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MATHEMATICS
AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN
BASIC TRAINING

Lot 43A, Quang Minh

Industrial Zone, Me Linh, Viet Nam

www.aesc.com.vn

TEL: +84-24-38185930
FAX: +84-24-38185931
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FORWARD
PART – 66 and the Acceptable Means of Compliance (AMC) and Guidance Material
(GM) of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Regulation (EC) No. 2042/2003,
Appendix 1 to the Implementing Rules establishes the Basic Knowledge Requirements
for those seeking an aircraft maintenance license. The information in this Module (01) of
the AMT CAT A Training Manuals compiled by AESC Aviation Training Center meets or
exceeds the breadth and depth of knowledge subject matter referenced in Appendix 1 of
the Implementing Rules. The order of the material presented is at the discretion of the
editor in an effort to convey the required knowledge in the most sequential and
comprehensible manner. Knowledge levels required for CAT A maintenance licenses
remain unchanged from those listed in Appendix 1 Basic Knowledge Requirements.
Tables from Appendix 1 Basic Knowledge Requirements are reproduced at the beginning
of each module in the series and again at the beginning of each Sub-Module.

Module 01 Syllabus as outlined in PART-66, Appendix 1

CERTIFICATION CATEGORY LEVEL

Sub-Module 01 – Arithmetic
1
Arithmetical terms and signs, methods of multiplication and division,
fractions and decimals, factors and multiples, weights, measures and
conversion factors, ratio and proportion, averages and percentages,
areas and volumes, squares,, cubes, squares and cube roots.

Sub-Module 02 – Algebra
Evaluating simple algebraic expressions, addition, subtraction, 1
multiplication and division, use of brackets, simple algebraic fractions.

Sub-Module 03 - Geometry
Graphical representation, nature and uses of graphs of 2
equations/functions.
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CONTENTS
Sub-Module 01 – Arithmetic .................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 2
ADDITION.................................................................................................................................................... 2
SUBTRACTION ........................................................................................................................................... 2
MULTIPLICATION ....................................................................................................................................... 3
DIVISION ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
PRIORITY RULES ....................................................................................................................................... 5
WEIGHT & MASS ........................................................................................................................................ 6
MEASURES ................................................................................................................................................ 7
CONVERSION OF UNITS........................................................................................................................... 8
FACTORS AND MULTIPLES .................................................................................................................... 11
COMMON FRACTIONS ............................................................................................................................ 11
RATIO ........................................................................................................................................................ 15
PROPORTION .......................................................................................................................................... 16
PERCENTAGES ....................................................................................................................................... 17
AVERAGES ............................................................................................................................................... 18
POWER AND ROOTS............................................................................................................................... 18
ROOTS ...................................................................................................................................................... 20
AREAS....................................................................................................................................................... 20
VOLUMES ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Sub-Module 02 – Algebra ....................................................................................................................... 23
ALGEBRA IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE ................................................................................................ 23
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 24
USE OF SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................................... 24
ADDITION & SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC TERMS .......................................................................... 24
MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION SIGNS .................................................................................................... 25
MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC QUANTITIES .............................................................. 25
BRACKETS ............................................................................................................................................... 25
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 26
Sub-Module 03 - Geometry .................................................................................................................... 27
GEOMETRY IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................ 27
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS ........................................................................................................ 28
COORDINATES & GRAPHS..................................................................................................................... 30
USE OF GRAPHS ..................................................................................................................................... 35
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Sub-Module 01 – Arithmetic
ARITHMETIC IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE

Arithmetic is the branch of mathematics dealing with the properties and manipulation of numbers.
Properties arithmetic calculations with success requires an understanding of the correct methods
and procedures. Arithmetic may be thought of as a set of tools. The aviation maintenance
professional will need these tools to successfully complete the maintenance, repair, installation,
or certification of aircraft equipment.
Arithmetic is the basic for all aspects of mathematics. Math is used in measuring and calculating
serviceability of close tolerance engine components, when calculating the weight and balance for
the installation of new avionics and more. A sound knowledge and manipulation of mathematic
principles is used on a regular basis during nearly all aspects of aircraft maintenance.
The level to which an aviation maintenance student is required to have knowledge of arithmetic is
listed in the following table according to the certification being sought. A description of the
applicable knowledge levels is presented and will be included at the beginning of each sub-
module in the module.
Sub-Module 01 – Arithmetic: Arithmetic terms and signs, methods of multiplication and division,
fractions and decimals, factors, ratio and proportion, averages and percentages areas and
volumes, squares, cubs, square and cube roots.
LEVEL 1: A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
(a) The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
(b) (b) The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using
common words and examples.
(c) The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2: A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject and
an ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
(a) The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
(b) (b)The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as
appropriate, typical examples.
(c) The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
(d) The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
(e) The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

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INTRODUCTION
General
Just as studying a new language begins with learning basic words, the study of mathematics
begins with arithmetic, its most basic branch. Arithmetic uses real and non−negative numbers,
which are also known as counting numbers, and consist of only four operations:
 addition
 subtraction
 multiplication
 division.
While you have been using arithmetic since childhood, a review of its terms and operations will
make learning the more difficult mathematical concepts much easier.
Digits
Numbers are represented by symbols which are called digits. There are nine digits which are 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. We also use the symbol 0 (i.e. zero) where no digits exists. Digits and
zero may be combined together to represent any number.
ADDITION
General
The process of finding the total of two or more numbers is called addition. This operation is
indicated by the plus (+) symbol. When numbers, called summands, are combined by addition,
the resulting total is called the sum.

