A Review

of the Needs

of Older LGBT People

in Later Life

Research sponsor:

Commissioned by
PinkNews Media Group
May 2019

Authored by Edited by
Catherine El Zerbi PhD Ana Nanu
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 Ageing Summit 2019

About Foreword
PinkNews from Aegon
PinkNews is the world’s largest LGBT “We welcome the publication of the Re-
media outlet. We stand for the fundamen- view which brings together a multitude of
tal rights of the entire LGBT community studies on the issues facing the LGBT+ com-
and its allies. Our goal is to acknowledge munity when it comes to ageing. Whether
individual experience, and work towards it’s concern about ensuring financial assets
representing a diverse and intersectional are passed on to the right beneficiaries or
community. a worry about the potential for discrimina-
tion in later life care, the Review points to
“The first generations of LGBT+ peo-
a number of areas associated with finance,
ple to have witnessed decriminalisation
housing, care and health which warrant fur-
are ageing. For some, this means entering
ther investigation.
a care systemwhich still fails to meet the
needs of our community. My hope is that We were delighted to sponsor the ini-
thesegenerations who fought so hard and tiative because as a business our purpose
lost so much for the rights we now enjoy is to support customers achieve a lifetime
are not forgotten. The recommendations in of financial security. In the UK Aegon pro-
this report, and the research that informs vides pensions, investments and protection
it, have the potential to drive meaningful products to over three and a half million
progress inthe fight against inequality over customers. Our customer base is broad
the coming years.” and represents all sections of society but
one thing every customer has in common
is a desire to prepare for the future and
secure their finances. As a result, it’s im-
portant that we understand the different
challenges our customers face as they age
to better inform how we support different
groups. The Review will also inform Aegon’s
Benjamin Cohen,
Inclusion and Diversity programme which
CEO and Editor-in-Chief, seeks to ensure Aegon is an inclusive and
PinkNews welcoming employer which attracts talent
from a broad range of backgrounds. Finally,
I’d like to thank the Review’s authors for the
time and effort that went intoproducing
the review.“

Stephen McGee,
Chief Financial Officer,
Aegon UK

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 Ageing Summit 2019

Table of Contents

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Current UK Policy & Legal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Intersectionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Access to Health Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Access to Social Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Personalisation of Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Staff Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Neighbourhood Connectedness & Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Family of Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Access to Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Access to Financial Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Employment & Pensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Wills & Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Annex A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Who do we mean by ‘LGBT’ people? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Sexual Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Gender Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Estimated Size of UK Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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 Ageing Summit 2019

Summary
This report was commissioned by PinkNews Media Group1 . A rapid review of the ex-
isting empirical evidence was undertaken to identify key issues most relevant to older les-
bian, gay, bisexual and trans (‘LGBT’)2 adults in the contexts of health, social care, housing,
financial and legal services in the UK. The findings from a total of 40 relevant papers were
synthesised3. The findings of this report remain in line with previous reviews4, 5. The findings
of this report are summarised below and have been used as the groundwork for a series of
recommendations (see ‘Recommendations’). Crucially, future directions for research which
would serve to bring recognition to the heterogeneity of the LGBT community are indicat-
ed at the end of this report (see ‘Future research’).

Broadly, those who are LGBT are believed to be at a higher risk of suffering from poor
mental and physical health throughout their lives. Though it is unclear how the likelihood
of poorer health plays out in older age, a fear of prejudice acts as a barrier to LGBT people
accessing health care services in later life. This lack of confidence in health care services
is primarily a result of previous experiences of discrimination relating to gender identi-
ty or sexual orientation. Most recent studies (The Last Outing, 2015) indicate that two
thirds of respondents reported experiences of discrimination, leading to delays in seeking
treatment at the appropriate stage (see p.10-12 of this report). LGBT older people seeking
care perceive a lack of acceptance from health care staff of non-heteronormative and
non-cisnormative lifestyles. There is also evidence that services are often unable to cater
to specific health needs due to a lack of specialised knowledge, which has an impact on
the treatment of trans people (p.11). Additionally, LGBT people may not belong to tradition-
al family structures where informal support can often be relied on, with many LGBT people
turning to friends or ‘families of choice’ for support.

Prejudicial attitudes also have a negative impact on older LGBT people’s experience in
residential, nursing and assisted care, with an overwhelming number of LGBT people view-
ing care and nursing homes as undesirable options for care in later life. Overall, care homes
were seen by LGBT people as heteronormative and cisnormative environments, where
they would have to hide their identity in order to protect themselves from abuse (p.12-14).
In many institutions, care is characterised by a sexuality-blind attitude that prevents specif-
ic care needs from being addressed. Studies suggest that sexuality and sexual orientation
is seen as peripheral to care by care staff (see p.15). Staff also reported that they lacked the
communication tools and confidence to address the sexual identity and life histories of
LGB residents. Training emerges as an essential tool for combatting issues surrounding lack
of knowledge and confidence, with evidence suggesting that exposure to LGBT individuals,
participatory leadership from managers and the introduction of LGBT advisors to commit-
tees are all effective in shifting anti-LGBT attitudes (p.15).

Surveys also indicate inequalities in housing provisions: older LGB adults are more likely
to live alone, and that their social networks are less immediately accessible (p.16). LGBT
communities provide support and resources to their members, helping to alleviate feeling

7
of loneliness and social isolation through social integration. Voluntary sector projects fill
gaps in accessibility and offer a wealth of support to older people. For many LGBT peo-
ple who faced historical discrimination, intimate relationships (including close friendships)
were isolated to the safety and privacy of a home. As public spaces did not always feel
safe, home became a key setting for communities and personal connections to develop.
As such, the safety and connectedness they felt within the home remains intimately tied
to the quality of life of older LGBT people. Currently, there are no specialist LGBT housing
provision options in the in the UK. Reports suggest a split in preferences within the LGBT-
community, with older LB women reporting that gender (rather than sexual orientation) is
an important issue in relation to sheltered housing and residential housing (p.19). According
to the SAFE – Secure, Accessible, Friendly and Equal study (see p.19), the majority of LGB
residents felt safe in their neighbourhoods. By contrast, trans people reported a high level
of concern regarding safety in their neighbourhoods, and transphobia in care homes and
other forms of sheltered housing. Additionally, though a high number of older LGB people
are single and live alone, many express a high degree of ambivalence towards the prospect
of receiving social care services in the home.

Regarding access to financial services, though LGB people have been found to be at
a material disadvantage by comparison to their heterosexual counterparts, they are also
more likely to have made financial plans for later life (p.19-20). Within the LGB community,
lesbians are likely to be at more of a disadvantage in employment due to their status as
women, particularly if they had roles as carers and mothers. Previous marriages also open
up the possibility of financial insecurity, with pension rights being lost upon entering a Civil
Partnership (p.20). Though some evidence exists on the gender income disparity between
LGB individuals, there is a lack of information concerning trans experiences of financial
services. As for legal services, wills are particularly important to LGBT people in later life.
LGB adults may choose to pass on ‘family money’, or prioritise their children, even in spite
of poor family relations; they may also choose to nominate friends, partners or ex-part-
ners in cases where families are not in contact. In cases where relatives are estranged,
giving Lasting Power of Attorney to ‘families of choice’ ensures that end of life wishes are
fulfilled. Broadly speaking, the tools available for financial and legal protections in later life
are thought to be more accessible to those who are affluent than those in poverty. The
expense of writing a will is a barrier to many who wish to declare their end of life choices,
as well as nominate those closest to them as beneficiaries of their estates (p.21).

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 Ageing Summit 2019

Introduction the Equality Act (Sexual Orientation) Reg-

ulations (2006), the Equality Act (2010), the
Marriage Act (Same-Sex Couples – 2013),
Current UK Policy & Legal Context the Care Act 2014 in England, the Public
Bodies (Joint Working) (Scotland) Act 2014
Older LGBT people have suffered legal, and the 2014 Social Services and Wellbeing
medical and social discrimination across (Wales) Act12. A recent UK national survey13
their life course, which can impact their of sexual attitudes also demonstrated in-
perceptions of social and political institu- creasing acceptance of same-sex relation-
tions, including health, social, housing and ships. Despite assurances of protection and
financial services. There is now a require- recognition, a survey14 of non-heterosexual
ment for public and private services to en- ageing experiences showed that 84% of
sure anti-discriminatory services to older participants felt that their relationships are
people on the basis of sexual orientation, not validated in broader society, and 99%
gender identity and age. The extent to felt that the law does not place equal value
which recommendations have been imple- on same-sex relationships as heterosexual
mented is presently unclear since health ones.
outcomes that are related to gender iden-
tity and sexual orientation are not routinely
monitored in population-level censuses or Intersectionality
health indicators such as the Public Health
Outcomes Framework (‘PHOF’). A compan- “It is important to acknowledge that
ion document6 to the PHOF supported by LGBT is not a homogenous group but
Public Health England, the Department of consists of individuals who may identi-
Health and the National LGB&T Partnership fy across several demographic groups,
outlines recommendations for action at of which their sexual orientation and
a local, regional and national level, and is gender identity are only two. Individuals
intended for local authorities, Health and have multiple identities which they expe-
Wellbeing Boards, NHS England, specialist rience in an integrated and holistic way,
public health teams, Clinical Commissioning although they may choose to emphasise
Groups, NHS and social care providers, and and disclose these identities in different
voluntary and community organisations settings in different ways.15”
working with LGB&T people7. Additional-
ly, development of LGBT ‘cultural compe- In addition to gender and sexual identi-
tence’ for service staff is not mandatory8. ty, there are various economic, social and
cultural factors, such as socio-economic
Experiences of prejudicial treatment on
status, ethnicity and disability which impact
the basis of gender and sexual orientation
how ageing is experienced. To address this,
may be compounded by ageist assumptions
researchers suggest that an intersectional
about older people, such as the notion that
analysis will enable an enhanced under-
older people are disinterested in sex9. It is
standing of the complexities of older LGBT
these experiences that are thought to have
narratives and experiences, and allows a
given rise to a reluctance on the part of
way to account for the intersections be-
older LGBT adults to access health and so-
tween age, gender, sexual orientation and
cial care services10. In recent times certain
socio-economic factors. This is warranted,
protections11 from prejudice, hostility and
as there is evidence indicating that older
discrimination have been afforded to LGB
people with lower socio-economic status
and trans people, namely the Human Rights
(‘SES’) are more likely to experience poor-
Act 1998, the Civil Partnerships Act (2004),
er health outcomes, such as long-standing

