Perspective Drawing by Sarah Haley
Perspective Drawing by Sarah Haley
Perspective Drawing by Sarah Haley
DRAWING
SARAH HALEY
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PERSPECTIVE DRAWING
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PERSPECTIVE DRAWING
SARAH HALEY
TEMPE DIGITAL
7650 South McClintock Drive
Suite 103-292
Tempe, AZ 85284
Except for quotations used in articles, reviews, and book listings, no part
of this book may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic
or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of Tempe
Digital LLC.
Cover image: Sarah Haley, Three-Point Cube, 2018, pencil drawing with
digital painting, 6 x 7 inches. © Sarah Haley
ISBN-13: 978-0-9861637-8-4
ISBN-10: 0-9861637-8-3
PREFACE VI
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS VIII
ABOUT THE AUTHOR IX
1 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE 1
2 TOOLS & TECHNIQUES 13
3 ONE-POINT PERSPECTIVE 25
4 TWO-POINT PERSPECTIVE 39
5 THREE-POINT PERSPECTIVE 53
6 NON-RECTANGULAR FORMS 67
7 PROPORTION & SCALING 83
8 THE CONE OF VISION 97
9 GRIDS, SQUARES & CUBES 113
10 PLANS & ELEVATIONS 127
11 DYNAMIC PLANES 141
12 COMBINING PERSPECTIVES 153
13 CAST SHADOWS 171
14 REFLECTIONS 185
15 MULTI-POINT PERSPECTIVE 205
16 SHADE & TEXTURE 223
GLOSSARY 245
PREFACE
This book is for beginning and intermediate art and design stu-
dents, and anyone wanting to learn or improve upon essential
drawing skills. Students of the studio arts such as drawing and
painting, and designers in a broad range of disciplines including
graphic design, interior design, animation, web design, game
art and design, and fashion design will all find this text relevant.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1
1 LINEAR PERSPECTIVE
Figure 1-1
3
Figure 1-2
Figure 1-3
5
Figure 1-4
Figure 1-5
Figure 1-6
Figure 1-7
Figure 1-8
Figure 1-9
9
Figure 1-10
Figure 1-11
often than not to define the ground plane and to help orient
the viewer. The ground plane is the two-dimensional plane
below the horizon line representing a flat ground, or floor,
upon which objects rest (1-11).
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TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
2
2 TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
Figure 2-1
Figure 2-2
15
MIXED MEDIA. Nicola López, Earth, 2008. Etching, woodcut & collage,
41 x 41 inches, edition of 20. © Nicola López. Published by Pace
Editions. Courtesy of the artist and Pace Prints.
Figure 2-3
Figure 2-4
Figure 2-5
rolled paper in pencil form) for smaller areas (2-5). You also
want to keep your entire hand and arm lifted off the paper if
you can manage it. Try using your pinky finger as an anchor.
If you must rest your hand on your paper to work comfortably,
place a clean piece of scrap paper under your hand to shield
your drawing.
19
Figure 2-6
Figure 2-7
Figure 2-8
Figure 2-9
Figure 2-10
3
3 ONE-POINT PERSPECTIVE
Figure 3-1
Figure 3-2
Figure 3-3
29
Figure 3-4
Figure 3-5
Figure 3-6
Figure 3-7
Figure 3-8
Figure 3-9
Figure 3-10
Figure 3-11
Figure 3-12
Figure 3-13
35
Figure 3-14
A horizon line usually defines the ground plane. You can place
the horizon line anywhere on the page, and the vanishing
point anywhere on the horizon line. Neither has to reside
within the compositional frame, or boundaries, of the final
drawing. Sometimes it works best to position the horizon in
the margins (3-13). Carefully consider placement, because
the position of both the horizon line and the vanishing point
affects the angle of view. For example, a higher horizon line
and vanishing point gives an aerial vantage of the top of the
subject. Whereas placing the horizon line and vanishing point
lower in relation to the subject is better for a ground-level view
(3-14). A horizon line and vanishing point above the subject
shows the topside, while a horizon line and vanishing point
36
Figure 3-15
Figure 3-16
37
Figure 3-17
4
4 TWO-POINT PERSPECTIVE
Figure 4-1
42
Figure 4-2
Figure 4-3
43
Figure 4-4
line (HL). Make the rectangular base using the right and left
vanishing points. Then extend vertical edges from each corner
of the base (4-2). Complete the shape by using the right and
left vanishing points to form the top plane, ensuring that edges
connect at the top corners. Erase any hidden edges to form
a solid shape (4-3).