When adding whole numbers whose total is more than nine, it is necessary to arrange the
numbers in columns so that the last digit of each number is in the same column. The ones
column contains the values zero through nine, the tens column contains multiples of ten, up to
ninety, and the hundreds column consists of multiples of one hundred.
Example

hundreds tens ones

8 2 (first summand)
+ 1 4 5 (second summand)
+ 4 5 6 (third summand)
6 8 3 (sum)
To add the sum of the above, first add the ones column: 2 and 5 and 6 makes 13. Place the 3 in
the ones column of the answer and carry the 1 forward to the tens column.
Adding this we add: 1 and 8 and 4 and 5 is 18. Place the 8 in the tens column of the answer and
carry the 1 forward to the hundreds column which we now add.
1 and 1 and 4 is 6. Place the 6 in the hundreds column of the answer. We see that the answer
(sum) to the addition is 683.
SUBTRACTION
General
The process of finding the difference between two numbers is known as subtraction and is
indicated by the minus (−) sign. Subtraction is accomplished by taking the quantity of one number

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away from another number. The number which is being subtracted is known as the subtrahend
(smaller number), and the number from which the quantity is taken is known as the minuend
(larger number).
To find the difference of two numbers, arrange them in the same manner used for addition. With
the minuend on top and the subtrahend on the bottom, align the vertical columns so the last digits
are in the same column. Beginning at the right, subtract the subtrahend from the minuend.
Repeat this for each column.
Example
hundreds tens ones
4 4 2 (minuend)
+ 2 5 6 (subtrahend)
1 8 6 (difference)
Place 256 under 442. 6 from 2 is clearly impossible, so the 2 is increased in value to 12 by taking
1 from the tens column leaving 3. 12 from 6 leaves 6. Write 6 in the ones column of the answer. 5
from 3 is also clearly impossible, so the 3 is increased in value to 13 by taking 1 from the
hundreds column leaving 3. 13 from 5 leaves 8. Write 8 in the tens column. Finally, 2 from 3 in
the hundreds columns leaves 1. So the difference is 186.
To check a subtraction problem, you can add the difference to the subtrahend to find the
minuend.
There are two methods by which subtraction can be performed.
Consider 16 − 8 = 8
Method 1
Take 8 from 16. We have 8 left. This method is the most common method.
Another way is also used to write the calculation, especially when the numbers are greater.
16
- 8
8
Method 2
Add various numbers to the 8. When the result is 16, you found the correct number.
If we add 8 to 6 then we obtain 16. 8 is therefore the difference between 16 and 8.
This method is a kind of “try and error“.
MULTIPLICATION
General
Multiplication is a special form of repetitive addition.
When a given number is added to itself a specified number of times, the process is called
multiplication. The sum of 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 is expressed by multiplication as 4 × 3 = 12.
The numbers 4 and 3 are called factors and the answer 12, represents the product.
The number multiplied (4) is called the multiplicand, and the multiplier represents the number
of times the multiplicand is added to itself, in this case 3.
Sign
Multiplication is typically indicated by the symbol ×.

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In many countries the middle dot is used, which is also called punctuation. An operation with the
middle dot looks like this: 2 · 2 = 4
In some cases (e.g. algebra and/or brackets), it is denoted by the lack of any other operation
sign.
Examples:
4 x 3 = 12
4 . 3 = 12
4ab = 4 . a . b
Sequence
When multiplying, the order in which numbers are multiplied does not change the product.
Example:
3 × 4 = 12
4 × 3 = 12
Procedure
Like addition and subtraction, when multiplying large numbers it is important that they have to be
aligned vertically.
When multiplying numbers greater than nine, multiply the multiplicand by each digit in the
multiplier. Once all multiplicands are used as a multiplier, the products of each multiplication
operation are added to arrive at a total product.
Example:
Multiplicand is 532
Multiplier is 24
Write:
532 × 24
Calculation:
532 × 24
1064 (first partial product)
+ 2128 (second partial product)
12768 (product)
The product is 12 768.
DIVISION
General
Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of multiplication. Division is a
means of finding out how many times a number is contained in another number. The number
divided is called dividend, the number you are dividing by is the divisor, and the result is the
quotient.
Remainder
With some division problems, the quotient may include a remainder. A remainder represents that
portion of the dividend that cannot be divided by the divisor.
Sign

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Division is indicated by the use of the division signs (÷), ( : ), ( / ) with the dividend to the left and
the divisor to the right of the sign, or with the dividend inside the sign and the divisor to the left.
Large Quantities
The process of dividing large quantities is performed by breaking the problem down into a series
of operations, each resulting in a single digit quotient.
This is best illustrated by an example.
Example:
Let us divide 416 by 8.
Dividend is 416
Divisor is 8
Write:
416÷8 = 52
or
416 : 8 = 52
Calculation:
416 : 8 = 52
40
16
16
0
1) 4 : 8 = Not possible
2) 41 : 8 = 5 Remainder 1
3) 16 : 8 = 2 Remainder 0
1. Take the first digit, the 4.
Try to divide 4 by 8. This is not possible.
2. Take the first two digits, the 41.
Try to divide 41 by 8. This is 5 and the remainder is 1.
3. Take the remainder 1 and the third digit, the 6. Combine to 16.
Try to divide 16 by 8. This is 2 and the remainder is 0.
4. Take the first digit you got (in step 2) and the second digit you got (in step 3). This is 52,
and this is the result.
The quotient is 52.
Check
To check a division problem for accuracy, multiply the quotient by the divisor and then add the
remainder (if any).
If the operation is carried out properly, the result equals the dividend.
PRIORITY RULES
Operations
When a term is to be calculated, there is a priority rule for operations.

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Multiplications and divisions must be done first.

Then additions and subtractions are done.
Example:
5+ 3 × 2 = 11
If you do the addition first and then multiply by 2, you get a wrong result.

WEIGHT & MASS

General
Weight is defined as the gravitational pull of the earth on a given body. This is a force.
The direction of this force is regarded toward the geometrical center of the earth.
Physicists are very careful to distinguish between “mass & weight”. But in normal life, people do
not distinguish. We mean mass but say weight. On the market, we buy an amount of potatoes
with an exact weight.
Due to this fact in the following we speak correctly about the mass.
System of Measurement
The system of measurement is based mainly on the International System of Units, usually
abbreviated as SI (French: Système international d’unités).
Unit
The kilogram (kg) is the SI unit for mass.
In 1889 the kilogram was defined by a platinum – iridium alloy cylinder of 39 mm in diameter and
39 mm in height. This original or prototype kilogram is stored in a safe near Paris the French
capital.
Using the decimal system, based on number of 10 we are able to calculate bigger and smaller
values. In accordance to the decimal system 1 kg consists of 1000 g (gram) and 1 g in turn
consists of 1000 mg (milligram).
Multiplying 1 kg by 1000 we reach 1 Mg (mega gram) usually called 1 metric ton.
In daily life we use the units between gram and ton.