9
illness or disability, and have shorter life health, social care, housing and financial ser-
expectancy compared with those of higher vices. The objectives are to rapidly review
SES16. A nuanced and multi-faceted under- the research to identify prevailing themes
standing of existing social constraints and and limitations of the current evidence,
opportunities as they relate to non-hetero- and to develop a set of recommendations
sexual and trans living and ageing is needed, based on what is known about current ser-
rather than emphasising sexual and gender vices. 
identity as the determining factor of LGBT
experiences17. Indeed, significant differ-
ences in experiences for working-class les-
bians, whose sexual orientation and class
intersect to produce further inequalities,
have been found18. Working-class lesbians
reported feeling excluded from the LGBT
‘scene’ due to their class and also reported
feeling excluded from working-class com-
munities due to their sexual identity. Sim-
ilar effects have been observed amongst
older LGBT cohorts19 and attention has
been drawn to the dual impact of iden-
Access to
tifying as LGB and living with a disability
or belonging to an ethnic minority group
Health Care
that could heighten vulnerability to dis- “You have the right not to be unlawful-
crimination or exclusion20. To be clear, an ly discriminated against in the provision
intersectional approach advocates less for of NHS services including on grounds of
a ‘how-to-work-with older LGBT adults’ gender, race, religion or belief, sexual
as this would suggest uniformity and po- orientation, disability (including learning
tentially obscure differences and diversity disability or mental illness) or age24. “
within the LGBT community, as well as sus-
tain social divisions between heterosexual The majority of research exploring older
and homosexual identities21. Most impor- LGBT people’s experiences of health care
tantly, researchers agree that when the eth- has focussed on the experiences of gay
nic, class and economic diversity of older men, with fewer studies focused on the
lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans people22 are perceptions and concerns of lesbians, and
not represented, then the distinctive needs fewer still on the experiences of bisexual
of these groups are likely to be silenced or and trans people25. The health research that
misrepresented. does exist tends to focus on a narrow range
of health issues, often related to the health
needs of younger LGBT people. A large
Aims population-based US survey (96,000 re-
Over the past decade the empirical spondents) showed that older LGB individ-
evidence on older non-heterosexual and uals experience significantly poorer health
non-cisnormative gendered experiences outcomes than the heterosexual popula-
of ageing has grown in line with legislative tion, specifically in relation to higher risk of
changes. The aim of this report23 therefore disability, poor mental health, smoking, and
is to review the peer-reviewed literature to excessive drinking26. However, a survey of
identify key issues most relevant to LGBT equivalent scale has not been conducted in
older people in the UK in the settings of the UK population, and therefore the ex-

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 Ageing Summit 2019

tent to which these findings apply to the ity, victimisation and a lack of social sup-
UK context is unclear. A survey27 found port33. Relative to the LGB population, sta-
that one-fifth of LGBT respondents had ex- tistical analyses in the same study showed
perienced a mental health problem in the that older trans people showed a higher
past five years. Another report28 indicated risk for poor physical health, disability and
that bisexual people report higher levels depression. It is unclear how these findings
of mental difficulties than heterosexual relate to older trans experiences in the UK
and LG populations. Lesbian and bisexual context.
women are reported to be twice as likely to
A UK survey34 commissioned by Stone-
have long-standing psychological or emo-
wall showed that older LGB adults lacked
tional conditions than their heterosexual
confidence in health and social care ser-
counterparts29, though it is unclear from
vices. These findings were echoed in an
existing evidence how these differences
interview study35 with 10 gay men aged
emerge in older life.
between 60 and 70 years who also viewed
health services with caution, as well as in
the 2015 study The Last Outing36. Partic-
One-fifth of LGBT respon- ipants talked about having experiences
dents had experienced a of, and expectations of, discrimination or
mental health problem in poorer quality care or treatment, with ser-
vices perceived as operating according to
the past five years. what has been described as a ‘heterosexual
assumption’37. That is, the idea that health
A fear of prejudice and transphobia has professionals and health service providers
been shown to contribute towards a reluc- worked from the presumption of hetero-
tance on the part of older trans people to sexuality. At the same time, participants
access medical services30,31. The anticipated described how it was difficult to say wheth-
health care needs of older trans people may er they had received poorer treatment be-
include the unknown long-term effects of cause participants had been reluctant to
hormone therapy and the particular effects talk openly to health workers about their
of transition surgery32. It has also been re- sexuality in the first place. Irrespective of
ported that trans people may get legal the sexual orientation of the health worker,
recognition of their gender on their NHS the key qualities that participants valued in
record but are often not routinely invited health workers cohered around empathy,
to attend health screenings (e.g. breast, namely: caring, showing interest, kindness,
prostate) which may be medically germane and respect. Analysis suggests that some
to them. Another example is trans men older LGB adults may not feel comfortable
who have undergone phalloplasty surgery disclosing their sexual orientation, the im-
may require specific assistance as they plications of which mean that they may
grow older. The use of hormones by trans have certain needs unmet. Researchers
people may precipitate illness later in life, argue that harm is maintained when older
while a fear of transphobia will act as bar- LGB adults have to fit their experiences
rier to older trans people accessing health into biographies that are shaped by a het-
care services to have regular check-ups or eronormative framework38. In terms of
symptoms followed up. Drawing on popu- experiences with health professionals, a
lation-level evidence from the US, barriers postal survey study39 conducted with 266
to health for trans people include fear of LGB respondents from across the UK found
prejudice when accessing health services, that 45% of the women and 22% of the
internalised stigma, a lack of physical activ- men reported they had encountered prej-

11
LGBT people may delay
seeking appropriate treat-
ment until a disease is at an
advanced stage.

udice and discrimination. The same study

Access to
Social Care
showed that 62% of women and 45% of
men reported that they would welcome
health services and/or sources of informa-
The studies considered in this section
tion specifically for lesbian and gay com-
focus on residential, nursing and assisted
munities. In a more recent study, 26% of
care. The evidence on neighbourhood ac-
respondents reported having experienced
cessibility and sense of connectedness to
discrimination related to sexual orientation
local communities is also considered. Care
or gender identity from health and social
homes can either be residential or nurs-
care professionals, with two thirds stat-
ing, or both, may offer day time activities
ing a preference for services run by or for
and are often run by private companies,
LGBT people due to a lack of confidence in
voluntary or charity organisations, or local
mainstream services40. Due to these experi-
councils. Residential homes will provide ac-
ences, LGBT people may delay seeking ap-
commodation and help with personal care
propriate treatment until a disease is at an
such washing and taking medicine. Nursing
advanced stage.41 An interview study42 with
homes offer the same services with the
an older LG sample revealed that a number
addition of at least one qualified nurse on
of participants had articulated plans for
duty to provide care for complex medical
elective dying for reasons such as loneli-
conditions and severe learning and physical
ness and isolation, being a ‘burden’ to oth-
disabilities. Compared to the USA, Cana-
ers, recurrent depression, concerns about
da, Australia and Europe, where there are
the adequacy of health and social care ser-
a growing number of specialist retirement
vices, and a general lack of support in later
facilities for older LGB people, specialist
life. The author concludes that older mar-
options for LGB older people in the UK are
ginalised people may be more vulnerable
rare or non-existent43. Older LGB individu-
to ending their lives because of insufficient
als remain concerned about lack of visibil-
informal care and support and deficiencies
ity, risks around being visible, the inequal-
in the formal older age care system.
ity of openness, and the current state of
compulsory co-occupation in mainstream
services44. There is evidence indicating that
there are specific concerns held by old-
er LGB people in relation to moving into
care and residential housing, namely that
services are perceived as not offering safe,
welcoming and supportive accommoda-
tion45. Indeed, forms of prejudicial atti-
tudes such as homophobia and biphobia
have been found to be likely among older
people46 which means that older LGB are at

12
 Ageing Summit 2019

increased risk of exposure to it in aged care a device for negotiating social inclusion at
spaces. Researchers47,48 note that some ex- different points across their life course56.
amples of good practice in care and resi- A concern reported by older LGB adults is
dential settings at a local level may serve the need to feel safe about ‘coming out’
as practical guidance on how older LGBT and identifying as LGBT to other residents
people’s needs can be met. At a national and staff57. Indeed, some participants re-
level, the Care Quality Commission49 has port feeling like there are issues related to
produced guidance for inspectors in rela- sexual identity which are ‘unmentionable’,
tion to assessing ‘sexual orientation’. especially in the presence of certain resi-
dents58.
A postal survey50 showed that less than
ten percent of LGB respondents had made
plans for care in old age. The majority of
participants also viewed residential care Older LGBT people also fear
and nursing homes as a ‘highly undesirable’ discrimination from other
option for care. Indeed, older LGB adults
have expressed concern about having to residents and expect to be
return to being ‘in the closet’ or risk being forced ‘back in the closet’.
on the receiving end of intolerance51. An-
other study52 exploring the concerns and
priorities for trans people in considering A report59 found that not many LGB
future care showed that participants had participants felt strongly about having ex-
low confidence in the ability of care staff clusively gay or lesbian care homes, and the
to meet the needs of trans elders. Low majority reported that they would prefer
confidence in staff was reportedly due to there to be other gay residents. When con-
staff possessing a limited understanding of sidering moving into residential care, older
trans needs in terms of health and social LGBT people also fear discrimination from
care. Trans participants described how it other residents and expect to be forced
was easier for trans men to ‘pass’ in every- ‘back in the closet’60. The ‘Gay and Grey’
day life without surgery. However, ‘passing’ project in south England61 reported that
becomes complicated when in need of respondents preferred ‘gay-friendly’ homes
personal or health care and participants or ‘gay mixed’ facilities as future options for
reported feeling ‘outed’ when it came to care, while the majority of respondents felt
personal or health care interventions. For it was important for care professionals to
these reasons, the evidence suggests that a know about their sexuality. A fear was that
distinction should be made between trans care homes are perceived as heteronorma-
people who have had surgery, and those tive environments, where heterosexuality
who have not. Additionally, trans older is the norm and alternative sexualities be-
adults expressed concerns that their gen- come invisible62. A recent interview study
der identity will be respected in the event of older bisexual adults also demonstrated
that they become incapable of expressing that participants were concerned about re-
their own wishes, or after death53,54. These ceiving care due to experiences of bipho-
findings converge with a US study which bia63. In terms of gender, concerns were
found that prior experiences of discrimi- expressed that, with reduced capacity, par-
nation compound the reluctance of LGBT ticipants may lose control over gender ex-
people to access health and social care ser- pression. There were specific worries from
vices55. women participants that conventional
gender roles and feminine attributes would
Some older LG adults report that they
be enforced on them by care staff without
have relied on their ‘coming out’ stories as

13
their consent. It has been suggested that experiences. The main issue is that gener-
older LGBT people are less likely to com- alisations give rise to the tendency to treat
plain about poor treatment in case they people with membership to these social
are ‘outed’ and subsequently have to face categories as having a fixed set of common
homophobia from care staff and residents. needs, and for this reason is at odds with
Another study highlighted concerns about the ‘person-centred’ emphasis in health
other residents expressing homophobic and social care policy. Conversely, caution
views, and the need for care staff and man- is warranted as focussing only on individual
agers to openly demonstrate their support contexts may result in the widening of so-
for older LGBT residents64. Evidence from cial inequities when it is equally important
the US has also shown that hostility and to identify the wider social processes that
homophobia towards older LGB adults can shape LGBT people’s shared experiences of
also come from other residents65. services70.

