INTRODUCTION

Steam power plants are one of the most important process industries for

engineering professionals. Over the past decades, the power sector is facing a

number of critical issues; however, the most fundamental challenge is meeting the

growing power demand in sustainable and efficient ways. Practicing power plant

engineers not only look after operation and maintenance of the plant, but, also look

after range of activities including research and development, starting from power

generation to environmental aspects of power plants.

Steam power plants play a key role in electric power generation. Steam

power plant also called as thermal power generation plant or thermal power station

that is the most conventional source of electric power. It is the power plant which

is used to generate electricity by the use steam turbine. The major components of

this power plant are boiler, steam turbine, condenser and water feed pump.

In the steam power plant, the pulverized coal is fed into the boiler and it is

burnt in the furnace. The water present in the boiler drum changes to high pressure

steam. From the boiler the high pressure steam passed to the super heater where

it is again heated upto its dryness. This super-heated steam strikes the turbine

blades with a high speed and the turbine starts rotating at high speed. A generator

is attached to the rotor of the turbine and as the turbine rotates it also rotates with

the speed of the turbine. The generator converts the mechanical energy of the

turbine into electrical energy. After striking on the turbine the steam leaves the

turbine and enters into the condenser. The steam gets condensed with the help of

1
cold water from the cooling tower. The condensed water with the feed water enters

into the economizer. In the economizer the feed water gets heated up before

entering into the boiler. This heating of water increases the efficiency of the boiler.

The exhaust gases from the furnace pass through the super heater, economizer

and air pre-heater. The heat of this exhaust gases is utilized in the heating of steam

in the super heater, feed water in the economizer and air in the air pre-heater. After

burning of the coal into the furnace, it is transported to ash handling plant and

finally to the ash storage.

The efficiency of the power plant is directly dependent on difference

between pressure and temperature of steam at the inlet and outlet of turbine.

Hence, use of high temperature and high pressure steam is advisable. Hence,

power generation plants are most efficient when superheated steam is used. As

high pressure is involved, water tube boilers are used for steam generation.

Boilers are provided with economizer and air pre-heaters to recover heat

from the flue gases. An increase of about 20% in boiler efficiency is achieved by

providing both economizer and air pre-heaters. Providing economizer alone gives

only 8% efficiency increase and so designers provide both.

Most of the high capacity boilers firing coal operate with an efficiency of

around 86% on the Higher Heat Value basis. Loss of around 14% can be attributed

to various losses of which the dry gas loss is about 35% of the total. When both

economizers and air pre-heaters are not provided the boiler efficiency drops to

around 66% from 86%. When air pre-heater is not provided the boiler efficiency

2
will be around 74 % only. Thus we can conserve about 20% extra fuel when we

provide both economizers and air pre-heaters in boilers.

Economizers must be sized for the volume of flue gas, its temperature,

the maximum pressure drop allowed through the stack, what kind of fuel is used in

the boiler, and how much energy needs to be recovered.

Boiler economizers reuse exhausted flue gas to pre-heat the feedwater

entering the boiler. Essentially a mini-heat exchanger, economizers improve boiler

performance while increasing fuel efficiency. By rapidly increasing feedwater

temperature through captured flue gas, economizers also provide a significant

improvement in steam generation and response time.

If the economizer would be used to heat boiler make-up water, it is

necessary to determine the volume and temperature at the inlet of the economizer.

The lower the amount of condensate return, the higher the volume of make-up

water and the higher savings potential.

3
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Air-preheater. It is used to pre-heat the air before entering into the boiler furnace.

The pre heating of air helps in the burning of fuel to a greater extent. It takes the

heat from the burnt gases from the furnace to heat the air from the atmosphere.

Baffle. It is one of component in economizer that has some roles such as to support

tube and maintain its position, baffle also has function to prevent vibration on the

tube and control and direct the flow of fluid outside tubes.

Boiler. It converts the water into high pressure steam. It contains the furnace inside

or outside the boiler shell. The combustion of coal takes place in the furnace.

Boiler feed water. It is water used to supply ("feed") a boiler to generate steam or

hot water.

Boiler feed water pump. It is a specific type of pump used to pump feed water into

a steam boiler. The water may be freshly supplied or returning condensate

produced as a result of the condensation of the steam produced by the boiler.

Coal Storage. It is the place where coal is stored which can be utilized when

required.

Combustion. The process of retrieving energy from the burning of fuels in the most

efficient way possible. To maximize combustion efficiency, it is necessary to burn

all fuel material with the least amount of waste. The more efficiently fuels are

burned and energy is gathered, the cheaper the combustion process becomes.

4
Condenser. It condensate the steam that leaves out turbine. It converts the low

pressure steam to water. It is attached to the cooling tower.

Economizer. It has a role as a heat exchanger to increase temperature of

feedwater before to be supplied into steam drum. Economizer consists of similar

component with other heat exchanger but on the certain parts has different task

and function.

Fuel. It is any material that stores energy that can later be extracted to perform

mechanical work in a controlled manner. Generator. It is coupled with the turbine

rotor and converts the mechanical energy of the turbine to the electrical energy.

Header. It is the component of economizer as a water collector and distribute water

to each tubes evenly. Header has two types; upper header and lower header.

Tubes are connected into header, so header has size and mount of hole in

accordance with tubes condition.

Heat rate. The amount of fuel energy required to produce electrical energy. It is

the inverse of efficiency, incorporating a factor of 3600 due to the differing units of

fuel energy (kJ) and electrical energy (kWh) – there are 3600 kJ in 1 kWh.

Generator: A device that converts rotating mechanical movement into electric

power.

Manifold. an arrangement of connected pipe and valves used to consolidate

multiple pumps, tanks, and/or pipelines and a single unit.

5
Nusselt number, Nu. It is the dimensionless parameter characterizing convective

heat transfer. It is defined as

Power factor: Power factor is the ratio of real power to reactive power in an electric

circuit and a measure of whether the system’s voltage and current are “in phase.”

Prandtl Number. It is a dimensionless number approximating the ratio of

momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) to thermal diffusivity - and can be

expressed as: Pr = v / α

Proximate analysis. As defined by ASTM, it is the determination by prescribed

methods of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon (by difference) and ash.

Pump. A device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by

mechanical action.

Reynolds Number. A useful factor in determining which type of flow is involved is

the Reynolds number. This is the ratio of the dynamic forces of mass flow to the

shear resistance due to fluid viscosity and is given by the following formula.

Shell. It is one of parts in economizer which be like a house for tubes and header.

Between tubes and header, there are fluids that can receive and release heat in

accordance with occurred mechanism

Steam. It is vaporized water. It is a transparent gas. At standard temperature and

pressure, pure steam (unmixed with air, but in equilibrium with liquid water)

occupies about 1,600 times the volume of an equal mass of liquid water.

6
Superheated steam. It is defined as steam that is heated above the boiling point

at a given pressure.

Superheater. The main purpose of a super-heater in a steam system is to raise the

temperature of steam above the saturation temperature for a given pressure. The

further raise its energy content and makes it less likely to condense back onto

water inside of a steam engine.

Tie rods and spacer. These are one of part economizer to maintain position one

baffle and other baffle so vibration can be prevented.

Tubes. It is the most important component of economizer in the process of heat

transfer. Fluids flow both inside and outside tube. The flowing fluid has different

capacity, temperature, density and pressure. Position of tube must be maintained

to prevent vibration, so on certain design, tubes is supported with baffle. Tube

should also be able to transfer heat between the fluids inside tube and outside

tubes.

Turbine. It is the mechanical device which converts the kinetic energy of the steam

to the mechanical energy.

Ultimate analysis. The detailed chemical analysis of a fuel that indicates the

contents of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen, chlorine, oxygen, and ash – as

percentages by mass. In some analyses, the ash content may be listed as the

specific elements, for example silicon and iron, as these determine the ash fusion

temperature and associated slagging behavior.

