Prestige, Status, Esteem, and The Teacher Shortage

PRESTIGE, STATUS, AND ESTEEM AND THE TEACHER SHORTAGE
by
Scott Gene Klimek
Bachelor of Science, Valley City State University, 1995

Master of Science, Northern Arizona University, 2000
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of the
University of North Dakota
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy
Grand Forks, North Dakota
May, 2019
Copyright 2019 Scott Gene Klimek
ii
PERMISSION
Title Prestige, Status, and Esteem and the Teacher Shortage
Department Educational Leadership
Degree Doctor of Philosophy
In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a

graduate degree from the University of North Dakota, I agree that the library of this
University shall make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for
extensive copying for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor who supervised
my dissertation work or, in her absence, by the Chairperson of the department or the dean
of the School of Graduate Studies. It is understood that any copying or publication or
other use of this dissertation or part thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without
my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and
to the University of North Dakota in any scholarly use which may be made of any
material in my dissertation.
Scott Gene Klimek

May 4, 2019
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ xvii
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................... xx
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
In the Spotlight .................................................................................... 2
The Scope of the Problem.................................................................... 3
A Persistent Problem ........................................................................... 6
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................ 8
Prestige ......................................................................................... 9
Status .......................................................................................... 11
Esteem ........................................................................................ 13
Semantic Status .......................................................................... 15
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................... 15
Research Questions ............................................................................ 16
v
Assumptions ...................................................................................... 16
Importance of the Study..................................................................... 16
Definition of Terms and Acronyms ................................................... 21
Chapter Outlines ................................................................................ 32
II. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 33
Feeling the Impact of the Teacher Shortage ...................................... 33
Specialized Teaching Fields .............................................................. 34
The Challenges in Urban Schools...................................................... 36
The Challenges in Rural Schools ....................................................... 37
Early Attrition and Teacher Recruitment Efforts .............................. 38
New Teacher Induction Programs ..................................................... 40
Teacher Recruitment Bonuses ........................................................... 41
Alternative Teacher Certification ...................................................... 42
Resident Teacher Programs ............................................................... 44
The Ever Growing Teacher Workforce ............................................. 46
Falling Preservice Teacher Enrollments ............................................ 47
The Labor Market .............................................................................. 52
Teacher Compensation ............................................................... 52
Career Advancements ................................................................. 55
vi
More Opportunities for Women ................................................. 55
Academic Aptitudes ................................................................... 56
Socio-Familial Factors ....................................................................... 59
The Issue of Teacher Status ............................................................... 60
Lessons from Around the World ....................................................... 61
Finland ........................................................................................ 61
Singapore .................................................................................... 63
South Korea ................................................................................ 65
Canada ........................................................................................ 66
Taiwan ........................................................................................ 67
Economic Implications ...................................................................... 69
Summary of Chapter II ...................................................................... 72
III. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 73
Population .......................................................................................... 73
Population Locations ......................................................................... 73
Urban Public School Districts .................................................... 74
Public and Private School Systems Located in Urban Clusters . 75
Rural School Districts................................................................. 77
University Settings ..................................................................... 80
vii
The Survey Instrument ...................................................................... 83
Data Collection Procedures ............................................................... 86
Consent .............................................................................................. 88
Data Analysis ..................................................................................... 88
Chapter III Summary ......................................................................... 89
IV. RESULTS ................................................................................................... 91
Prestige Scale ..................................................................................... 93
Status Scale ........................................................................................ 95
Esteem Scale ...................................................................................... 96
Policy Intervention: Prestige and Status Scales ................................ 98
Demographic Variables ................................................................... 101
Descriptive Statistics ....................................................................... 103
Research Question 1 ........................................................................ 104
High School Senior and College Undergraduate Teaching
Considerations .......................................................................... 104
High School Seniors Considering Other Careers ..................... 106
High School Senior and College Undergraduate Aspiring
Teachers .................................................................................... 107
viii
The Demographic Effect .......................................................... 110
Female High School Seniors and College Undergraduates ...... 110
Female High School Senior and College Undergraduate Aspiring
Teachers .................................................................................... 112
Hometown Classification and Teaching Considerations .......... 114
Rural High School Seniors and College Undergraduates......... 114
Rural Female High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
.................................................................................................. 116
Rural Female Aspiring Teachers .............................................. 117
Urban High School Seniors and College Undergraduates ....... 118
Female Urban High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
.................................................................................................. 120
Household Annual Income and Teaching Considerations ....... 122
Household Annual Income: $50,000 to 100,000 ..................... 122
Household Annual Income: $100,000 to 150,000 ................... 124
Household Annual Income: 150,000 or Greater...................... 126
Rural Areas and Household Annual Income: $150,000 or Greater
.................................................................................................. 127
Academic Aptitudes and Teaching Considerations .................. 129

ix
ACT Scores: 29 or Greater ...................................................... 130
ACT Scores: 25 to 28 .............................................................. 131
ACT Scores: 21 to 24 ............................................................... 132
ACT Scores: 18 to 20 ............................................................... 134
The Impact of International Education Policies ....................... 136
High School Seniors Considering Other Careers ..................... 139
College Undergraduates Considering Other Careers ............... 142
High School Senior and College Undergraduate Aspiring
Teachers .................................................................................... 144
Male and Female Post-Policy Teaching Considerations .......... 147
Female College Undergraduates Considering Other Careers ... 147
Rural High School Seniors and College Undergraduates......... 149
Female Rural High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
.................................................................................................. 151
Urban High School Seniors and College Undergraduates ....... 153
Female Urban/Urban Cluster College Undergraduates
Considering Other Careers ....................................................... 155
Household Annual Income: $50,000 or $100,000................... 157
Household Annual Income: $150,000 or Greater................... 159

x
ACT Score: 25 to 28 ................................................................. 161
ACT Score: 20 or Less ............................................................ 162
Summary of Chapter IV................................................................... 165
Low Correlation Coefficients ................................................... 169
Low R-Squared Values............................................................. 169
V. DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 171
Semantic Status ................................................................................ 171
The Erosion of Esteem..................................................................... 175
Implications of International Policy ................................................ 180
Implications for Practice .................................................................. 183
Recommendations for State Agencies ............................................. 189
Recommendations for School Districts ........................................... 191
Recommendations for Further Research ......................................... 192
Concluding Remarks ....................................................................... 192
Limitations ....................................................................................... 193
APPENDICES .................................................................................................... 194
The Survey Instrument ............................................... 195
Survey Instrument Codebook ...................................... 206
Email Permission Letter to Superintendents ............... 213
xi
School District Permission to Conduct Research ....... 214
Email Letter to School Counselors and Principals ...... 215
On-line Survey: High School Senior Recruitment Email
......................................................................................................... 216
Email Letter to University Department Chairs ........... 217
On-line Survey: Undergraduate Recruitment Email .. 218
Tables............................................................................ 219
Figures .......................................................................... 269
REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 276
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Figure 1. Status variable’s normal distribution. ............................................................ 269

Figure 2. Hometown variable’s normal distribution. .................................................... 270
Figure 3. How much consider teaching variable’s normal distribution. ....................... 270
Figure 4. Parents’ income variable’s normal distribution. ............................................ 271
Figure 5. The effects of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem. .................................. 272
Figure 6. The effects of policy designed to improve the perceptions of teaching......... 273
Figure 7. Conceptual framework that was developed from the results of the study. .... 274
Figure 8. To what degree have you considered leaving (Klimek, 2018)? ..................... 275
Figure 9. To What Degree Would You Encourage Others to Enter Teaching (Klimek,
2018)? ............................................................................................................................. 275
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
Table I.1 University Enrollment Trends in Teacher Education Programs...................... 219
Table I.2 Prestige Scales ................................................................................................. 220
Table I.3 Variable Summary Table ................................................................................. 221
Table I.4 Status Scale ...................................................................................................... 222
Table I.5 Esteem Scale .................................................................................................... 223
Table I.6 Policy Intervention Prestige Scale ................................................................... 223
Table I.7 Policy Intervention Status Scale ...................................................................... 224
Table I.8 Policy Intervention Esteem Scale .................................................................... 224
Table I.9 Demographics .................................................................................................. 225
Table I.10 ANOVA: Senior and Undergraduate Teaching Considerations .................... 226
Table I.11 ANOVA Descriptive Statistics ...................................................................... 226
Table I.12 Bonferroni Post-Hoc Analysis ....................................................................... 227
Table I.13 Bivariate Correlation: Seniors and Undergraduates ...................................... 228
Table I.14 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Seniors and Undergraduates ......................... 228
Table I.15 Bivariate Correlation: Seniors Considering Other Careers ........................... 229
Table I.16 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Seniors Considering Other Careers .............. 230
Table I.17 Bivariate Correlation: Aspiring Teachers ...................................................... 231
Table I.18 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Aspiring Teachers ........................................ 231
Table I.19 Independent t-test Results.............................................................................. 232
Table I.20 Bivariate Correlation: Female Seniors and Undergraduates ......................... 233
Table I.21 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Seniors and Undergraduates ............ 233
Table I.22 Bivariate Correlation: Female Aspiring Teachers ......................................... 234
Table I.23 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Aspiring Teachers ............................ 234
Table I.24 ANOVA: Hometown Teaching Considerations ............................................ 235
Table I.26 ANOVA: Bonferroni Post-Hoc Analysis ...................................................... 235
Table I.27 Bivariate Correlation: Rural Seniors and Undergraduates ............................ 236
Table I.28 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Seniors and Undergraduates ............... 236
Table I.29 Bivariate Correlation: Rural Female Seniors and Undergraduates ............... 237
Table I.30 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Female Seniors and Undergraduates .. 237
Table I.31 Bivariate Correlation: Rural Female Aspiring Teachers ............................... 238
Table I.32 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Female Aspiring Teachers .................. 238
Table I.33 Bivariate Correlation: Urban Seniors and Undergraduates ........................... 239
Table I.34 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Urban Seniors and Undergraduates .............. 239
Table I.35 Bivariate Correlation: Female Urban Seniors and Undergraduates .............. 240
Table I.36 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Urban Seniors and Undergraduates . 240
Table I.37 ANOVA: Household Income and Teaching Considerations......................... 241
xiv
Table I.40 Bivariate Correlation: Household Income ($50,000 to $100,000) ................ 242
Table I.41 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Household Income ($50,000 to $100,000) ... 242
Table I.42 Bivariate Correlation: Household Income ($100,000 to $150,000) .............. 243
Table I.43 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Household Income ($100,000 to $150,000) . 243
Table I.44 Bivariate Correlation: Household Income ($150,000 or Greater) ................. 244
Table I.45 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Household Income ($150,000 or Greater).... 244
Table I.46 Bivariate Correlation: Rural Household Income ($150,000 Plus) ................ 245
Table I.47 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Household Income ($150,000 Plus) ... 245
Table I.48 ANOVA: ACT Scores and Teaching Considerations ................................... 246
Table I.51 Bivariate Correlation: ACT Scores 29 or Greater ......................................... 248
Table I.52 Hierarchal Linear Regression: ACT Scores 29 or Greater ............................ 248
Table I.53 Bivariate Correlation: ACT Scores 25 to 28 ................................................. 249
Table I.54 Hierarchal Linear Regression: ACT Scores 25 to 28 .................................... 249
Table I.59 Bivariate Correlation: Seniors and Undergraduates ...................................... 252
Table I.60 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Seniors and Undergraduates ......................... 252
Table I.61 Bivariate Correlation: Seniors Considering Other Careers ........................... 253
Table I.62 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Seniors Considering Other Careers .............. 253
Table I.63 ANOVA: ACT Score Post-Policy Teaching Considerations ........................ 254
Table I.65 Bonferroni Post Hoc-Assessment .................................................................. 255
Table I.66 Bivariate Correlation: Undergraduates Considering Other Careers .............. 256
Table I.67 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Undergraduates Considering Other Careers . 256
Table I.68 Bivariate Correlation: Aspiring Teachers ...................................................... 257
Table I.69 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Aspiring Teachers ........................................ 257
Table I.70 Independent t-test results ............................................................................... 258
Table I.71 Bivariate Correlation: Female Undergraduates Considering Other Careers . 259
Table I.72 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Undergraduates Considering Other
Careers ............................................................................................................................ 259
Table I.73 Bivariate Correlation: Rural Seniors and Undergraduates ............................ 260
Table I.74 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Seniors and Undergraduates ............... 260
Table I.75 Bivariate Correlation: Female Rural Seniors and Undergraduates .............. 261
Table I.76 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Rural Seniors and Undergraduates .. 261
xv
Table I.77 Bivariate Correlation: Urban Seniors and Undergraduates ........................... 262
Table I.78 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Urban Seniors and Undergraduates .............. 262
Table I.79 Bivariate Correlation: Female Urban and Urban Cluster Undergraduates
Considering Other Careers .............................................................................................. 263
Table I.80 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Urban and Urban Cluster
Undergraduates Considering Other Careers ................................................................... 263
Table I.81 Independent t-test results ............................................................................... 264
Table I.82 Bivariate Correlation: Household Income ($50,000 to $100,000) ................ 265
Table I.83 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Household Income ($50,000 to $100,000) ... 265
Table I.84 Bivariate Correlation: Household Income ($150,000 or Greater) ................. 266
Table I.85 Hierarchal Linear Regression: Household Income ($150,000 or Greater).... 266
Table I.86 Bivariate Correlation: ACT Score 25 to 28 ................................................... 267
Table I.87 Hierarchal Linear Regression: ACT Score 25 to 28 ...................................... 267
Table I.88 Bivariate Correlation: ACT Score 20 or Less ............................................... 268
Table I.89 Hierarchal Linear Regression: ACT Score 20 or Less .................................. 268
xvi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the work of my advisor and committee chair Dr.
Sherryl Houdek. Her high expectations, professionalism, and determination challenged
me throughout the entire process. This persistence, complimented with patience,
understanding, and flexibility, were the qualities I needed in an advisor. She knew just
when to “step on the gas” and when to apply the “brakes.”
I would also like to recognize and thank Dr. Robert Stupnisky for serving on my
committee. I appreciate his service and support as a committee member, but more
importantly, his expertise in quantitative methods has been invaluable. I look to him as a
mentor because he has taught me much of what I know. Prior to this endeavor, I had not
considered statistics as an area of interest. Now, it is an area that I plan to study deeper.
I would like to thank Dr. Pauline Stonehouse for sparking my interest in my
dissertation topic. She introduced me to the works of Dr. Pasi Sahlberg and Dr. Andreas
Schleicher in one of her courses. The works inspired me to begin exploring the literature.
I would also like to thank Dr. Stonehouse for serving on my committee. Her service,
support, and expertise has been instrumental in the development of the literature review.
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Doug Munski’s service as my committee’s
member-at-large. I had not previously worked with Dr. Munski. Yet, I feel fortunate to
have had him assigned to my committee. His insight, support, and kindness has been
appreciated.
I would like to thank the many school counselors, building principals, school
district superintendents, and university department chairs for supporting my research. I
could not have been more pleased with the results of the data collection process. This
xvii
group of professionals promptly forwarded the survey-instrument to their respective
student populations. Surprisingly, many chose to encourage participation. For this, I am
deeply grateful.
Most importantly, I would like to express a sincere thank you to my wife and
children. I know that that the past three years have been difficult because this journey
has consumed much of my time. I want you to know that I have weathered this endeavor
because of my deep love for you all. I look forward to the fruits of my work to better our
lives in the near future.
Keely and Bryson, I want you to know that I have always set the bar high for
myself, and it is my hope that my work will inspire you to do the same. I want you to
know that nothing is free, nothing is guaranteed, and it takes hard work to accomplish the
goals that you set your sights on. It is my hope as you grow into adults, you will
remember your father’s love and determination to better your lives. I hope it will be an
inspiration for you to do your best for your own families.
Sarah, I know that these past three years have been trying. There are no words
that can express my appreciation for you. You have picked up my slack, and stepped up
in all fronts. I am so fortunate to have you in my life and love you dearly. I look forward
to our life post-dissertation.
xviii
This work is dedicated to my family.
ABSTRACT
Perceptions of prestige, status, and esteem of the teaching career were explored in
this study. The population consisted of 1,127 high school seniors and college
undergraduates. The study included 51 statements where participants rated their
perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem on an 8 point Likert scale. The data
was factor analyzed, and the results identified that the perceptions of teaching’s prestige
consisted of financial and image perceptions. A descriptive analysis found that high
school senior and college undergraduate perceptions of teaching’s financial component of
prestige (M = 9.99, SD = 2.90) and esteem (M = 10.42, SD = 3.05) were more negative in
comparison to status (M = 13.38, SD = 2.74).
A variety of quantitative techniques measured the effects that the perceptions of
teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem had on high school senior and college
undergraduate teaching considerations. The results indicated that the perceptions of
teaching’s status may encourage high school seniors and college undergraduates to
consider careers in teaching, but the perceptions of esteem may produce opposite effects.
