ABSTRACT

Today's computers work on bits that exist as either 0 or 1.

Quantum computers aren't limited to two states; they encode
information as quantum bits, or qubits, which can exist in
superposition. Qubits represent atoms, ions, photons or
electrons and their respective control devices that are working
together to act as computer memory and a processor. Because a
quantum computer can contain these multiple states
simultaneously, it has the potential to be millions of times
more powerful than today's most powerful supercomputers. A
processor that can use registers of qubits will be able to
perform calculations using all the possible values of the input
registers simultaneously. This superposition causes a
phenomenon called quantum parallelism, and is the motivating
force behind the research being carried out in quantum
computing. Due to technical obstacles, till date, a quantum
computer has not yet been realized. But the concepts and ideas
of quantum computing has been demonstrated using various
methods like NMR, Ion Trap, Quantum Dot, Optical Methods, etc.
A quantum computer manipulates qubits by executing a series of
quantum gates, each a unitary transformation acting on a single
qubit or pair of qubits. In applying these gates in
succession, a quantum computer can perform a complicated
unitary transformation to a set of qubits in some initial
state. The qubits can then be measured, with this measurement
serving as the final computational result. Research must
devise a way to maintain decoherence and other potential
sources of error at an acceptable level. Probably the most
important idea in this field is the application of error
correction in phase coherence as a means to extract information
and reduce error in a quantum system without actually measuring
that system. Thereby, quantum computers will emerge as the
superior computational devices and perhaps one day make today's
modern computer obsolete.

INTRODUCTION
Quantum computing is the use of quantum-mechanical
phenomena such as superposition and entanglement to perform
computation. A quantum computer is used to perform such
computation, which can be implemented theoretically or
physically.

The field of quantum computing is actually a sub-field of

quantum information science, which includes quantum
cryptography and quantum communication. Quantum Computing
was started in the early 1980s when Richard Feynman and
Yuri Manin expressed the idea that a quantum computer had
the potential to simulate things that a classical computer
could not. In 1994, Peter Shor shocked the world with an
algorithm that had the potential to decrypt all secured
communications.

There are two main approaches to physically implementing a

quantum computer currently, analog and digital. Analog
approaches are further divided into quantum simulation,
quantum annealing, and adiabatic quantum computation.
Digital quantum computers use quantum logic gates to do
computation. Both approaches use quantum bits or qubits.

Qubits are fundamental to quantum computing and are

somewhat analogous to bits in a classical computer. Qubits
can be in a 1 or 0 quantum state. But they can also be in a
superposition of the 1 and 0 states. However, when qubits
are measured the result is always either a 0 or a 1; the
probabilities of the two outcomes depends on the quantum
state they were in.

Today's physical quantum computers are very noisy and

quantum error correction is a burgeoning field of research.
Unfortunately existing hardware is so noisy that fault-
tolerant quantum computing [is] still a rather distant
dream. As of April 2019 neither large scalable quantum
hardware has been demonstrated nor have commercially useful
algorithms for today's small noisy quantum computers been
published. There is an increasing amount of investment in
quantum computing by governments, established companies,
and start-ups. Both applications of near-term intermediate-
scale device and the demonstration of quantum supremacy are
actively pursued in academic and industrial research.

With quantum computing we can harness the super powers

superposition and entanglement to solve complex problems that
our classical computers cannot do. Thus a quantum computer uses
the quantum phenomena of subatomic particles to compute complex
mathematical problems.

A quantum computer uses qubits to supply information and

communicate through the system. Its encoded with quantum
information in both states of 0 and 1 instead of classical bits
which can only be 0 or 1. This means a qubit can be in multiple
places at once due to superposition.

Imagine the following example, I write an X on a random page in

a random book in a library with 1 million books and tell a
quantum and classical computer to find the X. For a classical
computer, it would have to sort through every page of every
book one by one to find the X which would consume a lot of
time. For a quantum computer, a qubit in superposition can be
in a multiple places at once so it can analyze every page at
the same time and find the X instantly.

Superposition and entanglement in a quantum computer:

 qubits unlike classical computers can be in a

superposition of both 0 and 1
 a complex system of qubits can be in many superpositions
at once, example 5 qubits can be in a superposition of 32
states (2^n)
 2 entangled qubits are correlated with one another,
information on one qubit will reveal information about the
other unknown qubit

At about 50 qubits, many say a quantum computer could achieve

“quantum supremacy” ~ John Preskill

Together both properties of superposition and entanglement will

enable qubits to compute huge amounts of data simultaneously
and solve complex problems such as optimization which classical
computers would take millions of years to calculate.