7
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The steam power plant has one boiler supplying steam to a 180 MW turbine

generator operating at a pressure and temperature of 900 psia and 882.1°F,

respectively. The steam turbine will consist of four extraction points which values

of pressure are: 502.3 psia, 270.7 psia, 123.7 psia and 48.49 psia respectively and

the exhaust pressure is 14.01216278 psia.

The fuel to be used is a bituminous coal.

The condensate consecutively flows through the air-ejector condenser, first

heater (closed), second heater (closed), third heater (closed), and into the fourth

heater (open) by the means of pressure developed by the condensate pump.

Three of the said heaters are of surface-type. Then, it will be brought to economizer

through the boiler feed pump.

The first steam turbine extraction will be divided into three steam lines. The

first one will be used to reheat the condensate water passing through the air ejector

and directed to the condenser, the second will be used to heat up the feed water

pumped to the first effect evaporator and directed to the third feed water heater

(closed heater 3) while the other steam line is connected to the deaerator (open

heater) wherein the steam will be used.

The second steam turbine extraction will be divided into two steam lines.

The first steam line is called the process steam which will be used for industrial

processes. The next steam line will be brought to third feed water heater (closed

heater 3).

8
 The third steam turbine extraction together with the heated steam from the

second effect evaporator will be used in the second feed water heater (closed

heater 2).

The fourth steam turbine extraction will be used directly in the first feed

water heater (closed heater 1). The steam extracted from the fourth steam turbine

extraction, condensate from the air-ejector, and steam from the second and third

feed water heaters (closed heater 2 and 3) will meet in a single steam line and will

be brought to the condenser.

The following specifications of the design should be considered:

The condenser will operate at 1.4 in. Hg vac.

Temperature of makeup water entering pump is 85oF.

Condensate Feed Pump Efficiency is 86%.

Boiler Feed Pump Efficiency is 80%.

Make-up Water Pump Efficiency is 84%.

Close Heater and Condenser terminal difference is 5oF.

The Mechanical Efficiency, Generator Efficiency, and Internal Efficiency at

the turbine side are 99.25%, 98.25%, and 89.5%, respectively.

Main Header pressure drop is 10%.

Extraction line pressure drop is 5%.

Stoichiometric air is 15.5%.

Blowdown will be done in the boiler, de-aerator, and evaporator. Its rate will

be 5% of the total steam entering the equipment.

9
 Make-up water will be done in the evaporator only which will come from the

ambient pressure and temperature.

In this study, the researcher will design the economizer and it requires the

following data:

i. Higher heating value of fuel

ii. Air – Fuel Ratio of Fuel

iii. Mass of fuel

iv. Mass of flue gas

v. Adiabatic Flame Temperature

vi. Temperature Flue Gas Leaving Superheater

vii. Temperature Flue Gas Leaving Evaporator

viii. Temperature Flue Gas Leaving Economizer

ix. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference

x. Overall heat transfer coefficient

xi. Inside and Outside Heat Transfer Coefficient

xii. Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

xiii. Length of Economizer Tube

10
COMPUTATIONS

P1: Throttle Pressure = 900 psia

Throttled Temperature = 350 °F SH

T1 = (Tsat at P1) + Throttled Temperature

Where Tsat at 900 psia = 532.1 °F

T1 = 532.1 °F + 350 °F

T1 = 882.1 °F

P6: Condenser Pressure = 1.4 in. Hgvac

14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
P6 = −1.4 𝑖𝑛. 𝐻𝑔 ( ) + 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖
29.92 𝑖𝑛.𝐻𝑔

P6 = 14.01216578 psia

T6 = Tsat at P6

T6 = 209.6 °F

T7 = T6

T7 = 209.6 °F

Extraction line pressure Drop = 5%

Main Header Pressure Drop = 10%

𝑃1
P17 =
(1−𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑝)

900 psia 900 psia

P17 = =
(1−0.10) (0.9)

P17 = 1000 psia

T17 = Tsat at P17

11
T17 = 544.7 °F

Blow down = 5% of the incoming water

(PPE by F. Morse p.227)

Pextraction = Psat at [(𝐓𝐨 + ∆𝐓) + ∆𝑷]

where To = outlet temperature of the heater

∆𝑇 = Terminal Difference

∆𝑃 = Pextraction – Pextraction with drop

Pextraction = [𝑷𝒔𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 (𝐓𝐨 + ∆𝐓) + 𝑷𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑷𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑]

Pextraction with drop = Psat at (To + ∆T)

Pextraction with drop = Psat at (To + ∆T)

where To = outlet temperature of the heater

To are T10, T11, T12 and T13

∆𝑇 = Terminal Differences

∆T = 5 ℉ for closed heater (PPT and Design by PJ. Potter p.520)

And ∆T = 0 ℉ for open heater (PPT and Design by PJ. Potter p.520)

(PPE by Dr. P.C. Sharma p.158)

𝐓𝐨𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 −𝐓𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭

Temperature Rise =
𝒏+𝟏

where Toptimum = Tsat at Throttle Pressure (P1) (PPT & Design by P.J. Potter p.513)

Toptimum = Tsat at 900 psia

12
 Toptimum = 532.1 °F

Tcondenser output = T7 = 209.6 °F

n = no. of heater = 4

𝟓𝟑𝟐.𝟏 ℉−𝟐𝟎𝟗.𝟔℉
Temperature Rise =
𝟒+𝟏

Temperature Rise = 64.5 ℉

(PPT & Design by P.J. Potter p.513)

Temperature Rise (TR) = Tcondenser output – Tnext heater output

Temperature Rise (TR) = T10 – T6

= T11 – T10

= T12 – T11

= T13 – T12

T10 = TR + T6

T10 = 64.5 °F + 209.6 °F

T10 = 274.1 °F

T11 = TR + T10

T11 = 64.5 °F + 274.1 °F

T11 = 338.6 °F

T12 = TR + T11

T12 = 64.5 °F + 338.6 °F

13
T12 = 403.1 °F

T13 = TR + T12

T13 = 64.5 °F + 403.1 °F

T13 = 467.6 °F

T2d− T33
Heat Head =
2

T31 = T2d – Heat Head

T2d − T33
T31 = T2d –
2

2T2d −T2d + T33

T31 =
2

T2d + T33
T31 =
2

741.7+ 347.5
T31 =
2

T31 = 544.6 °F

T9 = T8’ + 2.5 °F

where T8’ = 210.2 °F

T9 = 210.2 °F + 2.5 °F

T9 = 212.7 °F

14
Pextraction with drop = Psat at (To + ∆T)

where ∆T = 5 ℉ for closed heater (PPT and Design by PJ. Potter p.520)

and ∆T = 0 ℉ for open heater (PPT and Design by PJ. Potter p.520)

P2a = Psat at (T13 + ∆T)

P2a = Psat at (467.6 °F +0°F)

P2a = Psat at 467.6°F

P2a = 502.3 psia

P3a = Psat at (T12 + ∆T)

P3a = Psat at (403.1 °F +5°F)

P3a = Psat at 408.1°F

P3a = 270.7 psia

P4a = Psat at (T11 + ∆T)

P4a = Psat at (338.6 °F +5°F)

P4a = Psat at 343.6°F

P4a = 123.7 psia

P5a = Psat at (T10 + ∆T)

P5a = Psat at (274.1 °F +5°F)

P5a = Psat at 279.1°F

15
P5a = 48.49 psia

Turbine Extractions

1st Extraction

P2a = P2 – 0.05 P2

P2a = P2( 1-0.05)

P2a = 0.95 P2

P2a 502.3 psia

P2 = 0.95 = 0.95

P2 = 528.7368421 psia

2nd Extraction

P3a = P3 – 0.05 P3

P3a = P3( 1-0.05)

P3a = 0.95 P3

P3a 270.7 psia

P3 = 0.95 = 0.95

P3 = 284.9473684 psia

3rd Extraction

P4a = P4 – 0.05 P4

P4a = P4(1-0.05)

P4a = 0.95 P2

P4a 123.7 psia

P4 = 0.95 = 0.95

16
P4 = 130.2105263 psia

4th Extraction

P5a = P5 – 0.05 P5

P5a = P5(1-0.05)

