HELLENISTIC PHILOSOPHY times for why the Cynics were called dogs was because the first Cynic,

called dogs was because the first Cynic, Antisthenes,

taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens. The word Cynosarges means the
AIMS AND CONTEXT place of the white dog. It seems certain, however, that the word dog was also thrown
The philosophies developed in the Hellenistic period that is to say after the at the first Cynics as an insult for their shameless rejection of conventional manners,
death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, which provided the intellectual context for and their decision to live on the streets. Diogenes, in particular, was referred to as
the late Republic and early Empire. the Dog, a distinction he seems to have revelled in, stating that "other dogs bite their
A view on how life should be lived is the explicit concern of both schools. It enemies; I bite my friends to save them." Later Cynics also sought to turn the word
is an aim that deserves to be taken seriously for two reasons. to their advantage, as a later commentator explained: There are four reasons why
 Indirect source of practical guidance the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for
 The search for values by which to live they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go
The Hellenistic era extends from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is
BCE to the conquest of Egypt by the Romans in 30 BC. Though defined in terms of a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath
political events, it is also host to distinctive developments in Greek intellectual life. modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and
Chief among these are the foundation and consolidation of organized schools as the they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a
focus of philosophical life, especially in Athens. discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do
The intellectual life of Hellenistic Greece changed again as Roman political they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them
authority gradually came to dominate in the region. The Hellenistic period was the kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.
heyday of Greek geometry. Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius of Perge, and a host of It is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies. It
lesser mathematicians published work of enduring value on difficult problems, offered people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an
typically involving the properties of curves and the areas and volumes bounded by age of uncertainty. The fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarized as
geometrical figures. follows:
1. The goal of life is happiness which is to live in agreement with Nature.
ANTISTHENES-Cynicism 2. Happiness depends on being self-sufficient, and a master of mental attitude.
The story of Cynicism traditionally begins with Antisthenes (c. 445–365 3. Self-sufficiency is achieved by living a life of Virtue.
BCE), who was an older contemporary of Plato and a pupil of Socrates. At about 25 4. The road to virtue is to free oneself from any influence such as wealth, fame,
years his junior, Antisthenes was one of the most important of Socrates' disciples. or power, which has no value in Nature.
Although later classical authors had little doubt about labeling him as the founder of 5. Suffering is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative
Cynicism, his philosophical views seem to be more complex than the later emotions and a vicious character.
simplicities of pure Cynicism. In the list of works ascribed to Antisthenes by Diogenes
Laërtius, writings on Language, Dialogue and Literature far outnumber those on A Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame,
Ethics or Politics, although they may reflect how his philosophical interests changed power or reputation. A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities
with time and preached a life of poverty. required for existence, and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any
Their philosophy was that the purpose of life was to live a life of Virtue in needs which are the result of convention. The Cynics adopted Hercules as their hero,
agreement with Nature. This meant rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, as epitomizing the ideal Cynic. Hercules "was he who brought Cerberus, the hound
power, health, and fame, and by living a simple life free from all possessions. As of Hades, from the underworld, a point of special appeal to the dog-man, Diogenes."
reasoning creatures, people could gain happiness by rigorous training and by living According to Lucian, "Cerberus and Cynic are surely related through the dog." The
in a way which was natural for humans. They believed that the world belonged Cynic way of life required continuous training, not just in exercising one's judgments
equally to everyone, and that suffering was caused by false judgments of what was and mental impressions, but a physical training as well: [Diogenes] used to say, that
valuable and by the worthless customs and conventions which surrounded society. there were two kinds of exercise: that, namely, of the mind and that of the body; and
Many of these thoughts were later absorbed into Stoicism. that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at the
The first philosopher to outline these themes was Antisthenes, who had time of its performance, as very much facilitated the practice of virtue; but that one
been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BCE. He was followed by Diogenes was imperfect without the other, since the health and vigor necessary for the practice
of Sinope, who lived in a tub on the streets of Athens. He took Cynicism to its logical of what is good, depend equally on both mind and body. None of this meant that the
extremes, and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was Cynic would retreat from society, far from it, Cynics would live in the full glare of the
followed by Crates of Thebes who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life public's gaze and would be quite indifferent in the face of any insults which might
of Cynic poverty in Athens. result from their unconventional behavior. The Cynics are said to have invented the
Origin of the Cynic name idea of cosmopolitanism: when he was asked where he came from, Diogenes replied
The name Cynic derives from the Greek word κυνικός, kynikos, "dog-like" that he was "a citizen of the world, (kosmopolitês)." The ideal Cynic would
and that from κύων, kyôn, "dog" (genitive: kynos). One explanation offered in ancient evangelize; as the watchdog of humanity, it was their job to hound people about the
error of their ways. The example of the Cynic's life (and the use of the Cynic's biting Such a view of persons similarly undergirds his theological claim that we
satire) would dig-up and expose the pretensions which lay at the root of everyday have no reason to fear punishment from the gods in an afterlife. Since we do not
conventions. Although Cynicism concentrated solely on ethics, Cynic philosophy had survive our deaths, the gods can hardly mete out any post mortem punishment, even
a big impact on the Hellenistic world, ultimately becoming an important influence for if they so wished. “When we are there, death is not, and when death is there, we
Stoicism. The Stoic Apollodorus writing in the 2nd century BCE stated that "Cynicism are not”.