The results demonstrated that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may discourage high
school seniors and college undergraduates scoring in the upper deciles of the ACT from
considering teaching. The results also found that the perceptions of esteem may
discourage urban female high school seniors and college undergraduates from the
xx
teaching career. The results indicated the perceptions of teaching’s esteem and its
interaction with the financial perceptions of teaching’s prestige may discourage aspiring
teachers from teaching. This result also raises questions as to the “roots” of the early
teacher attrition problem. In contrast, the results found that high school seniors and
college undergraduates may be more likely to consider teaching following the
establishment of international education policy designed to improve the perceptions of
teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem.
Keywords: prestige, status, esteem, teacher, shortage, attrition
xxi
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION
Those who elect to teach in the United States frequently resign themselves to a
career that is perceived to be less prestigious than other professions (Schleicher, 2012;
Fwu & Wang, 2002). Education as a field is given little recognition and is repeatedly
taken for granted (Struyven & Vanthournout, 2014; Weisberg, Sexton, Mulhern, &
Keeling, 2009). Culturally, the position of teacher in America is commonly associated
with feelings of limited status, prestige, and esteem (Pike, 2014; Schleicher, 2012;
Cooley, Bicard, Bicard, & Baylot, 2008; Cochran-Smith, 2005; Fwu & Wang, 2002;
Hoyle, 2001). The conditions are observable through the thousands of school districts
that make up the nation’s education systems (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011; Leithwood &
McAdie, 2007; Kukla-Acevedo, 2009; Hanushek & Rivkin, 2007). Low earnings for
teachers in comparison to other professions, long hours, and limited respect for teachers
are factors that have a negative impact on the perceptions of teaching in America (Martin
& Mulvihill, 2016; Hanushek, 2007; Guarino, Santibañez, & Daley, 2006; Murnane &
Steele, 2007; Fwu & Wang, 2002).
These factors have deterred many of the nation’s high achieving college graduates
from pursuing a career in education (Auguste, Kihn, & Miller, 2010; Podgursky, Monroe,
& Watson, 2004). Many students are unwilling to settle into a position that offers little
compensation and is not perceived to be of value (Berry & Shields, 2017; Schleicher,
1
2012; Murnane & Steele, 2007; Towse, Kent, Osaki, & Kirua, 2002). Some scholars
contend that America’s brightest graduates are drawn to a labor market that includes a
wide variety of professions that carry greater status, prestige, and esteem (Murnane &
Steele, 2007; Guarino et al., 2006; Corcoran, Evans, & Schwab, 2004). The consequence
of this phenomenon is an ever-growing shortage of teachers, which may be threatening
the vitality of the education systems in the United States (Darling-Hammond, Furger,
Shields, & Sutcher, 2016; Black, 2017; Kokka, 2016; Schleicher, 2012; Ronfeldt, Loeb,
Wyckoff, 2013; Murnane & Steele, 2007; Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2014; Guin,
2004; Fwu & Wang, 2002).
In the Spotlight
Consequences of teacher shortages have started to gain the attention of the media
(Sutcher, Darling-Hammond, & Carver-Thomas, 2016). Numerous broadcasts at the start
of the 2017–18 school year portrayed a problem that persistently interferes with the
responsibilities of states and schools to provide appropriate educational opportunities for
students, including:
• “Teacher Shortages Affecting Every State as 2017-18 School Year Begins”
(Straus, 2017);
• “Schools Throughout the Country are Grappling with the Teacher Shortage”
(Ostroff, 2017);
• “California Districts Deal with Teacher Shortage as School Year Begins”
(CBS, 2017).
2
Headlines announcing the impact of teacher shortages are not new, and have, in a
sense, become perennial (Partelow, 2016; Rich, 2015). For instance, nearly 300 news
reports highlighted the challenges the teacher shortage posed for many states at the
beginning of the 2015–16 school year (Sutcher et al., 2016). Attention on the teacher
shortage problem has generated commentary suggesting that this shortage was more
problematic than were prior shortages (Martin & Mulvihill, 2016; Carrasco, 2017;
Ostroff, 2017). Despite the attention, reports signaling public concern were not found in
the literature. Does this lack of public outcry signal society’s ignorance of the teacher
shortage issue or indifference to the problem of teacher shortages?
The Scope of the Problem
States differ in their teacher licensure requirements, local labor markets,
compensation levels, working environments, geographic conditions, and more
(Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000). These diverse conditions regularly lead states to
experience unique differences in the levels of the teacher shortage (Martin & Mulvihill,
2016). Many schools in areas that are most affected by the problem exhibit a greater
number of underqualified teachers, fewer course offerings, and larger class sizes (Sutcher
et al., 2016).
Moreover, in times of national teacher shortages, states that must import teachers
from other states experience greater hardships (Martin & Mulvihill, 2016). Likewise,
states that are unable to offer competitive salaries are prone to experience larger problems
in acquiring qualified teachers (Sutcher et al., 2016). Scholars note that certain teaching
fields, geographic areas, and states may continue to be subjected to limited supplies of
3
licensed teachers, even in times when shortages do not persist (Martin & Mulvihill,
2016).
The nation’s teacher shortages are causing hardships from coast to coast (Yaffe,
2016; Martin & Mulvihill, 2016; DeNisco, 2015). The extensive nature of the shortages
has interfered with the ability of many states, such as California, to adequately staff
schools. In 2015, 63% of California school districts were unable to acquire fully
credentialed teachers (Darling-Hammond et al., 2016). This shortfall resulted in a
reduction in licensure requirements, with nearly a third of the teachers entering California
classrooms with less than adequate credentials (Sutcher et al., 2016).
Arizona reported similar problems in 2015, with 62% of Arizona school districts
reporting unfilled teaching positions (Educator Recruitment & Retention Task Force,
2015). In response to this crisis, state leaders licensed 1,000 teachers as long-term
substitutes. Arizona has experienced this trend for some time. However, the problem has
moved into a critical stage (Sutcher et al., 2016). For example, 2013–14 data displayed a
nearly 30% increase in vacant teaching positions from the year prior. These
consequences have substantially reduced the number of experienced teachers in Arizona
schools (Tirozzi, Carbonaro, & Winters, 2014). Recent data demonstrate that one in four
Arizona teachers has one or two years of teaching experience (Sutcher et al., 2016).
Moreover, students enrolled in high-poverty and minority schools are 70% more likely to
receive instruction from an inexperienced teacher (Kini & Podolsky, 2016). Forecasts
indicate that there is no relief in sight given Arizona’s high teacher attrition rates and a
4
teacher workforce with a quarter of its membership retirement eligible at the end of the
2017–18 school year (Educator Recruitment & Retention Task Force, 2015).
Oklahoma schools have also struggled with teacher shortages. In 2015–16, the
state reported a record number of teacher shortages, with 1,000 teaching positions left
vacant (Aragon, 2016; Barth, Dillon, Hull, & Higgins, 2016). At the same time, the state
experienced a rapid rise in student enrollment, which compounded the effects of the
shortage. The problem compelled Oklahoma policymakers to issue a historic number of
emergency teaching licenses (Sutcher et al., 2016; Nix, 2015). This rapid response
resulted in a number of new hires. However, the vast majority of the new teachers were
unqualified, leaving 35,000 students to receive instruction from teachers with less than
adequate preparation (Sutcher et al., 2016).
Nevada school districts have experienced some of the greatest impacts of the
teacher shortage (Malatras, Gais, & Wagner, 2017). In 2015, the Clark County School
District reported it was unable to hire 3,000 teachers required to begin the school year
(Yaffe, 2016; Martin & Mulvihill, 2016). Despite attempts to meet the staffing needs, the
district remained nearly 700 teachers short at the end of the first semester (Dee &
Goldhaber, 2017). Nevada’s Board of Education president called the problem “horrific,”
warning that if conditions did not improve, “we’re going to all sink” (Yaffe, 2016, p. 11).
Darling-Hammond (2010a) illustrated the potential fall-out of teacher shortages by
warning “our future will be increasingly determined by our capacity and our will to
educate all children well—a challenge we have very little time to meet if the United
5
States is not to enact the modern equivalent of the fall of Rome” (Darling-Hammond,
2010a, p. 25).
California, Arizona, Oklahoma, and Nevada are not the only states reeling from
the effects of the teacher shortage (Sutcher et al., 2016). The U.S. Department of
Education reported teacher shortages in 48 states, including the District of Columbia
(Berry & Shields, 2017). This phenomenon has resulted in several states deploying a
teacher workforce that includes 50% of its membership holding less than adequate
credentials (Sutcher et al., 2016). Forecasts predict no relief because the number of new
teachers would have to double to reverse the teacher shortage trend (Martin & Mulvihill,
2016). Furthermore, there is no indication that a mass number of teachers will enter the
teacher pipeline soon, given that university teacher education programs are undergoing
sharp enrollment declines (Aragon, 2016; Sawchuk, 2015). This lack of interest in
teaching, coupled with a demand for 316,000 teachers by 2025, demonstrates that the
shortage will impact more of the nation’s schools unless substantial changes occur
(Sutcher et al., 2016).
A Persistent Problem
Numerous attempts to counteract teacher shortages have been employed, with
such interventions as induction programs, recruitment bonuses, alternative teacher
certification, and resident teacher programs (Ronfeldt & McQueen, 2017; Darling-
Hammond et al., 2016; Zhang & Zeller, 2016; Yuan, Vi-Nhuan, McCaffrey, Marsh,
Hamilton, Stecher, & Springer, 2013). While some remedies have been successful, the
problem is trending upward, with many states reporting greater challenges in acquiring
6
teachers each year (Gerckens, 2016; DeNisco, 2015; Darling-Hammond & Rothman,
2015). Despite efforts to offset the teacher shortage, a limited number of policies and
research in the literature have aimed at improving the status, prestige, and esteem of the
teaching career in the United States (Perda, 2013; Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011). Most
studies examining these constructs have originated from other parts of the world, where
teacher shortages have not been as problematic (Sahlberg, 2015; Simola, 2005, Hoyle,
2001; Fwu & Wang, 2002).
Researchers investigating occupational prestige, status, and esteem have found
correlations between a career’s status in society and the ability to attract talented
individuals (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011; Ingersoll & Perda, 2008; Fwu & Wang, 2002,
Hoyle, 2001; Treiman, 1977). Results from several studies have revealed that careers
with low status draw less talented individuals, which decreases the ability of the career to
attract quality people (Barber & Mourshed, 2007; Fwu & Wang, 2002; Towse, Kent,
Kent, Osaki, & Kirua, 2002). Conversely, careers that are perceived to be professions
attract talented people, which elevates the status of the profession. Examples of this
phenomenon are found in Singapore and South Korea, where society believes that
teaching is the single most important profession (Lim, 2014; Seongja, 2008). The
perception of teaching in these nations has led to a large number of highly talented
individuals pursuing careers in education (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Barber & Mourshed,
2007).
Indeed, many individual teachers are well respected in U.S. schools. However,
the career itself has generally been considered of a lower status than professions such as
7
engineering, law, and medicine (Pike, 2014; Bushaw & Lopez, 2011; Ingersoll & Merrill,
2011). For decades, educational leaders have been concerned about the career’s low
status and the impacts of this low status on the quality of individuals who decide to enter
the field (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Lankford, Loeb, McEachin, Miller, & Wyckoff,
2014). Yet, these concerns have not yielded attempts to address the subject, since student
achievement initiatives have superseded endeavors to advance the career’s status
(Auguste et al., 2010). Countless initiatives, such as Race to the Top, No Child Left
Behind, and Common Core, have all been deployed in efforts to raise student
achievement (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Pike, 2014). While each initiative
has produced some level of success, evidence indicates that most outcomes have been
inconsistent (DuFour & Mattos, 2013). Scholars contend that these inconsistencies are
the direct results of a teacher gap that requires intervention prior to staging further
initiatives to address student learning gaps (Ronfeldt et al., 2013; Akiba, LeTendre, &
Scribner, 2007; Breaux & Wong, 2003).
Theoretical Framework
The United Kingdom’s problems recruiting and retaining teachers prompted
scholars to thoroughly examine the issue (Dolton & von der Klaauw, 1995). As a result,
research emerged regarding teacher recruitment and retention. Through investigation,
Hoyle adopted terminology that acknowledged prestige, status, and esteem as separate
components of “status.” Hoyle attests that all three—prestige, status, and esteem—
directly influence individual decisions to remain in or exit the teaching career (Hoyle,
2001).
8
Prestige
Most people have perceptions of the different vocations that make up a nation’s
workforce. They have a general understanding of the skills, knowledge, and abilities
required to perform duties within various occupations. More importantly, people
consciously place differing careers on a hierarchical list according to prestige. Treiman
indicates that this conscious comparison of prestige has implications on a career’s ability
to attract and retain a qualified workforce (Treiman, 1977).
For decades, occupational prestige has been examined, with results indicating that
considerable differences exist in the social status of careers that form the U.S. labor
market (Pike, 2014; Goyder, 2005). Much of this research suggests that university
graduates are generally sensitive to social perceptions and are driven to pursue more
prestigious occupations. Findings also reveal that careers that support the common good
of society are frequently deemed unworthy and are regularly overlooked (Hoyle, 2001).
Frequently, these fields lack the tangible rewards that society uses to measure prestige
(Treiman, 1977). “Thus, these occupations like teaching are given an essentially negative
social standing” (Hoyle, 2001, p. 144).
The relationships between income and an occupation’s prestige sheds light on the
social ranking of teachers and, perhaps, the value society bestows upon the teaching
career (Zhan, 2015). The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) reported in 2015 that the average veteran teacher (with 15 years of experience)
in the United States earned nearly 30% less than individuals working in careers requiring
comparable college degrees (Startz, 2016; Organization for Economic Co-operation and
9
Development, 2015). In contrast, the report demonstrated that the average Finnish
veteran teacher (with 15 years of experience) earned 9% less than others associated with
occupations requiring similar university training (Startz, 2016; OECD, 2015). The wider
gap in U.S. teacher salaries, compared to nations that exhibit high student achievement
illustrates the value a country such as Finland places upon the teaching career (Startz,
2016; Dillon, 2011). In order for U.S. teacher salaries to reach Finnish teacher
compensation levels, primary school teacher salaries would need to increase by 10%,
elementary school teacher salaries would need to increase by18%, and secondary teacher
compensation would need to increase by 28% (Startz, 2016; OECD, 2015).
Like compensation, a career’s image impacts the level of prestige a society grants
it (Mensah, 2011; Hargreaves, 2009; Goyder, 2005; Hoyle 2001). Hoyle hypothesized
that the image children acquire from interactions with teachers is a substantial component
that subdues the teaching career’s prestige (Hoyle, 2001). His claim centers on the
hypothesis that prestige is gained by images clients gain from interactions with
professionals (Lankford et al., 2014). In a school environment, a number of children are
reluctant to participate. This reluctance leads to the potential for disorder. Hoyle affirms
that the image of school as a place of disorder shapes the image of teaching as a career.
The need to maintain order, and the consequences of loss of control, reduce prestige
(Hoyle, 2001).
Hoyle hypothesizes that the image of teaching has been stimulated by its
intermediate position (Hoyle, 2001). Hoyle illustrates this idea of intermediacy through a
common canard depicting the perception of a male teacher as “a man amongst boys and a
10
boy amongst men” (Hoyle, 2001, p. 144). Hoyle’s use of this canard illustrates a
common perception that the teacher is able to prepare students for the real world.
However, teachers remain between the “world of school” and the “real world” while their
students move forward (Hoyle, 2001).
Hoyle theorizes that teachers generally remain in intermediate positions because
of natural ambiguities that accompany the career. This theory stems from students
“accomplishing” school and moving beyond its world (Hoyle, 2001). “The teacher thus
becomes a symbol of the dependent social role which they have left behind” (Hoyle,
2001, p. 144). Most importantly, Hoyle contends that the career’s ambiguities and its
intermediacy will continue to limit the level of prestige teaching may be able to achieve
(Hoyle, 2001).
Status
Members of the education community commonly refer to teaching as a
profession. However, research illustrates that it is not universally accepted as such
(Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011; Hargreaves, 2009; Hoyle, 2001). Reports imply that
policymakers’ decisions to initiate additional accountability measures may not have
centered exclusively on student achievement, but also on teacher status concerns (Fuller,
Goodwyn, & Francis-Brophy, 2013). These added expectations have been the driving
force behind school districts requiring their practitioners to incorporate scripted lessons,
adhere to pacing guides, use pre-determined examinations, and assure students pass high-
stakes assessments. Scholars attest that the results of this standardization of education
have not elevated status, but have encouraged the general public to further question the
11
capabilities of the U.S. teacher workforce (Croft, Roberts, & Stenhouse, 2016). Research
has found that this movement toward tighter control has further crippled the status of
teaching (Fuller et al., 2013). Fuller et al. assert “when autonomy and responsibility are
removed through the implementation of rigid standards to be adhered to, professional
status is in fact diminished” (2013, p. 470).
A career’s professional status hinges on the composition of its workforce (Fuller
et al., 2013; Hoyle, 2001). Several studies demonstrate that a career is generally
perceived to be a profession when it is composed of educated individuals that possess
specific abilities, talents, and aptitudes (Lankford et al., 2014; Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011;
Hargreaves, 2009). Workers in professions acquire higher social standing when other
professional groups recognize their status (Hoyle, 2001). A career’s professional social
standing is also contingent upon the perceptions of the specialized knowledge and skills
that are required to perform the career (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011). Finally, an
occupation’s professional status is dependent upon the career’s “rigorous training,
licensing requirements, positive working conditions, an active professional organization,
substantial workplace authority, relatively high compensation, and high prestige”
(Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011, p. 186).