As always, when you add multiple forms within the same com-
position, you must use the same vanishing points. Do not add
more—there should only be two vanishing points for the entire
drawing (4-4). Also, when working with multiple forms, give
44
Figure 4-5
Figure 4-6
the far vertical corner where two walls meet. Note that the
right wall recedes to the left vanishing point and the left wall
recedes to the right vanishing point (4-7). To draw a two-point
interior, begin with the farthest vertical corner. Use the right
vanishing point to draw the left wall. Use the left vanishing
point to draw the right wall. Notice that this also forms the floor
46
Figure 4-7
Figure 4-8
Figure 4-9
Figure 4-10
49
Figure 4-11
Figure 4-12
51
Figure 4-13
5
5 THREE-POINT PERSPECTIVE
Figure 5-1
56
Figure 5-2
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-4
Figure 5-5
58
Figure 5-6
Figure 5-7
Figure 5-8
Figure 5-9
Figure 5-10
Figure 5-11
61
Figure 5-12
Figure 5-13
Figure 5-14
Figure 5-15
Also recall that there are no hard and fast rules regarding
a horizon line. In a traditional worm’s-eye or bird’s-eye, the
triangle’s horizontal arm is used as a horizon line. But not all
subjects need to be positioned on the ground. Picture a plane
flying through the air, for example. We can rotate the vanishing
65
Figure 5-16
Figure 5-17
6
6 NON-RECTANGULAR FORMS
Figure 6-1
Figure 6-2
Figure 6-3
Figure 6-4
sloping legs are the same length, even though they appear
foreshortened in perspective (6-3).
Figure 6-5
Figure 6-6
Figure 6-7
Figure 6-8
Figure 6-9
Two other basic forms also rely upon finding the perspective
center: the pyramid and the cone. Both originate as rectangular
prisms. A pyramid has a rectangular base, and a cone has an
75
Figure 6-10
76
Figure 6-11
Figure 6-12
Figure 6-13
Figure 6-14
Figure 6-15
Figure 6-16
Figure 6-17
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PROPORTION & SCALING
7
7 PROPORTION & SCALING
Figure 7-1
85
Figure 7-2
Figure 7-3
find where they intersect the horizon. Then use the guide-
lines to determine the height of any additional figures. Note
that you can place figures anywhere on the ground plane
simply by shifting the measured height horizontally from the
guidelines (7-3).
Figure 7-4
88
Figure 7-5
Figure 7-6
89
Figure 7-7
Figure 7-8
Figure 7-9
92
Figure 7-10
Figure 7-11
Figure 7-12
Figure 7-13
Figure 7-14
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THE CONE OF VISION
8
8 THE CONE OF VISION
Figure 8-1
99
Figure 8-2
Figure 8-3
Figure 8-4
Figure 8-5
Figure 8-6
Figure 8-7
Figure 8-8
Figure 8-9
105
Figure 8-10
Figure 8-11
Figure 8-12
Extend a line from the station point 30 degrees off the line of
sight. The point where that line intersects the horizon marks the
radius. Draw a circle with its center at the center of vision, and
the circumference passing through the marked radius (8-13). In
three-point perspective, instead of intersecting the horizon, the
30-degree angle will intersect the center of vision line (8-14).
109
Figure 8-13
Figure 8-14
110
Figure 8-15
9
9 GRIDS, SQUARES & CUBES
Figure 9-1
115
Figure 9-2
Figure 9-3
Figure 9-4
Figure 9-5
118
Figure 9-6
vertical planes, and the horizontal DVP for all horizontal planes
(9-6). Notice that with a 45-degree DVP we can create not only
squares but also cubes (9-7). Cubes are composed of both
119
Figure 9-7
Figure 9-8
Figure 9-9
location for the 45-degree DVP for the left vanishing point. Do
the same for the right vanishing point. The measurements for
the left and right vanishing points may be different, because
the station point has a range of possible locations. Thus the
121
45-degree DVP for the left vanishing point will not necessarily
be at the same vertical height as the 45-degree DVP for the
right vanishing point (9-9).
