Minimal pairs

A minimal pair is a pair of words with ONE phonemic difference only.

In order to decide whether a pair of words is a minimal pair or not, you need to know what
sounds make up the word, and you need to IGNORE the word's spelling.
If you are a native English speaker, you may find this easy. Most people have to look up
the words in a pronunciation dictionary.

This can best be shown with examples.

Spelling Pronunciation
Yes, a minimal -
cat - bat only k and b are different
pair!
Yes, a minimal -
wide - wise only d and z are different
pair!
only and are different.
Remember, these are two different
Yes, a minimal -
ride - road diphthongs. Diphthongs are single
pair!
phonemes, although they are written
with two symbols.
Yes, a minimal -
kite - night only k and n are different
pair!
This is a minimal pair because s and
"nothing" are different. This means
Yes, a minimal -
take - steak than minimal pairs can also be made
pair!
if one of the "sounds" is actually
zero!
No, not a minimal -
maid - made The two words are the same exactly.
pair
No, not a minimal - There are TWO differences in theses
wise - rice
pair words
There are TWO differences in theses
No, not a minimal - words (be very careful to distinguish
base - phase
pair s and z - you will need a dictionary
mort of the time!)
Yes, a minimal
Some Scottish and American accents
pair in RP, but no, -
caught - cot will pronounce these words the
not in some other
same.
accents

Making minimal pairs is a method that can be used to work out whether two different
sounds in a certain language are allophones or phonemes. For instance, we can see that l
and r are different phonemes by making the minimal pair:
 l and r can distinguish between
lime - rhyme - words: they are distinctive for the
meaning of the word

But the two types of English /l/ - light and dark - cannot make a minimal pair, because the
phonological rules state that can only appear in the word where cannot appear. In
some languages they CAN make minimal pairs.

Sometimes we cannot make a minimal pair to show different phonemes, simply becasue
there are no words that fit. When this happens, we can usually find MINIMAL

CONTEXTS instead. Thus you cannot find a minimal pair to show that and are
different phonemes. But we can find a minimal context like this:

fission - - and are in different CONTEXTS

vision
although fission and vision are not minimal pairs.

Word Position and Context

 "[T]he only way we can create a minimal pair with reference to the two
sounds involved is to put them in exactly the same environment in terms of
word position and the surrounding context, To clarify further, the pair: jail–
Yaleshows the contrast between /dʒ/ and /j/ in initial position, budge–
buzz focuses on the contrast between /dʒ/ and /z/ in final position,
while witch–wishcontrasts /t∫/ and /ʃ/ in final position. It should be noted that
minimal pairs include forms that have different spellings, as evidenced in jail–
Yale."
 In phonology and phonetics, the term minimal pair refers to two words that
differ in only one sound, such as hit and hid.
 Minimal pairs serve as tools to establish that two (or more) sounds
are contrastive. A difference in sound means a difference in meaning,
notes Harriet Joseph Ottenheimer, and thus a minimal pair is "the clearest and
easiest way to identify phonemes in a language"

Syntax: Definition and Examples

In linguistics, syntax refers to the rules that govern the ways in which words combine
to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. It's the concept that enables people to know
things like adjectives generally come before the nouns they describe (green chair),
how to start a question with a question word (What is that?), that subjects often come
before verbs in non-question sentences (She jogged.), prepositional phrases start with
prepositions (to the store), helping verbs come before main verbs (can go, will do),
and so on.
Key Takeaways: Syntax

 Syntax is the proper order of words in a phrase or sentence.

 Syntax is a tool used in writing proper grammatical sentences.
 Native speakers of a language learn correct syntax without realizing it.
 The complexity of a writer's or speaker's sentences creates a formal or informal
level of diction that is presented to its audience.

For native speakers, using correct syntax is something that comes naturally, as word
order is learned as soon as an infant starts absorbing the language. Native speakers
can tell something isn't said quite right because it "sounds weird," even if they
can't detail the exact grammar rule that makes something sound "off" to the ear.

"It is syntax that gives the words the power to relate to each other in a sequence...to
carry meaning—of whatever kind—as well as glow individually in just the right place,"
wrote Anthony Burgess in "Enderby Outside" (1968).

The term syntax comes from the Greek, meaning "arrange together." The term is also
used to mean the study of the syntactic properties of a language. Syntax is one of the
major components of grammar.

In computer contexts, the term refers to the proper ordering of symbols and codes so
that the computer can understand what instructions are telling it to do.

Syntactic Rules
English parts of speech often follow ordering patterns in sentences and clauses, such
as compound sentences are joined by conjunctions (and, but, or) or that multiple
adjectives modifying the same noun follow a particular order according to their class
(such as number-size-color, as in six small green chairs).

Sentences often start with a subject, followed by a predicate (or just a verb in the
simplest sentences) and contain an object or a complement (or both), which shows,
for example, what's being acted upon. Take the sentence "Beth slowly ran the race in
wild, multicolored flip-flops." The sentence follows a subject-verb-object pattern
(Beth ran the race). Adverbs and adjectives take their places in front of what they're
modifying (slowly ran; wild, multicolored flip-flops). The object (the race) follows the
verb, and the prepositional phrase (in wild, multicolored flip-flops) starts with a
preposition (in).

The rules of how to order words help the language parts make sense.