The meaning of status lies within the perceptions of knowledgeable groups
(Hargreaves, 2009; Hoyle, 2001). For teaching, these views pose roadblocks and
interfere with its ability to gain professional identity and improve its status (Croft et al.,
2016). This phenomenon appears to have originated from perceptions that the training
preservice teachers receive at the postsecondary level is far less rigorous than training for
12
other fields of study (Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011; Hargreaves, 2009; Hoyle, 2001). These
views regularly lead members of the public to perceive teaching as a career that ordinary
individuals with a general understanding of mathematics and literacy can perform
(Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Lankford et al., 2014; Mackenzie, 2007;
Hargreaves, Cunningham, Hansen, McIntyre, & Oliver, 2007; Hoyle 2001; Swetnam,
1992).
Esteem
Esteem refers to the perceived personal attributes a workforce brings to its core
responsibilities (Hoyle, 2001). These personal characteristics are not technical. Rather,
they refer to dedication, competence, and caring (Hargreaves, 2009; Hoyle, 2001). In
reference to teaching, dedication concerns the amount of time teachers are perceived to
devote to student learning, while competence refers to the perceptions of maintaining
order, handling crisis situations, and following through with required tasks. Finally, the
perceptions of caring manifest from individual teacher priorities to maintain student well-
being (Hoyle, 2001).
Esteem is often associated with perceptions of prestige and status. Although
relationships exist between esteem, prestige, and status, scholars say that esteem differs
from prestige and status, since occupations can be esteemed but still lack prestige and
status (Hoyle, 2001). This theory is demonstrated in nations such as Portugal, where
teachers are perceived to embody the characteristics of esteem, but the esteem does not
translate into greater status (Dolton & Marcenaro-Guiterrez, 2013; Hoyle, 2001). V.S
Naipaul’s literary piece captures this phenomenon through a six-year old Indian boy
13
explaining his perceptions of a teacher (Hoyle, 2001). The boy states “he’s like that
because he’s a poor man. He’s a teacher whom one respects, but really he is a poor man”
(Hoyle, 2001, p. 147).
Attempts to erode the teaching career’s esteem in the United States are frequently
observed through the media’s portrayal of teaching (OECD, 2005). As with other
occupations, some teachers inevitably stray from standards related to esteem. Media
stories report these lapses, which produce negative images of teachers and the career
(Hoyle, 2001).
Motion pictures and television shows also play a role in eroding the teaching
career’s esteem (Mackenzie, 2007). Frequently, media skew the perceptions of teachers
by inaccurately stereotyping the workforce (Mensah, 2011). Swetnam (1992) studied
misrepresentations of teachers and found that “without personal knowledge about schools
and teachers, people form their attitudes based on fictional media representations” (p.
30). Frequently, teachers are portrayed as irresponsible, untrustworthy, less than
professional, or miracle workers (Swetnam, 1992). More importantly, films have
reinforced the perceptions that teaching is an undemanding job and that anyone can teach.
Rarely do films present teachers planning, grading papers, handling difficult behaviors,
struggling with little resources, or facing other demands the career requires (Mackenzie,
2007).
Along with the media, political “bashing” and blaming teachers for society’s
social ills have held the career’s esteem hostage (Goldstein, 2011; Auguste et al., 2010;
Hargreaves, 2009). Scholars assert that to enhance esteem, the discourse must become
14
positive, so that the public can create a favorable image of teachers (Hoyle, 2001).
Nonetheless, reversing the discourse is problematic with a twenty-four hour news cycle
that frequently criticizes the career (Auguste et al., 2010).
Semantic Status
A career realizes semantic status when a society holds positive perceptions of its
prestige, status, and esteem (Hoyle, 2001). This is a powerful ideology considering that a
large number of graduates may be attracted to the idea of being a “professional worker”
in a high status occupation. Many assume that the fruits of their labor will be sweeter and
the rewards will be plentiful. In contrast, occupations with formal status may be given a
professional label by a governing body, but its professional status may not be absolute
(Hoyle, 2001). Internally, its workforce may perceive itself to be a profession, but
externally, society may hold differing perceptions. Hoyle contends that careers with
semantic status are considered to be highly regarded and are able to recruit larger pools of
quality applicants.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research was two-fold. The first was to develop a set of
reliable scales capable of measuring the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and
esteem. The second was to use the scales to measure high school senior and college
undergraduate perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, esteem, and to determine the
level of influence the perceptions may have on each population’s teaching considerations.
15
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1. How do Hoyle’s occupational prestige, status, and esteem components impact
high school senior and college undergraduate teaching considerations?
2. How do Hoyle’s occupational prestige, status, and esteem components impact the
different demographic groups of high school senior and college undergraduate
teaching considerations?
3. How do Hoyle’s occupational prestige, status, and esteem components impact the
academic aptitudes of high schools seniors and college undergraduates
considering education careers?
4. How might practices from around the world impact the perceptions of the
prestige, status, and esteem of teaching as a career?
Assumptions
1. The instrument will elicit valid and reliable responses.
2. The participants will be able to read and understand the questions that the
instrument asks and respond honestly.
Importance of the Study
Educational leaders are continuously pursuing methods to improve the quality of
education in the United States (Rockoff, 2004). However, the shortage of qualified
teachers continues to derail efforts, since teacher quality is the key element in raising
student achievement (Sanders & Horn, 1998; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005;
16
McLeskey & Billingsley, 2008). McLeskey and Billingsley point out that “the quality of
the teacher contributes more to student achievement than any other factor, including class
size, class composition, or student background” (McLeskey & Billingsley, 2008, p. 294).
Research demonstrates that students may score up to 50% greater on achievement tests
when assigned to effective teachers three years in a row (Sanders & Rivers, 1996).
Similarly, Hanushek and Rivkin found that a quality teacher can produce learning gains
of 0.2 standard deviations in a year’s time. These results demonstrate that a student
would move from the middle of the achievement distribution to the 58th percentile
(Hanushek & Rivkin, 2010). Moreover, Podgursky & Springer (2011) reported that “the
achievement gap among high-and low-socioeconomic status students could be overcome
if an economically disadvantaged student encountered an above average teacher for five
consecutive years” (Podgursky & Springer, p. 170).
Evidence also demonstrates the potential dangers that could result from the steady
growth in the number of unqualified teachers (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2010). Research
reveals that the effects of inadequate instruction can substantially impact student
academic performance for multiple years (Goe, 2007; Sanders & Horn, 1998; Sanders &
Rivers, 1996). A number of studies have confirmed that students assigned to an
ineffective teacher for one school year are at-risk of having their learning impaired for
several years (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2010). Similar investigations have generated
substantial evidence revealing that entire academic careers may be marred when students
are assigned to incompetent teachers for two or more years in a row (Breaux & Wong,
2003; Sanders & Horn, 1998; Sanders & Rivers, 1996).
17
Like other areas of teaching, special education is impacted. Placing unqualified
teachers into positions may place the learning of special needs children at-risk
(Podgursky & Springer, 2011; Cook & Schirmer, 2003). Scholars assert that properly
trained special education teachers have a much greater impact on the academic
achievement of special needs students than do teachers who lack the required credentials
and experience (McLeskey & Billingsley, 2008). Studies demonstrate that students with
special needs require professionals with the pedagogical expertise to support student
learning, growth, and development (Cook & Schirmer, 2003). The dangers of assigning
underprepared special education teachers with the neediest children are substantial
(Breaux & Wong, 2003; Sanders & Horn, 1998; Sanders & Rivers, 1996). The absence
of proper training “may inadvertently elicit challenging behaviors from students that lead
to classroom disruptions, restraint and seclusion, and other outcomes that negatively
impact student learning and well-being” (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017,
p.7).
The consequences of the teacher shortage can be observed every three years when
the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) results are published
(Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; PISA, 2015; OECD, 2013; PISA, 2012; OECD,
2010b; PISA, 2009; OECD, 2001). PISA is an international assessment that was
developed by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in
the 1990s in response to requests from member nations searching for performance data
on student and educational systems. The first PISA assessment was administered to 15
year olds in 43 different nations in 2000. Since that time, more than 70 countries have
18
participated in PISA, which has permitted nations to compare student knowledge and
learn from one another (PISA, 2014).
For nearly two decades, PISA student achievement data have demonstrated that
U.S. students consistently lag a considerable distance behind students in many of the
world’s major nations (Kastberg, Chan, & Murray, 2017; Hanushek, Peterson,
Woessmann, 2012; Fleischman, Hopstock, Pelczar, & Shelley, 2010; Ginsburg, Cooke,
Leinwand, Noell, & Pollock, 2005). The results have produced concern, leading federal
and state entities to develop standards and disseminate high stakes assessments to ensure
student growth (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). However, the literature reports
that the era of standardized education in America has produced mixed results in student
learning (Reback, 2008; Braun, Wang, Jenkins, & Weinbaum, 2006; Braun, 2004;
Amrein & Berliner, 2002).
The introduction of PISA has generated a body of research about the relationships
between occupational status and teacher recruitment and retention and student
achievement (OECD, 2005). Since the first administration of PISA in 2000, PISA results
have exposed consistent disparities between student performances in a number of the
largest economies in the world (PISA, 2015; PISA, 2012; PISA, 2009; PISA, 2000).
PISA results consistently confirm that the single variable top-performing nations share is
the capacity to attract highly talented people to the teaching career (Sahlberg, 2015;
PISA, 2015; PISA, 2012; PISA, 2009; OECD, 2005). The status, prestige, and esteem of
teaching in these nations is comparable to medicine, law, and engineering (OECD,
2010a). Scholars point out that these countries “invest in the development of high quality
19
teachers and take steps to elevate the entire profession to a higher level of respect and
regard” (Paine & Schleicher, 2010, p. 4).
Researchers have also found that student achievement is limited in nations where
the teaching career is not afforded high status, prestige, and esteem. Frequently, these
nations find it difficult to recruit and retain quality individuals into teaching (Paine &
Schleicher, 2010). In a formal letter to former U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan,
OECD Secretary-General Angel Gurria wrote “careful consideration must go into making
the teacher profession attractive; recruiting and selecting teachers; rewarding and training
them on the job; recognizing the best performers and helping those who have merits but
are struggling to grow” (Paine & Schleicher, 2010, p. 4).
There is compelling evidence that demonstrates the quality of a nation’s education
system depends on a professional teacher workforce that is highly regarded (OECD,
2011a; Paine & Schleicher, 2010). In the U.S., teaching as a profession is not necessarily
highly regarded, and its status frequently deters people from pursuing it as a career
(Auguste et al., 2010; Podgursky et al., 2004). This has initiated considerable problems
for the nation’s schools, but most importantly, it is interfering with student learning
(Ronfeldt et al., 2013; Watlington, Shockley, Guglielmino & Felsher, 2010; McLeskey &
Billingsley, 2008).
The rising number of untrained and inexperienced teachers entering the nation’s
classrooms places the education of many of the nation’s children at-risk (Clotfelter, Ladd,
& Vigdor, 2007; Darling-Hammond & Berry, 2006). Scholars note the implications
these trends may have on student performance and emotional problems, and ultimately,
20
the ability to compete within a global economy (Guha, Hyler, & Darling-Hammond,
2017; McLeskey & Billingsley, 2008; Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor, 2007; Cook &
Schirmer, 2003). Leaders from around the world have recognized these detriments and
have established policies to evolve teaching into a preferred career (Darling-Hammond,
2017; Sahlberg, 2015; Dolton & Marcenaro-Guiterrez, 2013). Nations such as Finland,
South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore have become the world’s leaders in their ability to
attract and maintain an effective teacher workforce (Sahlberg, 2015; Kang & Hong, 2008;
Simola, 2005). The results have led all four nations to achieve robust student
achievement scores in conjunction with rapidly growing economies (Sahlberg, 2015;
OECD, 2012; OECD, 2011b; OECD, 2007; Kang & Hong, 2008).
Definition of Terms and Acronyms
The following terms are used in this research study.
Accreditation – The U.S. Department of Education website defines accreditation as a
confirmation “that the college or career school meets certain minimum academic
standards, as defined by an accrediting body recognized by the U.S. Department
of Education. Schools must be accredited to be eligible to participate in federal
student aid programs” (U.S. Department of Education, 2017a).
Achievement Gap – The U.S. Department of Education website defines achievement gap
as “the difference between how well low-income and minority children perform
on standardized tests as compared with their peers. For many years, low-income
and minority children have been falling behind their peers in terms of academic
achievement” (U.S. Department of Education, 2017c).
21
American College Testing (ACT) – The American College Testing website defines the
ACT test as “the nation’s most popular college entrance exam, accepted and
valued by all universities and colleges in the United States. The ACT is based on
what students learn in high school and provides personalized information about
their strengths for education and career planning” (ACT, 2017).
Alternative Certification Programs – The U.S. Department of Education website defines
alternative certification programs as a means “to attract older and mid-career
candidates into teaching. In lieu of receiving preparation through traditional
platforms, alternative programs provide coursework during evening hours, online,
and on weekends. It is common practice for candidates to gain experience in the
classroom while progressing through the required coursework” (U.S. Department
of Education, 2017c).
Career – Career in this manuscript refers to an occupation that a person assumes for a
period of time. A career may require training, certification, and skill, but its
training, skills, and demands are perceived to be less rigorous than a
profession. Society frequently perceives its workforce to be less academically
than a profession’s (Hoyle, 2001).
Daily Attendance Rate – According to USLegal.com, the term “average daily attendance
means the aggregate number of days of attendance of all students during a school
year divided by the number of days school is in session during the year”
(USLegal.com, 2017).
22
Elementary School – The U.S. Census Bureau website defines an “elementary school as a
school inclusive of kindergarten through either eighth or ninth grade, or the first
through either the eighth or ninth grade. It can include both elementary and
intermediate or middle schools” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017).
Elementary and Secondary Education – According to the U.S. Census Bureau website,
“elementary-secondary education is defined as prekindergarten through twelfth
grade regular, special, and vocational education, as well as co-curricular,
community service, and adult education programs provided by a public school
system. The financial activities of these systems for all instruction, support
service, and non-instructional activities are included in this category” (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2010).
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) – According to the U.S. Department of Education
website, “the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) was signed by President
Obama to reauthorize the 50-year old Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA). The ESEA has been the nation’s educational law and longstanding
commitment to equal opportunity for all students” (U.S. Department of
Education, 2017a).
Enrollment – According to the U.S. Census Bureau, “enrollment is the count of pupils on
pupil rolls in the fall of the school system’s fiscal year for which data are shown”
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
23
Formal Status – An occupation that a governing body labels as a profession. An
occupation may also hold formal status when its workforce refers to the career as
a profession, but society may not unequivocally consider it as such (Hoyle, 2001).
Graduation Rate – According to the Federal Student Aid website, graduation rate
“measures the progress of students who began their studies as full-time, first-time
degree-or certificate-seeking students by demonstrating the percentage of these
students who complete their degree or certificate within a 150% of “normal time”
for completing the program in which they are enrolled” (Federal Student Aid,
2017).
High Performing Nations – According to the National Education Association website,
“high performing nations are those nations where students have demonstrated
strong academic achievement” (National Education Association, 2016).
High School – The U.S. Census Bureau website defines high school as “schools that
include either ninth through twelfth grade or tenth through twelfth grades” (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2010).
High-Needs Students – According to the United States Department of Education, “high-
needs students include those students at-risk of educational failure or who are
otherwise in need of special assistance and support, such as students who:
• Are living in poverty
• Attend high-minority schools
• Are far below grade level
• Have left school before receiving a regular high school diploma
24
• Are at-risk of not graduating with a diploma on time
• Are homeless
• Are in foster care
• Have been incarcerated
• Have disabilities
• Are English learners” (U.S. Department of Education, 2017d)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) – According to the U.S. Department
of Education website, “the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is a law
ensuring services to children with disabilities throughout the United States. IDEA
governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special
education, and related services to eligible infants, toddlers, children, and youth
with disabilities” (U.S. Department of Education, 2017b).
Labor force – The Bureau of Labor and Statistics website defines the labor force as “all
persons classified as employed or unemployed” (U.S. Bureau of Labor and
Statistics, 2017).
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) – The National Center for Education
Statistics website indicates that the NCES is “the primary federal entity for
collecting and analyzing data related to education in the U.S. and other nations.
NCES is located within the U.S. Department of Education and the Institute of
Education Sciences. NCES fulfills a Congressional mandate to collect, collate,
analyze, and report complete statistics on the condition of American education;
25
conduct and publish reports; and review and report on education activities
internationally” (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017).
National Teacher Employment Test – The National Teacher Employment Test is a formal
assessment aspiring South Korean teacher candidates are required to pass in order
to earn teacher credentials (Kang & Hong, 2008).