P5a = 0.95 P5

P5a 48.49 psia

P5 = =
0.95 0.95

P5 = 51.04210526 psia

T26 = Temperature of make-up water = 85°F

P26 = Pressure of make-up water = 14.7 psia

Internal Efficiency = 89.5% (PPE by Dr. P.C. Sharma p.137)

ℎ1−ℎ2′
Internal Efficiency =
ℎ1−ℎ2

ℎ1−ℎ2′
0.895 =
ℎ1−ℎ2

1442−ℎ2′
0.895 =
1442−1371

𝐵𝑡𝑢
h2’ = 1378.455
𝑙𝑏𝑚

ℎ2′ −ℎ3′
Internal Efficiency =
ℎ2′ −ℎ3

17
 ℎ2′ −ℎ3′
0.895 =
ℎ2′ −ℎ3

1378.455−ℎ3′
0.895 =
1378.455−1306

𝐵𝑡𝑢
h3’ = 1313.607775
𝑙𝑏𝑚

ℎ3′ −ℎ4′
Internal Efficiency =
ℎ3′ −ℎ4

ℎ3′ −ℎ4′
0.895 =
ℎ3′ −ℎ4

1313.607775−ℎ4′
0.895 =
1313.607775−1234

𝐵𝑡𝑢
h4’ = 1242.358816
𝑙𝑏𝑚

ℎ4′ −ℎ5′
Internal Efficiency =
ℎ4 ′ −ℎ5

ℎ4′ −ℎ5′
0.895 =
ℎ4 ′ −ℎ5

1242.358816−ℎ5′
0.895 =
1242.358816−1163

𝐵𝑡𝑢
h5’ = 1171.332676
𝑙𝑏𝑚

18
 ℎ5′ −ℎ6′
Internal Efficiency =
ℎ5′ −ℎ6

ℎ5′ −ℎ6′
0.895 =
ℎ5′ −ℎ6

1171.332676−ℎ3′
0.895 =
1171.332676−1078

𝐵𝑡𝑢
h6’ = 1087.799931
𝑙𝑏𝑚

Condensate Pump Efficiency = 86%

(www.gepower.com/steam/products/pumps/condensate-extraction.html)

ℎ7−ℎ8
0.86 =
ℎ7−ℎ8′

177.7−179.2
0.86 =
177.7−ℎ8′

𝐵𝑡𝑢
h8’ = 179.444186
𝑙𝑏𝑚

Multistage Pumps for boiler feed water, condensate pipelines = 80%

(www.pumpscout.com/articles-scout-guide/pump-types-guide-aid100.html)

ℎ13−ℎ14
0.8 =
ℎ13−ℎ14 ′

450.1−451.9
0.8 =
450.1−ℎ14′

𝐵𝑡𝑢
h14’ = 452.35
𝑙𝑏𝑚

19
Horizontal Split case pump for plant make-up water = 84%

(www.pumpscout.com/articles-scout-guide/pump-types-guide-aid100.html)

ℎ26−ℎ27
0.84 =
ℎ26−ℎ27′

53.11−53.45
0.84 =
53.11−ℎ27′

𝐵𝑡𝑢
h27’ = 53.5147619
𝑙𝑏𝑚

Blowdowns = Mass of the blowdown is 5% of the incoming water

Quality of steam leaving the boiler

x = 99.5% (Power Plant Theory and Design by Philip J. Potter p.234)

Air Ejector

Temperature rise of the condensate that passes the air ejector is 2.5°F (Power
Plant Theory and Design by Philip J. Potter p.520)

T9 = T8’ + 2.5

T9 = 210.2 + 2.5

T9 = 212.7°F

Process Steam: SP = 600 lb/hr

𝑊𝑔
Wi =
𝑁𝑚 𝑁𝑔

20
Where: W g = 250MW

Nm = Mechanical Efficiency = 99.25% (PPE by Dr. P.C. Sharma p.137)

Ng = Generator Efficiency = 98.25% (PPE by Dr. P.C. Sharma p.137)

1𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑠 )
180000kW(
1.055𝑘𝑊
Wind =
(0.9925)(0.9825)

𝐵𝑡𝑢
Wind = 174967.3326
𝑠

𝑙𝑏 1 ℎ𝑟
m3b = 600 ( )
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑠

𝑙𝑏
m3b = 0.16666667
𝑠

21
MASS BALANCE
Turbine

2’ 3’ 4’ 5’ 6’

m1 = m2’ + m3’ + m4’ + m5’ + m6’

612.8538249 = 99.09613507+ 42.62357792+ 7.32540633+ 30.47661883+

433.3320868

612.8538249 = 612.8538249

Boiler
16

36

15

m15 = m16 + m36

645.1092894 = 612.8538249+ 32.25546447

645.1092894 = 645.1092894

23
Condenser

6’

23

25

m6’ + m25 + m23 = m7

433.3320868+ 1.678910522+ 195.5544748 = 630.5654721

630.5654721= 630.5654721

First Extraction
2’
m2’ = m2b + m2c
2b
99.09613507 = 1.678910522 + 97.41722455
2c
99.09613507 = 99.09613507

m2c = m2d + m2a 2c

2d
97.41722455 = 48.92028674 + 48.49693782
2a
97.41722455 = 97.41722455

24
Second Extraction

m3’ = m3b + m3a

3’

42.62357792 = 0.166666667 + 42.45691125 3b

600 lb/hr

42.62357792 = 42.62357792 3a

Third Extraction
4’
m4’ + m33 = m4a
33
7.32540633 + 30.57142868 = 37.89683501
4a
37.89683501= 37.89683501

Closed Heater 1 5a

10 9

21 22
m5a + m21 = m22

30.47661883 + 165.0778559 = 195.5544748

195.5544748 = 195.5544748

m9 = m10

630.5654721 = 630.5654721

25
Closed Heater 2
32 4a

11 10

19 20

m32 + m4a + m19 = m20

35.80382295 + 37.89683501 + 91.37719799= 165.0778559

165.0778559 = 165.0778559

m11 = m10

630.5654721 = 630.5654721

Closed Heater 3
35 3a

12 11

18
m3a + m35 =m18

42.45691125 + 48.92028674 = 91.37719799

91.37719799 = 91.37719799

m11 = m12

630.5654721 = 630.5654721

26
Open Heater 2a

13 12

37

m2a + m12 = m13+m37

48.49693782 + 630.5654721 = 645.1092894 + 33.95312049

679.0624099 = 679.0624099

First Effect Evaporator

31

2d

30
38

34

m30 = m31 + m38

37.68823469 = 35.80382295 + 1.884411734

37.68823469 = 37.68823469

m2d = m34

48.92028674 = 48.92028674

27
Second Effect Evaporator 31

33

29 39

32
m29 = m33 +m39

32.18045124 = 30.57142868 + 1.609022562

32.18045124 = 32.18045124

m31 = m32

35.80382295 = 35.80382295

Combined Evaporator

31

2d 33

30 29

27’

38 39
34 32
7

28
m2d + m29 + m30= m38 + m34 + m32+ m33+ m39

48.92028674 + 32.18045124 + 37.68823469 = 1.884411734 + 48.92028674 +

35.80382295 + 30.57142868 + 1.609022562

118.7889727 = 118.7889727

Make-up Water

m26 = Blowdowns + IP

m26 = m36 + m37 + m38 + m39 + IP

69.86868593= 32.25546447 + 33.95312049 + 1.884411734 + 1.609022562 +

0.166666667

69.86868593 = 69.86868593

29
ENERGY BALANCE
Turbine

Wi

2’ 3’ 4’ 5’ 6’

𝐵𝑡𝑢
Wi = 174967.3326
𝑠

m1h1 = m2h2’ + m3h3’ + m4h4’ + m5h5’ + m6h6’ + Wi

[(612.8538249)(1442)] = [(99.09613507)(11378.455) + (42.62357792)(

1313.607775) + (7.32540633)( 1242.358816) + ( 30.47661883)( 1171.332676) +
( 433.3320868)( 1087.799931) + (174967.3326)]