Syntax vs. Diction and Formal vs. Informal

Diction refers to the style of writing or speaking that someone uses, brought about by
their choice of words, whereas syntax is the order in which they're arranged in that
spoken or written sentence. If something is written using a very high level of diction,
it's written very formally, for example, a paper published in an academic journal or a
lecture given in a college classroom. Speaking to friends and texting have a low, or
informal, level of diction.
Jim Miller emphasized, "It is essential to understand that the differences exist not
because spoken language is a degradation of written language but because any written
language, whether English or Chinese, results from centuries of development and
elaboration by a small number of users." ("An Introduction to English Syntax."
Edinburgh University Press, 2002)

Formal written works or presentations would likely also have more complex sentences
and industry-specific jargon, as they are directed to a more narrow audience than
something meant to be read or heard by the general public, where the audience
members' backgrounds will be more diverse.

Precision in word choice is less exacting in informal contexts than formal ones, and
grammar rules are more flexible in spoken language than in formal written language.
Understandable English syntax is more flexible than most.

"[T]he odd thing about English is that no matter how much you screw sequences word
up, you understood, still, like Yoda, will be," Douglas Coupland wrote in "Generation
A." "Other languages don't work that way. French? Dieu! Misplace a single le or la and
an idea vaporizes into a sonic puff. English is flexible: you can jam it into a Cuisinart
for an hour, remove it, and meaning will still emerge.” (Random House Canada,
2009)

Types of Syntax (Sentence Structures)

Types of sentences and their syntax modes include simple sentences, compound
sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Compound
sentences are two simple sentences joined by a conjunction. Complex sentences have
dependent clauses, and compound-complex sentences have both types included.

 Simple sentence: The girl ran. Structure: Subject-verb.

 Compound sentence: The girl ran the marathon, and her cousin did, too.
Structure: Subject-verb-object-conjunction-subject-verb.
 Complex sentence: Although they were tired after the marathon, the cousins
decided to go to a celebration at the park. Structure: Dependent clause-subject-
verb-object.
 Compound-complex sentence: Although they weren't fond of crowds, this
was different, they decided, because of the common goal that had brought
everyone together. Structure: Four clauses, dependent and independent.

Syntax Variations and Distinctions

Syntax has changed some over the development of English through the centuries,
noted author Jean Atichison. "The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first
sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs."
("Language Change: Progress or Decay?" 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2001)

And not all people speak English in exactly the same way. Social dialects learned by
people with common backgrounds—such as a social class, profession, age group, or
ethnic group—also may influence the speakers' syntax. Think of the differences
between teenagers' slang and more fluid word order and grammar vs. research
scientists' technical vocabulary and manner of speaking to each other. Social dialects
are also called social varieties.
Beyond Syntax
Following proper syntax doesn't guarantee that a sentence will have meaning, though.
Linguist Noam Chomsky created the sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously,"
which is syntactically and grammatically correct because it has the words in the
correct order and verbs that agree with subjects, but it's still nonsense. With it,
Chomsky showed that rules governing syntax are distinct from meanings that words
convey.

The distinction between grammar and syntax has been somewhat disrupted by recent
research in lexicogrammar, which takes the words into account in grammar rules: For
example, some verbs (transitive ones, that perform an action on
something) alwaystake direct objects. A transitive (action) verb example:

 She removed the index card from the old recipe box.

The verb is removed and the object is index card.

Another example, including a transitive phrasal verb:

 Please look over my report before I turn it in.

Look over is the phrasal verb and report is the direct object. To be a complete
thought, you need to include what's being looked over. Thus, it has to have a direct
object.

What is Syntax? Definition,

Examples of English Syntax
Syntax definition: Syntax is the grammatical structure of words and phrases to
create coherent sentences.
What is syntax?
What does syntax mean? Syntax is the grammatical structure of sentences. The
format in which words and phrases are arranged to create sentences is called syntax.
Proper Syntax in English Sentences

In English, a strong, active voice

sentence will always have the subject doing the action of the sentence. These
sentences will follow a basic subject-verb-object format.

Below are a few examples of different types of syntax in English. Each of these
examples has different syntax.

Simple sentences follow a subject-verb format.

Simple Syntax Examples:
  The boy jumped.
 The girl sang.
Compound sentences have more than one subject or verb.
Compound Syntax Examples:
 The boy jumped and the girl sang.
 I did not go to the concert but I went to the fair.
Complex sentences contain a subordinating clause.
Complex Syntax Examples:
 The boy jumped even though he was nervous.
 Because she was excited, the girl sang.
Compound-complex sentences contain two independent clauses and more
dependent clauses.
Compound-complex Syntax Examples:
 Even though he was nervous, the boy jumped and he landed across the
stream.
 The girl sang and the woman shrieked because they were excited.

Parallel Structure in Sentences

When constructing sentences, it is

important to always keep in mind that ideas should be parallel.

In English, parallel structure is most often an issue when creating a series list.
Therefore, we will look at an example of appropriate parallel structure through lists.

Correct example:
 I like running, jumping, and hiking.
In this example, three gerunds are used (running, jumping, hiking) to create the
grammatically correct list.

Incorrect example:
 I like to run, jumping, and hiking.
In this example, “to run” and “jumping” and “hiking” are not parallel. “To run” is an
infinitive and “jumping” and “hiking” are gerunds. This sentence is grammatically
incorrect and this sentence does not have proper syntax.

Summary: What is Syntax in Literature?

Define syntax: the definition of syntax is,
 the arrangement of words and phrases to create sentences
 a way for writers to express creativity and create interest
 a balance of words that must be parallel to be grammatically correct