North Central Association of Colleges and Schools (NCA) – The NCA website indicates
that “it is an association of colleges and schools in nineteen states (Arizona,
Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota,
Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota,
West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming), American Dependents’ Schools
operated overseas for the children of American military and civilian personnel,
and schools and colleges in sovereign U.S. tribal nations within the nineteen
states. Through its Board, the Association controls the use of its name, logo, and
intellectual property. Two independent corporations, the Commission on
Accreditation and School Improvement (CASI) in Tempe, Arizona, and The
Higher Learning Commission, in Chicago, Illinois, also hold membership in the
Association. The two commissions hold the legal authority to conduct accrediting
activities for educational organizations. CASI accredits schools below the
postsecondary degree-granting level, and The Higher Learning Commission
accredits degree-granting higher education organizations” (North Central
Association of Colleges and Schools, 2003).
Occupation – Occupation in this manuscript refers to both a career and profession.
26
Occupational Esteem – According to Hoyle (2001), “occupational esteem is the regard in
which an occupation is held by the general public by virtue of the personal
qualities which members are perceived as bringing to the core tasks. Hoyle
contends that esteem is generated from the general public largely due to personal
experience. The majority of a given population has had experience with teachers”
(p. 147).
Occupational Prestige – According to Hoyle (2001), “occupational prestige is the public
perception of the relative position of an occupation in a hierarchy of occupations.
Occupational prestige is the general recognition that some occupations are higher
or lower in the hierarchy of prestige” (p. 139).
Occupational Status – According to Hargreaves (2009), “occupational status is the
category to which knowledgeable groups allocate an occupation. In other words,
do other knowledgeable or professional groups view the education occupation as
a profession?” (p. 218).
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) – The OECD
website indicates that it “is a forum in which governments can work together to
share experiences and seek solutions to common problems. The OECD works
with nations from around the world to support economic, social, and
environmental change. In addition, the OECD compares how different nations
are preparing their children in mathematics, literacy, and science” (OECD, 2016).
27
Profession – Profession in this manuscript refers to an occupation that is perceived to
require intensive training, certification, and special skill. Society frequently
perceives its workforce to be academically inclined (Hoyle, 2001).
Programme for International Student Achievement (PISA) – The PISA website indicates
that “it is a triennial international survey which aims to evaluate education
systems worldwide by testing the skills and knowledge of 15-year-old students”
(PISA, 2014).
Public School Systems – The U.S. Census website defines a public school system as a
group of “independent school district governments and dependent school systems.
Independent school district governments are organized local entities providing
public elementary, secondary, special, and vocational-technical education, which,
under the law, have sufficient administrative and fiscal autonomy to qualify as
governments. Dependent school systems lack sufficient autonomy to be counted
as separate governments and are classified as dependent agencies of some other
government – a county, municipality, township, or state government” (U.S.
Census, 2010).
Rural – The U.S. Census Bureau website defines rural “as territory with less than 2,500
individuals” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
Salaries and Wages – According to the U.S. Census Bureau website, “salaries and wages
are amounts paid for compensation of school system officers and employees and
consist of gross compensation before deductions for withheld taxes, retirement
contributions, or other purposes” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
28
Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) – The Schools and Staffing Survey website indicates
that SASS was a survey that was “conducted by the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES) seven times between 1987 and 2011. SASS was an integrated
study of public and private school districts, schools, principals, and teachers
designed to provide descriptive data on the context of elementary and secondary
education. SASS covers a wide range of topics, from teacher demand, teacher and
principal characteristics, general conditions in schools, principals’ and teachers’
perceptions of school climate and problems in their schools, teacher
compensation, and district hiring and retention practices, to basic characteristics
of the student population. After 2010–11, NCES redesigned SASS and named it
the National Teacher and Principal Survey (NTPS) to reflect the redesigned
study’s focus on the teacher and principal labor market and on the state of K-12
school staff. NCES first conducted NTPS in 2015–16” (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2017)
School District – The U.S. Census Bureau website defines a school district as “the
geographic entities within which state, county, or local officials provide public
educational services for the area’s residents. The boundaries and names are
provided by state officials” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
Semantic Status – When an “occupation is regarded as a profession by politicians,
administrators, commentators and members of other professions” (Hoyle, 2001, p.
145).
29
SPSS – Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) is a software package that allows
statistics to be performed electronically on a computer.
Social Capital – Social capital is defined as “capital inherent in the relations among
persons, which is separable from other forms of resources such as financial capital
(e.g, income) and human capital (e.g., years of schooling)” (Byun, Meece, Irvin,
& Hutchins, 2012, p. 357).
Teacher – The Colorado Department of Education website defines a teacher as “a staff
member assigned the professional activities of instructing pupils in self-contained
classes or courses” (Colorado Department of Education, 2015). For the purposes
of this study, the definition of teacher does not include substitute teachers or
administrators.
Teacher Attrition – Teacher attrition is defined as the number of teachers who do not
remain in the present school the following year (Sutcher et al., 2016).
Teacher Induction Programs – The Massachusetts Department of Elementary and
Secondary Education indicates that “teacher induction programs are intended to
provide a systematic structure of support for beginning teachers. A
comprehensive induction program may include new teacher orientation,
mentorship relationships, support teams, new teacher professional development,
and evaluation” (Massachusetts Department of Education, 2002).
Teacher Residency Programs – Teacher residency programs mirror those of medical
residencies. Resident teachers are assigned to work side by side with an effective
teacher for a year. In addition, residents are required to take coursework along
30
with their practice in the classroom. Resident teachers are required to hold a non-
specified undergraduate degree prior to enrolling in these programs (Guha et al.,
2017).
Teacher Shortage – Teacher shortage is defined as “the inability to staff vacancies at
current wages with individuals qualified to teach in the fields needed” (Sutcher et
al., 2016, p. 1).
Teacher Status Project – The University of Cambridge website indicates that the
“Teacher Status Project was a national four-year study of the status of teachers
and the teaching profession in England. It is interested in how teachers view
themselves, their work and their profession, and in how teachers are viewed by
other members of society. It was carried out by teams of researchers in the
Universities of Cambridge and Leicester. The project began in 2002 and will
continue until 2006” (University of Cambridge, 2017)
Teacher Workforce – Teacher workforce refers to the number of teachers who are
practicing in private and public prekindergarten through grade 12 in the United
States. Recent research indicates teaching is the second largest occupation behind
retail sales in the United States (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014).
Teaching Consideration – The level of thought given to consider a career in teaching.
Urban – The U.S. Census Bureau website indicates that “urban areas represent densely
developed territory, and encompass residential, commercial, and other non-
residential urban land uses. The Census Bureau indicates that an urban area is a
community that consists of 50,000 or more people” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
31
Urban Cluster – The U.S. Census Bureau website indicates that “urban clusters represent
less densely developed territory in comparison to urban areas. Urban clusters
encompass residential, commercial, and other non-residential urban land
uses. The Census Bureau indicates that an urban cluster is a community that
consists of 2,500 to 50,000 people” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
Chapter Outlines
The purpose of this section is to provide readers the opportunity to conceptualize
the outline of the present study. Chapter II includes a review of the current empirical
literature, which centers attention on teacher shortage mitigation practices, the growing
and changing teacher workforce, labor market implications, economic impacts, falling
teacher education enrollments, and lessons from around the world. Chapter III details the
study’s population, data collection methods, and data analysis procedures. Chapter IV
reports the data and discusses the results. Finally, Chapter V presents implications for
practice and includes suggestions for future research.
32
CHAPTER II.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Feeling the Impact of the Teacher Shortage
Many school districts in the United States have been impacted by teacher
shortages. Numerous reports indicate that growing teacher shortages affect rural and
urban schools as well as more affluent districts (Flynt & Morton, 2009; Hammer,
Hughes, McClure, Reeves, & Salgado, 2005). This development has raised concerns in
suburbia, but it has produced greater tribulations for historically hard-to-staff schools
(Martin & Mulvihill, 2016).
The expansion of the teacher shortage problem has made it increasingly difficult
to attract teachers to rural and urban schools (Malatras et al., 2017). Research
demonstrates that the consistent themes of low salary packages, unattractive working
conditions, and an increased need for teachers in suburban areas have magnified the
problem (Guha et al., 2017). These conditions have led to a rising number of
inadequately trained teachers securing positions in rural and urban schools. While hiring
unqualified teachers satisfies immediate needs, scholars contend that this practice creates
a school environment where “student achievement is undermined by high rates of teacher
turnover and by teachers who are inadequately prepared for the challenges they face”
(Guha et al., 2017, p. 1). This instability undermines school improvement efforts and
leads to additional costs of nearly $18,000 to replace exiting teachers (Guha et al., 2017).
33
More importantly, this practice results in limited student achievement (Hanushek, 2016;
Rockoff, 2004). The consequences of this substandard education lead to lower
graduation rates and a workforce that may be unable to meet the future demands of the
modern economy (Guha et al., 2017; Hanushek, 2016; Darling-Hammond & Rothman,
2015).
Specialized Teaching Fields
Reports indicate that a growing teacher shortage has produced widespread
shortages of science and math teachers (Moin, Dorfield, & Schunn, 2005). Several
scholars attribute the math and science teacher shortage to the underproduction of
teachers in these fields, while others speculate that early attrition is the root of the
problem (Sutcher et al., 2016; Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014). Regardless, the
combination of specialized training requirements and attractive compensation packages
in the non-teaching labor market has made it difficult for schools to attract these subject
area teachers (Sutcher et al., 2016; Goldhaber, Krieg, Theobald, & Brown, 2015; OECD,
2005).
Schools are finding it three to four times more difficult to acquire qualified math
and science teachers in comparison to other subject areas (Ingersoll & Perda, 2009). This
problem has plagued a large number of the nation’s schools for well over a decade (Boyd,
Grossman, Hammerness, Lankford, Loeb, Ronfeldt, & Wyckoff, 2012). While this issue
has alarmed educational leaders, the cause for concern has escalated, with the problem
becoming more widespread each year. Scholars contend that this growing trend has
exposed a greater number of schools to the difficulties in attaining qualified math and
science teachers (Sutcher et al., 2016).
34
Acquiring science and math teachers has been particularly problematic for schools
serving low-socioeconomic populations (Ingersoll & May, 2012). Significant numbers of
schools serving low income and high minority groups have reported difficulties in
obtaining qualified math and science teachers. Scholars hypothesize that these problems
originate from the developing teacher shortages in suburban areas and the unattractive
working conditions that are commonly associated with schools in low-socioeconomic
areas (Jacob, 2007).
Indeed, there are teachers willing to devote their working careers to serving some
of the most challenging student populations. However, the position’s nobility alone is an
insufficient motivator. Common trends demonstrate that teachers who accept positions in
low-socioeconomic regions are choosing to retain those positions only to gain experience.
Regularly, this cohort of teachers will leave teaching or migrate to more affluent districts
once they have gained the necessary experience (Feng, 2009; Hanushek, Kain, & Rivkin,
2004; Boyd et al., 2005; Scafidi, Sjoquist & Stinebrickner, 2007).
As with math and science teachers, the number of credentialed special education
teachers has sharply decreased, whereas the demand for practitioners persistently rises
(American Association for Employment in Education, 2015; Ingersoll, Merrill, &
Stuckey, 2014). This trend has led nearly 98% of the nation’s public schools to
encounter problems in finding qualified special education teachers (McLeskey, Tyler, &
Flippin, 2004). Numerous reports recognize that special education is “the number one
field with the most severe shortages” (Sutcher et al., 2016, p. 10). The 2014–15
American Association for Employment in Education (AAEE) teacher supply and demand
report pointed out that each of the 10 reported special education subareas was facing
35
critical shortages of qualified teachers (American Association for Employment in
Education, 2015).
In response to the problem, policymakers have been forced to reduce licensing
requirements to fill positions (Moin, Dorfield, & Schunn, 2005). These reductions have
led to the bulk of new special education teachers entering the teacher workforce without
suitable preparation (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). Darling-Hammond
et al. (2016) found that nearly half (48%) of the special education teachers entering
California schools in 2015 were lacking the required credentials.
The Challenges in Urban Schools
Teaching is a demanding career that requires a workforce that possesses a deep
understanding of content knowledge and pedagogy (Hakanen, Bakker, & Schuafeli,
2006; Friedman, 2000). The career’s challenges are underscored in urban environments
where the student population consists largely of minority students from low-
socioeconomic backgrounds (Weiner & Jerome, 2016; Jacob, 2007). Schools in urban
areas require teachers who understand this student population and can form trusting
relationships with this group (Goldenberg, 2014). While urban schools desire the most
talented practitioners, they frequently are unable to hire qualified teachers (McKinney,
Berry, Dickerson, & Campbell-Whately, 2007). Hanushek and Rivken (2007) explain
that the added demands and “the relatively small average salary difference between urban
and suburban schools” make it difficult to recruit teachers to accept positions in urban
schools (p. 71).
For decades, the teacher shortage has become more problematic for urban school
systems (Jacob, 2007). Failed teacher recruitment attempts have become the norm
36
(Darling-Hammond, 2010b). These outcomes have regularly pressed administrators into
hiring unqualified teachers to work with some of the most difficult student populations
(Freedman & Appleman, 2009). The Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) in 2012
demonstrated that 61% of underprepared teachers were most likely to be employed in
low-socioeconomic and high-minority urban schools (Sutcher et al., 2016). Moreover,
urban school administrators are three times more likely to hire unqualified teachers than
their suburban counterparts (Darling-Hammond, 2010b). These practices have fueled the
cycle of the revolving door (Haberman, 2005). It is not unusual for urban schools to
experience a 50% early attrition rate (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Smith &
Smith, 2006). This phenomenon, in conjunction with an overall shortage of qualified
teachers, has led to substantial hardships for schools serving some of the neediest
students in urban areas (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Sutcher et al., 2016;
Ingersoll, 2003).
The Challenges in Rural Schools
Like large urban school districts, rural districts are struggling to recruit qualified
teachers (Guarino et al., 2006; Murphy, DeArmond, & Guin, 2003). Many reports
indicate that this problem stems from disparities in salaries and remote locations
(Johnson, Showalter, Klein, & Lester, 2014; Ludlow, 2013). Moreover, scholars point to
the lesser known contributions of the social and cultural dynamics of rural communities
(Monk, 2007). Research demonstrates that rural areas frequently produce a lower
number of high school graduates choosing to pursue higher education than their suburban
counterparts (Player, 2015; Ingersoll & Perda, 2010). This phenomenon originates from
the perceptions rural graduates have towards higher education and the local occupational
37
structure. Many graduates in rural areas have a perception that a college education will
not help them find employment in the local economy. Thus, the lower number of college
graduates impacts the number of teachers that rural schools may be able to draw from
(Monk, 2007; Burnell, 2003).
Another problem facing rural schools is the nature of the teacher workforce itself
(Eppley, 2009). Research demonstrates that teachers have historically been a localized
workforce, where the average teacher chooses to work within fifty miles of where he or
she graduated from high school (Player, 2015; Boyd et al., 2005). This phenomenon has
produced uneven distribution of qualified teaching applicants, since the majority of
teachers prefer to live in regions where they grew up (Eppley, 2009). The combination of
rural areas producing fewer licensed applicants and teachers choosing to settle in areas
where they were raised creates considerable problems for rural schools (Player, 2015).
Early Attrition and Teacher Recruitment Efforts
Evidence suggests that the shortage of teachers is not entirely driven by upsurges
in student enrollments, increases in teacher retirements, or decreases in the number of
enrollees participating in university teacher preparation programs (Ingersoll, Merrill, &
Stuckey, 2014; Brill & McCartney, 2008; Hanushek et al., 2004). Much of the research
surrounding the teacher shortage has centered on reversing the trend in the early attrition
of teachers (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Moir, 2009; Solomon, 2009; Humphrey &
Wechsler, 2007; Shakrani, 2008; Boyd et al., 2005). Ingersoll attests that the teaching
career suffers from higher turnover in comparison to other careers (Ingersoll, Merrill, &
Stuckey, 2014; Ingersoll, 2003; Ingersoll, 2001). Recent reports point out that the early
attrition rate of U.S. teachers has been approximately 8% for nearly a decade, which is
38
double the rate in comparison to high performing nations like Finland, Singapore, and
Canada (Sutcher et al., 2016). The turnover has consistently been split, with half of the
leavers exiting teaching altogether and the other half migrating to different schools
(Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014; Ingersoll, 2003). An 8% attrition rate translates into
hundreds of thousands of teachers exiting schools at the conclusion of each school year, a
problem that, if reversed, “would reduce the projected shortages more than any other
single factor” (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014; Harris, & Adams, 2007).
Empirical evidence demonstrates that early teacher attrition is led by new teachers
(Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014; Perda, 2013; Ingersoll, 2003; Ingersoll, 2001).
Many new teachers enter the career and find salaries disappointing, student behavior
overwhelming, and working conditions subpar (Perrachione, Peterson, & Rosser, 2008;
Johnson, 2006). This dissatisfaction has led to a consistent attrition rate of 20%–40% for
early career teachers (Gray, Taie, & O’Rear, 2015; Perda, 2013; Ingersoll, 2003). Most
concerning, nearly 20% of first-year teachers leave the career prior to completing their
first year (Perda, 2013; Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011; Hammer & Williams, 2005; Breaux &
Wong, 2003).