Figure 1: Decimal System Kilogram

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Prefix Symbol Factor

tera T 1 000 000 000 000

giga G 1 000 000 000

mega M 1 000 000

kilo k 1 000

hecto h 100

deca da 10

deci d Divide by 10

centi c Divide by 100

milli m Divide by 1 000

micro µ Divide by 1 000 000

nano n Divide by 1 000 000 000

MEASURES
General
Measures are used to give an exact impression of a distance. This may be the length of a street
or the length of an object.
Unit
The meter (m) is the SI unit for length.
In 1875 the original or prototype meter was defined as the 10 millions part of 1/4 of an earth
meridian. A meridian quadrant is approximately the distance from the geographic pole to the
equator. Also the prototype meter is made of a platinum – iridium alloy and stored in France.
Since 1983 the scholars use natural constants to define some basic units. Therefore the meter is
defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in of a second. The speed of
light is a natural constant and defined with 299 792 458 meter per second.
Natural constants remain unchanged and can be reproduced all over the world, at least
theoretically.
Using the decimal system, based on number of 10 we are also able to calculate bigger and
smaller values. In accordance to the decimal system 1 m consists of 10 dm or 100 cm or 1000
mm.
Multiplying 1 m by 1000 we reach 1 km. In daily life we use the values between kilometer and
millimeter.

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Figure 2: Decimal System Metric

Prefix Symbol Factor

tera T 1 000 000 000 000

giga G 1 000 000 000

mega M 1 000 000

kilo k 1 000

hecto h 100

deca da 10

deci d Divide by 10

centi c Divide by 100

milli m Divide by 1 000

micro µ Divide by 1 000 000

nano n Divide by 1 000 000

000
CONVERSION OF UNITS
General
As already mentioned, the majority of the countries in Europe and most of the countries in the
world are using the SI units to define the basic units and their derived units.
The remaining countries e.g. Great Britain and the USA are using an older system called the
imperial system. The imperial system uses units which are historically grown and developed over
centuries (e.g. feet, inches, yards, pounds and gallons). It is still used in aviation until today.
Length
1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm
1m = 39.37 in, or 3.281 ft
1 ft (foot) = 12 in, or 0.3048 m
1 yd (yard) = 3 ft or 36 in, or 0.9144 m
1 km = 0.621 miles
1 mile = 1760yd = 5280 ft, or 1.61 km
1 n.m. = 1.151 miles, or 1.852 km

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Area
1 m2 = 10.000 cm2
1 m2 = 10.76 ft2
1 acre = 4840 yd2 = 4046.87m2
1 yd2 = 9 ft2
1 ft2 = 144 in2, or 0.0929 m2
1 in2 = 6.452 cm2
Volume
1 m3 = 1 000 dm3 = 1000 liter
1 ft3 = 1728 in3 = 0.0283 m3
1 liter = 1000 cm3 = 1.0576 qt (US)
1 qt (US quart) = 0.8327 qt (UK) = 0.9464 liter
1 gal (US = 8 pints (US)
gallon)
1 gal (UK) = 4.546 liters
1 gal (US) = 3.785 liters
Mass
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 kg = 1000 g
1 lb = 0.4536 kg = 453.6 g
1 lb = 16 oz
1 oz = 28.3495 g
Velocity
1 km/h = 3.6 m/s
1 m/s = 3.281 ft/s
1 mph = 1.47 ft/s
1 mph = 1.61 km/h
1 knot = 1.688 ft/s
1 knot = 1.151 mph
1 knot = 1.852 km/h
Force & Weight
1N = 0.2248 lbf
1N = 3.5969 ozf
Torque
1 daNm = 10 Nm
1 Nm = 8.851 lbf in
1 lbf ft = 12 lbf in

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Power
1 HP (metric) = 735.4988 W
1 HP (UK) = 745.6999 W
1 HP (metric) = 0.9863 HP (UK)
1 HP (metric) = 542.4760 lbf ft/s
1 HP (UK) = 550 lbf ft/s
1W = 0.738 ft lb/s
1 Btu/h = 0.293 W
Pressure
1 Pa = 0.000145 lb/in2
1 bar = 100 000 Pa = 1000 hPa
1 bar = 14.5038 PSI
1 bar = 750.0638 mmHg
1 bar = 29.53 inHg
1 atm = 29.92 inHg
1 PSI = 689 kPa
Energy
1J = 0.738 ft lb
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 Btu = 252 cal
Time =
1 year = 365 days
1 day = 24 h = 1440 min
Temperature (conversion formula may required)
∆1°C = ∆1 K (Kelvin)
1 °C = 33.8 °F (Fahrenheit)
1 °F = – 17.22 °C
1 °C = 493.47 °R (Rankine)
1 °R = – 272.59 °C, or – 458.67 °F, or
0.5556 K
0K = – 273.15 °C, or – 459.67 °F, or 0 °R
˚F =(˚C × 9/5) + 32
˚C =(˚F − 32) + 5/9
Other Useful Data
1 liter water = 1 kg
1 pint water = 1 lb

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FACTORS AND MULTIPLES

Factors
Factors can be used to count the units.
If something weights 5 x 1kg so 5 is a factor.
The calculation is a multiplication.
Sometimes short expressions for factors are used for units. These are called prefixes. This is
used to shorten long expressions like 80 000 meters to 80 km.
The k is for kilo and means the factor 1 000.
Kilo, hecto, deca, centi and milli are the most common metric prefixes in daily use. All other show
either values too big or too small for daily use.
In the metric world metric prefixes are used. They all are based on the factor 10.
Metric Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Factor

tera T 1 000 000 000 000
giga G 1 000 000 000
mega M 1 000 000
kilo k 1 000
hecto h 100
deca da 10
deci d Divide by 10
centi c Divide by 100
milli m Divide by 1 000
micro µ Divide by 1 000 000
nano n Divide by 1 000 000
000
Multiples
Multiples are the simple product of a multiplication. A football team has 11 sportsmen on the field.
During the ceremonies at the beginning of Olympic Games you may see many teams the same
time. So you have 44, 99 or even more sportsmen.
This is a multiple. 99 sportsmen on the lawn, that is 9 times a team.
Dividing Multiples
When you divide a multiple by 2, 3, 4 etc. you will get a natural number.
When you see multiple sportsmen on the field and you divide this number by the sportsmen in a
team, you get the number of teams.
For example 99 sportsmen divided by 11 sportsmen for a team has a result of 9 teams.
COMMON FRACTIONS
Introduction
A common fraction represents a portion or part of a quantity.