Qubits are fundamental to quantum computing and are

somewhat analogous to bits in a classical computer. Qubits
can be in a 1 or 0 quantum state. But they can also be in a
superposition of the 1 and 0 states. However, when qubits
are measured the result is always either a 0 or a 1; the
probabilities of the two outcomes depends on the quantum
state they were in.

Potential
Cryptography

Integer factorization, which underpins the security of public

key cryptographic systems, is believed to be computationally
infeasible with an ordinary computer for large integers if they
are the product of few prime numbers (e.g., products of two
300-digit primes).[12] By comparison, a quantum computer could
efficiently solve this problem using Shor's algorithm to find
its factors. This ability would allow a quantum computer to
break many of the cryptographic systems in use today, in the
sense that there would be a polynomial time (in the number of
digits of the integer) algorithm for solving the problem. In
particular, most of the popular public key ciphers are based on
the difficulty of factoring integers or the discrete logarithm
problem, both of which can be solved by Shor's algorithm. In
particular, the RSA, Diffie–Hellman, and elliptic curve Diffie–
Hellman algorithms could be broken. These are used to protect
secure Web pages, encrypted email, and many other types of
data. Breaking these would have significant ramifications for
electronic privacy and security.

Quantum search

Besides factorization and discrete logarithms, quantum

algorithms offering a more than polynomial speedup over the
best known classical algorithm have been found for several
problems,[19] including the simulation of quantum physical
processes from chemistry and solid state physics, the
approximation of Jones polynomials, and solving Pell's
equation. No mathematical proof has been found that shows that
an equally fast classical algorithm cannot be discovered,
although this is considered unlikely.[20] However, quantum
computers offer polynomial speedup for some problems.

Quantum simulation

Since chemistry and nanotechnology rely on understanding

quantum systems, and such systems are impossible to simulate in
an efficient manner classically, many believe quantum
simulation will be one of the most important applications of
quantum computing.[24] Quantum simulation could also be used to
simulate the behavior of atoms and particles at unusual
conditions such as the reactions inside a collider.

Quantum annealing and adiabatic optimization

Adiabatic quantum computation relies on the adiabatic theorem

to undertake calculations. A system is placed in the ground
state for a simple Hamiltonian, which is slowly evolved to a
more complicated Hamiltonian whose ground state represents the
solution to the problem in question. The adiabatic theorem
states that if the evolution is slow enough the system will
stay in its ground state at all times through the process.
Solving linear equations

The Quantum algorithm for linear systems of equations or "HHL

Algorithm", named after its discoverers Harrow, Hassidim, and
Lloyd, is expected to provide speedup over classical
counterparts.

Quantum supremacy

John Preskill has introduced the term quantum supremacy to

refer to the hypothetical speedup advantage that a quantum
computer would have over a classical computer in a certain
field. Google announced in 2017 that it expected to achieve
quantum supremacy by the end of the year though that did not
happen

Obstacles
There are a number of technical challenges in building a large-
scale quantum computer, and thus far quantum computers have yet
to solve a problem faster than a classical computer. David
DiVincenzo, of IBM, listed the following requirements for a
practical quantum computer:[33]

 scalable physically to increase the number of qubits;

 qubits that can be initialized to arbitrary values;
 quantum gates that are faster than decoherence time;
 universal gate set;
 qubits that can be read easily.

Quantum decoherence

Main article: Quantum decoherence

One of the greatest challenges is controlling or removing

quantum decoherence. This usually means isolating the system
from its environment as interactions with the external world
cause the system to decohere. However, other sources of
decoherence also exist. Examples include the quantum gates, and
the lattice vibrations and background thermonuclear spin of the
physical system used to implement the qubits. Decoherence is
irreversible, as it is effectively non-unitary, and is usually
something that should be highly controlled, if not avoided.
Decoherence times for candidate systems in particular, the
transverse relaxation time T2 (for NMR and MRI technology, also
called the dephasing time), typically range between nanoseconds
and seconds at low temperature.[11] Currently, some quantum
computers require their qubits to be cooled to 20 millikelvins
in order to prevent significant decoherence.[34]

As a result, time-consuming tasks may render some quantum

algorithms inoperable, as maintaining the state of qubits for a
long enough duration will eventually corrupt the
superpositions.[35]

These issues are more difficult for optical approaches as the

timescales are orders of magnitude shorter and an often-cited
approach to overcoming them is optical pulse shaping. Error
rates are typically proportional to the ratio of operating time
to decoherence time, hence any operation must be completed much
more quickly than the decoherence time.