Studies find that this trend could be reversed with policy changes to improve
teacher compensation, working conditions, availability of resources, accountability
pressures, and public perception (Martin & Mulvihill, 2016; Ingersoll, 2003).
Commentators assert that steps to retain teachers must be employed to solve the crisis,
given that public education has experienced the largest number of beginning teachers
entering the workforce in two decades (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014; Goldrick,
Osta, Barlin, & Burn, 2012). This “greening” of the teaching workforce has created a
39
considerable amount of instability in the nation’s school systems (Ingersoll, Merrill, &
Stuckey, 2014; Perda, 2013).
New Teacher Induction Programs
Current research notes that nearly two-thirds of the nation’s beginning teachers
have experienced some form of induction, and almost three quarters have been assigned
mentors (Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009; Goldrick et
al., 2012). While these statistics appear promising, the research seems to be inconclusive
as to their effectiveness in reducing early attrition (Ronfeldt & McQueen, 2017).
Research points out that these inconsistencies may stem from the variability of the
induction programs (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Cherubini, 2007). School districts report
the cost burden of these programs, which leads to many school districts offering more
informal and less intensive induction programs (Ronfeldt & McQueen, 2017; Ingersoll &
Smith, 2004).
While comprehensive teacher induction appears to be uncommon, some school
districts have the financial means to provide structured induction programs (Glazerman,
Isenberg, Dolfin, Bleeker, Johnson, Grider, & Jacobus, 2010). Ingersoll and Smith’s
(2004) investigation found a relationship between comprehensive teacher induction
programs and beginning teacher retention. Like Ingersoll and Smith’s study, Kang and
Berliner’s (2012) analysis examining Schools and Staffing Survey Data (SASS) found
that shared planning time, supportive communication, strong professional development,
and regularly scheduled collaboration were associated with teachers staying in their
positions. Glazerman et al. questioned the rigors of the aforementioned research,
claiming that the investigations into beginning teacher induction programs did not use
40
experimental approaches. Moreover, the scholars employed multiple controlled studies
that found beginning teacher exposure to a one-or two-year comprehensive induction
program did not have “a significant impact on teacher retention over the first four years”
of a teacher’s career (2010, p. 105).
Teacher Recruitment Bonuses
For decades, the nation’s neediest schools have struggled to recruit and retain
qualified teachers (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017; Sutcher et al., 2016;
Ingersoll, 2003; Jacob, 2007). This pattern continues to make hiring incredibly difficult
for school leaders (Darling-Hammond, 2010a; Freedman & Appleman, 2009; Chiu &
Khoo, 2005). National data highlight inequalities, demonstrating that high-poverty
schools employ four times as many non-credentialed teachers as low-poverty schools
(Sutcher et al., 2016).
To combat teacher shortages, a number of school districts have employed bonus
programs to recruit qualified teachers (Fulbeck, 2014). These incentives have been
deployed to level the playing field when competing for teachers. Evidence indicates that
teacher bonuses assist leaders in their recruitment efforts (Clotfelter, Glennie, Ladd, &
Vigdor, 2008). However, the literature points out that bonuses may not support retention
efforts in high-poverty schools (Maranto & Shuls, 2012; Liu, Johnson, & Peske, 2004).
Liu, Johnson, and Peske examined a teacher transfer initiative that offered master
teachers a $20,000 bonus to transfer to a low-performing school for a period of two years.
The investigators found that most transfers were highly effective teachers, and noted a
low attrition rate during the initial two-year period, but an increase thereafter. Similarly,
Steele, Murnane, and Willet (2010) examined the Governor’s Teaching Fellowship
41
initiative that was launched to recruit teachers into low-performing California schools.
The fellowship awarded a $20,000 scholarship to practitioners who accepted a position at
a low-performing school for a period of four years. As with the teacher transfer
initiative, the Governor’s Teaching Fellowship attracted highly qualified teachers who
were willing to accept positions in high-needs schools, but attrition rates spiked after the
four-year commitment expired (Steele et al., 2010).
The State of Massachusetts also offered a $20,000 sign-on bonus for qualified
teachers to fill hard-to-staff positions. The bonus was advertised as an upfront payout,
but in reality, it was paid out in four payments in efforts to retain teachers. In the end,
Liu et al. found that only 5 out of the 13 Massachusetts teachers who participated in the
bonus program remained in their positions (Liu et al., 2014).
Alternative Teacher Certification
The need for teachers has led to a growing number of states participating in some
form of alternative teacher certification (Darling-Hammond, 2010a). Instead of the
traditional four-year undergraduate teaching program, participants who hold
undergraduate degrees in other fields can earn a teaching certificate in a short time frame
(Ovando & Trube, 2000). Further, participants can use alternative means to complete
program requirements in comparison to the traditional route to licensure (Darling-
Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002). In 2010, data demonstrated that 125 different
alternative teacher licensure pathways were in operation in the United States. Similar
reports indicate that nearly 30% of new teachers receiving certification are earning
credentials through alternative pathways (Kee, 2011).
42
The increase in the number of alternative pathways to teacher certification has
prompted researchers to investigate the effectiveness of the various alternative routes to
teacher licensure. Several findings have revealed inconsistencies in the effect each route
produces on student achievement (Xu, Hannaway, & Taylor, 2011; Rockoff, Jacob,
Kane, & Staiger 2008; Glazerman, Mayer, & Decker, 2006; Boyd, Grossman, Lankford,
Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2009). Boyd et al. (2009) found insignificant relationships between
student achievement and the mode teachers chose to earn credentials. Conflicting results
were produced when Xu et al. (2011) found that high school teachers who earned
credentials through the established Teach for America (TFA) alternative teacher licensure
program generated student achievement results that were superior to traditionally
prepared teachers. The findings of Glazerman et al. (2006) mirrored those of Xu et al.
(2011). The researchers revealed that TFR teachers produced students with better math
scores than did conventionally trained teachers. Moreover, the investigation did not find
statistically significant differences in student reading performances between the two
groups (Glazerman et al., 2006).
While advocates applaud alternative teacher certification, opponents question the
unintended consequences unconventional routes to teacher certification may produce
(Ingersoll & Perda, 2008). Several scholars feel these programs “shortchange both
teacher candidates and the students they teach because preparation, particularly in
pedagogy, is inadequate” (Allen, 2003, p. 3). Ingersoll and Perda (2008) contend that
“traditional professions rarely resort to lowering standards to recruit and retain
practitioners” (p. 109). They assert that this wide disparity toward licensure would not be
tolerated in other professions such as medicine or law. More importantly, alternative
43
programs produce a perception that teaching is an occupation that anyone can do
(Ingersoll & Perda, 2008). Consequently, this image of teaching produces an assumption
that teaching is not difficult work and those who understand mathematics, literature,
science, and social studies concepts can learn to teach on the job. These perceptions may
unintentionally reduce the teaching career’s status (Lankford et al., 2014; Ingersoll &
Perda, 2008; Mackenzie, 2007; Hargreaves, 2009; Hargreaves et al., 2007; Swetnam,
1992).
Resident Teacher Programs
Teacher residency programs have emerged to address the growing teacher
shortage (Silva, McKie, Knechtl, Gleason, & Makowsky, 2014). The structure of these
programs is comparable to the medical residency model, where residents are assigned to
practice alongside an experienced teacher for a full school term (Guha et al., 2017; Petty,
Fitchett, & O’Connor, 2012). Most often, in efforts to ease the burden of teacher
shortages, teacher residents are assigned to regions or teaching fields where shortages
exist (Hammerness, Williamson, & Kosnick, 2016; Marshall & Scott, 2015). School
districts, in partnership with university programs, are charged with providing the resident
with the required training to earn licensure. At the conclusion of the program, schools
frequently hire former residents to fill vacancies (Papay, West, Fullerton, & Kane, 2012).
Several scholars attest that the success of teacher residency programs lies with
their ability to attract high-caliber candidates with financial incentives (Petty, Fitchett, &
O’Connor, 2012). While the enticements vary among programs, they frequently include
living stipends, student loan repayment programs, and tuition reimbursement in exchange
for a commitment to remain in a school district for a period of time (Bireda & Chait,
44
2011). For example, the Los Angeles Teacher Residency Program allocates a $25,000
stipend to residents while they progress through the year-long program. Likewise, the
Jacksonville, Florida, program allocates a living stipend of $20,000, but also includes
tuition reimbursement incentives to earn a master’s degree (Guha et al., 2017).
Additional residencies offer smaller cost of living stipends; several choose to provide
health insurance benefits and cover the entire cost of each resident’s tuition (Aldeman,
Carey, Dillon, Miller, & Silva, 2011).
Initial research examining residency programs indicates that 80%–90% of
resident teacher graduates remain in their initial positions for three years, while 70%–
80% remain after five years (Guha et al., 2017; Solomon, 2009; Berry, Montgomery,
Curtis, Hernandez, Wurtzel, & Snyder, 2008). Research demonstrates that “well-
designed and well-implemented teacher residency models can create long-term benefits
for districts, for schools, and ultimately and most importantly, for the students they serve”
(Guha et al., 2017, p. 36). These statistics are promising. However, many residency
programs remain in their infancy and have yet to produce an impact on the overall
teacher shortage (Guha et al., 2017; Cohen & Wyckoff, 2016).
The results of initial research investigating teacher residency programs have
captured the attention of policymakers (Sawchuk, 2011). Since 2009, the federal
government has invested nearly $143 million in teacher residency programs, and has
maintained its commitment of support in the newly reauthorized Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (Guha et al., 2017; Franquiz & Ortiz, 2016). Further, the
popularity of these programs continues to grow, with nearly 50 established residencies
preparing 5 to 100 residents annually for a career in teaching (Guha et al., 2017).
45
The Ever Growing Teacher Workforce
The media and general discourse suggest that the shortage of teachers has been
exacerbated by the increase in student enrollment, the increase in teacher retirements, and
the inability to retain teachers (Ingersoll et al., 2014). Indeed, these factors have
contributed to the teacher shortage in certain geographic regions. Yet, scholars point out
their insignificance in comparison to the ever growing size of the teacher workforce
(Cowan, Goldhaber, Hayes, & Theobald, 2016; Ingersoll et al., 2014). This growth
began to take shape at the onset of the baby boom. In 1945, the number of elementary
and secondary teachers in the United States was estimated to be 750,000. Decades later,
in 2011, that number had increased to 4 million, which was five times that of the post–
World War II workforce (Ingersoll et al., 2014).
Surprisingly, evidence demonstrates that the number of teachers entering the
nation’s classrooms throughout this period grew two-and-a half times faster than the rate
of student enrollment (Scafidi, 2012). These results demonstrate teaching as the second
largest occupation behind retail sales in the United States (Ingersoll et al., 2014). The
rapid rise in the number of teachers originates from efforts to reduce class sizes. From
1980 through 2005, the average teacher-student ratio fell by 18% (Barber & Mourshed,
2007). Reduced class sizes as well as additional math and science requirements,
mandates to offer English Language Learner and enrichment programs, and requirements
to implement full-day kindergarten classes have contributed to the rise in the teacher
workforce (Ingersoll et al., 2014). Added regulations to support disabled learners have
also significantly contributed to this growth (Ingersoll et al., 2014). With the passage of
what was known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) in 1975
46
(reauthorized as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1990), public schools
have been required to increase staff to comply with federal law, and, most importantly,
provide free and appropriate public education for students with special needs (Guha et al.,
2017; U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Since the passage of IDEA, U.S. public
schools have increased the number of special education teachers by 102% (Ingersoll et
al., 2014).
Falling Preservice Teacher Enrollments
With a greater demand for teachers, the literature points to a significant
downward cycle in the number of students interested in becoming educators (Sutcher et
al., 2016). Several studies demonstrate this declining trend, with one study finding 5% of
high school ACT test takers indicating interest in pursuing a career in teaching (ACT,
2015). Additionally, a study conducted by the Cooperative Institutional Research
Program (CIRP) in 2009 found that 9.2% of its participants exhibited interest in the
career (Pryor, Hurtado, DeAngelo, Palucki-Blake, & Tran, 2009). That number fell by
50% when scholars employed the CIRP study in 2016 (Eagan, Stolzenberg, Zimmerman,
Aragon, Sayson, Rios-Aguilar, 2016). The results of the aforementioned study signal the
lowest percentage of post-secondary students demonstrating interest to teach in the
study’s 45-year history (Sutcher et al., 2016).
Numerous university systems have observed the decreasing interest in teaching
(Aragon, 2016). Many have reported sharp declines in the number of students enrolled in
their teacher preparation programs (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016a).
From 2010 through 2013, U.S. post-secondary institutions observed a 31% decrease in
the number of students pursuing undergraduate degrees in education (Aragon, 2016).
47
This amounts to nearly a 240,000 decrease (compared with 2009) in the number of
qualified teachers entering the teacher pipeline (Sutcher et al., 2016). In conjunction with
falling enrollment, the number of bachelor degrees awarded to education majors fell by
34% between the years 2003 and 2014. Of the six career fields with the most graduates,
education was the single area to experience a decline in degrees conferred through this
period (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016a).
Historically, California has been one of the largest producers of teachers (Carver-
Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2016; Mead, Aldeman, Chuong, & Obbard, 2015).
However, the state has experienced a significant decline in the number of students
enrolled in its teacher education programs (Sawchuk, 2015). In 2001–02, the state’s
university systems reported an enrollment of 77,705 teacher education candidates. By
2013–14, the number had decreased to 18,984 (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond,
2016). The executive director of the California Commission on Teaching Credentials
stated that “this is an alarming trend. We are going to see it play out with an increase in
demand, and a not very deep pool of teachers to fulfill that demand” (Sawchuk, 2015, p.
10).
Several scholars hypothesize that the declining enrollment may originate from the
teaching career’s limited status and prestige (Sutcher et al., 2016; OECD, 2005).
Sawchuk wrote “there’s a lot of press about teacher-evaluation systems, about upheaval,
and all of those things in the press are bound to have some effect on people thinking
about what they want to do” (Sawchuk, p. 2015, 10-11). A 2014 study found that
undergraduates with GPAs greater than 3.3 perceive teaching’s less than prestigious
48
position in society as a deterrent (Mead et al., 2015; Third Way National Online Survey
of Education Attitudes, 2014).
Commentators also suggest that the decline stems from the poor morale and job
satisfaction exhibited by current practitioners. Teacher job satisfaction is at its lowest
point in more than two decades (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015). The literature
indicates that budget decreases, stress, environmental factors, and staff reduction policies
may be a reason for this discontent (Metlife, 2013; Parham & Gordon, 2011). The career
has become less than desirable, which has discouraged many graduates from pursuing a
career in teaching (Malatras et al., 2017).
Like California, Indiana has experienced declines in the number of preservice
teachers enrolled in its university systems (Martin & Mulvihill, 2016). These falling
enrollments have resulted in a 19% drop in in-state teacher education program
completers, and a 37% reduction in the total number of licenses issued to both in-state
and out-of-state trained teachers between 2012 and 2015 (Sutcher et al., 2016; Aragon,
2016). And while these declines have produced strains on Indiana school districts, the
problem has also affected schools in nearby states (Indiana Interim Study Committee on
Education, 2015). Historically, the Indiana university system, like university systems in
California, produced a surplus of teachers (Sutcher et al., 2016). However, with fewer
students enrolled in its teacher education programs, Indiana is struggling to produce
enough teachers to meet its own needs. More importantly, the state is in a position where
it must compete with its neighboring states to attract a shrinking pool of trained in-state
and out-of-state teacher candidates (Martin & Mulvihill, 2016; Sutcher et al., 2016; Title
II Higher Education Reporting System, 2015).
49
North Carolina has experienced woes similar to those in Indiana and California
(Sawchuk, 2015). Throughout the past two decades, the state has transitioned from
producing a surplus of teachers to relying on out-of-state trained teachers (Barth et al.,
2016; Title II Higher Education Reporting System, 2015). In 2010, 40% of the state’s
initial teacher licensures were issued to out-of-state prepared teachers, a 36% increase
from 2000 (Sutcher et al., 2016; U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Current data
indicate that this trend will continue, with the state reporting a consistent decline in the
number of students enrolled in its teacher education programs (Barth et al., 2016;
Sawchuk, 2015). From 2013 to the end of the academic year in 2015, North Carolina
university systems experienced a 20% reduction in the number of undergraduates earning
education degrees. This resulted in a loss of nearly 1,000 graduates in a two-year period
(Title II Higher Education Reporting System, 2015).
Sharp declines in the number of teacher education graduates have caused North
Dakota to experience challenges in hiring qualified teachers to fill the state’s classrooms
(Barth et al., 2016). In 2015, the North Dakota Education Standards and Practices Board
(ESPB) reported that the state had issued 371 educator licenses to new North Dakota
graduates compared to 416 licenses to out-of-state applicants (North Dakota Education
Standards and Practices Board, 2015). This was nearly 450 fewer in-state applicants than
a decade earlier. Former Education Standards and Practices Board Executive Director
Janet Welk stated that “North Dakota is becoming an import state for teachers”
(Nowatzki, 2015). Actions taken by the state’s lawmakers indicate that the state is
making efforts to look outside its borders for teachers. The 2011 North Dakota
legislative session approved measures to reduce certification barriers in the state.