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For example, if a number is divided into three equal parts, each part is one−third ( ) of the
number.
A fraction consists of two numbers, one above and one below a line, or fraction bar. The fraction
bar indicates division of the top number, or numerator, by the bottom number, or denominator.

For example, the fraction indicates that three is divided by four to find the decimal equivalent of
0.75.
When a fractions numerator is smaller than the denominator, the fraction is called a proper
fraction. A proper fraction is always less than 1. If the numerator is larger than the denominator,
the fraction is called an improper fraction. In this situation the fraction is greater than 1. If the
numerator and the denominator are identical, the fraction is equal to 1.
A mixed number is the combination of a whole number and a proper fraction.

Mixed numbers are expressed as 1 and 29 and are typically used in place of improper
fractions. The numerator and denominator of a fraction can be changed without changing the
fractions value. A mixed number can be converted into an improper fraction and vice versa.
Example 1:

Express the mixed number 8 as a proper fraction.

8 = = =

Example 2:

Express the improper fraction as a mixed number.

= = + =6
(since 27 ÷ 4 = 6 remainder 3)
Lowest Terms
A fraction is said to be in its lowest terms when it is impossible to find a number which will divide
exactly into both its numerator and denominator.

The fractions and are both in their lowest terms but the fraction is not its lowest terms

because it can be reduced to by dividing top and bottom numbers by 2.

Example:

Reduce to its lowest terms.

= =

DECIMALS
General
Working with fractions is typically time consuming and complex. One way you can eliminate
fractions in complex equations is by replacing them with decimal fractions or decimals. A
common fraction is converted to a decimal fraction by dividing the numerator by the denominator.
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For example, 3/4 is converted to a decimal by dividing the 3 by the 4.

The decimal equivalent of 3/4 is 0.75. Improper fractions are converted to decimals in the same
manner. However, whole numbers appear to the left of the decimal point.
In a decimal, each digit represents a multiple of ten. The first digit represents tenths, the second
hundredths, the third thousandths.
Examples:
0.5 is read as five tenths
0.05 is read as five hundredths
0.005 is read as five thousandths
When writing decimals, the number of zeros to the right of the decimal does not affect the value
as long as no other number except zero appears. In other words, numerically, 2.5, 2.50 and
2.500 are the same.
Decimal Places
The number of digits after the decimal point are called decimal places.
Examples:
27.6 one decimal places
27.16 two decimal places
27.026 three decimal places and so on
Adding Decimals
The addition of decimals is done in the same manner as the addition of whole numbers.
However, care must be taken to correctly align the decimal points vertically.
Example:
Add the following 25.78 + 5.4 + 0.237
Rewrite with the decimals aligned and add.
25.78
+ 5.4
+ 0.237
31.417
Once everything is added, the decimal point in the answer is placed directly below the other
decimal points.
Subtracting Decimals
Like adding, subtracting decimals is done in the same manner as with whole numbers. Again, it is
important that you keep the decimal points aligned.
Example:
If you have 325.25 pounds of ballast on board and remove 30.75 pounds, how much ballast
remains?
325.25
− 30.75
294.50

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Multiplying Decimals
When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting whole numbers.
Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the right of the decimal point in both
the multiplier and multiplicand. This number represents how many digits must be right of the
decimal point in the product.
Example:
Multiplicand is 26.757 (3 decimal places)
Multiplier is 0.32 (2 decimal places)
Write:
26.757 x 0.32
Calculation:
26 757 x 32
80271
+ 53514
856224
The product is 856224.
Count 5 decimal places to the left of the last digit. Then set the decimal point. The result is
856224
Dividing Decimals
When dividing decimals, the operation is carried out in the same manner as division of whole
numbers. However, to ensure accurate placement of decimal point in the quotient, two rules
apply:
1. When the divisor is a whole number, the decimal point in the quotient aligns vertically with the
decimal in the dividend when doing long division.
2. When the divisor is a decimal fraction, it should first be converted to a whole number by
moving the decimal point to the right. However, when the decimal in the divisor is moved, the
decimal in the dividend must also move in the same direction and the same number of
spaces.
Example:
Divide 37.26 by 2.7.
Dividend is 37.26
Divisor is 2.7
Move the decimal in the divisor to the right to convert it to a whole number. Move the decimal in
the dividend the same number of places to the right.
Calculation:
372.6 : 27 = 13.8
27
102
81
216
216
0

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1) 37÷27 = 1 Remainder 10
2) 102÷27 = 3 Remainder 21
3) Take 6 and set the point
4) 216÷27 = 8 Remainder 0
RATIO
General
A ratio is a comparison between two similar quantities.

If the length of an aircraft is 72 m and a model of it is 1 m long then the length of the model is
of the length of the aircraft. In making the model, all the dimensions of the aircraft are reduced in
the ratio of 1 to 72.
The ratio 1 to 72 is usually written 1:72.

This ratio can also be written as the fraction

Before we can state a ratio the units must be the same. We can state a ratio between 3 mm and
2 m only if we bring both lengths to the same units. If we convert 2 m to 2000 mm the ratio
between both lengths is 3 : 2000.
Examples
Express the following ratios as fractions reduced to their lowest terms.
Example 1:
40 mm to 2.2 m
2.2 m = 2200 mm

40 : 2200 = =

Example 2:
800 g to 1.6 kg
1.6 kg = 1600 g

800 : 1600 = =

Engine/Propeller Ratio
The use of ratios is common in aviation.
For example, if an engine turns at 4000 revolutions per minute or rpm in short, and the propeller
turns at 2400 rpm, the ratio of the two speeds is 4000 to 2400, or 5 to 3, when reduced to lowest
terms. This relationship can also be expressed as 5/3 or 5 : 3.
Compression Ratio
One ratio you must be familiar with is compression ratio, which is the ratio of cylinder
displacement when the piston is at bottom center to the cylinder displacement when the piston is
at top center.
For example, if the volume of a cylinder with the piston at bottom center is 400 cubic centimeters
and the volume with the piston at top center is 50 cubic centimeters, the compression ratio is 400
: 50 or 8 : 1 when simplified.
Gear Ratio

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Another typical ratio is that of different gear sizes.