Figure 9-10
Figure 9-11
use the horizontal DVP to build a horizontal grid (9-10). Use the
vertical DVPs to build vertical grids. Take care to use the right
DVP for planes that recede to the right vanishing point, and
the left DVP for planes that recede to the left vanishing point
(9-11). If you are using a cone of vision, limit the composition
to the area within the cone to avoid distortions (9-12, 9-13).
123
Figure 9-12
Figure 9-13
124
Figure 9-14
Figure 9-15
Figure 9-16
Figure 9-17
Figure 9-18
10
10 PLANS & ELEVATIONS
Figure 10-1
Figure 10-2
The simplest translation method is to first lay out the plan and
elevation views on grids. Take care to ensure that each grid’s
dimensions correspond to the others (10-1). Then create a
perspective grid with the same proportions. Review Chapter
9 to understand how to create perspective grids (10-2). Lastly,
138
Figure 10-3
131
Figure 10-4
Start with a plan view. With this method, gridding the plan is
not necessary. Place a station point (SP) and picture plane (PP)
to establish the viewer’s position, or point of view, in relation
132
Figure 10-5
Figure 10-6
triangle at the station point, and pivot the triangle’s arms until
they are parallel to receding sides of the subject. The points
where the arms intersect the picture plane are the locations
for the vanishing points (10-6).
134
Figure 10-7
Then position a horizon line (HL) above the ground line. Note
that the location of the horizon line indicates the height of
the viewer in relation to the elevation view. If you want a high
vantage point, position the horizon farther from the ground line.
135
Figure 10-8
Figure 10-9
Figure 10-10
137
Figure 10-11
With everything set up, we can now translate the plan view to
the perspective view. Return to the plan view, and construct
guidelines from the form’s corners passing through the picture
plane to the station point. Note where the guidelines intersect
the picture plane; we call these transfer points (10-9). Draw
vertical lines down from the transfer points to bring the cor-
ners of the subject into the perspective view. The front-most
corner will touch the ground line. Use the vanishing points
to construct the subject’s base (10-10). Then reference the
elevation view to establish the height of the front-most vertical
edge to complete the top of the shape (10-11).
You can use additional guidelines for details. A pitched roof can
be inscribed within the larger form, referencing the plan view
138
Figure 10-12
139
Figure 10-13
for the peak and the elevation view for the height (10-12). Add
windows, doors, and other details in a step-by-step manner.
Just remember that all guidelines extending from the elevation
view must always go to the front-most edge of the subject
before they are translated into perspective (10-13). This method
140
Figure 10-14
11
11 DYNAMIC PLANES
DYNAMIC PLANES. David Curtis, The Art of War, 2012. Mixed media
and digital, 17 x 13 inches. © David Curtis. Courtesy of the artist.
143
Figure 11-1
Figure 11-2
Figure 11-3
145
Figure 11-4
the plane in multiple directions (11-3). The only rule is that each
new segment of the plane should be joined to the previous
segment with a horizontal line. To gently shape curves, add
more intermediate sets of vanishing points. Dynamic planes
can be added to one-point, two-point, and three-point com-
positions (11-4).
Figure 11-5
Figure 11-6
Figure 11-7
Figure 11-8
Figure 11-9
Figure 11-10
149
Figure 11-11
Figure 11-12
Figure 11-13
Figure 11-14
12
12 COMBINING PERSPECTIVES
Figure 12-1
155
Figure 12-2
Figure 12-3
156
Figure 12-4
Figure 12-5
Figure 12-6
point (VP), a horizon line (HL), and a station point (SP). Draw
a block in one-point perspective (12-4). To add a block in two-
point, we need to locate a new set of vanishing points while
157
Figure 12-7
Figure 12-8
Figure 12-9
159
Figure 12-10
Figure 12-11
161
Figure 12-12
Figure 12-13
163
Figure 12-14
Figure 12-15
not have to line up with the center of vision lines, for example.
Next drop a line below the center of vision and perpendicular
to the horizon to find where it intersects the 90 degree cone.