50
Essentially, the legislature dismissed the requirement for teachers who held teaching
licenses in other states for five or more years to complete additional testing or
coursework (Van Ells, 2012). While this legislation has allowed North Dakota school
districts the flexibility to post positions nationally, it appears the shortage continues to
burden many of the state’s schools (North Dakota Education Standards and Practices
Board, 2015; Moye, 2009; Van Ells, 2012).
Wyoming has also experienced declining numbers of pre-service teachers
enrolled in its state teacher education programs (U.S. Dept. of Education Title II Report,
2016). Traditionally, the state’s single college of education annually graduates nearly 300
credentialed teachers. In 2012, the university reported 1,151 pre-service teachers
enrolled. However, by 2015, that number had fallen to 894. Moreover, the number of in-
state program completers had fallen from nearly 300 to 234 in 2015 (U.S. Dept. of
Education Title II Report, 2016).
Wyoming has traditionally relied largely on out-of-state trained teachers. On
average, the Wyoming Professional Teaching Standards Board grants 75% of its initial
teacher licensures to out-of-state trained practitioners (Sutcher et al., 2016). The state’s
reliance on out-of-state teachers has produced considerable problems for its schools
(Barth et al., 2016). Wyoming schools frequently struggle to compete with Idaho,
Montana, and Colorado for teacher applicants. In addition, the decreases in preservice
teacher enrollments in Wyoming’s college of education have resulted in teacher shortages
(U.S. Dept. of Education Title II Report, 2016; Sutcher et al., 2016).
Table I.1 (p. 219) includes Title II data demonstrating the falling enrollments
many state teacher preparation programs have experienced in the United States. The
51
table illustrates that the nation has experienced a 25.4% reduction in the number of
aspiring teachers enrolled in its teacher preparation programs between the years 2012 and
2015. The data demonstrate that the State of Kentucky has experienced the greatest
reduction in the number of aspiring teachers, with its state’s colleges of education
reporting a 56% reduction in preservice teacher enrollments. Many other states, such as
Illinois, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Arizona, and Arkansas, have also observed significant
enrollment declines in their teacher preparation programs (U.S. Dept. of Education Title
II Report, 2016; Sawchuk, 2015).
The Labor Market
Teacher Compensation
The teaching career’s inability to adapt to the changing labor market appears to
have influenced the nationwide teacher shortage (Mitchell, & Romero, 2010; Player,
2009; Hanushek, 2007). Commentators suggest that this problem stems from schools
employing traditional salary schedules that are fundamentally unable to evolve with the
demands of the non-teaching labor market (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015).
Podgursky and Springer (2011) contend that “salaries set by the schedules take no
recognition of market or performance factors” (p. 168). This phenomenon often is the
reason for individuals to exit teaching early, or leads many to choose other careers rather
than teaching (Podgursky & Springer, 2011; Mitchell, & Romero, 2010).
Reports indicate that 90% of the nation’s school districts use salary matrices,
which primarily base teacher salaries on years of experience and levels of education
(Goldhaber et al., 2016; Podgursky & Springer, 2011). This means that all teachers are
equally compensated, despite their specialty areas or levels of production in the
52
classroom (Podgursky & Springer, 2011). Scholars indicate that this practice leads to
teacher shortages in content areas such as science and math, because these specialty
teachers carry attractive credentials to employers outside the teaching labor force
(Hanushek, 2016).
Researchers suggest that more undergraduates would be more likely to consider
careers in teaching if compensation levels matched those of other professions (Baker,
2012; Podgursky & Springer, 2011; Vegas, 2007). Research demonstrates that
competitive salaries are a fundamental component in efforts to draw top tier students to a
career in teaching (Hough & Loeb, 2013; Certo & Fox, 2002; Feng, 2009; Hahs-Vaughn
& Scherff, 2008). Scholars predict that the teacher shortage will only become greater
without attempts to restructure teacher compensation (Hough & Loeb, 2013; Baker,
2012; Podgursky & Springer, 2011; Vegas, 2007).
The use of salary schedules within school districts contrasts with compensation
practices in the private sector (Podgursky & Springer, 2011; Mitchell, & Romero, 2010).
While school practices base teacher salary on years of experience and educational
attainment, the private sector forms its compensation models around employee merit and
performance (Hanushek, 2016). Moreover, the private sector is market driven, meaning
that employees can seek employment with employers who will compensate them
according to current market conditions (Podgursky & Springer, 2011; OECD, 2005). In
contrast, teacher salaries generally center on political influences, economic forces, and
governmental appropriations (Hoyle, 2001). Teacher salaries are commonly contingent
upon contract negotiations between teachers, unions, and the elected members of the
school board (Hanushek, 2016). Hanushek explains that “it is difficult for politicians
53
(school board members) to say that they have just decided on large wage increases for
teachers, particularly when other workers (in the region) are seeing much more modest
increases” (2016, p. 31). Moreover, contract agreements do not consider compensating
teachers based upon productivity. Studies have found that this practice commonly
discourages high quality candidates from considering teaching as a career (Hanushek,
2016).
The literature illustrates that the rigid teacher compensation structure has led to a
substantial decline in teacher salaries in comparison to the rest of the labor market
(Hanushek, 2016; Podgursky & Springer, 2011; Mitchell, & Romero, 2010). Prior to
World War II, the average male teacher was earning salaries greater than 50% of the
overall male population with a similar college education. Female teachers at that time
were earning closer to 70% more than other female university graduates (Podgursky &
Springer, 2011; Mitchell, & Romero, 2010). However, teacher earnings in comparison to
other college educated graduates began to significantly slide in the 1960s. Male teachers’
earnings fell below the bottom third of the earnings distributions, while female teachers’
salaries also slipped below average. This trend continues, with current literature
indicating that male and female teacher salaries are less than the salaries of 70% of
Americans with similar levels of education (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2007; Podgursky &
Springer, 2011). Moreover, reports demonstrate that many U.S. teachers earn salaries
that are less than adequate to maintain a middle-class lifestyle in the United States. A
2014 study found that 20% of teachers support their income with additional employment.
The same research demonstrated that teachers who head a family of four qualify for a
number of public assistance programs in at least 30 states (Ulrich & Straus, 2014).
54
Career Advancements
Scholars point out that the lack of pathways for veteran teachers to advance in
their careers may be a factor contributing to the teacher shortage (Guarino et al., 2006).
Studies have found that the teaching career’s “flatness” impedes status and deters
potential teacher education candidates from becoming teachers (Elfers, Plecki, St. John,
& Wedel, 2008; Zuzovsky & Libman, 2006). Most of the nation’s school districts do not
offer advancement opportunities. Essentially, the job description of a veteran teacher is
the same as that of a beginner. In most school systems, the only path forward for
effective teachers to advance is to enter an administrative position (Darling-Hammond &
Rothman, 2015).
More Opportunities for Women
Prior to the 1960s, schools could count on a healthy supply of teachers, since
education was a career field hiring educated female workers (Bacolod, 2007). This influx
of female labor filled the nation’s classrooms at a low cost (Corcoran et al., 2004). As
time passed, the non-teaching labor market began to transform, while education policy
remained stagnant (Goldin, 2004). The results of this transformation can be observed in
the 2013–14 data collected from the National Center for Education Statistics. While
education remains female dominant (78,500 female graduates compared to 20,400 male
graduates), women graduates are beginning to surpass men in a large number of other
career fields (DiPrete & Buchmann, 2013). For instance, females earned the majority of
degrees in health professions (167,800 females compared to 30,900 males), psychology
(90,000 females compared to 27,300 males), and biological and biomedical sciences
(61,200 females compared to 43,000 for males). As for males, they earned the majority
55
of degrees in business (188,400 males compared to 169,700 for females) and social
sciences (88,200 males compared to 84,900 females) (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2016a). The data indicate that female workers are in high demand, and many
are taking advantage of the opportunities the contemporary labor market outside of
education offers (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014).
The basic laws of supply and demand have been leading to fewer female
graduates willing to become teachers (Bacolod, 2007). In 1960, over 50% of female
graduates chose education as a major course of study. Three decades later, that number
had dwindled to fewer than 10%. While this trend fueled the teacher shortage in all
areas, subject-specific areas of education were the most impacted. Women who attained
university training in mathematics and science were able to transfer those skills to non-
teaching professions that offered higher salaries (Bacolod, 2007; Goldin, 2004). It
appears that expanded professional opportunities for women have disproportionately
impacted the ability to fill subject specific positions with well qualified teachers at the
secondary level (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016a; Ingersoll, Merrill, &
Stuckey, 2014; DiPrete & Buchmann, 2013).
Academic Aptitudes
The quality of the teacher labor force has also been affected by the inability of
education as a field to adapt to the changing labor market (Corcoran et al., 2004). The
literature reports that the academic aptitude of teachers has significantly changed, with
fewer academically inclined students entering the career (Bacolod, 2007). Corcoran et al.
(2004) found that women who score in the upper deciles of college entrance exams are
less likely to enter teaching. The investigators also discovered a significant reduction in
56
the academic abilities of teachers in the final four decades of the 20th century (Corcoran
et al., 2004). The scholars found that “in the 1964–71 period, 20–25 percent of all new
female teachers ranked in the top 10th decile of their high school cohort; by 2000, this
proportion dropped below 13 percent” (2004, p. 233). While the literature indicates that
academic aptitude does not entirely define teacher quality, multiple studies have found it
to be associated with student academic performance. Specifically, studies have found
significant relationships between a teacher’s verbal and mathematical skills and student
academic achievement (Corcoran et al., 2004). Thus, the inability of education to attract
high-quality students into teaching may impede the academic growth of the nation’s
students (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; OECD, 2005).
Statistics demonstrate that women are taking advantage of the opportunities the
non-teaching labor market has to offer (Bacolod, 2007; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003). The
days of women subsidizing education are long gone, and policymakers have not yet
addressed this change (Auguste et al., 2010). In the 1960s, female high school graduates
who scored in the upper quintiles on college entrance exams were two-and-a-half times
more likely to enter the teacher labor market because women did not have as many other
career opportunities available to them. Today, the labor market doors are wide open and
top female graduates are entering more prestigious occupations, while those with lower
academic aptitudes generally enter teaching (Guarino et al., 2006; Corcoran et al., 2004).
In an interview, the former president of the American Federation of Teachers, Sandra
Feldman, stated “you have to be in schools right now, among the teachers who are
retiring, very smart people. We’re not getting in now the same kinds of people. It’s
57
disastrous. We’ve been saying for years now that we are attracting people from the
bottom third” (Auguste et al., 2010, p. 12).
Several studies affirm Feldman’s contentions. Students pursuing licensure in
education (especially elementary education majors) demonstrate lower scores on
standardized tests in comparison to students who are pursuing other career options
(Malatras et al., 2017; Auguste et al., 2010). Recent ACT results demonstrate that the
majority of preservice teachers regularly produce scores that are less than the national
average, with significant achievement gaps in the sciences (ACT, 2015; Podgursky,
Monroe, & Watson, 2004). The literature reports that this trend began to emerge in the
1980s, when 20% of the women who chose to teach scored in the upper quintiles; just a
decade later, in 1992, only 3.2% of women who scored in the upper ranges chose
teaching as a career (Lankford et al., 2014; Corcoran et al., 2004).
As for men, ACT data demonstrate their minority status in teaching, with nearly
75% of the ACT participants who express interest in teaching being female. When
considering future educators who are interested in elementary and early childhood
education, this number soars to nearly 95% female. Males interested in teaching most
often express interest in pursuing a career in physical education. Moreover, the vast
majority of males interested in teaching generally produce lower scores than those of
females intending to pursue a career in education (ACT, 2015).
The effects of lower academic achievement in those interested in teaching have
produced perceptions that individuals who excel academically choose not to become
teachers (Elferes, Plecki, St. John, & Wedel, 2008). These perceptions have demoralized
the status of the teaching career and have driven potential teachers away from
58
considering a career in teaching. This might explain why only 10% of beginning teachers
enter the career from the nation’s most prestigious university systems, which is a
phenomenon that further diminishes the career’s status (Ingersoll et al., 2014). In
addition, the scrutiny from the public and, most notably, from politicians holding “public
school teachers solely responsible for the documented failures” has demoralized the
career’s esteem (Malatras et al., 2017, p. 8). Thus, “any examination of the teacher
pipeline, as well as solutions to the persistent shortage and subject matter areas, should
examine the role educator and public perception play in altering the education workforce”
(Malatras et al., 2017, p. 8).
Socio-Familial Factors
Today’s teacher is traditionally female and seeks employment close to the area
where she grew up (Reininger, 2012; Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2004). She
frequently marries a partner who generates a greater income and then has a family. This
illustration of the contemporary American teacher portrays the immobility of the teaching
workforce (Dwinal, 2015). This immobility stems from teachers establishing deep ties
within their communities and their unwillingness to uproot families to a location where
job prospects may be dismal for their spouse (Boyd et al., 2004).
These characteristics of the modern teacher pose substantial problems for rural
schools, especially when job prospects are unavailable for a spouse who generates the
most income. As for urban communities, schools frequently lose teachers to the area’s
competitive non-teaching labor market. Many credentialed teachers hold valuable skills
that are marketable, and the attractiveness of employment outside of education regularly
lures them from teaching positions (Dwinal, 2015; Reininger, 2012).
59
The Issue of Teacher Status
Commentators attest that the issue of teacher status is a critical construct to
consider when exploring strategies to mitigate the teacher shortage in America. Auguste
et al. affirmed this importance of perception when the scholars asserted “any examination
of the teacher pipeline, as well as solutions to the persistent shortage and subject matter
areas, should examine the role educator and public perception play in altering the
education workforce” (2010, p. 8). Previous research has found that correlations exist
between teacher wealth, prestige, and authority and the amount of esteem a society
affords the career (Fwu & Wang, 2002). Similar studies have demonstrated significant
relationships between nations that reward and greatly respect teachers and the
overarching value its populace places on education (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Sahlberg,
2015; Kang & Hong, 2008). Conversely, research has found associations between low
regard for the teaching career and negative social attitudes towards education (Sahlberg,
2015; Hargreaves, 2009; Kang & Hong, 2008; Hoyle, 2001).
Commentators contend that compensation is a significant indicator of the status a
society awards its teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2017). This finding suggests that U.S.
teachers may be perceived as second-rate professionals, which is an idea that contrasts
sharply with perceptions of teachers in many countries with high performing students
(Darling-Hammond, 2017; Hargreaves, 2009; Kang & Hong, 2008; Fwu & Wang, 2002;
Hoyle, 2001). Scholars contend that substantial economic, social, and professional gaps
are present between the status of American teachers and their counterparts in other
economies where students demonstrate strong academics. These ambiguities demonstrate
the important role teacher status has in shaping a nation’s education system (Fwu &
60
Wang, 2002). The literature demonstrates that the social perceptions of teachers directly
affect the integrity of the education system (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Sahlberg, 2015;
Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Hargreaves, 2009; Kang & Hong, 2008; Fwu &
Wang, 2002; Hoyle, 2001).
Lessons from Around the World
While U.S. schools scramble to find teachers, nations where teachers are held in
high esteem and enjoy high status and prestige are building high-performing education
systems (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Sahlberg, 2015; Kang & Hong, 2008; Fwu & Wang,
2002). The differences stem from the philosophical approaches in building and nurturing
a teacher workforce. Leaders in high-performing nations with diversified economies
realize that the teaching career must compete with the labor market to attract talented
individuals to teaching (Sahlberg, 2015; Kang & Hong, 2008; Fwu & Wang, 2002). This
is why much energy is expended up front to recruit, train, and support quality teachers at
the beginning stages of a teacher’s career (Darling-Hammond, 2017). This approach has
allowed high-performing nations to raise standards for career entry. More importantly, it
has increased the career’s status and prestige, even in nations where this respect is not
culturally embedded. These efforts have generated a substantial interest in teaching as a
career and have attracted the most academically able into teaching (Darling-Hammond &
Rothman, 2015; Sahlberg, 2015; Kang & Hong, 2008; Fwu & Wang, 2002).
Finland
Finnish student performance on the PISA has placed the nation into the popular
spotlight (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015). According to Sahlberg (2015),
Finland’s successes were produced by a professional teacher workforce. Sahlberg
61
explained that several conditions exist in Finland that have resulted in teaching being
considered a prestigious career. First and foremost, Finnish teachers are esteemed
professionals, comparable to lawyers, doctors, and engineers. Second, Finnish teacher
education programs are competitive and demanding. The master’s degree component
attracts many Finnish high school graduates, as they see teacher education as a
challenging field (Sahlberg, 2015).