For example, the gear ratio of a drive gear with 15 teeth to a driven gear with 45 teeth is 15 : 45
or 1 : 3 when reduced.
This means that for every one tooth on the drive gear there are three teeth on.
However, when working with gears, the ratio of teeth is opposite the ratio of revolutions. In other
words, since the drive gear has one third as many teeth as the driven gear, the drive gear must
complete three revolutions to turn the driven gear one revolution. This results in a revolution ratio
of 3 : 1, which is opposite the ratio of teeth.

i= =

PROPORTION
General
A proportion is a statement of equality between two or more ratios and represents a convenient
way to solve problems involving ratios.
For example, if an engine has a reduction gear ratio between the crankshaft and the propeller of
3 : 2 and the engine is turning with n1 = 2700 rpm, what is the speed n2 of the propeller?
In this problem, let n2 represent the unknown value, which in this case is the speed of the
propeller. Next set up a proportional statement using the fractional form = .

To solve this equation, cross multiply to arrive at the equation

3 × n2 = 2 × 2700 = 5400
To solve for n2, divide 5400 by 3. The speed of the propeller is 1800 rpm.

3 n2 = 2700 rpm x 2 = 5400 rpm

n2 = 1800 rpm
This same proportion may also be expressed as 3 : 2 = 2700 : n2.
The first and last terms of the proportion are called extremes, and the second and third terms are
called the means. In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to the product of the
means.
In this example, multiply the extremes to get 3 × n2, and multiply the means to get 2 x 2700 or
5400. This results in the identical derived earlier;

3 × n2 = 5400.
3 : 2 = engine speed : propeller speed
3 : 2 = 2700 : n2
3 · n2 = 2 · 2700
3 · n2 = 5400
n2 = 1800 rpm.
Direct Proportion
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If 5 liters of oil has a mass of 4 kg, then 10 liters of the same oil will have a mass of 8 kg. That is,
if we double the quantity of oil its mass is also doubled.
This is an example of direct proportion. As the quantity of oil increases the mass increases in the
same proportion.
Electrical Resistance
The electrical resistance of a wire 150 mm long is 2 ohms (Ω). Find the resistance of a similar
wire which is 1 m long.
The lengths of the two wires are increased in the ratio of 1000 : 150. The resistance will also
increase in the ratio 1000 : 150.

Thus resistance of a wire with 1m length = 2 Ω x = 13.3 Ω

Inverse Proportion
A motor car will travel 30 km in 1 hour if its speed is 30 km per hour.
If its speed is increased to 60 km per hour the time taken to travel 30 km will be 1/2 hour. That is
when the speed is doubled the time taken is halved. This is an example of inverse proportion.
When we multiply the speed by 2 we divide the time taken by 2.
Pulleys
Two pulleys of 150 mm and 50 mm diameter are connected by a belt. If the larger pulley revolves
at 80 rpm find the speed of the smaller pulley!
The smaller pulley must revolve faster than the larger pulley and hence the quantities, speed and
diameter, are in inverse proportion. The pulley diameters are decreased in the 50 : 150, or 1 : 3.
The speed will be increased in the ratio of 3 : 1.
Therefore the speed of smaller pulley = 80 × = 240 rpm.

PERCENTAGES
General
The wording comes from the Latin expression “per centum“. That means “per hundred“.
“Cent“ is also the French word for “hundred“.
Concerning money, hundred cents make one Euro.
In the USA hundred cents make one dollar.
Mathematics
In mathematics this term expresses “how much of the whole thing“. The “whole thing“ may be
divided in one hundred parts of equal size. If you take three of these parts, you have three
percent.

Symbol
The sign for “percent” is % . Three percent is written
3%.
Calculation
The percentage of an amount can be calculated by the use of multiplication and division.
The percentage is calculated by multiplying the actual value by 100 and then dividing the result
by the maximum value.

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Example:
The fuel tank of a car has a capacity of 60 liters.
The actual value is 24 liters.
The actual value is how many percent of the maximum value?
Calculation:
The calculation is 24 liters multiplied by 100. The result is divided by 60 liters.

The result is 40%.

AVERAGES
General
An average is also called arithmetic mean and is the mean value that is defined by the sum of all
values divid
Calculation
The average of an amount can be calculated by the use of addition and division.
The average is calculated by adding the values and then dividing the result by the number of
values.

Example:
In a small village, let us call it Small-town, there are ten families. You want to know the average
monthly income before tax and other dues.
Family Smith, family Miller and family Jones have 2500 Euros each.
Family Johnson, family Carter and family Adams have 3500 Euros.
Family Jackson and family Jefferson have 4000 Euros.
Family Washington lives from social welfare and has 1000 Euros.
Family Madison is very healthy and has an income of 20000 Euros.

village Ø = 4700 Euros.

The calculation is adding all monthly incomes. This will be 47000 Euros in the complete village.
Divided by the number of families which is ten, the average income in Small-town is 4700 Euros.
POWER AND ROOTS
Base and Exponent
When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be raised to a given power. For example, 6 x 6
= 36; therefore, 62 = 36.
The number of times a base number is multiplied by itself is expressed as an exponent. It is
written to right slightly above the base number. The quantity 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 may be written as 2 4.

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Now 24 is called the fourth power of the base 2. The number 4, which gives the number of 2s to
be multiplied together is the exponent.
Similarly a × a × a = a3
Here a3 is the third power of the base a, and the index is 3.
Thus in the expression xn
xn is called the nth power of x
x is called the base, and
n is called the exponent.
Remember that, in algebra, letters such as a in the above expression merely represent numbers.
Index
A different name for the exponent is “index“.
Exponent Zero
Any number, except zero, that is raised to the zero power equals 1.
Example: 140 = 1
Positive Exponent
A positive exponent indicates how many times a number is multiplied by itself.
When the exponent does not have a sign (+ or −) preceding it, the exponent is assumed to be
positive.