This marks a new station point with reference to the horizon
line. The old station point is no longer needed. If we only wish
to combine one-point and three-point perspective, we can
stop here because, as we know, the center of vision is also
the vanishing point for a one-point perspective point of view
(12-15). But to continue adding two-point, we can use the new
165
Figure 12-16
Figure 12-17
167
Figure 12-18
Figure 12-19
Figure 12-20
13
13 CAST SHADOWS
Figure 13-1
173
Figure 13-2
Figure 13-3
Figure 13-4
Figure 13-5
Figure 13-6
Figure 13-7
Figure 13-8
Figure 13-9
Figure 13-10
180
Figure 13-11
Figure 13-12
Figure 13-13
The light source does not have to fall within the frame of the
composition. In fact, especially when the source is the sun,
placing the light source vanishing point in the margins makes
for more realistic shadows. The sun as a light source also
produces two special conditions in which the light source
vanishing point and the shadow vanishing point merge: sunrise
and sunset. At sunrise and sunset, the LVP and SVP meet at
one point on the horizon. Keep in mind, though, that in real
space the horizon is seen in all directions. So if you want to
simulate lighting conditions for a sunrise or sunset, the LVP/
SVP point does not necessarily have to be placed behind the
subject on the horizon line; it can exist as a point anywhere
in the margins (13-13). To map this type of lighting, notice that
182
Figure 13-14
Figure 13-15
183
Figure 13-16
if the light source is situated lower than the subject itself, the
shadow vanishing point and light source vanishing point lines
will never intersect. Instead the guidelines diverge (13-14). So
the shadow will be long but lack a clearly delineated ending
border and simply fade at the far end.
14
14 REFLECTIONS
Figure 14-1
187
Figure 14-2
Figure 14-3
Figure 14-4
Figure 14-5
189
Figure 14-6
Figure 14-7
Figure 14-8
Figure 14-9
Figure 14-10
Figure 14-11
Figure 14-12
195
Figure 14-13
Figure 14-14
Figure 14-15
and the subject. Locate the vanishing points that form the
angle of incidence. Extend lines from these two vanishing
points to the station point. Then position a protractor at the
station point, and measure the angle between the vanishing
points. This angle corresponds to the angle of incidence in
perspective (14-14). Now rotate the protractor so it rests on the
mirror’s vanishing point line, and add the angle of incidence to
197
Figure 14-16
Figure 14-17
Figure 14-18
Figure 14-19
Figure 14-20
Figure 14-21
Figure 14-22
Figure 14-23
Figure 14-24
15
15 MULTI-POINT PERSPECTIVE
Figure 15-1
Figure 15-2
Figure 15-3
Figure 15-4
Figure 15-5
210
Figure 15-6
make sure the arcs pass through the two vanishing points.
You must move the needle and re-adjust the compass each
time you draw a new arc. Arcs near the perimeter of the grid
require the needle be positioned close to the center vanishing
point. Conversely, arcs near the center of the grid require the
needle be much farther out in the margins. Repeat this same
process for vertical arcs by positioning the needle along the
horizontal axis line (15-6).
Figure 15-7
Figure 15-8
212
Figure 15-9
Figure 15-10
Figure 15-11
for the composition (15-11). Lastly, keep in mind that the center
vanishing point need not be placed exactly in the middle. Try
positioning it right or left of center, as well as higher or lower
than center. Raising or lowering the vanishing point shifts the
horizon line up or down (15-12).
Figure 15-12
216
Figure 15-13
Figure 15-14
217
Figure 15-15
218
Figure 15-16
219
Figure 15-17
Figure 15-18
Figure 15-19
Figure 15-20
16
16 SHADE & TEXTURE
SHADE & TEXTURE. Jos. A. Smith, The Loft, 1985. Graphite on paper,
18 x 24 inches. © Jos. A. Smith. Courtesy of the artist.
225
Figure 16-1
Figure 16-2
Figure 16-3
Figure 16-4
Figure 16-5
Figure 16-6
Figure 16-7
Figure 16-8
Figure 16-9
Figure 16-10
Figure 16-11
Figure 16-12
Map values for not only the forms but also the cast shadows,
foreground, and background (16-12). Keep in mind that cast
shadows are always darker than the surface upon which they
are being cast, but the surface’s value can affect how dark
234
Figure 16-13
When you are satisfied with your value map, you can now
use all the shading techniques previously described to lay
235
Figure 16-14
First apply the middle value to the entire drawing. Use a dull
pencil and a crumpled tissue to evenly blend graphite across
the whole composition. Take care to match the middle value of
the scale. Do not worry if some of your linework is obliterated.