The aforementioned conditions have resulted in Finland’s ability to attract strong
candidates into teaching (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2017; Sahlberg, 2015). Finnish
educational leaders’ efforts to raise teacher status have created a situation where the
teaching career is able to compete with other occupations for talent (Sahlberg, 2015;
Robertson, 2012; Simola, 2005). The competition to enter education programs in Finland
is robust, allowing university programs to be highly selective in choosing teacher
candidates (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Sahlberg, 2011). For instance,
thousands of upper secondary students apply to the country’s eight universities that
specialize in preparing teachers (Sahlberg, 2015). Of the thousands who apply, only
10%–15% are accepted (Sahlberg, 2015; Darling-Hammond & Haselkorn, 2009; Niemi
& Jakku-Sihvonen, 2006; Simola, 2005). In 2013, 3,200 applicants applied to study
education at the University of Helsinki. Those who were selected (approximately 340)
experienced a rigorous program of study, received a living stipend throughout their
university experience, and had their training paid for by the government (Sahlberg,
2015).
In Finland, teacher preparation is well-designed, and study concentrates heavily
on subject matter and pedagogy (Sahlberg, 2015). Candidates are ready to begin duties
62
once they earn an undergraduate and master’s degree (Sahlberg, 2011). The transition
from student to teacher involves a strong induction process, and professional
development continues through retirement (Darling-Hammond, 2017). The nation’s
respect for teachers and relatively high compensation succeed in retaining the vast
majority of Finnish teachers (Sahlberg, 2015). Many teachers pursue a PhD degree and
bring that knowledge back to the classroom as a teacher (Darling-Hammond, 2017;
Simola, 2005).
Singapore
As in Finland, teachers in Singapore enjoy high status, prestige, and esteem
(Poon, Lam, Chan, Ching, Kwek, & Tan, 2016). Adecco (2015) found that teaching was
the top career choice of upper secondary students, followed by medicine. This has not
always been true of education in Singapore (Lim, 2014). After declaring its
independence in 1965 from Malaysia, Singapore initiated a process of massive reform of
its education system (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015). Philosophies shifted from
“just getting teachers” to professionalizing the career to attract strong candidates into
teaching (Darling-Hammond, 2017, p. 292). In 1997, Singapore Prime Minister Gok
announced “every school must be a model learning organization. Teachers and principals
will constantly look out for new ideas and practices, and continuously refresh their own
knowledge. Teaching will itself be a learning profession, like any other knowledge-based
profession of the future” (Darling-Hammond, 2017, p. 292).
In Singapore, the rise in teacher status has produced a large number of graduates
aspiring to be teachers (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015). Individuals who are
strong academically, demonstrate a commitment to teaching, and are willing to teach in
63
diverse environments may be accepted into formal teacher education programs (Darling-
Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Lim, 2014). The nation’s university systems have
stringent entrance requirements and normally accept candidates who graduate in the top
one-third of their class (Lim, 2014). Like Finland, the government in Singapore provides
teaching candidates with an annual salary equivalent to $30,000 to $50,000 while they
are in school. In addition, tuition, books, and other necessary items are supplied free of
charge to support candidates through their initial university training (Darling-Hammond,
2017). Acceptance of this support requires the candidate to successfully graduate from
university training and teach for a period of 3 to 5 years. If the requirements are not met,
the candidate must repay 100% of the funding (Darling-Hammond, 2017).
After graduation, new teachers enter comprehensive induction programs and
begin to earn a salary commensurate with fields like law and engineering (Lim, 2014).
The nation makes every effort to continue to attract and retain the country’s most talented
teachers. Leaders are conscious of the labor market and closely monitor the salaries of
other career fields (Tan, 2012).
In Singapore, policymakers developed career advancement opportunities in
teaching that connect theory to practice. These initial ideas originated from leaders who
consciously understood that promotion opportunities influence a profession’s prestige.
These principles continue to be practiced today, with Singapore school leaders allocating
time and training for teachers aspiring to grow into leadership positions. Likewise,
similar supports have been allocated for teachers to strengthen their craft and move into
senior or mentor teacher roles (Darling-Hammond, 2017).
64
South Korea
As with Singapore, teacher status in South Korea allows the nation’s schools to
attract and retain highly talented teachers (Dolton & Marcenaro-Guiterrez, 2013; Kang &
Hong, 2008). South Korean schools experience a 1% early attrition rate in comparison to
8-16% in the United States. Most importantly, South Korea’s ability to attract and retain
highly qualified teachers has allowed the country to ensure that rural and low-
socioeconomic urban schools are fully staffed with credentialed teachers (Kang & Hong,
2008).
In comparison to teachers in the United States, South Korean teachers are better
compensated, earning a salary that has 2.4 times more purchasing power than the salaries
of U.S. teachers. When comparing other career fields requiring four-year and graduate
degrees in South Korea, the medical field has an income level greater than 27% of the
average income, followed by education, producing wages greater than 15%, and
engineering, with salaries more than 13% above average (Kang & Hong, 2008).
The high status of teaching in South Korea annually draws large numbers of
graduates to apply to the nation’s university teacher education programs. This interest in
teaching has led to rigorous admission requirements, where decisions for entrance rest on
grade point averages, teacher recommendations, government administered college
entrance exams, the National Teacher Employment Test, essay exams, and interviews.
Admission into the nation’s teacher education programs is highly competitive. For
example, in 2007, secondary education departments associated with university systems in
Busan, South Korea, produced the highest scores on the national college entrance exam
(pharmacy and medicine followed) (Kang & Hong, 2008).
65
When South Korean teacher candidates complete the required program of study,
they are granted lifetime credentials (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Kang & Hong, 2008).
Once licensed, new teachers experience the rigorous competition to acquire a teaching
position. However, those teachers who gain employment are granted tenure until
retirement. This aspect of teaching in South Korea is attractive, since South Koreans
value lifetime service. More importantly, tenure until retirement supports the retention of
the nation’s best teachers (Kang & Hong, 2008).
By granting new teachers tenure at inception, the South Korean government has
emphasized the importance of professional development in education (Kang & Hong,
2008). New teachers are required to participate in comprehensive induction programs,
but they are also eligible to earn an advanced certificate at the conclusion of their third
year of teaching. The advanced certificate leads to an increase in compensation and
eligibility to advance into administrative positions (Kang & Hong 2008).
Canada
In an effort to improve the Canadian teacher workforce, some provinces have
emulated best practices of countries with high performing students. Canadian
governments have increased compensation and provided financial supports for teachers to
earn graduate degrees. These policies have led to substantial increases in applicants
seeking admission into the nation’s teacher education programs and have created an
environment where university systems can maintain high admission standards for teacher
education candidates. Candidates must possess high grade point averages, participate in
interviews, develop portfolios, and volunteer time in schools (Darling-Hammond, 2017).
66
Canada’s growing teacher workforce has allowed provincial governments to
increase teacher licensing requirements (Darling-Hammond, 2017). For example,
Ontario policymakers passed legislation requiring teachers to earn master’s degrees and
participate in extended clinical experiences prior to assuming employment as a teacher
(Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015). Recent PISA scores signal that the reforms may
be leading to stronger student performance (PISA, 2015). In 2015, Canadian fifteen year
olds outperformed U.S. fifteen year olds in each academic category. Further, Canadian
students produced the seventh strongest means in science, tied for second in reading, and
scored the ninth strongest means in mathematics (PISA, 2015; Darling-Hammond &
Rothman, 2015). In a recent survey in Alberta, 89% of the province’s teachers expressed
a commitment to teaching and were proud of their career choice (Darling-Hammond,
2017).
Taiwan
Research indicates that teacher workforces are sensitive to compensation
packages and that graduates are more likely to pursue teaching as a career when salary
and benefits are comparable to other careers (Podgursky & Springer, 2011; Vegas, 2007;
Fwu & Wang, 2002). Taiwanese officials have embraced these findings and have
employed a number of financial measures to recruit teacher candidates that hold the
strongest academic aptitudes (Fwu & Wang, 2002). Taiwanese teachers generally earn
25% more compensation as compared to graduates holding similar university degrees
(Fwu & Wang, 2002). Teachers also receive two months off in the summer and one
month off for winter vacation. Yet, they are paid for twelve months of work and receive
a bonus of 1.5 months of additional salary (Fwu & Wang, 2002). Taiwanese teachers are
67
exempt from paying any form of income tax and are able to tap into a government funded
retirement system at the age of 50 (Fwu & Wang, 2002).
Teacher education programs in Taiwan are perceived to be academically rigorous
to other discipline areas (Fwu & Wang, 2002). Scholars attest that these views stem from
the high academic aptitudes teacher candidates carry into university teacher preparation
programs (Fwu & Wang, 2002). These views also stem from the competitiveness that
has developed to enter colleges that offer education degrees. Taiwanese university
systems regularly receive a significant number of applications from graduates seeking
entrance into teacher education programs. With such large numbers, university officials
are able to select the most academically inclined applicants (Fwu & Wang, 2002).
While teacher training is highly regarded in Taiwan, the opposite holds true in the
United States (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Lankford et al., 2014; Mackenzie,
2007). Teacher training is regularly regarded to be a low status activity (Darling-
Hammond & Rothman, 2015; Hargreaves, 2009; Hoyle, 2001). While Taiwanese
university systems are flooded with high quality applicants seeking to enter teacher
education programs, U.S. colleges are willing to accept mediocre candidates (Corcoran et
al., 2004). This struggle to recruit academically able candidates into teaching keeps the
status of teaching low in the United States (Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2015).
The evidence from nations where teaching is an attractive career supports
Ingersoll’s (1999) claim that “ultimately, the way to upgrade the quality of teaching and
teachers is to upgrade the quality of the teaching job. Well-paid, well-respected
occupations that offer good working conditions rarely have difficulties with recruitment
or retention” (p. 35). Nations that have consciously led efforts to uplift the career’s status
68
have developed a talented teacher workforce, where the majority of teachers remain until
retirement (Sahlberg, 2011; OECD, 2005). Moreover, the high academic caliber and the
heightened status of teachers have produced an upward cycle leading to higher university
entry requirements, higher salaries, and high quality continuing education. Thus, the
cycle consistently attracts talented individuals into teaching, which further raises the
status of the profession (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Hargreaves, 2009; Hargreaves et al.,
2007; Hoyle, 2001; Wolfensberger, 2000). Most importantly, this upward cycle has
resulted in increases in student learning (Sahlberg, 2015; OECD, 2014; Sahlberg, 2011;
Kang & Hong, 2008).
Economic Implications
It is a widely held contention that quality teachers are the most important element
in generating student learning (Hanushek, 2016; McLeskey & Billingsley, 2008; Rockoff,
2004; Sanders & Horn, 1998). Research demonstrates that gains in student learning can
significantly differ from one classroom to the next. Scholars have found that some
teachers consistently produce stronger gains in student achievement than do others
(Stronge, Ward, & Grant, 2011; Rockoff, 2004). Yet, with evidence establishing these
assertions, a lack of consensus remains as to the appropriate policies to employ to ensure
an efficient teacher workforce (Brimley, Verstegen, & Garfield, 2016; Darling-
Hammond, 2010b). Proposals thus far have either called for tighter regulations to monitor
quality or financial incentives to generate interest in the teaching career (Liu et al., 2014;
Malen, 2003). To date, education policy research and discourse have centered on teacher
quality and its impact on student learning, not on economic analyses to demonstrate the
economic outputs that quality instruction produces (Brimley, et al., 2016; Rothstein,
69
2010; Coolahan, 2002). Generally, policymakers and the public base their decisions on
quality by test scores without considering the economic returns on the investment.
Evaluating teacher quality and connecting student achievement to later economic gains
shed light on the value of quality teachers (Psacharopoulos & Patrinos, 2018; Hanushek,
2011; Coolahan, 2002).
The bottom line is that the vast majority of the public perceives education as a
cost and associates it with taxes (Corcoran & Evans, 2010). This perception could
change if education were reframed as an investment and the public understood the
implications quality instruction has on the overall economy (Psacharopoulos & Patrinos,
2018; Hanushek, Ruhose, & Woessmann, 2016). Research demonstrates that educated
individuals typically enjoy higher earnings in comparison to their counterparts.
Unemployment results from a lack of education and skills that could be applied in some
form of work (Brimley et al., 2016). Research does not include models or evidence
demonstrating the impact a quality teacher workforce may have on unemployment.
However, research demonstrates that unemployment is a cost burden to the economy.
Scholars found that:
● “Compared to college graduates, annual losses exceed $267,390 in federal and
state income taxes for each high school dropout over his or her lifetime” (Brimley
et al., 2016, p. 15).
● “The nation loses $150 billion in combined income and tax revenue with each
cohort of 18 year olds who never complete high school and $610 billion in costs
to society” (Brimley et al., 2016, p. 15).
70
● “Aggregate health-related losses for the estimated annual 800,000 high school
dropouts total at least $75.2 billion, or nearly $95,000 per student” (Brimley et al.,
2016, p. 15).
● “The country could save about $50 billion in income losses and $200 billion in
social costs annually by improving educational attainment among all recipients of
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), food stamps, and housing
assistance. Savings from the costs of crime could total $198,410 per dropout, or
over $158 billion per cohort” (Brimley et al., 2016, p. 15).
● “Increasing the high school completion rate by just 5 percent would save this
country as much as $32 billion in reduced costs from crime over a lifetime”
(Brimley et al., 2016, p. 15).
● “The economic benefits of participation in model preschool programs range as
high as $7–$10 for each dollar invested” (Brimley et al., 2016, p. 15).
● “College graduates are three times more likely to vote than Americans without a
high school degree; those who earn more are far more likely to be affiliated with a
political organization” (Brimley et al., 2016, p. 15).
Evidence indicates that nations that have an abundance of human capital in
conjunction with a wide variety of natural resources are in a better position to generate an
economy that is self-sufficient and can grow (Psacharopoulos & Patrinos, 2018).
Scholars attest that nations that have invested in their human capital and developed an
educated populace can overcome to some degree the lack of natural resources. However,
nations with an abundance of natural resources that lack human capital cannot generate
individual economic productivity (Brimley et al., 2016). Finland, Taiwan, Japan, and
71
Singapore have limited natural resources, but those nations have invested in their
education systems to ensure that they place the very best teachers into classrooms
(Brimley et al., 2016). Through education, Finland developed the technological giant
Nokia; Japan has impacted the global economy with its vehicles and technology;
Singapore has become the fastest growing economy in the world with its emphasis on
world-wide trade; and Taiwan has grown into the fifth largest economy in Asia
(Hanushek & Woessmann, 2016; Sahlberg, 2015). At the opposite end of the spectrum
are nations such as Brazil, Indonesia, and Nigeria, which are rich in natural resources, but
struggle to grow their economies because of the lack of human capital (Hanushek et al.,
2016; Brimley et al., 2016).
Summary of Chapter II
Chapter II presented a comprehensive overview of the current literature
surrounding the complexities of the teacher shortage. A discussion centering on the
problem’s regional impacts began the chapter, with highlights portraying the tribulations
U.S. schools face in procuring credentialed science, math, and special education teachers.
The problems surrounding early teacher attrition followed, with discourse reviewing
several mitigation strategies. Moreover, the chapter illustrated the falling enrollment
trends in university teacher preparation programs, with data depicting fewer prepared
teachers, and a growing demand. The inability of the teaching profession to compete for
graduates in the labor market was also a source of discussion, with empirical evidence
demonstrating that more opportunities for women have led to a downward trend in the
academic aptitudes of new teachers entering the career field. Finally, lessons from high
achieving nations were presented.
72
CHAPTER III.
METHODOLOGY
Chapter III provides information regarding population, demographics, and the
instrument’s framework and background. It also includes a description of the instrument
and details the study’s methods. Lastly, the chapter concludes with an explanation of the
consent process and highlights the data analysis procedures.
Population
A total of 1,502 Midwestern high school seniors and college undergraduates
participated in the study. While 375 participants reported an insufficient knowledge of
the teaching career and were excluded, a total of 302 high school seniors and 825 college
undergraduates were retained. This sample population represents 2% of the total possible
responses (1,127 participants vs. 67,546 total possibilities).
Population Locations
The investigator made efforts to acquire a diverse population by providing
multiple high school senior and university undergraduate student populations the
opportunity to engage in this research. The sites were carefully considered in an attempt
to secure differing regional and demographic perspectives of teaching’s prestige, status,
and esteem. In total, student perceptions from 5 universities, 6 rural public school
systems, 4 urban cluster public school systems, 1 urban cluster private school system, and
73
2 urban public school systems were obtained from the Midwestern region of the United
States.
Urban Public School Districts
The location of the first site is in a large metropolitan area in southeastern North
Dakota. It serves a community of 120,000 residents, and its attendance area encompasses
nearly 60.39 square miles. The school district provides instruction for 11,022 students in
three comprehensive high schools, one alternative high school, three middle schools, and
sixteen elementary schools. The district’s enrollment consists primarily of Caucasian
students (74%); however, it includes African-American (13%), Asian (5%), Hispanic
(3%), and Native American (2.5%) pupils as well. The enrollment includes 844 English
Language Learners who speak 71 different languages. The school district reports that it
serves nearly 1,430 students with special needs, and almost a third of its total enrollment
(32%) is eligible for free or reduced meals. The district maintains an average class size
of 20 students and has a 95% average daily attendance rate. The district graduates 87%
of its students on time, and its students have an average ACT score of 21. Lastly, the
district affirms that all of its schools are accredited by the North Dakota Department of
Public Instruction and the North Central Association NCA of Colleges and Schools.