Personalisation of Care Staff Attitudes

The ‘personalisation’ agenda for adult Older LGBT people fear discriminatory
social care in the UK aims to institute sub- attitudes and practices from care staff at a
stantial change in the arrangements for time in life when they are particularly vul-
responding to the care and support needs nerable71 and there are particular concerns
of older LGBT people66. The aim of per- around disclosure due to the fear of dis-
sonalisation of care is to ensure that indi- crimination and having to go ‘back in the
viduals feel able to discuss their support closet’. To this end, older LGBT people may
needs with staff, and that staff feel confi- be less inclined to complain about poor
dent in working with individuals regardless treatment in case they are ‘outed’ to oth-
of sexual identities and relational and life ers to face homophobia from those around
histories67. Despite the promise of per- them72. Older LGBT adults’ experiences of
sonalisation, researchers have referred to a caring will be shaped by the heteronorma-
‘sexuality blind’ care practice where older tive nature of social relations within resi-
people are treated as ‘just the same’68. The dential and care settings73. However, little
concern with a ‘one size fits all’ approach research has been conducted in addressing
is that it fails to account for ‘difference’ practitioners’ perspectives on meeting the
which risks worsening current inequalities distinct needs of older LGBT people living
for older LGBT people because there is ev- in care homes. A mixed-methods study74
idence to suggest that their care needs are conducted in Wales examined the provi-
different. For example, there are specific sion of inclusive care for older LGB adults in
surgeries and health issues that staff deliv- residential and nursing environments. The
ering care will need to become comfort- research set out to explore the attitudes,
able with. Older trans adults, for example, knowledge, skills of care staff and the sup-
who have undergone surgical procedures port measures required to enable them to
such as vaginoplasty, require vaginal dila- meet the needs of LGB residents. Residen-
tion with a stent for the entirety of their tial care staff reported favourable attitudes
lives69. Further, the evidence clearly shows towards caring for LGB residents despite
that the conditions of older LGBT lives are receiving a lack of consistent and com-
too diverse to be generalised and grouped prehensive training. However, the results
together as a homogenous social group, demonstrated that staff commonly drew
yet at the same time those identifying on statements such as, ‘we don’t have any
within these categories may share certain at the moment’ and ‘I/we treat them all the

14
 Ageing Summit 2019

same’ to open-ended questionnaire items. fication can exacerbate the invisibility and
Such statements, the authors suggest, silencing of LGBT residents77. Indeed, there
show the regulatory force of heteronor- is reportedly an absence of discussion
mativity and cis-genderism, and it is the about older LGB identities and experienc-
effects from these presumptions that can es compared to the openness around the
deny LGBT residents’ identities and rein- biographies of their heterosexual counter-
force inequality and invisibility. Whilst staff parts. LGB histories have been shown to
failed to recognise LGB residents’ health be equally absent from staff development
needs and social care needs as individual activities to the extent that none of the
and distinct, encouragingly staff reported staff in the study could recall attending
their motivation to be more attentive and training about issues of sexuality, identi-
responsive to the wishes of LGB residents. ty and equality. Using appropriate gender
The research indicated that items cap- pronouns is essential and educating staff
turing the intersection of religious views to understand older adults’ preferences
with support for sexual minority groups for less familiar pronouns (e.g. they, ze) was
produced more conservative responses, considered important in helping people to
and therefore potentially less supportive understand the spectrum of gender ex-
towards Non-hetero/cis-normative gen- pressions and identities. There is interna-
ders and sexualities. Managers in care en- tional evidence to suggest that increased
vironments demonstrated more permissive exposure to lesbian and gay residents will
attitudes towards general sexuality than help counter-act heteronormative assump-
staff providing direct care, while care staff tions78 and that exposure to lesbian and gay
employed for more than five years report people will mitigate homophobic attitudes
more positive attitudes towards the sexual held by nursing staff79. However, it is un-
desires of residents than those with fewer clear what type and level of exposure to
years of work experience75. Additionally, a LGB individuals is effective in shifting an-
focus group study76 with staff found that ti-homosexual attitudes and more research
care was commonly framed as disconnect- is needed. It should be noted that the po-
ed from sexuality. That is, staff perceived tential barriers to engaging care staff might
sexual orientation as peripheral to provid- relate to existing issues around high-staff
ing good care to others. Staff reported turnover, low pay, low morale, being un-
that they lacked the communication tools der-valued and a lack of incentives, which
and confidence to start a discussion with has a detrimental impact on quality of life
a view to being attuned to differences in and care80. Research81 in this area suggests
sexual identity and life histories of LGB res- that participatory leadership on the part
idents. of managers (and researchers) could help
to promote open dialogue and challenge
heteronormative thinking and ageist as-
Service providers’ reluc- sumptions about sexuality in later life. The
tance to ask questions use of advisory sessions between managers
about sexual and gender and staff will help to identify sources of as-
sumptions and stereotypes as well as de-
identification can exacer- veloping critical thinking skills and mutual
bate the invisibility and si- trust. Additionally, testimonies from ‘out’
lencing of LGBT residents. older LGBT residents who could act as peer
educators and advocates could help staff
and other residents to question patholo-
Service providers’ reluctance to ask
gizing notions of gender variance and sex-
questions about sexual and gender identi-
ual orientation.

15
Neighbourhood Connectedness & isolated older LGBT people88. Other ex-
Social Networks amples include organisations such as LGBT
Health and Wellbeing (Scotland), Older and
LGBT communities may provide support Out (Brighton), and SAND (Shropshire). An
and resources, through places, spaces and interview study89 exploring friendship and
relationships. A sense of place and con- community amongst older lesbians found
nectedness in the community can alleviate that strong friendships and social bonds
feelings of loneliness and social isolation were key themes. The author suggests that
through social interaction and activity82. older lesbian friendships emerged from the
Identity and how older LGBT adults nego- secrecy and stigma of the lesbian and gay
tiate disclosure of their gender and sexu- past. However, the experiences of local
al orientation may influence the ways in places and people for those who keep their
which individuals make connections within sexual and gender identity concealed may
the wider community. A survey83 reported tell a different story. A study90 describes
that 80.4% of women and 62.2% of men how one participant had only been open
said that their sexuality had enriched their about his sexuality with his sister, and to
life, and 20.6% of women and 34.8% of men the rest of his family and friends present-
said that they experienced loneliness and ed as heterosexual, which he attributed
isolation when they thought about their to growing up during a time when ‘no one
sexual identity. A survey84 indicated that mentioned homosexuality’. The conse-
older LGB adults are more likely to be sin- quences of non-disclosing had left the
gle and live alone and are less likely to have participant with a ‘very deep sense of iso-
regular contact with biological family. Ad- lation and loneliness’91. Other participants
ditionally, older LGB people are less likely described how they felt they had a lot to
to have seen a friend the previous day (63.9 lose by coming out, such as the risk of vio-
vs 72.1%), which the authors suggest shows lence and discrimination, to the extent that
that the social networks of older LGB peo- ‘you’re asking for trouble if you’re out’.
ple are not as immediately accessible as
those of non-LGB people85.
Communities may have a preventative
role in supporting individuals to remain
21.6% of women and 32.9%
socially active. Social support may in- of men reported feeling
clude assistance with everyday tasks such isolated.
as preparing meals, shopping, housework
and transportation as well as informa-
tional, emotional and financial support86. Previous research92 indicates that, for
It has been suggested that there will be those who are open about their sexual
many parts of the UK, especially rural ar- orientation, active engagement through
eas, where there are no support networks voluntary work provides an opportunity to
to turn to for older LGB people, who will develop a sense of connectedness to their
remain isolated87. There are instances in local communities. The study showed that
which older LGB people have responded 21.6% of women and 32.9% of men reported
to service marginalisation by beginning to feeling isolated from other non-heterosex-
explore alternative ways of doing things for uals: most had little or no access to com-
themselves. There is value placed on mu- munity supports, principally due to the lack
tual support within LGB communities, with of non-heterosexuals in the areas where
voluntary sector projects such as Opening they lived. Around a third of respondents
Doors providing a vital social network for reported that, as they aged, they gradual-

16
 Ageing Summit 2019

ly felt less included by such communities. Family of Choice100

Some participants reported how they felt
unwelcome or uncomfortable in gay bars There are diverse compositions struc-
or clubs, due to a youth-orientated scene, turing older LGB personal communities,
overt ageism or commercialism, which ex- and a wide range of ‘family forms’101. A UK
acerbated a sense of exclusion. There may mixed methods study102 provides evidence
be additional transport costs incurred in that older LGBT adults have significantly
travelling outside their geographic area to weaker kinship networks than older het-
access LGBT community resources93. In an- erosexual adults, with around one third
other survey94, around a quarter of older never seeing members of their family. The
LGB adults in the sample stated that they significance of friendship was emphasised
did not go out socially because they had by participants, in that 52.9% of the wom-
no one with which to go. Similar findings en and 48.8% of the men agreed with the
were echoed in an interview study95 where statement that ‘my friends are my family’103.
views were expressed, particularly by lesbi- Another mixed methods study104 showed
an women, that the commercial gay scene that almost 75% of women and 67% of
was ageist and sexist, and therefore felt men lived close to friends, and that 96% of
a sense of exclusion. The expense of the women and 94% of men considered friend-
scene was a particular barrier for older les- ships to be important or very important,
bian participants who were retired or on a and 76% of women and 84% of men felt
low income. A study96 with lesbian and bi- that friendships had become more import-
sexual women found that participants had ant as they got older. Researchers105 have
different reasons for attending LGBT social called for a wider recognition that LGB
groups. Specifically, participants who ex- adults may rely on alternative families and
pressed that they would be happy in mixed networks, or ‘families of choice’ (e.g. part-
(LGB) groups or inter-generational groups ners and friends), to a greater extent than
were in the minority, whilst the majority their families of kin, meaning that families
of participants reported a preference for of birth and adult children cannot be as-
same-sex, same-sexuality and same-gener- sumed to be an automatic source of unpaid
ation groups. This was at odds with a few support. However, families of choice are
bisexual participants who preferred not to not awarded the same legal rights as bio-
be in women-only groups. There are some logical families or legally partnered people.
reports of religious-based discrimination
encountered by older LGB people within
the family, care settings, as well as non-in- Families of birth and adult
clusive churches and church-led activities children cannot be assumed
such as choirs and tea parties97,98. Due to
these experiences, some participants, par-
to be an automatic source
ticularly gay men, described attempting of unpaid support.
to lead ‘normal’ heterosexual lives in order
to prevent religious-based discrimination
from their families and beyond99. A need Another study106 exploring the complex
to conceal in this way may also affect LGB social networks and relationships of older
older adults who depend on much-needed LGB adults showed that those participants
pastoral care and community support from who had not been able to develop strong
churches. and supportive relationships with parents
and close family members were subse-
quently unable to ask or rely on them for
social support. Findings of a survey107 ex-