is the short path to virtue." The ancient Cynics rejected conventional social values, He thinks that reason can lead us to eliminate easily any fears based on
and would criticize the types of behaviors, such as greed, which they viewed as mistaken beliefs and he lauds its sober power to focus each of our choices on our
causing suffering. Emphasis on this aspect of their teachings led, in the late 18th and final good. Like Socrates, he denies that we can know the good and yet fail to pursue
early 19th century, to the modern understanding of cynicism as "an attitude of it either because of unmanageable desires or incorrigible weaknesses in our
scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or character.
professed motives of others." This modern definition of cynicism is in marked All of the virtues including justice, he insists, are a species of rational
contrast to the ancient philosophy, which emphasized "virtue and moral freedom prudence, instrumentally useful in securing and maintaining a life of pleasure.
in liberation from desire."
ZENO - Stoicism
EPICURUS - Epicureanism The Stoic school, which took its name from its beginnings in the Stoa poikilê
Born in 341 BC in Samos to a family of Athenian colonists, he set up his or Painted Porch, in the main square of Athens, was founded by Zeno (335–263 BC)
school, the Garden, in Athens in 307/6 BC. His philosophy is a development -though from Citium in Cyprus. Zeno had previously been a pupil of Polemo, the fourth head
with very significant modifications, as we shall see—of the doctrines of the fifth- of Plato’s Academy, and of the Cynic Crates.
century atomists Leucippus and Democritus, and he was taught by an atomist Zeno came from the town of Citium on the island of Cyprus to establish his
philosopher, Nausiphanes. school in the Painted Stoa in the Athenian agora, and throughout its history it
Epicureanism revived the atomistic physics pioneered by Leucippus and continued to attract philosophers from all over the Hellenistic Greek world, especially
Democritus and linked it tightly with a hedonistic ethics and quietistic political Asia Minor.
philosophy. Epicurus, the founder of Epicureanism, was an Athenian, but his Stoicism depended on the mainstream Socratic tradition; its cosmology and
followers spread around the Aegean basin in a network of smaller institutions that physics drew primarily on Plato and Aristotle and its ethical and political theory were
remained connected to the original school. Epicurus died in 270 BC. heavily influenced by Socratic ideas colored by the Cynic tradition stemming from
Central Ideas Diogenes of Sinope and Crates of Thebes.
For Epicurus the goal of life is pleasure, and the happy life is that with Central Ideas
most pleasure and least pain. But this does not mean, as might be thought, the life The concept of nature played a central role in Stoicism. The key to human
of perpetual physical self-indulgence—though Epicurus already in his own lifetime fulfillment or happiness (eudaimonia) is living according to nature, and Stoic
protested against those who understood him so. philosophy was based on this conception of the goal of life. The study of the
The limit of magnitude of pleasures is the removal of all pain. Wherever natural world, physics, was a major occupation of virtually all Stoics. Nature was
pleasure is present, for as long as it is present, there is neither pain, nor distress, nor formally defined as “a craftsman like fire, proceeding methodically to creation
the combination of the two. (genesis)” (Diogenes 7.156). God, a fully rational and providential force causally
Lavish banquets may give variety to life, but they do not bring a greater responsible for the world and its orderliness, was equated with nature.
degree of pleasure than that simple food, provided that such food is enough to dispel Philosophy is like an animal—logic is the bones and sinews; ethics the flesh;
hunger. physics the soul. Or it is like an egg—logic is the shell; ethics the white; physics the
The Epicurean will enjoy banquets and the good things of life if possible, yolk. Or like agricultural land—logic is the wall around the field; ethics the fruit;
provided of course he or she does so in moderation and in a way that will not bring physics the land or trees that bear the fruit.
more pain in the long run. For the Stoics did hold that virtue or wisdom (the two being equated) is
The best way to achieve security and happiness is rather to withdraw from sufficient in itself for happiness
public life and dwell with a circle of like-minded friends, as Epicurus did in the Garden Differences and Similarities (Epicureanism and Stoicism)
that gave its name to his school, enjoying the good things of life when one can but Stoicism and Epicureanism were in some ways polar opposites. The former
being aware how little one really needs. championed god’s providence while Epicurus denied it.
The Fear of Death and Punishment Stoic physics asserts the continuity of all matter (which is itself permeated
His arguments against the fear of death is the claim that persons are by a divine cause giving it form), while for Epicurus all things, even the gods, are
material entities of the sort that no longer continue to exist upon death and are composed of atoms and void.
therefore no longer subject to harm. This being the case, we have no reason to fear Like Plato and Aristotle, Stoics believed that society and its institutions rest
a future state that can cause us no harm. on deeply rooted features of human nature, but Epicureans held that societies are
formed by agreements among people about mutual preservation and advantage.