883735.2155 = 883735.2155

Air Ejector

8’

24

2b

31
m8’h8’ + m2bh2b = m9h9 + m24h24

[(630.5654721)( 179.444186) + (1.678910522)( 1378.455)] = [(630.5654721)(

181.9)+( 1.678910522)( 456.1)]

115465.6105 = 115465.6105

Closed Heater 1

5a

10 9

21 22

m9h9 +m21h21 +m5ah5a = m22h22 + m10h10

[(630.5654721)( 181.9) + (165.0778559)( 315.1) + (30.47661883)(

1171.332676)] = [(195.5544748)( 248.3)+ (630.5654721)( 244)]

202414.1513 = 202414.1513

Closed Heater 2

32 4a

11 10

19 20 32
m10h10 +m32h32+m19h19+m4ah4a = m20h20 + m11h11

[(630.5654721)( 244) +(35.80382295)( 315.1) + (91.37719799)( 383.9)

+(37.89683501)( 1255.702366)] = [(165.0778559)( 315.1) + (630.5654721)(
310.5)]

247806.6115 = 247806.6115

Closed Heater 3
35 3a

12 11

18

m3ah3a+m11h11 + m35h35 = m18h18 + m12h12

[(42.45691125)( 1313.607775) +(630.5654721)( 310.5)+( 48.92028674)( 456.1)]

= [(91.37719799)( 383.9) + (630.5654721)( 378.7)]

273874.8506 = 273874.8506

Open Heater
2a

13 12

37

33
m2ah2a +m12h12 = m13h13 + m37h37

[(48.49693782)( 1378.455) + (630.5654721)( 378.7)] = [(645.1092894)( 450.1) +

(33.95312049)( 450.1)]

305645.9907 = 305645.9907

1st Effect Evaporator 31

2d

30

38
34

m2dh2d +m30h30 = m31h31 + m34h34 + m38h38

[(48.92028674)( 1378.455) + (37.68823469)( 53.5147619)] = [(35.80382295)(

1300)+( 48.92028674)( 456.1) + (1.884411734)( 315.1)]

69451.29076= 69451.29076

34
2nd Effect Evaporator 31

33

29

32 39

m29h29 +m31h31 = m33h33 + m32h32 + m39h39

[(32.18045124)( 53.5147619) + (35.80382295)( 1300)] = [(30.57142868)( 1193) +

(35.80382295)( 315.1) + (1.609022562)( 319.2)]

48267.09903 = 48267.09903

Combined Evaporator

2d 33

30 29

38 39

34 32

m2dh2d + m29h29 + m30h30 = m32h32 + m33h33 + m34h34 + m38h38 +

m39h39

35
[(48.92028674)( 1378.455) +(32.18045124)( 53.5147619) +(37.68823469)(
53.5147619) ] = [(35.80382295)( 315.1) + (30.57142868)(1193)
+(48.92028674)( 456.1) + ( 1.884411734)( 315.1) + (1.609022562)( 319.2) ]

71173.41994 = 71173.41994

36
Design Calculations

Fuel

It is any material that stores energy that can later be extracted to perform

mechanical work in a controlled manner.

Summary:

Type of Fuel Oklahoma State, Haskell

County, Bituminous Coal

BTU
Heat Released per Hour 2,340,142,873 hr

lbfuel
Mass of Coal Supplied 165,404.4897 hr

lbair
Theoretical Air – Fuel Ratio 10.74102 lb
fuel

lbair
Actual Air – Fuel Ratio 12.4058781
lbfuel

BTU
Higher Heating Value 14,343.20844
lbfuel

Adiabatic Flame Temperature 3,985.81739 °F

Type of Fuel

Oklahoma State, Haskell County, Bituminous Coal from Table 5-1

(Continued) (Selected Analysis of United States Coals) from Power Plant Theory

and Design by Philip J. Potter, page 173, is used as fuel for the design. (See

Appendix A)

37
 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

Moisture 3.02%

Volatile Matter 22,75%

Fixed Carbon 68.22%

Ash 6.00%

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

Sulfur 0.99%

Hydrogen 4.76%

Carbon 80.85%

Nitrogen 1.8%

Oxygen 5.60%

Heating Value

The heating value of the fuel is indicated in Table5-1 (Continued)

(Selected Analysis of United States Coals) of Power Plant Theory and Design by

Philip J. Potter, page 173. (See Appendix A)

BTU
Qh = 14,148
lbfuel

Theoretical Air – Fuel Ratio

A O
( )t = 11.50 C + 34.50 (H – ) + 4.30 S
F 8

A 0.056
( )t = (11.50)(0.8085) + (34.50)(0.0476 – ) + (4.30)(0.0099)
F 8

38
 𝐀 lbair
( )t = 10.74102
𝐅 lbfuel

Actual Air – Fuel Ratio

For bituminous coal, 15.5 % excess air is optimum requirement for coal

combustion. As retrieved from: (https://www.electrical4u.com/coal-combustion-

theory/)

A A
( )a = ( )t (1 + e)
F F

A lb air
( )a = (10.74102 ) (1 + 0.155)
F lb fuel

𝐀 lbair
( )a = 12.4058781
𝐅 lbfuel

Flue gas – Fuel Ratio

G lbair
( )a = 12.4058781 + (1 – 0.06)
F lbfuel

𝐆 lbgas
( )a = 13.3458781
𝐅 lbfuel

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL

% M x y z

Sulfur (S) 0.99 32 0.010531915 0.000329122 0.003295527

Hydrogen (H2) 4.76 2 0.050638298 0.025319149 0.2535226

Carbon (C) 80.85 12 0.860106383 0.071675532 0.717692655

Nitrogen (N2) 1.8 28 0.019148936 0.000683891 0.006847849

Oxygen (O2) 5.60 32 0.059574468 0.001861702 0.018641368

Ash 6.00 Ʃy = 0.099869396

39
 %
Where in: x=( )(100)
100− % ash

x
y=
M

y
z=
∑y

Boiler Efficiency

Shanghai Electric imported Alstom’s boiler technology for the basis of the

plant. The boiler is an ultra-supercritical tower-type design with single reheat, built-

in separator, spiral water wall, sliding operation, single furnace, corner tangential

firing, open arrangement, balancing ventilation, solid slag disposal, and pulverized

coal firing.

From Table 1: Shanghai Waigaoqiao No. 3 Boiler Parameters (See

Appendix B) (http://cornerstonemag.net/challenging-efficiency-limitations-for-coal-

fired-power-plants/)

ebo = 93.75%

Higher Heating Value

O
HHV = 33820C + 144212 (H − ) + 9304S
8

0.056
HHV = (33820)( 0.8085) + (144212) (0.0476 - ) + (9304)(0.0099)
8

kJ 1 BTU 1kg
HHV = 33290.5868 ( )( )
kg 1.055kJ 2.2lb

BTU
HHV = 14,343.20844
lbfuel

40
Combustion at Stoichiometric Conditions

(0.003295527) (S) + (0.2535226) (H2) + (0.717692655) (C) + (0.006847849) (N2)

+ (0.018641368) (O2) + a (O2+ 3.76 N2) → b (CO2) + c (H2O) + d (SO2) + e (N2)

Sulfur:

d = 0.003295527

Hydrogen:

2c = (2) (0.2535226)

c = 0.2535226

Carbon:

b = 0.717692655

Oxygen:

(2) (0.018641368) + 2a = 2b + c + 2d

(2) (0.018641368) + 2a = (2) (0.717692655) + 0.2535226 + (2) (0.003295527)

a = 0.829108114

Nitrogen:

2e = (2) (0.006847849) + (2) (3.76) (a)

2e = (2) (0.006847849) + (2) (3.76) (0.829108114)

e = 3.124294358

Combustion using 15.5% Excess Air

(0.003295527) (S) + (0.2535226) (H2) + (0.717692655) (C) + (0.006847849) (N2)