17
ploring friendship and community among to sustain in the long-term. A longitudinal
older lesbians found that participants were study112 exploring the role of minority stress
more likely to turn to family members than amongst older LGB people found that
friends for help with physical illness or dis- 18.3% had been in a relationship for longer
ability. However, for mental health and than 20 years and were more likely to have
emotional support, participants were more had a greater number of co-habiting histo-
likely to confide in friends than family. ries. Older LGB adults are more likely to be
single and live alone, and as highlighted in
the previous section, express a high degree
of ambivalence towards the prospect of
receiving social care services in the home113.
Little evidence exists of a link between
identifying as LGBT and experiencing ex-
clusion from decent housing, public trans-
port or neighbourhood resources114, 115, 116.
These claims are supported by a survey117

Access to based on data from the English Longitudi-

nal Study on Ageing (‘ELSA’) which found

Housing a lack of evidence to suggest that older

LGB people are more likely to be exclud-
“What is obvious to us is that it is not ed from decent housing, neighbourhoods
bricks and mortar that older LGBT peo- and access to local neighbourhood ameni-
ple are concerned with in relation to ties. Little difference in levels of exclusion
housing later in life per se, but the so- from public transport was also indicated.
cial relationships that those structures An interview study118 conducted with older
contain. Housing is a space where social LGB adults exploring meanings attached to
networks, connections, questions of trust home and place showed that varying and
and reciprocity converge; in short, a site contradictory meanings were attached to
concerning questions of social capital108. “ home life in rural places. The study also
highlighted the importance of connection
to communities of identity across geo-
The point made above by the authors
graphical and online localities. One of the
is that social networks and connections are
first mixed methods studies119 on the hous-
key for older LGBT people and that housing
ing needs of older LG adults living in the UK
is a forum in which these relationships are
showed that as respondents had aged, they
played out. Indeed, home is especially im-
were reportedly more likely to experience
portant for the older LGBT population who
difficulties with the condition and main-
often have not felt safe in the wider world,
tenance of their home, a finding that was
and for whom home becomes a safe and
also common amongst non-LG older peo-
private space109. As noted earlier, no alter-
ple. Most participants cited a lack of mon-
native or specialist LGBT provision options
ey for necessary repairs and an increasing
for sheltered housing and residential/nurs-
inability to undertake DIY jobs which was
ing care provision exist in the UK110. A re-
sometimes linked to health problems. Ad-
view111 showed that a number of LGBT-only
ditionally, some participants reported how
housing communities exist and thrive inter-
they found getting into and round their
nationally, and indicated that there is an in-
home difficult. Participants expressed their
creased likelihood of ‘LGBT-friendly’ rather
worries about their health in the future and
than ‘LGBT-only’ services will prove easier
what declining health might mean for their

18
 Ageing Summit 2019

housing situation and their lives more gen- enter their home. Trans participants also
erally. Strikingly, a participant commented expressed concerns about transphobia in
that they were concerned that their house care homes and other forms of sheltered
might become a ‘prison’. A key finding was housing, and also reported their concerns
the need for more social contact for older about transphobia in LGBT-specific hous-
lesbians and gay men. ing, should this be made possible in the
future. There is a dearth of evidence relat-
Another report120 suggests that there is
ing to the experiences of older LGBT peo-
much variation in housing policy vis-à-vis
ple in sheltered accommodation and no
older LGBT across different local authori-
common policy currently exists to address
ties and housing associations. Research has
LGBT couples living in rented or shared ac-
shown that there are significantly different,
commodation. This gap is important to ad-
gendered, housing preferences between
dress remaining questions such as whether
older lesbian, gay and bisexual women, and
an individual is permitted to continue a
older gay men121. Indeed, older LGB women
tenancy if their partner moves into a care
have expressed preferences for gender-
facility and they are not registered in a civil
and/or sexuality-specific housing122.
partnership. Additionally, older LGBT peo-
ple may be in an interdependent relation-
ship without living with their partner(s), yet
Home is especially import- there is no clear direction or recognition on
ant for the older LGBT pop- how the care needs of one partner finan-
ulation who often have not cially impact the other125,126.
felt safe in the wider world.

Older LB women have reported gen-

der as an important issue in relation to
sheltered housing and residential housing,
with both men and women reporting that
mixed LGB provision would not necessarily
be their preferred option123. The evidence
from these studies demonstrates a need Access to
Legal and
to discern these differences rather than to
homogenise diverse experiences through

Financial
a collective ‘older LGBT’ discourse. Differ-
ences in preference were a key feature of

Services
the SAFE (‘Secure, Accessible, Friendly and
Equal’) Housing study124 which indicated
that the majority of survey respondents
reported that they felt safe where they
currently lived. However, trans respondents Employment & Pensions
were particularly concerned about safety A study127 of poverty and sexual orien-
in their neighbourhoods. Respondents re- tation that presented data from the UK
ported that they were most comfortable Household Longitudinal Study (UKHLS)128
with health professionals in their home, suggested there is some material disad-
and home care workers the least. Older vantage for gay men, and bisexual men and
lesbian respondents were less comfortable women. The author concludes that the
than gay men with allowing workers to

19
poverty experienced by lesbians is most have influenced their working life in ways
likely to be a consequence of their status as that have affected their access to mate-
women rather than their sexual orientation. rial resources in later life. For example, a
A survey showed that LGB people are more study demonstrates how older LGB indi-
likely than the heterosexual population to viduals chose to work in certain lower-paid
have made financial plans for their needs jobs because they assumed their sexuality
in older age and less likely to see a partner, would be accepted137. However, the eco-
children or family as a source of financial nomic differences between LGB individuals
support129. In a financial crisis, respondents at the level of gender for instance have not
reported that they would turn to partners been properly accounted for, if at all in the
first (32.0%), then friends (30.8%) or family case of bisexual and trans experiences of
(25.2%), indicating that the expectations financial services138. In terms of pensions,
of material support from the three groups a recent development in the form of new
were broadly similar130. Another survey ‘stakeholder pension schemes’ means that
highlighted how lower levels of home own- it is now possible for partners of choice to
ership for LGB individuals may however be nominated139. However, few provisions
mean that they are less likely to have avail- have been made for same-sex partners in
able housing wealth from which to draw public sector pension schemes140. There
on in older age131. There is some evidence are concerns highlighted in the literature,
to suggest that there are financial and re- particularly for older lesbians who may
tirement gender inequalities between gay have been previously married, that a Civil
men and lesbians, with the former being Partnership could make a settlement from
better off, and the latter facing different a previous marriage invalid, and thus risk
barriers132. Lesbians in later life are likely to losing pension rights from both the former
be disadvantaged by gendered processes and current partner. There is a need for
in the labour market133, particularly those more research to clarify the financial con-
who were married previously and had roles sequences as they relate to LGBT people
as carers and mothers134. It is thought that in light of the Civil Partnership Act 2004. It
these women are more likely to have di- should also be noted how current policy is
minished chances of accumulating financial underpinned by the notion of the coupled
security through adequate pensions and relationship, which may be at odds with the
savings135,136. These differences mean that prevalence of non-monogamy in non-het-
the most economically resourced may be eronormative cultures141.
able to choose the care they want in later
life, while the least-well-resourced often
have no choice but to settle for the sup- Wills & Inheritance
ports they are given.
Little UK empirical research exists on in-
heritance and non-normative genders and
Older LGB individuals sexualities142. Prior to the legal milestone of
chose to work in certain the Civil Partnership Act,143 the estate of a
deceased member of a same-sex relation-
lower-paid jobs because ship would pass automatically to family (as
they assumed their sexual- ‘next of kin’) and not the same-sex part-
ity would be accepted. ner144. A study with a relatively affluent LG
sample found that 88% considered drawing
The social and legal sanctions associat- up a will particularly important, and 82%
ed with non-hetero/cis-normative sexual had already taken this step145. The study
and gender identity of older adults may shows that there are different reasons

20
 Ageing Summit 2019

why older (affluent) LGB people nominate their end of life plans.148 Wills are seen as
beneficiaries on their will. The expense of an important means of self-expression, and
writing a will was mentioned as a barrier of ensuring the recognition of kinships that
for some participants and there is no UK remain marginalised by convention.
evidence available on the will-writing expe-
riences of older LGBT people from lower
income groups. Some participants with Advance care planning, and
children, and no will, expressed how they the ability to nominate ‘im-
would be happy for their children to be
beneficiaries by default through intestacy
portant others’ as next of
rules. There is some research showing that kin emerged as particularly
older LGB adults may dispose of their assets important for LGBT people.
along biological family and/or intergener-
ational lines, even when these biological
It is worth noting that advance care
family relationships are poor, for the sake
planning, and the ability to nominate ‘im-
of passing on ‘family money’146. This finding
portant others’ as next of kin emerged as
shows that biological family members, par-
particularly important for LGBT people in
ticularly children, may be prioritised in a will
a 2015 study.149 Despite an absence of legal
and not necessarily those people who are
clarity on who can be nominated as ‘next
primary sources of care and social support,
of kin’, the default practice reflects heter-
such as partners and friends, during times
onormative assumptions as it is assumed a
of need147. On the other hand, beneficia-
blood relative or spouse will take on this
ries can also be friends, especially in cases
role. Motivations to complete advance care
where biological families are on the mar-
plans include some issues similar to those
gins or not in contact at all, or ex-partners.
reported for the general population (e.g.
Additionally, whilst partners and family of
not placing burdens of care on others) but
choice might not be named as beneficiaries
also distinctly LGBT issues such as provid-
in wills, some participants reported how
ing protection for partners and significant
they would nominate to give them Lasting
others who might otherwise not be ac-
Power of Attorney (LPA), that is, to make
knowledged as relevant to end of life care.
decisions about their care and welfare if
Barriers to completing advance care plans
their capacity is lost. The same study, car-
included: feeling daunted by the paper-
ried out with 15 lesbians and gay men, found
work or costs involved and not wanting
that participants’ will-writing can be sorted
to think about or plan for the end of life.
into four types of prioritisation: prioritising
Distinct issues identified for LGBT people
children; prioritising friends; prioritising sib-
include not knowing who to nominate in
lings; mixed priorities. A sense of duty, es-
decision making roles due to their personal
pecially towards biological family members,
networks comprising people of the same
was evident in a number of interviews. The
age or ongoing social isolation. An import-
study also reported how partners who
ant finding was the need for LGBT older
were both financially secure may not see
people access to specialist advice and ad-
the need for their finances to become en-
visors, who are aware of the diversity and
twined. For others, decisions about bene-
specificities of LGBT lives.
ficiaries of wills were based on perceived
level of need and ‘deservedness’. Another
study described the heightened impor-
tance of funeral wishes as part of gay men’s
wills, seen as a symbolic way of including
those who they consider to be closest in