So long as you can see major forms well enough, the line
drawing does not need to be darkened or redrawn. (16-15).
Then use erasers to lift out the two lighter values. Work only
on the larger forms. Ignore details for now, and do not fret
over the loss of linework. Replacing linework with differences
in value is the goal of this process. You will add details back
in at a later stage. For now, focus on using the value map,
and match the values to the scale. Eraser pens are a helpful
tool because they allow for a greater degree of precision in
236
Figure 16-15
When you are satisfied with the light values, return with pencils
to lay in the darker values. Again, focus only on the larger
forms, and allow the line drawing to be subsumed by the
237
Figure 16-16
Figure 16-17
Once all the major forms, including the background and major
cast shadow shapes, have been satisfactorily defined, we
then move into details. Think of details within forms as smaller
239
Figure 16-18
Figure 16-19
Angle of Incidence
The angle of incidence is the angle at which a subject is
positioned in relation to a reflective surface or mirror. (186)
Angle of Reflection
The angle of reflection is the angle at which a subject’s reflection
appears on the reflective surface or mirror. (186)
Atmospheric Perspective
Atmospheric perspective is the perception of depth resulting from
the color-shifting effects of the atmosphere. The more particulate
matter or the greater the distance between the viewer and the
subject, the more muted in value, muted in saturation, and cooler
in hue the subject will appear. (240)
Center of Vision
The center of vision is the endpoint of the viewer’s line of sight,
indicating the direction of the viewer’s gaze. The center of
vision is often, but not always, located on the horizon line. It is
abbreviated as COV. (7)
Compositional Frame
The compositional frame is a drawing’s outer edge that crops the
scene and delineates what is presented as part of the final image
versus what is relegated to the margins. Oftentimes vanishing
points are outside of the compositional frame. When employing a
cone of vision, you must inscribe the frame within the cone. (35)
246 Cone of Vision
The cone of vision is the range of sight of the viewer, with the
center of vision as its center. Subjects rendered outside of the
cone of vision appear distorted. Normal monocular vision is a
60-degree cone of vision, however artists more often employ
a 90-degree cone of vision to maximize useable composition
area. (103)
Convergence
Convergence is one of three principles of linear perspective in
which receding forms appear increasingly closer together. (5)
Diminution
Diminution is one of three principles of linear perspective in
which receding forms appear increasingly smaller. (3)
Elevation View
An elevation view is a side view of the subject on a two-
dimensional grid. An elevation view depicts the relative height
and location of forms. (129)
Field of Sight
The field of sight is a concept specific to five-point perspective.
It is analogous to the line of sight used in one-, two-, and three-
point perspective. Field of sight represents an area of observation
where the viewer simultaneously observes 180 degrees of the
scene in all directions. (208)
Five-Point Perspective 247
Five-point perspective is a point of view in which five sets of
parallel edges recede from the viewer and appear to converge at
five vanishing points. A rectangular prism is assumed. (206)
Focal Point
The focal point is an area of interest, detail, contrast, or anomaly
within a composition that draws an observer’s attention. Focal
point is a tool used by artists and designers to describe or
express a visual idea or narrative, and it should not be confused
with a vanishing point. (240)
Foreshortening
Foreshortening is one of three principles of linear perspective in
which receding planes appear to shorten. (5)
Ground Line
The ground line represents the ground plane in an elevation
view. The ground line is located below the horizon line, and the
distance between the ground line and horizon line indicates the
height of the viewer with respect to the height of the subject. We
abbreviate as GL. (134)
Ground Plane
The ground plane is the two-dimensional horizontal plane below
the horizon line, representing the ground or floor. (11)
Horizon Line
The horizon line is a horizontal line where the sky appears to
meet the ground. The horizon line is an illusion and represents
the place where diminution, convergence, and foreshortening are
infinite. We abbreviate as HL. (10)
248 Isosceles Triangle
An isosceles triangle is a three-sided shape with two sides of
equal length. (69)
Linear Perspective
Linear perspective is a geometric method of depicting three-
dimensional subjects on a two-dimensional format. Linear
perspective uses rectangular planes and prisms to model
monocular vision, creating an illusion of depth. (1)
Line of Sight
The line of sight represents the direction of the viewer’s gaze.