+ (0.018641368) (O2) + (1.155) (0.829108114) (O2+ 3.76 N2) → a (CO2) + b (H2O)

+ c (SO2) + d (N2) + e (O2)

41
Sulfur:

c = 0.003295527

Hydrogen:

2b = (2) (0.2535226)

b = 0.2535226

Carbon:

a = 0.717692655

Oxygen:

(2) (0.018641368) + (1.155) (2) (0.829108114) = 2a + b + 2c + 2e

(2) (0.018641368) + (1.155) (2) (0.829108114) = (2) (0.717692655) + 0.2535226

+ (2) (0.003295527) + 2e

e = 0.1285117577

Nitrogen:

2d = (2) (0.006847849) + (1.155) (2) (0.829108114) (3.76)

d = 3.607498566

Combustion Equation

(0.003295527) (S) + (0.2535226) (H2) + (0.717692655) (C) + (0.006847849) (N2)

+ (0.018641368) (O2) + (1.155) (0.829108114) (O2+ 3.76 N2) = 0.717692655

(CO2) + 0.2535226 (H2O) + 0.003295527 (SO2) + 3.607498566 (N2) +

0.1285117577 (O2)

42
Solving for the Adiabatic Flame Temperature

BITUMINOUS COAL + (1.155) (0.829108114) (O2+ 3.76 N2) → 0.717692655

(CO2) + 0.2535226 (H2O) + 0.003295527 (SO2) + 3.607498566 (N2) +

0.1285117577 (O2)

Steam Generating Unit

Steam Flue Gas

17

Superheater QA
16

Evaporator
QA

36
15
Economizer QA

14’

Feed Water
Figure 1: Steam Generating Unit

Figure 1 shows the three parts of a steam generating unit, direction of the

flow of feed water to steam and the flow of the flue gas.

Mass of Fuel (mf)

QA
ebo =
(mf ) (Qh )

Where in: ebo = boiler efficiency

QA = heat absorbed by the steam generating unit

43
 mf = mass of fuel

Qh = heating value

Steam Generating Unit Energy Balance

QA + m14’h14’ = m36h36+ m17h17

QA = m36h36+ m17h17 - m14’h14’

m36 h36 + m17 h17 − m14, h14,

ebo =
(mf )(Qh )

m36 h36 + m17 h17 − m14, h14,

mf =
(ebo )(Qh )

(32.2554644696193)( 542.4) + (612.853824922766)(1442)– (645.109289392385)(452.355)

mf =
(0.9375)(14,148)

lbf
𝐦𝐟 = 45.94569159
s

Heat Released per hour

Qs = mfQh

lbfuel BTU 3600s

Qs = (45.94569159 )( 14,148 )( )
s lbfuel hr

BTU
Qs = 2,340,142,873
hr

Mass of Air (ma)

A
ma = (mf ) (F )
a

lbf lba
ma = (45.94569159 ) (12.4058781 )
s lbf
lb
𝐦𝐚 = 569.9966492 S

44
Mass of Flue Gas (mfg)

mfg = mf + ma - Ash

lbf lb lbf
mfg = 45.94569159 + 569.9966492 – (0.06) (45.94569159 )
s S s
lb
mfg = 613.1855992 s

Boilers are provided with economizer and air pre-heaters to recover heat

from the flue gases. An increase of about 20% in boiler efficiency is achieved by

providing both economizer and air pre-heaters. Providing economizer alone gives

only 8% efficiency increase and so designers provide both. Normally the ambient

air is heated to about 300 to 350 degree centigrade. This results in a flue gas

temperature drop of around 230 to 250 degree centigrade.

(http://www.brighthubengineering.com/power-plants/34240-economizer-and-air-

pre-heaters-are-provided-for-heat-recovery/)

Use the average which is equal to 325oC = 598K approximately equal to

600K. From Power Plant Theory and Design by Philip J. Potter, p. 247

Enthalpies of Reactant

Coal is at 298 K so its sensible enthalpy is 0.

Air at 600K

KJ
O2 = (1.155) (0.829108114) mol [0 + (h° - h°298)]
kmol

KJ KJ
O2 = (1.155) (0.829108114) mol [0 + (9,247 )]
kgmol kgmol

KJ
O2 = 8,855.110953
kg

45
 KJ
N2 = 3.76(1.155) (0.829108114) mol [0 + + (h° - h°298)]
kgmol

KJ KJ
N2 = 3.76(1.155) (0.829108114) mol [0 + + (8,891 )
kgmol kgmol

KJ
N2 = 32,013.38553
kg

Sum of Enthalpies of Reactant

KJ KJ
Hr = 8,855.110953 kg + 32,013.38553 kg

KJ
Hr = 40,868.49648
kg

Enthalpies of Product

kJ
CO2 = 0.717692655 mol [-393,757 + (h° - h°298)]
kmol

kJ
CO2 = - 282,596.5068 + 0.717692655 mol (h° - h°298)
kmol

kJ
H2O = 0.2535226 mol [-241,971 + (h° - h°298)]
kmol

kJ
H2O = - 61,345.11704 + 0.2535226 mol (h° - h°298)
kmol

kJ
SO2 = 0.003295527 mol [-127,705 + (h° - h°298)]
kmol

kJ
SO2 = - 420.8552755 + 0.003295527 mol (h° - h°298)
kmol

kJ
N2 = 3.607498566 mol [0 + (h° - h°298)]
kmol

N2 = 3.607498566 mol (h° - h°298)

46
 kJ
O2 = 0.1285117577 mol [0 + (h° - h°298)]
kmol

O2 = 0.1285117577 mol (h° - h°298)

Sum of the Product

kJ
CO2 = - 282,596.5068 + 0.717692655 mol (h° - h°298)
kmol

kJ
H2O = - 61,345.11704 + 0.2535226 mol (h° - h°298)
kmol

kJ
SO2 = - 420.8552755 + 0.003295527 mol (h° - h°298)
kmol

N2 = 3.607498566 mol (h° - h°298)

O2 = 0.1285117577 mol (h° - h°298)

KJ
Hp = - 344,362.4791 + 0.717692655 mol (h° - h°298)CO2 + 0.2535226 mol (h° -
kg

h°298)H2O + 0.003295527 mol (h° - h°298)SO2 + 3.607498566 mol (h° - h°298)N2 +

0.1285117577 mol (h° - h°298)O2

HR = HP
KJ KJ
40,868.49648 kg = - 344,362.4791kg + 0.717692655 mol (h° - h°298)CO2 +

0.2535226 mol (h° - h°298)H2O + 0.003295527 mol (h° - h°298)SO2 + 3.607498566

mol (h° - h°298)N2 + 0.1285117577 mol (h° - h°298)O2

KJ
385,230.9756 kg = 0.717692655 mol (h° - h°298)CO2 + 0.2535226 mol (h° - h°298)H2O

+ 0.003295527 mol (h° - h°298)SO2 + 3.607498566 mol (h° - h°298)N2 + 0.1285117577

mol (h° - h°298)O2

47
Enthalpy of formation of SO2

From the Table of Gas Phase Heat Capacity (Shomate Equation), the the

kJ
enthalpy of formation of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) at 2400 K is equal 114,700kmol, while

kJ
at 2500 K, the enthalpy of formation is equal to 120,600 .
kmol

(http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C7446095&Type=JANAFG&Table=on)

Assume temperature = 2,400 K

KJ
385,230.9756 = 0.717692655 mol (115,788) + 0.2535226 mol (93,604) +
kg

0.003295527 mol (114,700) + 3.607498566 mol (70,651) + 0.1285117577 mol

(74,492)
KJ KJ
385,230.9756 kg ≠ 371,713.2329 kg

Assume temperature = 2,500 K

KJ
385,230.9756 = 0.717692655 mol (121,926) + 0.2535226 mol (98,964) +
kg

0.003295527 mol (120,600) + 3.607498566 mol (74,312) + 0.1285117577 mol

(78,375)
KJ KJ
385,230.9756 kg ≠ 391,144.9882 kg

To find the adiabatic flame temperature, use interpolation,

371,713.2329 2,400 K

385,230.9756 T

391,144.9882 2,500 K

T = 2,469.565217 K

T (Kelvin) = T (Celsius) + 273

48
2,469.565217 K = T + 273

T = 2,196.565217°C

Converting 2,196.565217°C to °F

9
T = 5 °C + 32

9
T = 5 (2,196.565217) + 32

T = 3,985.81739 °F

Adiabatic Flame Temperature = 3,985.81739 °F

Superheater

1. Temperature of Flue Gas entering

Temperature of Flue Gas entering = Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Temperature of Flue Gas entering = 3,985.81739 °F