21
22
 Ageing Summit 2019

Future strategies for addressing religious-based

conflicts that may arise across staff–res-

Research
ident and resident–resident interactions.
Researchers also suggest examining the ef-
ficacy of using narrative material from older
LGBT service users to promote understand-
Notwithstanding the difficulties in-
ing amongst staff and residents151. Finally,
herent to statistical measurement of the
more research is needed to assess levels
complexities of gender and sexual expres-
of knowledge, skills and attitudes of staff
sions and identity, future research should
working in each of the respective settings
explore ways of incorporating sexual and
across different geographic regions of the
gender identity variables into popula-
UK. Methodologies, such as participatory
tion-level surveys. This would enable the
action research, have also showed promise
production of UK-based LGBT probability
in terms of engaging volunteers who work
samples that could be used to inform ser-
alongside older lesbian and gay adults and
vices and support. More research is need-
should be explored further152.
ed that explores the experiences of older
LGBT people from black and ethnic minori-
ty communities, those with disabilities, as
well as participants aged 80 years or over,
and clinical LGBT populations enduring
Conclusion
poor health.150 There is also a need to iden-
tify the needs of older LGBT experiences The review of the literature on LGBT
across different regional contexts, such as older people’s health, social care and hous-
remote rural, rural, and suburban, especially ing needs aimed to identify key issues. The
outside of London and large cities. Further main themes identified were: the issue of
investigation of the mechanisms and im- disclosure due to the fear of discrimination
pacts of social and familial support in miti- and having to go ‘back in the closet’; the
gating risks for depression and other health willingness of staff to engage with training
outcomes is warranted. on LGBT issues; the importance of lesbian
and gay communities for the establish-
Despite attempts to overcome this
ment and maintenance of non-heterosex-
through snowball sampling and by contact-
ual identities and lifestyles; and a need to
ing bisexual communities online, difficulties
disaggregate homogenising categories of
have been highlighted in the existing evi-
sexual orientation and gender identity.
dence in relation to accessing older bisexu-
The key issues identified highlight how the
al and trans adults. Funding should be allo-
heteronormative values underpinning pol-
cated to the development of recruitment
icy and law may exacerbate a sense of ex-
strategies and data collection methods to
clusion among older lesbians and gay men
recruit ‘hard-to-reach’ populations who
in ways that are rarely accounted for. The
have concerns about public disclosure of
studies show that LGB and trans individu-
their sexual and gender identity. Further
als, both throughout life and in older age,
exploration of the ambivalent attitudes to-
are often grouped together (‘LGBT’) but in
wards sexual and gender diversity in older
actuality form a diverse and heterogeneous
adults on the basis of religion is needed. In
group with varied needs. Caution is war-
relation to the intersection of religion and
ranted when attempting to generalise the
support for LGBT, training initiatives that in-
findings of these studies across the entire
vite staff to reflect on their beliefs should
LGBT community, as many studies in this
be explored, in order to develop practical
review were based on small, self-selected

23
samples of white, middle-class, well-edu-
cated, urban men who actively participate
in the gay community. With the absence
of sufficient information on hidden or
hard-to-reach populations, the full scope
of these issues remains unclear and may
be wider once ethnicity, race, religion, dis-
ability and socio-economic status are taken
into consideration. The majority of studies
included focussed on sexual identity and
sexual practices, particularly amongst gay
men and lesbians; therefore, the needs
of trans and bisexual people remain un-
clear. In particular, the care needs of older
trans adults and how they negotiate the
gendered assumptions of care staff and
residents requires more attention. A con-
sistent theme expressed across all settings
was that older LGBT participants held the
expectation that they will be discriminated
against on the basis of their sexual orienta-
tion, gender and age. Finally, very little re-
search that exists in relation to older LGBT
financial needs, and how quality of life is
dictated by their socio-economic status. In
conclusion, it is important for policy mak-
ers and service providers to develop an un-
derstanding of the experiences and what it
means to be an older LGBT individual in a
social system that not only overlooks their
sexual orientation and gender, but also
overlooks how non-normative sexualities
and genders may intersect with ageing.

24
 Ageing Summit 2019

Recommendations of the LGBT Action Plan is the improve-

ment of understanding and collection of
further data on specific groups within the
The LGBT Action Plan (2018), published LGBT population; it is vital that resources
by the Government Equalities Office, does are dedicated to tackling ageing-related in-
not address the needs of LGBT older peo- equalities under this action point.
ple to a great enough extent. Consequently,
the LGBT Action Plan should be amended Anticipation of discrimination is a barri-
to address the needs of LGBT older people er to accessing health and social care provi-
with specific action points related to the sion for older LGB and trans people. A firm
sectors discussed in this report. commitment to elevating standards of care
in all settings would mitigate this. Service
A central repository of evidence con- providers must ensure their services are
taining studies, policy outlines, toolkits for promoted as non-judgemental, supportive
practitioners and educators, and case stud- and well-informed. Staff must be provid-
ies would be invaluable to those who are ed with the opportunity to develop the
committed to implementing best practices. knowledge, skills and confidence to engage
Such a repository would ease the transfer with older LGBT people. Three key strands
of knowledge between services special- of development have been highlighted:
ising in provision for LGBT people, and
mainstream services. A central authority, • Knowledge-based training: giving
such as the Government Equalities Office health and social care practitioners
or the Social Care Institute of Excellence insight into the specific needs of
(who previously developed such a reposi- older LGBT people with the goal of
tory) would be well placed to implement being able to offer relevant advice
this measure. and treatment.

Further research is needed on inequal- This type of training can be ad-

ities faced by people at the intersections dressed at a foundational level
of LGBT ageing and: disability, socio-eco- (e.g. by medical schools educating
nomic status, religion, race and ethnicity. pre-qualifying students on the spe-
Adoption of an intersectional approach to cific health and care needs of LGBT
LGBT ageing is required to enable a com- people) and would serve to address
plex understanding of the interrelation- the lack of information available to
ships between the influence of various so- health practitioners.
cial and cultural factors. To fill the research Awareness of particular LGBT age-
gaps, funding for outreach work is essen- ing-related issues can be done by
tial, as certain specific groups are not easily introducing the topic in curricula,
reachable through methods such as online using examples that showcase these
surveys. Specific funding will be required issues, or by facilitating placements
to develop recruitment strategies and data in LGBT organisations.
collection methods that appeal to rural co-
horts and marginalised minorities (including This measure would benefit from
service staff) who may find it challenging the introduction of an education-
to openly discuss themes pertaining to al standard for embedding LGBT
non-hetero/cis-normative sexual orienta- age-related health and care issues
tion and gender variance. Research on the within teaching curricula.
viewpoints of health and social care practi- • Communication training: giving
tioners on the provision of better care for staff the confidence to display pos-
LGBT elders is also sparse. One provision itive acceptance of non-heterosex-

25
 ual lifestyles as opposed to meeting should be implemented for services. One
statements from LGBT older people successful example of this is the Pride in
with mere tolerance, or silence. Care quality standard developed by Open-
ing Doors London – an extensive resource
This can take the form of ongoing
which sets benchmarks for safety and se-
skills training, but also a broader
curity, policy and procedures, publicity and
familiarization with LGBT topics. A
promotion, recruitment and training, as
diverse pool of resources is required
well as customer service. Such a provision
to accommodate the particularities
would enable health and social care pro-
of various care providers.
viders to reassure their LGBT residents that
The designation of an LGBT staff their complaints will be taken seriously.
advocate (either an LGBT ally or an
To address isolation and exclusion, pro-
LGBT member of staff) who receives
viding a space for an LGBT community to
more extensive training than their
grow socially and discuss personal issues
peers and provides a first port of call
would be of great value. Alternatively, en-
for both residents and other staff
suring that social groups which are provided
members was seen as a favourable
community spaces are LGBT-inclusive, and
measure.
their practices are consistent with current
To mitigate for higher staff turnover policy that recognises that marginal sec-
in certain care institutions, collabora- tions of the older population require spe-
tions could be developed between cific provision. Local authorities or housing
external community advisors who associations are well-placed to implement
are LGBT and care organisations. this measure.
Narratives (films, plays) provide ex- To extend the reach of LGBT commu-
cellent resources for raising aware- nity groups, social care and housing service
ness and changing the culture of providers should hold discussions on the
a care institution, with storytelling idea of collaborating with LGBT-specific
playing a vital role in aiding the pro- voluntary groups, charitable organisations
vision of person-centered care. and advocacy services. This measure would
prove effective particularly in rural areas, to
• Salutogenesis: improving staff un-
address isolation in older LGBT people who
derstanding of the importance of
cannot easily access urban centres where
support networks in treatment,
LGBT services are concentrated. Creating
and the role played by ‘families of
partnerships in this way could also prove
choice’ in treatment. It is vital to
useful in enhancing patient and public
work towards involving willing carers
involvement in health and social care ser-
who are part of the patients’ social
vices.
networks in treatment choices, and
providing support to informal carers. To address the lack of data faced by lo-
cal authorities on LGBT housing and care
Effectively tackling homophobic, bi-
needs, strategic housing and care com-
phobic and transphobic abuse, or hate
missioning assessment processes must be
crimes from other recipients of care has
re-evaluated with a view to making LGBT
the upshot of attenuating the fear of dis-
people comfortable to self-declare and
crimination. Guidelines with clear bench-
self-identify as LGBT. A holistic, person-
marks which state and demonstrate how to
al approach, aimed at identifying specific
implement a zero-tolerance policy against
needs, is needed when conducting individ-
prejudice and discrimination in relation to
ual assessments – particularly when those
age, sexual orientation and gender identity