As described in the Quantum threshold theorem, if the error

rate is small enough, it is thought to be possible to use
quantum error correction to suppress errors and decoherence.
This allows the total calculation time to be longer than the
decoherence time if the error correction scheme can correct
errors faster than decoherence introduces them. An often cited
figure for the required error rate in each gate for fault-
tolerant computation is 10−3, assuming the noise is
depolarizing.

Meeting this scalability condition is possible for a wide range

of systems. However, the use of error correction brings with it
the cost of a greatly increased number of required qubits. The
number required to factor integers using Shor's algorithm is
still polynomial, and thought to be between L and L2, where L is
the number of qubits in the number to be factored; error
correction algorithms would inflate this figure by an
additional factor of L. For a 1000-bit number, this implies a
need for about 104 bits without error correction.[36] With error
correction, the figure would rise to about 107 bits. Computation
time is about L2 or about 107 steps and at 1 MHz, about 10
seconds.

A very different approach to the stability-decoherence problem

is to create a topological quantum computer with anyons, quasi-
particles used as threads and relying on braid theory to form
stable logic gates

OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
 Quantum computing has got a vast array of applications,
most of which we cannot even comprehend today.
  Quantum computing is known to have applications in
cryptography, in simulating complex systems, in the
development of new materials and drugs, and many more.
 The development of quantum computing will also have far-
reaching consequences in machine learning as well as in
the development of artificial intelligence.
 Quantum computing will even have applications in cyber
security, making the internet much more secure and in the
defense sector as well.

METHODOLOGY
A quantum computer with a given number of qubits is
fundamentally different from a classical computer composed of
the same number of classical bits. For example, representing
the state of an n-qubit system on a classical computer requires
the storage of 2n complex coefficients, while to characterize
the state of a classical n-bit system it is sufficient to
provide the values of the n bits, that is, only n numbers.
Although this fact may seem to indicate that qubits can hold
exponentially more information than their classical
counterparts, care must be taken not to overlook the fact that
the qubits are only in a probabilistic superposition of all of
their states. This means that when the final state of the
qubits is measured, they will only be found in one of the
possible configurations they were in before the measurement. It
is generally incorrect to think of a system of qubits as being
in one particular state before the measurement. The qubits are
in a superposition of states before any measurement is made,
which directly affects the possible outcomes of the
computation.

While a classical 3-bit state and a quantum 3-qubit state are

each eight-dimensional vectors, they are manipulated quite
differently for classical or quantum computation. For computing
in either case, the system must be initialized, for example
into the all-zeros string, corresponding to the vector
(1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0). In classical randomized computation, the
system evolves according to the application of stochastic
matrices, which preserve that the probabilities add up to one
(i.e., preserve the L1 norm).

LITERATURE
Larry greenimier spoke with Clarke about the different
approaches to building a quantum computer, why they are so
fragile—and why this is all taking so long.

[An edited transcript of the interview follows.]

How does quantum computing compare with conventional computing?

A common metaphor used to compare the two is a coin. In

conventional computer processor a transistor is either up or
down, heads or tails. But if I ask you whether that coin is
heads or tails while it’s spinning, you might say the answer is
both. That’s what a quantum computer builds on. Instead a
conventional bit that’s either 0 or 1, you have a quantum bit
that simultaneously represents 0 and 1, until that qubit stops
spinning and comes to a resting state.

The state space—or the ability to sample a large number of

possible combinations—is exponential with a quantum computer.
Taking the coin metaphor further, imagine I have two coins in
my hand and I toss them in the air at the same time. While
they’re both spinning they would represent four possible
states. If I tossed three coins in the air, they would
represent eight possible states. If I had 50 coins and tossed
them all up in the air and asked you how many states that
represents, the answer would be more states than is possible
with the largest supercomputer in the world today. Three
hundred coins—still a relatively small number—would represent
more states than there are atoms in the universe.