% Mol Fluegas
Flue gas Composition Mol
(molfg/ Σ mol)(100%)

CO2 0.717692655 15.23595031

H2O 0.2535226 5.382049975

SO2 0.003295527 0.069960986

N2 3.607498566 76.58385315

O2 0.128511758 2.728185583

Σ mol 4.710521106

By using the Flue Gas Properties Calculator, the specific heat of the flue

gas (Cpfg) at 3,985.81739oF is equal to 0.3015 Btu/lb-oF. (See Appendix F)

49
2. Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = (Cpfg) (TE)

Where in: Cpfg = specific heat of flue gas

TE = temperature of flue gas entering

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = (0.3015 Btu/lb-oF) (3,985.81739oF)

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = 1,201.723943 Btu/lb

3. Mass of Flue Gas leaving

Mass of Flue Gas leaving = Mass of Flue Gas entering = 613.1855992 lb/s

Mass of Flue Gas leaving = 613.1855992lb/s

4. Temperature Flue Gas leaving

QS = (mfg) (Cpfg) (TE –TL)

Where in: QS = heat supplied to the superheater

mfg = mass of flue gas

Cpfg = 0.3015 Btu/lb-oF

TE = temperature of flue gas entering

TL = temperature of flue gas leaving

QA+ m16h16= m17h17

QA= m17h17- m16h16

Where in: QA= heat absorbed by the superheater

QA= (612.853824922766 lb/s) (1442Btu/lb) - (612.853824922766 lb/s)

(1189Btu/lb)

QA= 155,052.0177 Btu/s

(QS) (hL) = QA

50
Where in: QS = heat supplied to the superheater

hL = heat loss factor

hL =0.99 at 1% heat loss (Ganapathy, 1991, p. 202)

QA= heat absorbed by the superheater

(QS) (0.99) = 155,052.0177 Btu/s

QS = 156,618.1997 Btu/s

QS = (mfg) (Cpfg) (TE –TL)

QS
TL =TE -
(mfg ) (Cpfg )

156,618.1997Btu/s
TL = 3,985.81739 °F-
(613.1855992 lb/s)(0.3015 Btu/lb-°F)

TL = 3,138.662223°F

Temperature of Flue Gas leaving the Superheater = 3,138.662223°F

Evaporator

1. Temperature of Flue Gas entering

Temperature of Flue Gas entering = Temperature of Flue Gas leaving the

Superheater = 3,138.662223°F

Temperature of Flue Gas entering = 3,138.662223°F

2. Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = (Cpfg) (TE)

Where in: Cpfg = specific heat of flue gas

TE = temperature of flue gas entering

51
 By using the Flue Gas Properties Calculator, the specific heat of the flue

gas (Cpfg) at 3,065.394749oF is equal to 0.3180 Btu/lb-oF.

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = (0.3180Btu/lb-°F) (3,138.662223°F)

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = 998.0945868 Btu/lb

3. Mass of Flue Gas leaving

Mass of Flue Gas leaving = Mass of Flue Gas entering = 613.1855992lb /s

Mass of Flue Gas leaving = 613.1855992 lb /s

4. Temperature Flue Gas leaving

QS = (mfg) (Cpfg) (TE –TL)

Where in: QS = heat supplied to the evaporator

mfg = mass of flue gas

Cpfg= 0.3180 Btu/lb-°F

TE = temperature of flue gas entering

TL = temperature of flue gas leaving

QA +m15h15= m36h36+ m16h16

QA = m36h36+ m16h16 - m15h15

Where in: QA = heat absorbed by the evaporator

QA = (32.2554644696193 lb/s) (542.4 Btu/lb) + (612.853824922766 lb/s) (1189

Btu/lb) – (645.109289392385 lb/s) (542.4 Btu/lb)

QA = 396,271.2832 Btu/s

(QS)(hL) = QA

Where in: QS = heat supplied to the evaporator

hL =0.99

52
 QA= heat absorbed by the evaporator

(QS) (0.99) = 396,271.2832 Btu/s

QS = 400,274.0234Btu/s

QS = (mfg) (Cpfg) (TE –TL)

QS
TL =TE -
(mfg ) (Cpfg )

400,274.0234Btu/s
TL = 3,138.662223°F–
(613.1855992 lb /s)(0.3180 Btu/lb-°F )

TL = 1,085.901451°F

Temperature of Flue Gas leaving the Evaporator = 1,085.901451°F

Economizer

1. Temperature of Flue Gas entering

Temperature of Flue Gas entering = Temperature of Flue Gas leaving the

Evaporator = 1,085.901451°F

Temperature of Flue Gas entering = 1,085.901451°F

2. Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = (Cpfg) (TE)

Where in: Cpfg = specific heat of flue gas

TE = temperature of flue gas entering

By using the Flue Gas Properties Calculator, the specific heat of the flue

gas (Cpfg) at 1,085.901451oF is equal to 0.2811Btu/lb-oF.

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = (0.2811Btu/lb-°F) (1,085.901451°F)

Enthalpy of Flue Gas entering = 305.2468979 Btu/lb

53
3. Mass of Flue Gas leaving

Mass of Flue Gas leaving = Mass of Flue Gas entering = 613.1855992lb/s

Mass of Flue Gas leaving = 613.1855992 lb /s

4. Temperature Flue Gas leaving

QS = (mfg) (Cpfg) (TE –TL)

Where in: QS = heat supplied to the economizer

mfg = mass of flue gas

Cpfg= 0.2811 Btu/lb-°F

TE = temperature of flue gas entering

TL = temperature of flue gas leaving

QA + m14’h14’= m15h15

QA = m15h15 - m14’h14’

Where in: QA = heat absorbed by the economizer

QA = (645.109289392385lb/s) (542.4Btu/lb) – (645.109289392385 lb/s) (452.35

Btu/lb)

QA= 58,092.09151Btu/s

(QS)(hL) = QA

Where in: QS = heat supplied to the economizer

hL =0.99

QA= heat absorbed by the economizer

(QS) (0.99) = 58,092.09151Btu/s

QS = 58,678.88031Btu/s

QS = (mfg) (Cpfg) (TE –TL)

54
 QS
TL =TE -
(mfg ) (Cpfg )

58,678.88031Btu/s
TL = 1,085.901451°F – lb
(613.1855992 s )(0.2811 Btu/lb-°F)

TL = 745.4705096 °F

Temperature of Flue Gas leaving the Economizer = 745.4705096 °F

Material

From Power Plant Theory and Design by Philip J. Potter, page 246, it was

stated that: “Cast iron tubes were used in the early design of economizers while

steel tubes are required for the economizers of all modern boilers to withstand the

pressures encountered.”

As stated from Arcelor Mittal Tubular Products Ostrava (2008), standard

length of Plain-end seamless tubes and pipes supplied from carbon or high-grade

carbon steel for production length is 4m to 14 m.

Use Carbon steel as material for 7m economizer tubes.

Tubes and Pipes Subjected to Internal Pressure

Ganapathy (1991), states that, tubes are specified by the outer diameter

and minimum wall thickness, while pipes are specified by the nominal pipe

diameter and average wall thickness. Table F-1 gives the material specification

provided the maximum temperature and F-2 gives dimensions of steel pipes. (See

Appendix I)

55
 For the maximum temperature of the economizer from the Table of

Properties, 567.4oF, the allowable stress is 10000 psi for SA 178 Gr. A. and a

nominal pipe size of 2.5 in. and Schedule no. 80.