26
 Ageing Summit 2019

assessments have a statutory role. obvious LGBT rights issues. One such ex-
ample is Housing Law, under which cohab-
LGBT inclusive policies must be applied
itation rights require proof of individuals
across all social care and housing provid-
being in a relationship, openly. Many LGBT
ers. Such internal policies and practices
couples who are cohabiting but desire to
must be reviewed by the appropriate regu-
keep their relationship private, especially in
latory body (e.g. the Care Quality Commis-
older age, risk being at a disadvantage.
sion, Homes England). In time, this measure
will ensure that all services are aligned on Awareness about intergenerational is-
the issue of LGBT inclusion. sues within the LGBT community is vital,
as is ensuring that those working towards
Older LGBT people are placed at great-
improving the quality of life of older LGBT
er financial risk than their heterosexual
people are supported. Private sector com-
and cisgender counterparts given the
panies are encouraged to draw upon em-
lifetime disparities in earnings, employ-
ployee resource groups, create and par-
ment and opportunities to build savings.
ticipate in befriending schemes, and offer
The need emerges for specialist advice on
support to those in the third sector by
the benefits and possible disadvantages of
organising fundraisers, or entering partner-
registering or dissolving a civil partnership
ships with third sector organisations.
or marriage, entitlement to pension rights,
interdependence, wills and inheritance in
the context of older LGBT lives. Clear in-
formation should be provided on ageing
and end of life care issues for LGBT couples
(either registered or unregistered), including
advanced directives, appointing executors,
and Lasting Power of Attorney. Providers
of legal and financial services should ensure
that they are able to provide advice that
is both salient and tailored to the specific
needs of their clients.
Legal information campaigns (e.g. Free
Wills Month, Make a Will Week) should be
targeted at the LGBT community with the
purpose of encouraging LGBT people to
make informed preparations and decisions
for later life. These information campaigns
must be supported by robust advice on the
specifics of marriage law and how this im-
pacts existing wills.
To mitigate the damaging effect of
other laws written under heteronorma-
tive assumptions, the dissemination of
knowledge to both providers and users of
legal or financial services must be updated
with information on lesser-known areas of
vulnerability for LGBT people. Case law can
be used to identify these areas of potential
vulnerability as certain laws do not present

27
For clarity, Table 1 (below) provides a list of action points and possible stakeholders.

Actions Stakeholders

1. Make amendments to the LGBT Action Plan Government Equalities Office

(2018) to include provisions for ageing popu-
lations.

2. Establish a central repository of evidence on Government Equalities Office

LGBT Ageing, collecting existing studies and
toolkits.

3. Fund further research into the experiences of Government Equalities Office

hidden and hard to reach populations. Funding bodies

4. Provide knowledge-based training. Universities

Health Education England
Professional bodies
Medical colleges (e.g. RCGP,
RCN)

5. Embed an educational standard for teaching Health Education England

LGBT Ageing issues within healthcare and
social care education curricula.

6. Provide cultural sensitivity training for staff NHS England

members. Social care providers

7. Nominate members of staff as LGBT advocates NHS England

who will be offered extensive training on Social care providers
specific health and care needs.

8. Provide and enforce guidelines and bench- Regulatory bodies (Care

marks for tackling homophobic incidents in Quality Commission, Homes
care and housing provision. England)

9. Provide social spaces that are inclusive of old- Local authorities

er LGBT people or dedicated to LGBT social Housing associations
groups.

10 Partner with LGBT community advisors, vol- Social care providers

untary groups, charitable organisations and Housing providers
advocacy services when creating policies and
developing programmes.

28
 Ageing Summit 2019

11. Evaluate housing and care commissioning Local authorities

assessment processes and ensure they are
inclusive; considering a personalised approach
to surveys.

12. Apply and enforce LGBT inclusivity policies Regulatory bodies

across the care and housing sectors. Local authorities
Ministry of Housing, Commu-
nities and Local Government
(or MHCLG)

13. Train staff to be able to offer salient legal and Law firms
financial advice to customers. Financial services companies

14. Raise awareness within the LGBT community Advocacy services

of the need for specialised legal and financial Professional networks
advisory services. Third sector organisations
Law firms
Financial services companies
Media outlets

15. Educate and raise awareness amongst LGBT Private sector employers
employees about intergenerational and older Public sector employers
age issues they may face to encourage ad-
vance preparation.

16.Consider raising funds and awareness for LGBT Private sector organisations
older people’s issues.

17. Creating intergenerational befriending Third sector organisations

schemes to foster understanding and raise
awareness.

Table 1: Actions and stakeholders

Methodology sexual’ and ‘older people’. The following

databases were searched: MEDLINE (Ovid),
MIC Health Management Information Con-
sortium (Ovid), EMBASE (Ovid), PsycINFO
A search strategy used in a previous
(Ovid), CINAHL (Ebsco), Web of Science
review153 was replicated. Search terms in-
and Google Scholar without time limits.
cluded ‘health need’, ‘access’, ‘housing’,
To avoid biases associated with initial elec-
‘social care’ ‘financial needs’ and combined
tronic databases searches, three types of
with ‘lgbt’, ‘lgb’, ‘gay’, ‘lesbian’, ‘trans’, ‘bi-
supplemental searches were undertaken:

29
citation searching, reference list checking, ministered questionnaires frequently pro-
related article searching and contact with duced missing responses to some items.
experts. Additional searches identified non This is a limitation of utilising this mode
peer-reviewed empirical studies published of questionnaire to gather responses on a
by UK voluntary or charity organisations or highly sensitive topic, where some items
local councils which were also synthesised. may have presented challenges to some
The population of interest was older LGBT respondents for their frankness. The small
adults residing in the UK: the ‘young-old’ convenience samples, mostly conducted
(50–64 years), the ‘old’ (65–74 years) and with urban and inner-city cohorts, also
the ‘old-old’ (75+ years)154. To be included, limit the generalisability of findings of the
studies had to contain original quantitative studies included in this review. Included
or qualitative research data on LGBT expe- studies were reliant on the self-selection
riences of ageing within the UK context. of participants who were comfortable
Due to time restrictions, studies about talking openly about their experiences. To
health and well-being in special clinical this end, it is unclear what the needs are of
populations (e.g. Dementia, Alzheimer’s, those who are ‘in the closet’, and to what
COPD) were excluded. Once identified, extent, if any, their needs differ to those
articles were screened for data on experi- who openly self-identify as LGBT155. This
ences of ageing in the domains of health review also demonstrates how much of the
and social care, housing and financial needs, existing evidence focusses on matters of
followed by synthesis of the main themes sexual orientation and sexual identity, with
reported in the paper. issues relating to gender identity, and trans
people being represented less. More gen-
Policy recommendations were sourced
erally there is also an underrepresentation
from one-to-one interviews with research-
of older bisexual and trans experiences, de-
ers who have conducted specialist work
spite concerted attempts by some authors
within the relevant fields, and practitioners.
to utilise snowball sampling and recruit
Additional recommendations were add-
from online communities. There was also
ed by the author as a result of the review,
underrepresentation of perspectives from
but only after seeking approval from the
older LGBT people from ethnically diverse
afore-mentioned researchers and practi-
and less affluent backgrounds, as well as
tioners
service staff from ethnically diverse back-
grounds. Where studies do not reflect the
ethnic, class and economic diversity of LGB
Limitations and trans adults, then the distinctive needs
of these groups are likely to be silenced or
misrepresented. Finally, reviews (includ-
No accurate census data exists about ing this one) are limited by the databases
the number of older LGB and trans adults and search terms used to locate relevant
living in the UK, and therefore for the studies. While experts were contacted and
quantitative studies included in this review hand-searches of reference lists from in-
it has not been possible to compare re- cluded papers were carried out, the review
search findings with a representative sam- might have benefited from a wider range
ple. Further, statistical measures in existing of search terms. Time restrictions may also
population-level census do not account mean that that eligible studies were missed.
for the fluidity in sexual orientation and
gender over the life course. In addition,
researchers have reported that self-ad-

30
 Ageing Summit 2019

Annex A
Who do we mean by ‘LGBT’ people?
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation is defined as a combination of emotional, romantic, sexual or affec-
tionate attraction to another person, and people may experience this attraction towards
people of the opposite sex (heterosexual); towards people of the same sex (lesbian/gay);
or towards both people of the same sex and of the opposite sex (bisexual)156. From a re-
search perspective there are known issues in attempting to estimate the size of the older
LGB population (see demographics section below), namely that many individuals may not
have necessarily identified as such due to stigmatising and discriminatory legal, political
and social policies and attitudes. For example, research has shown that older gay men
(aged sixty and over) who grew up in a period before homosexuality was decriminalised are
more likely to attempt to ‘pass’ as heterosexual to a degree greater than those who grew
up after decriminalisation157. An awareness is required that older LGBT generations have
endured painful experiences of rejection, discrimination and abuse, and as a consequence
may be fearful or reluctant to identify themselves openly as LGBT. It is also important to
note that there are conceptual differences around how fluid sexuality and sex acts have
been conceived versus fixed notions of sexual identity. A further limitation to the existing
studies of older LGBT populations is how the responses of bisexual people are rarely sepa-
rated from those of lesbians and gay men, and data are often analysed by gender (bisexual
women with lesbians, bisexual men with gay men) rather than sexual identity.

Gender Variance
Trans is an umbrella term to describe many different types of people whose gender
identity or expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth158,159. Personal ex-
perience of gender may well be different from conventional gender constructs. Trans
may include transgender, transsexual and transvestite individuals, though such descriptive
categories are over-simplistic in terms of accounting for the diversity amongst people who
identity as trans, whether permanently or fluidly. Broadly speaking, a trans person may
not follow the conventions and norms of gender whether through clothing, in presenting
themselves, or having surgical procedures to correspond with their preferred gender role.
In the UK there are certain protections for trans people under the Gender Recognition
Act 2004, namely in relation to issues of confidentiality. However, not all trans people wish
to pursue proceedings for legal recognition of their gender for a variety of reasons. It is
important to note that sampling with trans-identified people is a complex issue, as trans
people are considered a ‘hidden’ population, and some people who are identified by oth-
ers as trans may or may not define themselves that way, especially those who decide to
keep their trans identity or history private160.

31
Estimated Size of UK Population
The UK has a growing ageing population compared with preceding cohorts of older
people, and it is expected that future generations of older people are likely to be more
diverse than before in terms of their sexual and gender expressions, identities, behaviours
and attitudes161. A widely accepted estimate indicates that 5-7 per cent of the total adult
UK population is LGB162. More conservative estimates indicate that 1.6 per cent of adults in
the UK may identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual163. On the latter estimate, this proportion is
0.6 per cent amongst people aged 65 and over. Historically, population-level surveys have
not included questions about sexual orientation, and existing data on civil partnerships is
not representative of diverse LGBT populations. In terms of gender identity, it has been
estimated that there are around 300,000 transgender/non-binary people in the UK which
is the equivalent to 0.4% of the total population164. No official demographic statistics are
currently available and therefore no representative samples against which study samples
can be compared,165. Similar to sexual orientation, current census data is unable to statis-
tically account for gender fluidity across the life course, particularly in relation to those
individuals who identify as neither men or women, or female or male, often referred to as
gender fluid and non-binary.

32
 Ageing Summit 2019

Acknowledgements
With thanks to all those who have aided in the production of this report, in particular
Professor Kathryn Almack, Professor Julie Fish, Professor Trish Hafford-Letchfield, Profes-
sor Andrew King, Anna Kear, Professor Daniel Monk, Dr Sue Westwood, Dr Paul Willis,
Dr Anthony James and Mr Cai Wilshaw for commenting on earlier drafts of the manuscript
and for helping to identify further references.