Line of sight is usually perpendicular to the horizon line and
always points to the center of vision. (2)
Multi-Point Perspective
Multi-point perspective is a form of linear perspective that uses
five or more vanishing points to build the image. Multi-point
perspectives mimic fish-eye (180 degree) and panoramic
(360 degree) views. (206)
Monocular Vision
Monocular vision is sight from one eye with the other eye closed.
Unlike binocular vision, which combines sight from both eyes for
depth perception, monocular vision can be modeled with linear 249
perspective. (2)
One-Point Perspective
One-point perspective is a point of view in which one set of
parallel edges recedes from the viewer and appears to converge
at a single vanishing point. A rectangular prism is assumed. (26)
Perpendicular
A perpendicular angle is a 90-degree angle. (9)
Perspective Center
The perspective center is the middle point of a rectangular
plane in perspective, found at the intersection of the plane’s
diagonals. (68)
Perspective Grid
The perspective grid is a three-dimensional grid in perspective
that can be based on either square or rectangular planes. There
are one-point, two-point, three-point, four-point, five-point, and
infinite-point perspective grids. (115)
Perspective Scaling
Perspective scaling is the process of repeating a form
within a composition while maintaining its size and relative
proportion. (85)
Picture Plane
The picture plane is the two-dimensional surface onto which
three-dimensional space is translated. It is analogous to a window
or viewfinder situated between the viewer and the subject. Think
of the picture plane as standing in for the piece of paper onto
which the subject will be drawn. Positioned between the viewer
and the subject, the picture plane is always perpendicular to the
viewer’s line of sight. We abbreviate as PP. (9)
250 Plan View
A plan view is a top-down view of the subject and ground plane
on a two-dimensional grid. A plan view depicts the relative width,
depth, and location of forms. Floor plans and maps are examples
of a plan view. (128)
Point of View
A point of view is a particular view of a subject, as defined by
the viewer’s station point and center of vision in relation to the
subject. Observable linear perspective categorizes all points
of view into one of three major types: one-point, two-point, and
three-point. (9)
Rectangular Plane
A rectangular plane is a flat surface that has two dimensions and
90-degree angles at each corner. (6)
Rectangular Prism
A rectangular prism is a form that has three dimensions and
90-degree angles at each corner. (6)
Shading
Shading, or rendering, is the application of value. Pencil shading
techniques include toning, blending, erasing, hatching, cross-
hatching, contouring, stippling, and scribbling. (226)
Shadow Vanishing Point 251
The shadow vanishing point, one of two special types of
vanishing points used to create cast shadows, is the location
where the edges of a cast shadow converge. The shadow
vanishing point is always located directly below the light source,
and here is abbreviated as SVP. (172)
Slope
The slope is the gradient or steepness of a plane, as measured
by an angle formed at a reference vertex. Sloping planes have
special vanishing points. (145)
Station Point
A station point is the fixed location of the viewer. We abbreviate
as SP. (7)
Three-Point Perspective
Three-point perspective is a point of view in which the three
sets of parallel edges recede from the viewer and appear to
converge at three different vanishing points. A rectangular prism
is assumed. (54)
Two-Point Perspective
Two-point perspective is a point of view in which two sets of
parallel edges recede from the viewer and appear to converge
at two separate vanishing points. A rectangular prism is
assumed. (40)
252 Value
Value is the relative lightness or darkness of a form. It describes
the location of a light source, the shape of a form, and the texture
of a surface. (224).
Value Mapping
Value mapping is a technique for planning areas of value within
an entire composition using a value scale and referencing the
light source(s). (230)
Vanishing Point
A vanishing point is the point where a set of parallel edges
receding from the viewer appear to meet. Vanishing point is
abbreviated as VP. (26)
Vertex
A vertex is the point, or corner, of two intersecting lines used to
measure angles. (125)