Outside and Inside Diameter

From the specification from above, the outside and inside diameter to be

used is 2.88 in. and 2.323 in. respectively.

Per ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sec. 1, 1980, Para. Pg. 27,

the following equation may be used to obtain the thickness or the allowable

pressure for tubes.

Formula F-1 from Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook, p. 378.

pd
tw = + 0.005 + e
2Sa+p

Where in: tw = minimum wall thickness, in

p = design pressure, psig

d = tube outer diameter, in

e = factor that accounts for the compensation in screwed tubes

generally zero

Sa = allowable stress, psi

Allowable stress = 10000psi as stated in Table F-1 from Waste Heat Boiler

Deskbook

Outside diameter = 2.88 in.

Design Pressure in gage = 900 – 14.7 = 885.3 psig (900psi extracted from table

of properties point 1)

56
 (885.3)(2.88)
tw = + 0.005 + 0
2(10000)+885.3

tw = 0.1270793573 in

Pipe Thickness = (2.88 – 2.323)/2 = 0.2785 in

tw = 0.1667751518 in < 0.2785 in

From Boiler Economizer Specification – Rectangular Design, 2009, return

bends shall be cold bent or manufactured by a forging process. Cold bends shall

be assumed to have a 30% thin out or less for code calculation purposes.

0.2785 - (0.3) (0.2785) = 0.19495 in

tw = 0.1387 in < 0.19495 in

General Formula for Heat Transfer on Bare Tubes

Formula from Heat Transfer Subject

Q = UALMTD

Where in: Q = Heat transfer

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient

LMTD = Log mean temperature difference

Log Mean Temperature Difference (Economizer)

Tentering

Tleaving
Tmax

Tmin
T15

T14’

57
 Tmax−Tmin
LMTD = Tmax
ln( )
Tmin

Tmax = 1,085.901451 – 544.7

Tmax = 541.201451oF

Tmin = 745.4705096 – 469.5

Tmin = 275.9705096 oF

541.201451− 275.9705096
LMTD = 541.201451
ln( )
275.9705096

LMTD = 393.8112839 oF

Overall coefficient of heat transfer (U)

According to Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook, finned tube design is more

compact as it has few rows deep; this also results in lower labor cost. The length

of drums or casing would also be smaller as a result of fewer rows deep, resulting

in savings in material cost. The gas pressure drop is also lower; resulting in lower

operating costs. It can also be shown that the weight of the finned bundle is much

lower.

However, the heat flux is much higher with finned tubes and care should be

taken to ensure that DNB conditions are not reached. This can be handled by

designing a few rows at the high gas temperature portions with a lower fin density

and increasing the fin density as the gas gets cooler.

Finned tubes are extensively used in boilers, superheaters, economizers

and water heaters for recovering energy from clean gas streams such as gas

turbine exhaust or flue gas from combustion of premium fossil fuels; if the

58
particulate concentration in the gas stream is very low, finned tubes with a low fin

density may be used.

Finned surfaces are attractive when the ratio between the heat transfer

coefficients on the outside is very small as shown in Appendix D. In boiler

evaporators or economizers, the tube side coefficient could be in the range of 1500

to 3000 Btu/sq ft F, while the gas side coefficient could be in range of 10 to 20

Btu/sq ft F.

A moderate fin density such as 2 or 3 fins/in. is adequate, while for

economizers or evaporators, a 5 or even 6 fins/in. may be justified if cleanliness

permits.

The tube side coefficient hi consists of two components namely the

convective heat transfer coefficient hc and the non-luminous, hn; hence hi = hc +

hn: usually the non-luminous coefficient hn is very small for flow inside tubes but

may be computed by the method using inner diameter as the beam length; h i is

nearly equal to hc, the convective heat transfer coefficient if the partial pressure of

triatomic gases CO2, H2O is small.

Finned Tubes is used for the design. For the standard number of fins per

in, from Applied Heat Recovery, LLC; Pre-Engineered Economizer Solutions, 5

fins per in. is recommended.

Heat Transfer Calculation

Formula 3-1 and 3-2 in Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook, p. 135.

The basic equation for energy transfer for any surface is given by:

Q = US ∆T = W o x Cp x (T1 – T2) x hi = W s ∆Hs

59
The overall heat transfer coefficient Uo for bare tubes is given by:

1 1 1 do do d do
= + ( ) ( ) + ffi ( ) + ffo + ( ) ln( )
Uo ho hi di di 24K m di

According to Ganapathy, the tube side coefficient hi may be estimated using

the correlation given in the Chapter 2 of Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook for single

phase fluids such as steam or water. Since boiling heat transfer coefficient inside

tubes is very high on the order of 2000 to 3000 Btu/ft2-h-F, even 20% error in this

assumption will not affect U much as gas side coefficient governs U.

Formula 3-3, p.135 of Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook.

The gas side coefficient ho = hc + hn

Qeconomizer = 58,092.09151Btu/s (as computed earlier)

W = 613.1855992 lb /s (mass of steam entering the economizer extracted from

the table of properties)

According to Ganapathy stated in Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook p. 157,

whenever gas flows outside a tube bundle - as in water-tube boilers, economizers

and heat exchangers with high heat-transfer coefficients on the tube side - the

overall coefficient is governed by the gas-side resistance. Assuming that the other

resistances contributed about 5% to the total, and neglecting the effect of non-

luminous transfer coefficient, and it may be written the expression for U as:

Formula 3-22, p. 158

U = 0.95h0

Where the outside coefficient, ho, is obtained from Formula 3-6, p. 137

Nu = 0.35 Re0.6 Pr0.3

60
 For bare tubes, the difference in h0 between inline and staggered

arrangements at Reynold’s numbers and pitches found in practice is 3-5%. By

simplifying Equation 3-6, Formula 3-23 and 3-24 were obtained, p. 159.

h0 = 0.945G0.6F2/d00.4

U = 0.9 G0.6F2/do0.4

Appendix K shows the values of flue gas and air factor

Where: F2 = k0.7(Cp/μ)0.3 (3-25 p. 160 of Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook)

F2 is given in the table, Gas transport properties are computed at the film

temperature.

The following formulas were extracted from the Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook

p.160.

Combining the equation and simplifying: (3-27)

Q/∆T = US = 0.9G0.6F2d0NwNdL/(12do0.4)

= 0.235F2G0.6 NwNdLdo0.6

Substituting for G from Equation (3-28)

Q/∆T = 1.036 F2W o0.6Nw0.4L0.4Nd/ (St/do – 1)0.6

When there is a phase change, as in boilers: (3-29)

Ln [(T1 – ts)/ (Ts – ts)] = 2.82 (F2/Cp) Nd [G0.4(St/do – 1) do0.4]

As stated by Ganapathy, if the tube diameter and pitch are known, one can

estimate Nd or G for a desired thermal performance. The equation that relates the

gas pressure drop to G is: (3-30)

∆Po = 9.3 x 10-10G2ƒNd/ρ

61
For inline arrangements, the friction factor is obtained from: (3-31) and (3-35)

ƒ= Re0.15X

F3 = (F2/Cp) μ-0.15

The tube side coefficient is obtained from the basic equation of Dittus-Boelter,

Formula 3-8 p. 139.

Nu = 0.023Re0.8Prn

Formulas given in Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook p. 102

Nusselt Number Nu = hi di / 12k (2-4)

Reynold’s Number Re = 15.2w / (μ di) (2-5)

Prandtls Number Pr = μCp/k (2-6)

Also according to Ganapathy, the fluid properties μ, Cp, k is evaluated at the

average bulk temperature of the gas. (2-7)

hc = 2.44w0.8F1/ di 1.8

Where: F1 = (Cp / μ)0.4 k0.6 (2-8)

For the Factor F1, μ, Cp and k of air, flue gases are shown in Appendix K.

By interpolation, at 544.7oF, between 400 oF and 800 oF

F1 = 0.18722855

μ = 0.0650668

k = 0.023813125

Cp = 0.270234775

For the computation of tube side coefficient hi, the values for Factor C is given in

Appendix L.