 Stoicism (inspired in part by the dialectical school and Megarian philosopher Plotinus, who claimed to have received his teachings from Ammonius
philosophers) led the way in the development of logic and dialectic, while Epicurus Saccas, a philosopher in Alexandria. Plotinus was also influenced by Alexander of
rejected logic along with many other specialized intellectual endeavors as useless. Aphrodisias and Numenius of Apamea. Plotinus's student Porphyry assembled his
For Epicurus even physics mattered only in so far as it was essential to achieving teachings into the six sets of nine tractates, or Enneads.
tranquility. Although the founder of Neoplatonism is supposed to have been Ammonius
Despite these contrasts, the two schools shared a great deal. Both rested Saccas, the Enneads of his pupil Plotinus are the primary and classical document of
their philosophy on broadly empiricist epistemologies, according to which normal Neoplatonism. As a form of mysticism, it contains theoretical and practical parts, the
sensory experience was the ultimate source and criterion for knowledge, and both first dealing with the high origin of the human soul showing how it has departed from
rejected the idea of causally efficacious incorporeal entities and emphasized the its first estate, and the second showing the way by which the soul may again return
material foundations of all reality. to the Eternal and Supreme. The system can be divided between the invisible world
Neither school could accept the central role of form, either in the Platonic and the phenomenal world, the former containing the transcendent One from which
version in which forms were separate from material particulars, or in the immanentist emanates an eternal, perfect, essence (nous), which, in turn, produces the world-
version of Aristotle, for whom form and matter were the two components of all soul.
concrete objects; nor could they embrace the concepts of an incorporeal deity or an
immortal and incorporeal soul animating the body. Celestial hierarchy
The religious philosophy of Plotinus for himself personally sufficed, without
PYRRHO OF ELIS - Scepticism the aid of the popular religion or worship. Nevertheless he sought for points of
As these new schools emerged, the Academy changed its intellectual support in these. God is certainly in the truest sense nothing but the primeval Being
course; under the leadership of Arcesilaus it adopted a skeptical practice, devoting who is revealed in a variety of emanations and manifestations. Plotinus taught the
its energies not to the development and refinement of positive theories but to the existence of an ineffable and transcendent One, the All, from which emanated the
dialectical criticism of those philosophers who claimed certainty for their own views. rest of the universe as a sequence of lesser beings.
Stoicism was its chief target, and it can be argued that the main inspiration  The One: God, The Good. Transcendent and ineffable.
for this skeptical turn was the desire to refute those who claimed that the physical  The Hypercosmic Gods: Those that make Essence, Life, and Soul
world could yield certain knowledge.  The Demiurge: The creator
Scepticism as a distinctive philosophical tradition, leading to tranquility  The Cosmic Gods: Those who make Being, Nature, and Matter—including
and happiness through suspension of judgment, was however connected by the gods known to us from classical religion
later writers above all with Pyrrho of Elis (c.365/360–275/ 270 BC). Neoplatonists believed human perfection and happiness were attainable
Pyrrho himself, like Socrates, wrote nothing; his teachings were recorded in this world, without awaiting an afterlife. Perfection and happiness— seen as
by his follower Timon of Phlius and these works themselves survive only in synonymous— could be achieved through philosophical contemplation.
secondary quotations. The Neoplatonists believed in the pre-existence, and immortality of the soul. The
Pyrrho of Elis (c.360-c.270), Greek philosopher, founder of the Skeptical human soul consists of a lower irrational soul and a higher rational soul (mind), both
school. All philosophers are confident that rational thinking is the road to truth except of which can be regarded as different powers of the one soul. It was widely held
for Pyrrho of Elis, who entertained some doubts about the quest for knowledge. that the soul possesses a "vehicle", accounting for the human soul's
He argued that we cannot fully comprehend nature, do not know for certain immortality and allowing for its return to the One after death. After bodily
whether a statement is true or false, and are unable to build an ethical system on so death, the soul takes up a level in the afterlife corresponding with the level at
weak a fundament. which it lived during its earthly life. The Neoplatonists believed in the principle
People would be happier, he argued, if they gave up these useless of reincarnation.
intellectual exercises and postponed their judgment. The result was a conservative Although the most pure and holy souls would dwell in the highest regions, the
political philosophy, because Pyrrho recommended that, even though we had no impure soul would undergo a purification, before descending again, to be
moral absolutes, we should live by time-honored traditions. reincarnated into a new body, perhaps into animal form. A soul that has returned to
the One, achieves union with the cosmic universal soul, and does not descend again,
Two Types of Skeptics at least, not in this world period.
Academic: believes that nothing can be known.
Phyrrhonists: argues that we need to suspend our judgment to avoid error.

PLOTINIUS - Neoplatonism
It is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical philosophy that
took shape in the 3rd century AD, founded by Plotinus and based on the teachings
of Plato and earlier Platonists. Neoplatonism took definitive shape with the