Squaring
32 is read 3 squared or 3 to the second power.
Its value is found by multiplying 3 by itself 2 times.
3x3=9
Cubing
23 is read 2 cubed or 2 to the third power.
Its value is found by multiplying 2 by itself 3 times.
2x2x2=8
Negative Exponent
A negative exponent implies the division of 1 by the value which is given by a base number with
its exponent.
It indicates the inverse, or reciprocal of the number with its exponent made positive.
Example:
2−3 is read 2 to the negative third power.
The inverse, or reciprocal of 2−3 with its exponent made positive is

Reciprocals
Hence the laws of arithmetic apply strictly to algebraic terms as well as numbers. The
expression is called the reciprocal of 2.

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Similarly the expression is called the reciprocal of p likewise the expression is called the
reciprocal of xn
ROOTS
General
The root of a number is that value which, when multiplied by itself a certain number of times,
produces that number.
For example, 4 is a root of 16 because when multiplied by itself, the product is 16.
However, 4 is also a root of 64 because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64.
Symbol
The symbol used to indicate a root is the radical sign (√ ) placed over the number.
Square Root
If only the radical sign appears over a number, it indicates you are to extract the square root of
the number under the sign.
For example the square root is expressed as √ .
Index Number
Is the root of a number other than a square root, an index number is placed outside the radical
sign.
For example the cube root is expressed as √ .
AREAS
General
The area of a plane figure is measured by seeing how many square units it contains.
1 square meter is the area contained in a square having a side of 1 meter; 1 square centimeter is
the area contained in a square having a side of 1 centimeter, etc.
The standard abbreviations are:
1 square meter 1 m2
1 square centimeter 1 cm2
1 square millimeter 1 mm2
1 square inch 1 in2
1 square foot 1 ft2
1 square yard 1 yd2
The following provides the formulae for areas and perimeters of simple geometrical shapes.

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Figure 3: Rectangle
Area = l × b
Perimeter = 2 l+2 b

Figure 4: Parallelogram
Area = b × h
Perimeter = Sum of all 4 sides.

Figure 5: Triangle
Area = √ , where s =

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VOLUMES
General
The volume of a solid figure is found by seeing how many cubic units it contains. 1 cubic meter is
the volume contained inside a cube having an edge 1 meter long; 1 cubic centimeter is the
volume contained inside a cube having an edge 1 centimeter long, etc.
The standard abbreviations for units of volume are as follows:
1 cubic meter 1 m3
1 cubic centimeter 1 cm3
1 cubic millimeter 1 mm3
1 cubic inch 1 in3
1 cubic foot 1 ft3
1 cubic yard 1 yd3
The following figures give the formulae for the volumes and surface areas of solid figures.
For any solid having a uniform cross−section there are formulae to calculate volume and surface
area.
Volume
Volume = Cross − sectional area x Length of solid
Surface Area
Surface Area = Lateral Surface + Ends i.e.
(perimeter of cross − section × Length of Solid) + (Total area of ends)
Cuboid

Figure 6: Cuboid
Volume = l × b × h
Surface Area = 2 (l × b + bl × h + b × h)
Cylinder

Figure 7: Cylinder
Volume = r2 × h
Surface Area = 2 r(h + r)

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Sub-Module 02 – Algebra
ALGEBRA IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE
In this sub-module, the basic concepts of algebra are introduced. Evaluation of simple algebraic
expressions by correct manipulation of algebraic fractions is covered here.
Algebraic equation are also explored. Methods of finding solutions to linear equations are given.
An introduction to simultaneous equations and second degree equations is included. Indices and
powers using algebraic terms are reviewed and logarithms are presented as a natural application
when working with number indices.
The binary number system is studied in relation to the decimal number system and the
application of the binary number in modern electronics is introduced.
Sub-Module 02 – Algebra:
1. Evaluating simple algebraic expressions, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,
use of brackets simple algebraic fractions.
2. Linear equations and their solutions, indices’ and powers, negative and fractional indices’;
binary and other applicable numbering systems; simultaneous equations and second
degree equations with unknown; logarithms.
LEVEL 1: A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
(a)The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
(b) The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using
common words and examples.
(c) The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2: A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject and
an ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
(a) The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
(b) The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as
appropriate, typical examples.
(c) The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical
laws describing the subject.
(d) The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
(e) The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

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INTRODUCTION
The methods of algebra are an extension of those used in arithmetic. In algebra we use letters
and symbols as well as numbers to represent quantities.
When we write that a sum of money is £ 50 we are making a particular statement but if we write
a sum of money is £ P we are making a general statement. This general statement will cover
any number we care to substitute for P.
USE OF SYMBOLS
A technician often has to indicate that certain quantities or measurements have to be added,
subtracted, multiplied or divided. Frequently this has to be done without using actual numbers.
The statement:
Area of a rectangle = length x breadth
is a perfectly general statement which applies to all rectangles. If we use symbols we obtain a
much shorter statement.
if A = the area of the rectangle
l = the length of the rectangle
and b = the breadth of the rectangle
then the statement becomes:
A=lxb
Knowing what the symbols A, l and b stand for, this statement conveys as much information as
the first statement. To find the area of a particular rectangle we replace the symbols l and b by
the actual dimensions of the rectangle, first making sure that l and b have the same units. To find
the area of a rectangle whose length is 50 mm and whose breadth is 30 mm we put l = 50 mm
and b = 30 mm.
A = l x b = 50 x 30 = 1500 mm2
Many verbal statements can be translated into symbols as the following statements show:
The difference of two numbers = x − y
Two numbers multiplied together = a x b
One number divided by another = p ÷ q
ADDITION & SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC TERMS
Like terms are numerical multiples of the same algebraic quantity.
7x, 5x and −3x
are three like terms.
An expression consisting of like terms can be reduced to a single term by adding or subtracting
the numerical coefficients.
7x − 5x + 3x = (7 − 5 + 3) x = 5x
3b2 + 7b2 = (3 + 7)b2 = 10b2
−3y − 5y = (−3 −5) y = − 8y
q − 3q = (1 − 3) q = − 2q
Only like terms can be added or subtracted. Thus 7a + 3b − 2c is an expression containing three
unlike terms and it cannot be simplified any further.
Similarly with 8a2b + 7ab3 − 6a2b2 which are all unlike terms. It is possible to have several sets of
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like terms in an expression and each set can then be simplified.