Why are qubits so fragile?

The reality is that the coins, or qubits, eventually stop

spinning and collapse into a particular state, whether it’s
heads or tails. The goal with quantum computing is to keep them
spinning in the superposition of multiple states for a long
time. Imagine I have a coin spinning on a table and someone is
shaking that table. That might cause the coin to fall over
faster. Noise, temperature change, an electrical fluctuation or
vibration—all of these things can disturb a qubit’s operation
and cause it to lose its data. One way to stabilize certain
types of qubits is to keep them very cold. Our qubits operate
in a dilution refrigerator that’s about the size of a 55-gallon
drum, and uses a special isotope of helium to cool them a
fraction of a degree above absolute zero (roughly –273 degrees
Celsius).

How do you get there from here?

The first step is to make these quantum chips. At the same

time, we’ve actually made a simulator on a supercomputer. When
we run the Intel quantum simulator, it takes something like
five trillion transistors to simulate 42 qubits. It will likely
require one million or more qubits to achieve commercial
relevance, but starting with a simulator like that you can
build your basic architecture, compilers and algorithms. Until
we have physical systems that are a few hundred to a thousand
qubits, however, it’s unclear exactly what types of software or
applications that we’ll be able to run. There are two paths for
growing the size of the system: One is to add more qubits,
which would take up more physical space. The problem is, if our
goal is to have one-million-qubit computers, the math doesn’t
work out too well in terms of scaling. The other path is to
shrink the inner dimensions of the integrated circuit, but that
approach is unlikely with a superconducting system, which tends
to be large. The spin qubits are a million times smaller, which
is one of the reasons we’re studying them as another option.

The U.S. House Subcommittee on Digital Commerce and Consumer

Protection held a hearing on quantum computing recently. What
do lawmakers want to know about the technology?

There are multiple hearings coming up with a number of

different committees. If we take a look at quantum computing,
some will say this is the computing technology for the next 100
years. It’s natural for the U.S. and other governments to want
to own it. The E.U. has a billion-dollar flagship that would
fund quantum research across the E.U. China last fall announced
a $10-billion research facility focused on quantum information
sciences. The question is: What can we do as a country at the
national level? A national strategy for quantum computing might
lead to universities, government and industry working together
to develop different aspects of the technology. Standards
certainly make sense from a communication or software
architecture standpoint. Workforce is also an issue; right now
when I open a position for a quantum-computing expert, probably
two thirds of the applicants come from outside the U.S.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my
teacher as well as our principal who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic quantum
computing, which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and
i came to know about so many new things I am really thankful to
them.
Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited
time frame.

REFERENCES

1. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and

Medicine (2019). Grumbling, Emily; Horowitz, Mark (eds.).
Quantum Computing : Progress and Prospects (2018). Washington,
DC: National Academies Press.

2. John Preskill (2018). "Quantum Computing in the NISQ era and

beyond". Quantum.

3. Bhattacharjee, Pijush Kanti (2010). "Digital Combinational

Circuits Design by QCA Gates"

4. Johnson, M. W.; Amin, M. H. S.; Gildert, S.; Lanting, T.;

Hamze, F.; Dickson, N.; Harris, R.; Berkley, A. J.; Johansson,
J.; Bunyk, P.; Chapple, E. M.; Enderud, C.; Hilton, J. P.;
Karimi, K.; Ladizinsky, E.; Ladizinsky, N.; Oh, T.; Perminov,
I.; Rich, C.; Thom, M. C.; Tolkacheva, E.; Truncik, C. J. S.;
Uchaikin, S.; Wang, J.; Wilson, B.; Rose, G. (12 May 2011).
"Quantum annealing with manufactured spins"

5. Daniel J. Bernstein, Introduction to Post-Quantum

Cryptography. Introduction to Daniel J. Bernstein, Johannes
Buchmann, Erik Dahmen (editors). Post-quantum cryptography.
Springer, Berlin, 2009.

MAHARAJA SURAJMAL
INSTITUTE
(GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNIVERSITY)
 CYBER ETHICS

PROJECT: “QUANTUM COMPUTING”

Submitted By:
Sandeep Kumar(BCA)
2nd Semester , section-B, 1st shift
Roll no: 401-149-02018