of stomach contents (Gastric lavage.)
4. Demulcents : After removal of stomach contents as completely as possible, give
one of the following:
1. Raw egg white mixed with water
2. Gelatine 9 g to 18 g dissolved in 570 ml of warm water
3. Butter
4. Cream
5. Milk or Mashed potato
Specific antidotes:
1. Atropine is the usual antidote for organophosphate and carbamate poisoning. It
can be given orally and in severe cases, injections are given. Repeated injections
may be required.
2. 2 PAM: It is injected intravenously as an antidote in organophosphate poisoning.
It should not be used in case of carbamate poisoning
3. Calcium gluconate is recommended as an antidote for some organochlorine
insecticides
4. Vitamin K is the preferred antidote for anticoagulant poisoning such as warfarin.
5. Dimercaprol (BAL) is recommended for arsenic poison
148
INSECT RESURGENCE
INSECTICIDE RESIDUES
The very small quantity of insecticide that can remain in a crop after harvesting or
storage and makes its way into food chain is called insecticide residues.Some
insecticides continue to remain toxic for long periods after application this period of
activity is called persistence or residual action
Pyrethrum and rotenone are less persistent (12 hrs) while Organochlorines are
most persistent. Longer residual toxicity is desirable for pest control , it is not desirable
from safety point of view to man ad his animals.
When pesticide residues persist more than their prescribed MRL , in fruits and
vegetables, washing the contaminated fruits and vegetables could dislodge the
residues to the extent of 20-25 % with water, 20-35 % with dilute solutions of salt, 40-60
% with detergent solutions and 40-100 % by peeling the fruit skin , processing and
cooking.
Waiting period:
The waiting period must be observed between the time of pesticide application and
harvest of produce so that toxicants are metabolized into non toxic level
Functions:
1. To advise the Central and state Governments on technical matters on technical
matters arising out of administration
2. To specify the uses of the classification of insecticides on the basis of their
toxicity
3. To advise tolerance limits for insecticides, residues and an establishment of
minimum intervals between the application of insecticides and harvest in respect
of various commodities
4. To specify the shelf-life of insecticides
151
Registration committee
Registration Committee consisting of a Chairman and other five persons who shall be
members of the Board. The main objective the committee is to register insecticide after
scrutinizing their formulae and verifying claims made by the importer or the
manufacturer, as the case may be, as regards their efficacy and safety to human being
and animals. The function of the registration committee is to specify the precautions to
be taken against poisoning through the use or handling of insecticides. For import and
manufacture of insecticides, registration certificate is essential and a separate
certificate for each insecticide.
Types of registration
A) Provisional registration: Provisional registration for 2 years for data Generation
but not for commercialisation
B) Regular or full registration: is done when committee satisfy on the data produce.
C) Repeat registration: Registration for a lready registered product for a subsequent
applicant. Data requirement is less.
Central Insecticide Laboratory:
1. To analyze samples of insecticides and submission of certificates of analysis to
the concerned authority;
2. To analyze samples of materials for insecticide residues
3. To carry out such investigations as may be necessary for the purpose of
ensuring the conditions of registration of insecticides;
4. To determine the efficacy and toxicity of insecticides