PinkNews would like our report to be used as widely as possible so we are happy for this resource to be
reproduced for non-commercial purposes. If you are quoting or reproducing any part of this resource, you
must credit PinkNews and Catherine El Zerbi. You must also provide a website link wherever possible.

33
34
 Ageing Summit 2019

References
1 The views expressed in this report are those of the author, not necessarily those of PinkNews Media Group

2 Throughout this review the first three letters (LGB) refer to sexual orientation, the ‘T’ refers to gender identity, and
the ‘+’ signifies other marginalised and minority sexuality or gender identities

3 Some papers reported findings that were relevant to multiple settings

4 Addis, S., Davies, M., Greene, G., MacBride-Stewart, S., & Shepherd, M. (2009). The health, social care and housing
needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender older people: a review of the literature. Health & social care in the
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5 Centre for Policy on Ageing. (2016) Diversity in older age – Older Lesbian, Gay and Bi-sexual people and Older Trans-
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6 Williams, H., Varney, J., Taylor, J., Fish, J., Durr, P. & Elan-Cane, C. (2016). The Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans Public
Health Outcomes Framework Companion Document. Available: https://nationallgbtpartnership.org/publications/
phof/

7 For an overview of guides and resources to good practice in LGBT health and social care see: Hafford-Letchfield, T.
(2018). Being Me: Inclusive Aged Care. Country Report for United Kingdom. Available: https://beingme.eu/public/
application/downloads/resources/being-me-country-report-uk.pdf

8 King, A, (2015). Prepare for Impact?: Reflecting on Knowledge Exchange Work to Improve Services for Older LGB
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9 Bouman, W. P. & Kleinplatz, P. J. (2015). Moving towards understanding greater diversity and fluidity of sexual expres-
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10 Barrett, C., Whyte, C., Comfort, J., Lyons, A. & Crameri, P. (2015). Social connection, relationships and older lesbian and
gay people. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 30(1), 131-142. See also: Almack, K., Moss, B. and Smith, T (2015) Research
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11 For a more detailed overview of LGBT rights in the UK see Hafford-Letchfield, T. (2018). Being Me: Inclusive Aged
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14 Heaphy, B., & Yip, A. K. (2006). Policy implications of ageing sexualities. Social Policy and Society, 5(4), 443-451.

15 Williams, H., Varney, J., Taylor, J., Fish, J., Durr, P. & Elan-Cane, C. (2016). The Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans Public

35
 Health Outcomes Framework Companion Document. Available online at: https://nationallgbtpartnership.org/publi-
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21 Willis, P., Raithby, M., Maegusuku-Hewett, T., & Miles, P. (2017). ‘Everyday advocates’ for inclusive care? perspectives
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22 A notable exception to this is: Willis, P. Raithby, M. Dobbs, C. (2019) Ensuring trans people in Wales receive dignified
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27 Phillips, M. & Knocker, S. (2010). Opening Doors Evaluation – the Story So Far. Age Concern. Available: http://www.
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29 Elliott, M. N., Kanouse, D. E., Burkhart, Q., Abel, G. A., Lyratzopoulos, G., Beckett, M. K., ... & Roland, M. (2015). Sexual
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36
 Ageing Summit 2019

32 Bradley, J. (2014). Trans Ageing: Future Research Directions. Available: https://actionfortranshealth.org.uk/2014/10/

33 Fredriksen-Goldsen, K. I., Kim, H. J., Shiu, C., Goldsen, J., & Emlet, C. A. (2014). Successful aging among LGBT older
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Both Ways’ study. Journal of gerontological social work, 61(3), 334-347.

64 Willis, P., Maegusuku-Hewett, T., Raithby, M. & Miles, P. (2016). Swimming upstream: the provision of inclusive care to
older lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) adults in residential and nursing environments in Wales, Cambridge University
Press Ageing and Society 36 (2): 282-306.

65 Knochel, K.A., Quam, J.K. and Croghan, C.F. (2011). Are Old Lesbian and Gay People Well Served? Understanding the
Perceptions, Preparation, and Experiences of Aging Services Providers. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 30 (3): 370-
389.

66 UK Government (2007). Putting People First: A Shared Vision and Commitment to the Transformation of Adult Social
Care. London: Stationery Office.

67 Hafford-Letchfield, T., Simpson, P., Willis, P. B., & Almack, K. (2018). Developing inclusive residential care for older les-
bian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) people: An evaluation of the Care Home Challenge action research project. Health

38
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& social care in the community, 26(2): e312-e320.

68 Cronin, A., Ward, R., Pugh, S., King, A. & Price, E. (2011). Categories and their consequences: Understanding and sup-
porting the caring relationships of older lesbian, gay and bisexual people. International Social Work, 54 (3): 421-435.

69 Jones, S. M. & Willis, P. (2016). Are you delivering trans positive care? Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17(1): 50-60.

70 Ward, R. & Jones, R. (eds.) (2010). LGBT Issues: Looking Beyond Categories. Edinburgh: Dunedin.

71 Almack, K. & Simpson, P. (2014), “Report on care home survey: knowledge, attitudes and practices concerning LGBT
residents”. University of Nottingham and University of Manchester.

72 Older Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Transgender Network. (2009). A report of the Older LGBT Network into the Specific
Needs of Older Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and transgender People. Available: http://www.openingdoorslondon.org.uk/
resources/Age_Concern_Cymru_Older_LGBT_Network_report_2009.pdf

73 Cronin, A. & King, A. (2010). Power, inequality and identification: Exploring diversity and intersectionality amongst
older LGB adults. Sociology, 44: 876-892.

74 Willis, P., Maegusuku-Hewett, T., Raithby, M. & Miles, P. (2016). Swimming upstream: the provision of inclusive care to
older lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) adults in residential and nursing environments in Wales, Ageing and Society 36
(2): 282-306.

75 Bouman, W. P., Arcelus, J. & Benbow, S. M. (2007). Nottingham Study of Sexuality and Ageing (NoSSA II): Attitudes of
care staff regarding sexuality and residents: A study in residential and nursing homes. Sexual and Relationship Therapy,
22(1): 45-61.

76 Willis, P. Ward, N. & Fish, J. (2011). Searching for LGBT Carers: Mapping a Research Agenda in Social Work and Social
Care. British Journal of Social Work, 41(7): 1304-1320.

77 Simpson, P., Almack, K., & Walthery, P. (2016). ‘We treat them all the same’: the attitudes, knowledge and practices of
staff concerning old/er lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans residents in care homes. Ageing & Society, 1-31.

78 Tolley, C., & Ranzijn, R. (2006). Heteronormativity amongst staff of residential aged care facilities. Gay and Lesbian
Issues and Psychology Review, 2(2): 78-86.

79 Dickey, G.2013. Survey of homophobia: views on sexual orientation from certified nurse assistants who work in long-
term care. Research on Ageing, 35 (5): 563–70.

80 Wild, D., Szczepura, A., & Nelson, S. (2010). Residential care home workforce development: The rhetoric and reality of
meeting older residents’ future care needs. University of the West of England and the Joseph Rowntree Foundation,
York.

81 Willis, P., Maegusuku-Hewett, T., Raithby, M. & Miles, P. (2016). Swimming upstream: the provision of inclusive care to
older lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) adults in residential and nursing environments in Wales, Cambridge University
Press. Ageing and Society, 36 (2): 282-306.

82 Bernard, S. (2013). Loneliness and Social Isolation Among Older People in North Yorkshire. North Yorkshire Older
People’s Partnership Board.

83 Heaphy, B., Yip, A. & Thompson, D. (2004). Ageing in a non-heterosexual context. Ageing and Society, 24 (6): 881-902.

84 Guasp, A. (2011). Lesbian, gay and bisexual people in later life. Stonewall.

39
85 Kneale, D. (2016). Connected communities? LGB older people and their risk of exclusion from decent housing and
neighbourhoods, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17 (2): 107-118.

86 Green, M. (2016). “Do the companionship and community networks of older LGBT adults compensate for weaker
kinship networks?”, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17 (1): 36-49.

87 Knocker, S. (2012). Perspectives on ageing: Lesbians, gay men and bisexuals. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

88 Carr. S. & Ross, P. (2013). Assessing current and future housing and support options for older LGB people.

89 Traies, J. (2015). Old lesbians in the UK: Community and friendship, Journal of Lesbian Studies, 19(1): 35-49.

90 Heaphy, B., & Yip, A. K. (2003). Uneven possibilities: Understanding non-heterosexual ageing and the implications of
social change. Sociological research online, 8(4): 1-12.

91 Ibid. p.4

92 Heaphy, B., Yip, A. & Thompson, D. (2004). Ageing in a non-heterosexual context. Ageing and Society, 24 (6): 881-902.

93 Cronin, A. & King, A. (2010). Power, inequality and identification: Exploring diversity and intersectionality amongst
older LGB adults. Sociology, 44: 876-892.

94 Green, M. (2016). “Do the companionship and community networks of older LGBT adults compensate for weaker
kinship networks?”, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17 (1): 36-49.

95 Cronin, A. & King, A. (2014). Only connect? Lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) adults and social capital, Ageing and Soci-
ety, 34 (2): 258-279.

96 Wilkens, J. (2016). “The significance of affinity groups and safe spaces for older lesbians and bisexual women: creating
support networks and resisting heteronormativity in older age”, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17 (1): 26-35.

97 Knocker, S. (2013). Perspectives on ageing lesbians, gay men and bisexuals. London, England: Joseph Rowntree Foun-
dation.

98 Westwood, S. (2017). Religion, sexuality, and (in) equality in the lives of older lesbian, gay, and bisexual people in the
United Kingdom. Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging, 29(1), 47-69.

99 Ibid.

100 A term first coined in Weston, K. (1997) Families We Choose: Lesbians, Gays, Kinship, Columbia University Press.

101 Almack, K., Seymour, J., & Bellamy, G. (2010). Exploring the Impact of Sexual Orientation on Experiences and Concerns
about End of Life Care and on Bereavement for Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Older People. Sociology, 44(5): 908–924.

102 Green, M. (2016). “Do the companionship and community networks of older LGBT adults compensate for weaker
kinship networks?”, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, Vol. 17 Issue: 1, pp.36-49.

103 Heaphy, B., Yip, A. & Thompson, D. (2004). Ageing in a non-heterosexual context. Ageing and Society 24 (6) 881-902.

104 Heaphy, B. (2009). “Choice and its limits in older lesbian and gay narratives of relational life”, Journal of GLBT Family
Studies, Vol. 5 Nos 1/2, pp. 119-38.