62
By simplifying 3-8 which is the Nu = 0.023Re0.8Prn, Formula 3-9 was obtained, p.

139.

hi = 2.44W 0.8C/ di 1.8

Where: C = 10[-1.318 + 0.214ln(T) (3-10)

C = 10[-1.318 + 0.214ln(544.7)

C = 1.072137112

Using Appendix M, Reynold’s Number is 18,200 where d = 2.88 in. and μg =

0.0650668, which was obtained earlier.

Nu = 0.023Re0.8Prn

Nusselt Number Nu = hi di / 12k

Reynold’s Number Re = 15.2w / (μ di)

Prandtls Number Pr = μCp/k

By substituting the values attained earlier,

Pr = μCp/k

Pr = 0.0650668 (0.270234775)/ 0.023813125

Pr = 0.7383874253

Nu = 0.023Re0.8Pr0.4

Where: n = 0.4 for heating and n = 0.3 for cooling (from Waste Heat Boiler

Deskbook)

Nu = 0.023(18,200)0.8(0.7383874253)0.4

Nu = 52.13131298

Nusselt Number, Nu = hi di / 12k

hc = Nu (12k)/ di

63
hc = 52.13131298 (12 x 0.023813125) / 2.323

hc = 6.412791076 BTU/ft2-h-F

hi = 2.44W 0.8C/ di 1.8

hi = 2.44(613.1855992 lb /s x 3600s/hr)0.8(1.072137112)/ (2.323)1.8

hi = 68,212.99779 BTU/ft2-h-F

hn = hi – hc

hn = 68,212.99779 BTU/ft2-h-F – 6.412791076 BTU/ ft2-h-F

hn = 68,206.585 BTU/ft2-h-F

Solving for Overall coefficient of Heat Transfer

From the Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook p. 135 (3-2)

1 1 1 do do d𝑜 do
= + ( ) ( ) + ffi ( ) + ffo + ( ) ln( )
Uo ho hi di di 24K m di

Btu
Where: ho = outside heat transfer coefficient, ft2 hr F

Btu
hi = inside tube heat transfer coefficient, ft2 hr F

di, do = inside diameter, outside diameter

Btu
Km = tube metal thermal conductivity, ft hr F

F−ft2 −hr
ff = fouling factors, i – inside, o – outside, Btu

As shown in Appendix N,

F sqft hr
Fouling factors (gas side) = 0.001 Btu

Btu
Thermal Conductivity of Carbon steel pipe from Appendix R = 26.553 ft hr F

From Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook of V. Ganapathy (1991), the fouling factors

F sqft hr
inside the pipe = 0.00075 Btu

64
1 2.88 𝑖𝑛 F−ft2 −hr 2.88 𝑖𝑛 F−ft2 −hr
=( Btu ) + (. 00075 ) (2.323 𝑖𝑛) + .001 +
𝑈 (68,212.99779 2 )(2.323 𝑖𝑛) Btu Btu
ft −hr−F

2.88𝑓𝑡
12 2.88 𝑖𝑛
( Btu ) (𝑙𝑛 2.323 𝑖𝑛)
24(26.553 )
ft−hr−F

ft2 hr F
1/U = 0.002028951275 Btu

Btu
U = 492.8654583
ft2 hr F

Solving for the heating surface of the tube:

Q = UALMTD

Q = heat absorbed by the economizer

Where: U = overall coefficient of heat transfer

A = area of the tube

LMTD = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference

Q = 58,092.09151Btu/s

LMTD = 318.705274
BTU 3600𝑠 Btu
58,092.09151 ( ) = (492.8654583 ft2 hr F)(A)( 318.705274F)
s 1ℎ𝑟

A = 1,331.379547 ft2 (Heating surface)

Solving for the total length of tube:

A = 𝜋𝐷𝑜𝐿

Where: A= area of the tube, ft2

Do= outside diameter, ft

L = total length of tube, ft

2.88𝑖𝑛
1,331.379547 ft2 = 𝜋 ( ) (𝐿)
12

65
Total Length of Tube = 1,765.796967 ft

Total Length of Tube = 538.3527338 meters

Reynolds Number

As shown in Waste Heat Boiler Deskbook, pg. 102, Ganapathy (1991)

asserts that Reynolds number can be expressed as:

VDi ρ
Re =
μ

Where: Re = Reynolds number

V = average fluid velocity, fps

Di = internal pipe diameter, ft

ρ = fluid density or reciprocal of specific volume (1/𝑣), lbm/ft3

μ = fluid absolute (dynamic) viscosity, lbm/ft-s

The Reynolds number can be used to determine if flow is laminar, transient or

turbulent. The flow is laminar when Re is less than 2,300; transient when Re is

greater than 2,300 but less than 4,000; and turbulent if Re is greater than 4,000.

From APPENDIX H, T14’ = 68.03bar and from APPENDIX O @ 200 ˚C,

Pressure Viscosity

50 134.5

68.03 µ

75 135.1

µ = 134.93 MPa-sec

From APPENDIX I @ 250 ˚C,

Pressure Viscosity

66
 50 106.1

68.03 µ

75 106.8

µ = 106.60 MPa-sec

From APPENDIX I @ 243.06 ˚C,

Pressure Viscosity

200 134.93

243.06 µ

250 106.60

Conversion: 1 mPa-s = 2.41908833 lb/ft-hr

2.41908833 lb/ft−hr
µ = 110.53 MPa – sec ( )
1𝑀𝑃𝑎−𝑠𝑒𝑐

µ = 267.387 lb/ft − hr

Solving for the velocity of water entering the header:

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉

Where: Q = volume per time of water entering the header

A = area of the tube

V = velocity of the water

Qtotal = m14’v14’

Qtotal = (645.1092894 lb/s) (0.0197 ft3/lb)

Qtotal = 12.708653 ft3/s

As stated by Ganapathy in Chapter 3 page 104 of Steam Generators and Waste

Heat Boilers: For Process and Plant Engineers, for a standard boiler, the furnace

length, width and height is 32ft, 7ft and 11ft, respectively. The economizer area is

67
10,076ft2, and standard geometry of 18 tubes/row, 12 rows deep and an effective

length of 10ft per row.

No. of tubes = 1,765.796967ft/10ft/tube

No. of tubes = 176.5796tubes ≈ 177 tubes

12.708653 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠
Qtubes = 177 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

Qtubes = 0.0718 ft3/s per tube

0.0718 𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠
Velocity = 𝜋 2.323𝑖𝑛 2
( )
4 12𝑖𝑛
𝑓𝑡

Velocity = 2.439497889 ft/s

𝑉𝐷𝑖
Re =
µ𝑣

𝑓𝑡 𝟐.𝟑𝟐𝟑𝒊𝒏
(2.439497889 )( 𝟏𝟐𝒊𝒏 )
𝑠
𝒇𝒕
Re = lb
267.387 −hr ft3
ft
sec ( 0.0197 lb )
3600
hr

Re = 322.7486217

Given that the Reynolds number is equal to 322.7486217and is less than

2,000, therefore the flow of steam inside the pipe is laminar.

Summary of the Computed Values

The researcher in this study computed the following data:

BTU
Higher heating value of fuel 14,343.20844 lbfuel

lbgas
Flue gas – Fuel Ratio of Fuel 13.3458781 lbfuel

68
 lbfuel
Mass of fuel 165,404.4897
hr
lbgas
Mass of flue gas 613.1855992 s

Adiabatic Flame Temperature 3,985.81739 °F

Temperature Flue Gas Entering Economizer 1,085.901451°F

Temperature Flue Gas Leaving Economizer 745.4705096 °F

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference 393.8112839 oF

Btu
Overall heat transfer coefficient 492.8654583 ft2 hr F

Length of Economizer Tube 1,765.796967ft

Reynolds Number inside the header 322.7486217 (laminar)

Size of Economizer Block 10ft x 8ft x 5.5ft

69