8x + 3y − 4z − 5x + 7z − 2y + 2z
= (8 − 5)x + (3 − 2)y + (−4 +7 + 2)z
= 3x + y + 5z
MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION SIGNS
When using letters multiplication signs are nearly always omitted and l x b becomes lb.
Of course the same scheme cannot apply to numbers and we cannot write 9 x 6 as 96.
The multiplication sign can, however, be omitted when a symbol and a number are to be
multiplied together. Thus 5 x m is written 5 m.
The system may be extended to three or more quantities and hence P x L x A x N is written
PLAN. The symbols need not be written in any special order because the order in which numbers
are multiplied together is unimportant. Thus PLAN is the same as LANP or NAPL.
It is usual, however, to write numbers before letters and to arrange letters in alphabetical order,
that is, it is better to write 8xy than xy8 or x8y. In algebraic expressions the number in front of the
symbols is called the coefficient. Thus in the expression 8x the coefficient of x is 8.
Division Sign
The division sign ÷ (often :) is seldom used in algebra and it is more convenient to write p ÷ q in
the fractional form .

Example:
= lp ÷

MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC QUANTITIES

The rules are exactly the same as those used with directed numbers.
(+ x)(+ y) = + (xy) = + xy = xy
5x × 4y = 5 ×4 × x × y = 20xy
(x)(- y) = - (xy) = - xy
(2x)(- 4y) = - (2x)(4y) = - 8xy
(- 6x)(2y) = - (6x)(2y) = - 12xy
(- 3x)(- 4y) = + (3x)(4y) = 12xy

BRACKETS
Brackets are used for convenience in grouping terms together. When removing brackets each
term within the bracket is multiplied by the quantity outside the bracket:
3(x+y) = 3x+3y
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5(2x+3y) = 5 × 2x+5 × 3y = 10x+15y

4(a - 2b) = 4 × a - 4 × 2b = 4a - 8b
m(a+b) = ma+mb
3x(2p+3q) = 3x × 2p+3x × 3q = 6px+9qx
4a(2a+b) = 4a × 2a+4a × b = 8a2+4ab
Simplifying
When simplifying expressions containing brackets first remove the brackets and then add the like
terms together.
(3x+7y) - (4x+3y) = 3x+7y - 4x - 3y = - x+4y
3(2x+3y) - (x+5y) = 6x+9y - x - 5y = 5x+4y
x(a+b) - x(a+3b) = ax+bx - ax - 3bx = - 2bx
2(5a+3b)+3(a - 2b) = 10a+6b+3a - 6b = 13a
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Since algebraic expressions contain symbols (or letters) which represent numbers all the rule of
operations with numbers also apply to algebraic terms, including fractions.
Thus:

and

and

You should note in the last example how we put brackets round x + y and
x - y to remind us that they must be treated as single expressions, otherwise we may have been
tempted to handle the terms x and y on their own.

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Sub-Module 03 - Geometry
GEOMETRY IN AVIATION MAINTENANCE
In this sub-module, characteristics of geometric constructions such as rectangles, circles,
triangles and other basic geometric shapes are studied. Calculation of the areas of two-
dimensional shapes and the volumes of the three-dimensional objects are explained. Area and
volumes are required subjects listed under arithmetic (Sub-module 01). They are covered here
because they are geometry subjects. See sub-module 01 for the knowledge level required for th
category license sought.

Aircraft maintenance data is often presented on a graph. Explanation and examples of how
graphs are constructed, used and how to interpret the vital information conveyed by graphs are
given in this sub-module. Since the use of geometry and calculations are important when
fabricating parts for structural repair, simple trigonometry and trigonometric relationships are also
explored. Trigonometric functions are also important in acoustics, electricity and electronics. The
use of tables and rectangular and polar coordinates are explained as required.

Sub-Module 03 – Geometry:

 Simple geometrical constructions

 Graphical representation; nature and uses of graphs, graphs of equations/functions
 Simple trigonometry; trigonometrically relationships, use of tabs and rectangular and polar
coordinates
LEVEL 1: A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
(a) The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
(b) The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using
common words and examples.
(c) The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2: A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject and
an ability to apply that knowledge.
(a) The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
(b) The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as
appropriate, typical examples.
(c) The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical
laws describing the subject.
(d) The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
(e) The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.
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GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
TRIANGLES
Pythagoras Theorem
“In a right angled triangle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
areas of the squares on the other two sides”.

Figure 8: Pythagoras Theorem

For the triangle shown:
c2 = a2 + b2
a2 = c2 − b2
b2 = c2 − a2
Pythagoras Theorem is particularly useful to you when dealing with vectors in aircraft theory
Example:
A right angled triangle has smaller sides of length 5 cm and 12 cm. What is the length of the
hypotenuse?

5 cm

12 cm
B
C
Figure 9: Pythagoras Example 1
C = 144 + 25
= 169
=√
= 13 cm
Pythagoras Theorem Application
Pythagoras Theorem can be used to find the height of equilateral and isosceles triangles (an
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equilateral triangle has all its sides of equal length and an isosceles triangle has 2 sides of equal
length).
Example
Find the height of an isosceles triangle which has sides of length 13 cm and base of length 10
cm.
h2 = 132 – 52
= 169 – 25
h2 = 144
h = 12 cm

Figure 10: Pythagoras Example 2

NOTE: The height is always drawn at right angles to the base and goes to the opposite apex.
We can draw the height from any side providing it meets the above requirement, i.e it
cuts the chosen base at right angles and goes from the base to the opposite apex.

As an example, we could tip the triangle onto its side and take a new height for it.

Figure 11: Pythagoras Example 3

NOTE: Now that the base is 13 cm long, whereas before 10 cm long. The height will also be a
different length, so there is not one height for one triangle, it all depends on which side
you use as your base.

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COORDINATES & GRAPHS

Coordinates
An equation involving two variables can be represented by a graph drawn on “coordinate axes”.
Coordinate axes (see below) consist of a horizontal line (referred to as the x axis) and a vertical
line (referred to as the y axis). The point of intersection of these two lines is called the origin
(denoted by the letter “O”).