105 Heaphy, B., & Yip, A. K. (2003). Uneven possibilities: Understanding non-heterosexual ageing and the implications of
social change. Sociological research online, 8(4): 1-12.

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106 Cronin, A., & King, A. (2014). Only connect? Older lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) adults and social capital. Ageing &
Society, 34(2), 258-279.

107 Traies, J. (2015). Old Lesbians in the UK: Community and Friendship, Journal of Lesbian Studies, 19:1, 35-49.

108 King, A., & Cronin, A. (2016). Bonds, bridges and ties: applying social capital theory to LGBT people’s housing concerns
later in life. Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17(1), 16-25. p.20.

109 Stonewall Housing. (2016). Building safe choices LGBT housing futures: a feasibility study. Available: http://stonewall-
housing.org/project/building-safe-choices-2/

110 For a recent overview of housing policy in the UK in relation to LGBT* ageing see Westwood, S. (2016). LGBT* ageing
in the UK: spatial inequalities in older age housing/care provision. Journal of Poverty and Social Justice, 24(1), 63-76.

111 Ross, P. D. S. (2016). Learning from international experiences – developing older LGBT affirmative housing and care
options in England, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults 17(1): 60-70.

112 Kneale, D., Sholl, P., Sherwood, C. & Faulkner, J. (2014). Ageing and lesbian, gay and bisexual relationships, Working with
Older People, 18 (3): 142-151.

113 Guasp, A. (2011). Lesbian, gay and bisexual people in later life. Stonewall.

114 Kneale, D. (2016). Connected communities? LGB older people and their risk of exclusion from decent housing and
neighbourhoods, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17 (2): 107-118.

115 Centre for Policy on Ageing. (2016) Diversity in older age – Older Lesbian, Gay and Bi-sexual

people and Older Transgender people: A rapid review: Available: http://www.cpa.org.uk/information/reviews/CPA-Rap-

id-Review-Diversity-in-Older-Age-LGBT.pdf

116 Addis, S., Davies, M., Greene, G., MacBride-Stewart, S., & Shepherd, M. (2009). The health, social care and housing
needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender older people: a review of the literature. Health & social care in the
community, 17(6): 647-658.

117 Kneale, D. (2016). Connected communities? LGB older people and their risk of exclusion from decent housing and
neighbourhoods, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17 (2): 107-118.

118 Willis, P., Raithby, M., & Maegusuku-Hewett, T. (2018). “It’s a nice country but it’s not mine”: Exploring the meanings
attached to home, rurality and place for older lesbian, gay and bisexual adults. Health & social care in the community,
26(6): 908-916.

119 Hubbard, R. & Rossington, J. (1995). As We Grow Older: A Study of the Housing and Support Needs of Older Lesbians
and Gay Men, Polari. Available: http://www.openingdoorslondon.org.uk/resources/As_We_Grow_Older.pdf

120 Older Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual & Transgender Network. (2009). A report of the Older LGBT Network into the Specific
Needs of Older Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and transgender People. Available: http://www.openingdoorslondon.org.uk/
resources/Age_Concern_Cymru_Older_LGBT_Network_report_2009.pdf

121 Westwood, S. (2017). Gender and Older LGBT* Housing Discourse: The marginalised voices of older lesbians, gay and
bisexual women. Housing, Care and Support, 20(3), 100-109. 

122 Ibid.

123 Westwood, S. (2016). Ageing, gender and sexuality equality in later life. London: Routledge.

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124 King, A., & Stoneman, P. (2017). Understanding SAFE Housing–putting older LGBT* people’s concerns, preferences and
experiences of housing in England in a sociological context. Housing, Care and Support, 20(3), 89-99.

125 Westwood, S. (2013). ‘My Friends are my Family’: an argument about the limitations of contemporary law’s recogni-
tion of relationships in later life. Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 35(3), 347-363

126 Westwood, S. (2015). Complicating kinship and inheritance: Older Lesbians’ and Gay Men’s Will-writing in En-
gland. Feminist Legal Studies, 23(2), 181-197

127 Uhrig, S.C.N. (2014). An Examination of Poverty and Sexual Orientation in the UK. Colchester: Institute for Social and
Economic Research. Available: https://www.iser.essex.ac.uk/research/publications/working-papers/iser/2014-02.pdf

128 One of the few data sets containing subsamples of the LGB population large enough for robust statistical analysis
and comparison with other groups.

129 Guasp, A. (2011). Lesbian, gay and bisexual people in later life. Stonewall.

130 Heaphy, B., Yip, A. & Thompson, D. (2004). Ageing in a non-heterosexual context. Ageing and Society 24 (6): 881-902.

131 Kneale, D. (2016). Connected communities? LGB older people and their risk of exclusion from decent housing and
neighbourhoods, Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17 (2): 107-118.

132 Cronin, A. & King, A. (2014). Only connect?: lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) adults and social capital. Ageing and Soci-
ety, 34 (2): 258-279.

133 Heaphy, B. (2007). Sexualities, Gender and Ageing: Resources and Social Change. Current Sociology, 55: 193-210.

134 Heaphy, B., Yip, A. & Thompson, D. (2004). Ageing in a non-heterosexual context. Ageing and Society, 24 (6): 881-902.

135 Price, D. (2006). Gender and generational continuity breadwinners, caregivers and pension provision in the UK. Inter-
national Journal of Ageing and Later Life, 1(2): 31-66.

136 Ginn, J. (2003). Gender, pensions and the lifecourse: how pensions need to adapt to changing family forms. Bristol:
The Policy Press.

137 Heaphy, B., & Yip, A. K. (2003). Uneven possibilities: Understanding non-heterosexual ageing and the implications of
social change. Sociological research online, 8(4): 1-12.

138 Taylor, Y. (2009). Complexities and Complications: Intersections of Class and Sexuality. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 13
(2): 189-203.

139 Smith, A. & Calvert, J. (2001). Opening Doors: Working with Older Lesbians and Gay Men. London: Age Concern.

140 Heaphy, B., & Yip, A. K. (2006). Policy implications of ageing sexualities. Social Policy and Society, 5(4): 443-451.

141 Heaphy, B., Donovan, C., & Weeks, J. (2004). A different affair? Openness and nonmonogamy in same sex relation-
ships. The state of affairs: Explorations in infidelity and commitment, 167-186

142 Monk, D., (2014). Writing (Gay and Lesbian) Wills. Oñati Socio-legal Series [online], 4 (2): 306-322.

143 For a discussion of cases indirect legal discrimination of same-sex couples, see Monk, D. (2015) Judging the Act: Civil
Partnership Disputes in the Courtroom and Media, in From Civil Patnerships to Same-Sex Marriage 2004-2014: Inter-
disciplinary Reflections, Barker, N. and Monk, D. (eds.). Routledge.

144 Monk, D. (2011). Sexuality and succession law: Beyond formal equality. Feminist Legal Studies, 19(3): 231-250.

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145 Heaphy, B., & Yip, A. K. (2006). Policy implications of ageing sexualities. Social Policy and Society, 5(4): 443-451.

146 Monk, D., (2014). Writing (Gay and Lesbian) Wills. Oñati Socio-legal Series [online], 4 (2): 306-322.

147 Westwood, S. (2015). Complicating kinship and inheritance: Older Lesbians’ and Gay Men’s Will-writing in En-
gland. Feminist Legal Studies, 23(2): 181-197.

148 Monk, D. (2016) ‘Inheritance Families of Choice’? Reflections on Gay and Lesbian Wills, Journal of Law and Society,
43:2, 167-194.

149 Almack, K., Yip, A., Seymour., Sargeant., Patterson A. and Makita, M. (2015). The Last Outing: exploring end of life
experiences and care needs in the lives of older LGBT people. Final Report. University of Nottingham.

150 For an overview of these gaps, see Almack, K & King, A (2019) Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans ageing in a UK context:
critical observations of recent research literature, The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, On-
line First.

151 Cronin, A., Ward, R., Pugh, S., King, A., & Price, E. (2011). Categories and their consequences: Understanding and sup-
porting the caring relationships of older lesbian, gay and bisexual people. International Social Work, 54(3), 421-435.

152 Fenge, L. A., Fannin, A., Armstrong, A., Hicks, C., & Taylor, V. (2009). Lifting the lid on sexuality and ageing: The expe-
riences of volunteer researchers. Qualitative Social Work, 8(4), 509-524.

153 Addis, S., Davies, M., Greene, G., MacBride-Stewart, S., & Shepherd, M. (2009). The health, social care and housing
needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender older people: a review of the literature. Health & social care in the
community, 17(6), 647-658.

154 Fredriksen-Goldsen, K.I., Kim, H-J., Shiu, C., Goldsen, J. & Emlet, C.A. (2014). Successful aging amongst LGBT older
adults: Physical and mental health-related quality of life by age group. The Gerontologist, 00(00). 1-15.

155 Orel, N. A. (2014). Investigating the needs and concerns of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender older adults: The use
of qualitative and quantitative methodology. Journal of Homosexuality, 61(1), 53-78.

156 Almack, K., Seymour, J., & Bellamy, G. (2010). Exploring the Impact of Sexual Orientation on Experiences and Concerns
about End of Life Care and on Bereavement for Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Older People. Sociology, 44(5), 908–924. p.
919.

157 Knauer, N. (2009). LGBT Elder Law: Toward Equity in Aging. Harvard Journal of Law and Gender, 32: 301-358.

158 Tobin, H.J. (2012). Improving the Lives of Transgender Older Adults: Services & Advocacy for GLBT Elders. (SAGE) &
National Centre for Transgender Equality, New York.

159 Jones, S. M., & Willis, P. (2016). Are you delivering trans positive care? Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 17(1), 50-60.

160 12 McNeil, J., Bailey, L., Ellis, S., Morton, J., & Regan, M. (2012). Trans mental health study 2012. Available: http://www.
scottishtrans.org/Uploads/Resources/trans_mh_study.pdf

161 Hafford-Letchfield, T., Simpson, P., Willis, P. B., & Almack, K. (2018). Developing inclusive residential care for older les-
bian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) people: An evaluation of the Care Home Challenge action research project. Health
& social care in the community, 26(2), e312-e320.

162 DTI. Final Regulatory Impact Assessment: Civil Partnership Act 2004. Available from: http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/
file23829.pdf.

163 Office for National Statistics. (2015). Integrated Household Survey, January to December 2014: Experimental Statistics.

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164 Reed, B., Rhodes, S., Schofield, P. & Wylie, K (2009). Gender Variance in the UK: Prevalence, Incidence, Growth and
Geographic Distribution. Retrieved from Gender Identity Research in Education Society (GIRES) website at: https://
www.gires.org.uk/information-on-prevalence-incidence-and-monitoring/

165 Department of Trade and Industry (2003). Civil Partnership: A Framework for the Legal Recognition of Same-sex
Couples. London: DTI Women and Equality Unit: 68.

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