Figure 12: Coordinate Axes

Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the same on both
axes). The origin takes the value zero on both axes. The x axis takes positive values to the right
of the origin and negative values to the left of the origin. The y axis takes positive values above
the origin and negative values below the origin.
Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two numbers). The first,
the x coordinate, is defined as the horizontal distance of the point from the y axis, the second, the
y coordinate, is defined as the vertical distance of the point from the x axis.
In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the form (a, b).
Example:
The point (3, 2) may be plotted on the coordinate axes as follows:

Figure 13: Coordinate Point

Graphs
An equation involving two variables can be represented, on coordinate axes, by means of a
graph.
For a given range of values of x, the corresponding y values can be calculated from the equation
being considered. The points obtained can then be plotted and joined together to form the graph.
Axes
Before plotting the points on a graph, the axes must be drawn in a way that takes into account
the range of the x−values and the range of the y−values.

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Scale
If graph is used (which is desirable) you should use a scale that involves a sensible number of
units per square i.e you should use steps of, for example, 1, 2, 5 or 10 etc. units per square
depending on the question.
You should avoid using steps along the axes of, for example 7 or 9 units per square as this can
complicate the graph unnecessarily.
Example:
Draw the graph of y = 2x + 1 between x = 0 and x = 5
By taking the x values 0, 1, 2,...5, we can calculate the corresponding y values, as shown below,
by first evaluating the component parts of the equation.

x: 0 1 2 3 4 5

2x: 0 2 4 6 8 10

+1 1 1 1 1 1 1

y: 1 3 5 7 9 11

We then plot the points obtained, each point being defined by its x coordinate and its
corresponding y coordinate. The points are then joined together to the graph.

Figure 14: Graph Example

Equations of the First Degree
Equations of the type y = 2x + 1, where the highest powers of the variables, x and y, are the first
are called equations of the first degree. All equations of this type give graphs which are straight
lines and hence they are often called linear equations.
In order to draw graphs of linear equations we need only two points, however three points are
advisable.

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The Straight Line Graph

A straight line is an infinite line. In a plane, its way is defined by two points. The equation of a
straight line is given by:
y = mx + c
Where m represents the slope of the line and c is the point where the line crosses the y axis (the
y intercept). The point where the line crosses the x axis is called the x intercept.
m = gradient of the line
c = intercept on the y axis
Example 1:

Figure 15: Graph Example (y = 2x)

In this example m = 2 and c = 0
Note: That whenever c = 0 the line will pass through the origin.
Example 2:

Figure 16: Graph Example (y = 6 – 3x)

In this example m = −3 and c = 6.
As c = 6, we know that this line cuts the y axis at y = 6 (this can be verified by substituting x = 0
into the equation of the line, as x = 0 along the y axis)
Similarly, as y = 0 along the x axis, we can substitute y = 0 into the equation of the line to find
where the intersections with the axis (the intercept).
We have, when
y=0
6 − 3x = 0
3x = 6
x=2
Hence the line cuts the x axis at x = 2. We can now say that the y intercept = 6 and the x
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intercept = 2.
Example 3:

Figure 17: Graph Example (y = −2 + 4x)

In this example, m = 4 and c = −2.
We know immediately that the y-intercept is −2 (the value of c). To find the x intercept, we
substitute y = 0 into the equation of the line.
0 = −2 + 4x
4x = 2
x = 0.5
Hence the x intercept is x = 0.5.

A straight line parallel to the x axis takes the form y = constant. Similarly, a straight line parallel
to the y axis takes the form x = constant. These cases are illustrated below:

Figure 18: Constant Straight Lines

Derivation of the Equation of a Straight Line Graph
Given the coordinates of two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) say, we can calculate the equation of the
straight line that passes through these points.

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Figure 19: Straight Line Graph Equation Derivation

There are two methods of calculating this equation.
Example:
The question is:
Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (1, 4) and 3, 10).
Method 1
The general equation of a straight line is given by y = mx + c and it is necessary to find numerical
values for m and c.
If the straight line in question passes through the two given points, then each of these points must
satisfy the equation of this straight line. That is, we can substitute the coordinates of each point
as follows:
y = mx + c
4=m+c (1)
Likewise, substituting (3, 10) we have
10 = 3m + c (2)
Now (1) and (2) give us equations in two unknowns, m and c, (simultaneous equations) which we
can solve.
We have
4=m+c (1)
10 = 3m + c (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2) to eliminate c we obtain 6 = 2m
m=3
Substituting this value of m back into (1) we obtain 4 = m + c
4=3+c
c=4−3
c=1
If we now substitute these numerical values of m and c into the equation y = mx + c, we
obtain the equation of the straight line passing through the points (1, 4) and (3, 10).
That is:
y = 3x + 1
Method 2
In general, we can consider any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). The straight line passing through
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these points can be written as:

y - y1 = m × (x - x1)
where: , (m is the gradient of the line)

Applying this to points (1, 4) and (3, 10) we have:

x1 = 1, y1 = 4
x2 = 3, y2 = 10
and we hence obtain:

and our line becomes:

y − 4 = 3(x − 1)
y − 4 = 3x − 3
y = 3x + 1
USE OF GRAPHS
Nature of Graphs
Graphs normally show two values. Starting in the lower left corner, the x axis shows one value
and the y axis shows other value.
The points of interest are shown in a line or a curve. So for each value on the x axis which is on
the curve there is one value of the y axis.
Use of Graphs
When there is a function, for example from a formula, the related curve is shown in a graph.
If somebody has the value for the x axis and needs the value for the y axis, he just reads the
graph and reads the y value. No calculation is needed.
Example:
For the servicing of an accumulator with dry nitrogen, limits must be obeyed.
Too low pressure will make the accumulator unserviceable, too high pressure will damage it.
The limits are shown in a graph.
The graph on the right side is taken from the Aircraft Maintenance Manual of a Boeing 757.
The x-axis shows the environmental temperature in degrees Celsius. For each temperature, there
are 2 limits. A lower limit and a higher limit.
The pressure is given in PSI.

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Figure 20: Servicing Placard

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