The second location is in northeastern North Dakota. It serves a community of
55,000 residents, and its attendance area encompasses nearly 80 square miles. The
school district provides instruction for 7,459 students in two comprehensive high schools,
one alternative high school, two middle schools, and eleven elementary schools. The
district’s enrollment is composed mainly of Caucasian students (75%), but it also
includes African-American (9%), Asian (4%), Hispanic (6%), and Native American (6%)
74
pupils. The district serves 1,078 students with special needs, and over a third of its total
student population (39%) is eligible for free or reduced meals. The district maintains an
average class size of 21 students and has a 96% average daily attendance rate. The
district graduates 87% of its students on time, and its students have an average ACT score
of 21. Finally, the district contends that all schools are accredited by the North Dakota
Department of Public Instruction and the NCA of Colleges and Schools.
Public and Private School Systems Located in Urban Clusters
The first school district located in an urban cluster is in northwestern North
Dakota. It serves a community of 6,390 residents, and its attendance area encompasses
nearly 1,679 square miles. The school district provides instruction for 1,435 students in
one comprehensive high school and one elementary school. The district’s enrollment
consists primarily of Caucasian students (80%); however, it includes African-American
(2%), Hispanic (12%), and Native American (3%) pupils as well. The school district
reports that it serves 141 students (11%) with special needs, 49 English Language
Learners, and almost a third of its total enrollment (31%) is eligible for free or reduced
meals. The district maintains an average class size of nearly 18 students, graduates 89%
of its students on time, and its students produce an average ACT score of 20. Lastly, the
district affirms that all of its schools are accredited by the North Dakota Department of
Public Instruction and the North Central Association NCA of Colleges and Schools.
The second school district located in an urban cluster is situated in west central
Minnesota. It serves a community of 13,419 residents, and its attendance area
encompasses nearly 324 square miles. The school district provides instruction for 2,708
students in one comprehensive high school, one alternative school, one middle school,
75
and four elementary schools. The district’s enrollment consists primarily of Caucasian
students (87%); however, it includes African-American (4%), Hispanic (3%), and Native
American (1%) pupils as well. The school district reports that it serves 351 students
(13%) with special needs and has 22 English Language Learners; nearly a third of its
total enrollment (35%) is eligible for free or reduced meals. The district maintains an
average class size of 18 students and graduates 70% of its students on time, and its
students produce an average ACT score of 25.
A school district in eastern North Dakota served as the third urban cluster site. It
serves a community of 6,606 residents, and its attendance area encompasses nearly 354
square miles. The school district provides instruction for 1,072 students in one
comprehensive high school, one alternative school, and two elementary schools. The
district’s enrollment consists primarily of Caucasian students (98%); however, it includes
African-American (4%), Hispanic (3%), and Native American (3%) pupils as well. The
school district reports that it serves 140 students (13%) with special needs and has 13
English Language Learners. Almost a third of its total enrollment (35%) is eligible for
free or reduced meals. The district maintains an average class size of nearly 16 students,
graduates 96% of its students on time, and its students produce an average ACT score of
20. Lastly, the district affirms that all of its schools are accredited by the North Dakota
Department of Public Instruction and the North Central Association NCA of Colleges and
Schools.
A school district in central North Dakota served as the fourth urban cluster site. It
serves a community of 16,000 residents, and provides instruction for 2,180 students in
one comprehensive high school, one alternative school, one middle school and five
76
elementary schools. The district’s enrollment consists primarily of Caucasian students
(87%); however, it includes African-American (4%), Hispanic (4%), and Native
American (3%) pupils as well. The school district reports that it serves 334 students
(15%) with special needs, 23 English Language Learners, and almost a third of its (34%)
total enrollment is eligible for free or reduced meals. The district maintains an average
class size of nearly 18 students, graduates 90% of its students on time, and its students
produce an average ACT score of 21. Lastly, the district affirms that all of its schools are
accredited by the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction and the North Central
Association NCA of Colleges and Schools.
A private school system in western North Dakota served as the final urban cluster
site. It serves a community of 17,787 residents, and provides instruction for 575 students
in one comprehensive high school and 2 elementary schools. Because of its private
status, specific student and assessment data were not publically available. However, the
private system affirms that all three of its schools are accredited by the North Dakota
Schools.
Rural School Districts
The first rural site is a school district in north-central North Dakota. The district
encompasses 72 square miles and includes one comprehensive high school, one middle
school, and one elementary school. The community is made up of 2,078 residents, with
approximately 85% of the school district patrons living in isolated areas outside the
community. The school district provides instruction for 1,747 students in one
comprehensive high school, one middle school and one elementary school. The district’s
77
enrollment consists primarily of Native American students (98%); however, it includes a
small population of Caucasian pupils (2%). The school district reports that it serves 34
students (2%) with special needs, and nearly all of its students (98%) are eligible for free
or reduced meals. The district maintains an average class size of nearly 11 students and
graduates 70% of its students on time. Its students produce an average ACT score of 19.
The second rural site is in far south-central North Dakota. The district
encompasses an area of 475 square miles and serves a community of nearly 528
residents. The school district provides instruction for 178 students in one comprehensive
high school and one elementary school. The district’s enrollment consists primarily of
Caucasian students (91%); however, it includes African-American (2%), Hispanic (2%),
and Native American (4%) pupils. The school district reports that it serves 28 (16%)
students with special needs, and nearly a third of its (30%) total enrollment is eligible for
free or reduced meals. The district maintains an average class size of nearly 7 students,
graduates 100% of its students on time, and its students produce an average ACT score of
22. Lastly, the district affirms that all of its schools are accredited by the North Dakota
Schools.
A site in far south-central North Dakota served as the third rural site. The school
district encompasses an area of approximately 350 square miles and serves a community
of nearly 1,781 residents. The district provides instruction for 498 students in one
comprehensive high school and one elementary school. The district’s enrollment consists
primarily of Caucasian students (88%); however, it includes African-American (1%),
Hispanic (9%), and Native American (2%) pupils. The school district reports that it
78
serves 51 (10%) students with special needs, 18 English Language Learners, and a
quarter of its (25%) total enrollment is eligible for free or reduced meals. The district
maintains an average class size of nearly 16 students, graduates 94% of its students on
time, and its students produce an average ACT score of 21. Lastly, the district affirms
that all of its schools are accredited by the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction
and the North Central Association NCA of Colleges and Schools.
The fourth rural site is in far south-central North Dakota. The school district
encompasses an area of nearly 429 square miles and serves a community of 1,022
residents. The district provides instruction for 267 students in one comprehensive high
school and one elementary school. The student population is homogeneously Caucasian
(95%); however, it includes a small population of Native American students (2%).
Further, the school district reports that 9% of its student population receive special
education services, and nearly a third of its (31%) total enrollment is eligible for free or
reduced meals. The district has an average daily attendance rate of 96% and graduates
100% of its students on time. Finally, the district affirms that all schools are accredited
by the North Dakota Department of Public Instruction and the NCA of Colleges and
Schools.
A school district in the southeastern corner of North Dakota was the fifth rural
site. The district encompasses an area of nearly 220 square miles and serves a
community of nearly 1,000 residents. The district serves 277 students in one high school
and one elementary school. The district’s enrollment consists primarily of Caucasian
students (95%); however, it includes a small population of Hispanic (1%), and Native
American (3%) pupils. The school district reports that it serves 44 (16%) students with
79
special needs, and a quarter of its (25%) total enrollment is eligible for free or reduced
meals. The district maintains an average class size of nearly 10 students, graduates 100%
of its students on time, and reports its students produce an average ACT score of 22.
Lastly, the district affirms that all of its schools are accredited by the North Dakota
Schools.
The final rural site is located in northwestern North Dakota. The school district
encompasses an area of nearly 880 square miles and serves two communities totaling 695
residents. The district provides instruction for 403 students in two comprehensive high
schools and two elementary schools. The student population is homogeneously Caucasian
(91%); however, it includes a population of Hispanic (5%), and Native American (2%)
pupils. Further, the school district reports that 15% of its student population receive
special education services, and 16% of its total enrollment is eligible for free or reduced
meals. The district has an average daily attendance rate of 96%, graduates 94% of its
students on time, and indicates its students produce an average ACT score of 22. Lastly,
the district affirms that all schools are accredited by the North Dakota Department of
Public Instruction and the NCA of Colleges and Schools.
University Settings
The first site is a mid-sized, urban public university system with 5,923 students
enrolled. The college is on the western border of Minnesota and employs 209 full-time
and 137 part-time faculty. It offers seventy-four majors, eleven pre-professional
programs, twelve graduate degrees, twenty-eight graduate and undergraduate certificates,
and thirty-one areas of teacher licensure preparation. Its largest major fields of study are
80
elementary inclusive education, business administration, biology, social work, and
nursing. In addition, it offers a number of unique fields of study, such as East Asian
studies, geosciences, project management, and medical physics. The university is
accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and is a member of the North Central
Association of Colleges and Schools. The greater part of the student body is Caucasian
(77%), female (60%), and under 24 years of age (82%). Most students are considered to
be full-time, while 21% of students retain part-time status. The college offers a 19:1
student-to-faculty ratio and has a student retention rate of 76%. Finally, the university
reports that 48% of its students who begin their studies as full-time, first-time, degree- or
certificate-seeking students complete a degree or other award within 150% of the “normal
time” it takes to complete the program.
The second site is a four year public university serving a population of 1,422
students in central North Dakota. It employs 70 full-time and 37 part-time faculty
members who provide instruction in nearly 80 undergraduate degree programs. The
university offers undergraduate degrees in art, business, communication arts, computer
systems, software engineering, education, health and physical education. It also offers an
online Master of Education (M.Ed.) and Master of Arts in Teaching (M.A.T.) program
for students who have previously earned an undergraduate degree in education. Lastly, it
is fully accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. The university’s student body is
mainly Caucasian (83%), female (58%), and under 24 years of age (77%). Most students
are considered to be full-time, while 38% retain part-time status. The college offers an
11:1 student-to-faculty ratio and has a student retention rate of 71%. Finally, the
university reports that 35% of its students who begin their studies as full-time, first-time,
81
degree- or certificate-seeking students complete a degree or other award within 150% of
the “normal time” it takes to complete the program.
The third site is a four year public university serving a population of 1,130
students in northeastern North Dakota. It employs 45 full-time and one part-time faculty
to provide instruction in nearly 30 undergraduate degree programs. The university offers
undergraduate degrees in biology, chemistry, mathematics, music, education, physical
education, English, health, and sports management. It also offers a Master of Arts in
Teaching (M.A.T.) program for students who have previously earned an undergraduate
degree in education. It is fully accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. The
university’s student body is mainly Caucasian (76%), female (55%), and under 24 years
of age (76%). Most students are considered to be full-time, while 45% retain part-time
status. The college offers a 13:1 student-to-faculty ratio and has a student retention rate
of 61%. Finally, the university reports that 31% of its students who begin their studies
as full-time, first-time, degree- or certificate-seeking students complete a degree or other
award within 150% of the “normal time” it takes to complete the program.
The fourth site is a large four year public university serving a population of
14,358 students in southeastern North Dakota. It employs 912 full-time and 131 part-time
faculty to provide instruction in 96 major fields of study, 151 degree programs, 86
masters, and 53 doctoral degree programs. The university offers undergraduate degrees in
a wide range of areas, such as engineering, education, nursing, architecture, fine arts,
music, and agricultural fields. In addition, it offers master and doctoral programs in areas
such as software engineering, education, philosophy, pharmacy, and accountancy. The
university is fully accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. The university’s
82
student body is mainly Caucasian (86%), male (54%), and under 24 years of age (92%).
Most students are considered to be full-time, while 11% retain part-time status. The
college offers a 19:1 student-to-faculty ratio and has a student retention rate of 80%.
Lastly, the university reports that 55% of its students who begin their studies as full-time,
first-time, degree- or certificate-seeking students complete a degree or other award within
150% of the “normal time” it takes to complete the program.
The final site is a large four year public university serving a population of 14,648
students in northeastern North Dakota. It employs 781 full-time and 429 part-time faculty
to provide instruction in nearly 200 fields of study. The university offers undergraduate
degrees in a wide range of areas, such as mechanical engineering, education, nursing,
psychology, commercial aviation, marketing, communication, and accountancy. It also
offers masters and doctoral degree programs in areas such as software engineering,
education, law, medicine, biology, and chemistry. The university is fully accredited by
the Higher Learning Commission. The university’s student body is mainly Caucasian
(86%), male (57%), and under 24 years of age (83%). Most students are considered to be
full-time, while 22% retain part-time status. The college offers a 21:1 student-to-faculty
ratio and has a student retention rate of 80%. Finally, the university reports that 55% of
its students who begin their studies as full-time, first-time, degree- or certificate-seeking
students complete a degree or other award within 150% of the “normal time” it takes to
complete the program.
The Survey Instrument
The survey instrument’s framework (Appendix A) originated from the work of
Hoyle and the Teacher Status Project. Its questions were formulated from Hoyle’s three
83
dimensions of semantic status (prestige, status, and esteem), and statements that appeared
in the Teacher Status Project. While decisions were made to include a number of the
original statements from the Teacher Status Project, the majority were modified to
address the present study’s research questions (Hargreaves et al., 2007; Hoyle, 2001).
Moreover, questions were formulated specifically for the statistical methods that were
used in the analysis. See Appendix B for the survey instrument codebook.
The instrument contained an eight-point Likert scale that was designed to measure
participants’ perceptions of the teaching career’s prestige, status, and esteem (Appendix
A). It included 17 questions that were divided into 6 sections, with the first seeking
demographic information. In this section, participants were asked to respond to 8
questions, which ranged from family financial status to ACT score information (e.g.,
Please indicate your career aspirations, Please choose one of the following that best
describes your hometown, What was your act score?, Please select one of the following
that best describes your parent’s/family income, Select description that best describes
you). The section concluded with a question that served as a dependent variable
throughout the analysis (To what degree have you considered teaching as a career?).
Section II asked participants to respond to questions concerning their perceptions
of the teaching career’s prestige. This section included 16 statements, ranging from the
perceptions of teacher salaries to the image of the teaching career (e.g., Teachers earn an
appropriate salary, The public has a positive image of the teaching career, The image of
the classroom environment produces positive images of teaching, The teaching career
offers promotion opportunities, Teachers earn a salary that allows them to feel
financially secure). The section concluded with a question that served as a dependent
84
variable throughout the analysis (To what degree do the perceptions of the teaching
career encourage or discourage you to become a teacher?).
Section III asked participants to respond to questions concerning their perceptions
of the teaching career’s status. This section included 13 statements ranging from the
perceptions of the knowledge and abilities of the workforce and the career’s professional
status (e.g., The workforce has teachers who are recognized to have expertise in certain
areas, Teaching positions are competitive, Teaching is a highly sought after career,
Teaching is considered a professional career, Teachers exhibit a high level of work
performance, The teacher workforce is comprised of skilled individuals). Section III
concluded with a question that served as a dependent variable throughout the analysis (To
what degree do the perceptions of the teaching career’s professional status encourage or
discourage you to become a teacher?).
Section IV asked participants to respond to questions concerning their perceptions
of the teaching career’s esteem. This section included 12 items that ranged from the
media portrayal of the teaching career to respect (The government values the teaching
career, Teachers are trusted by the wider community, Teachers have the respect of their
students, The public values the teaching career, Teachers have the respect of community
members).
Section V followed, asking participants to respond to questions concerning their
considerations to teach if their perceptions of prestige, status, and esteem were different.
This section included 18 items that addressed topics such as teacher compensation and
the career’s professional status (Society has a high regard for the teaching career, The
teaching career offers full-retirement at 50, The teaching career is considered a high
85
status occupation, Teaching careers offer salary levels similar to comparable
professions, Teaching careers offer cost of living stipends while students attend teacher
education training). This section concluded with a question that served as a dependent
variable throughout the analysis (To what degree would you consider the teaching career
if you perceived the aforementioned statements in question 15 to be true?).
Finally, Section VI measured the knowledge each participant felt they had in
answering the survey instrument’s questions (e.g., Did you feel knowledgeable in
answering the survey questions?).
Data Collection Procedures
Prior to launching the study, the investigator sought written consent (Appendix C)
from each public schools superintendent. The approval documents (Appendix D) that
were received were included with the required Institutional Review Board forms that
were submitted to the University of North Dakota’s Institutional Review Board.
Immediately following approval from UND’s Institutional Review Board, the
investigator dispersed an email (Appendix E) to participating high school counselors and
principals. The email included a brief explanation of the study and information detailing
an opportunity to win one of two $50.00 VISA cards. More importantly, the email
requested principal support and high school counselor assistance in dispersing the survey
link to high school seniors (Appendix F). This initial correspondence asked high school
counselors to send a confirmation email to [email protected] once the survey link
had been dispersed to a minimum of 60% of their senior populations.
The approval from UND’s Institutional Review Board also set in motion
undergraduate recruitment procedures. Phone contacts were made to each of the
86
involved study locations’ Institutional Review Boards. Three of the Institutional Review
Boards honored UND’s Institutional Review Board’s approval and allowed for the study
to immediately commence. The other requested additional information specific to its
university. The investigator submitted the required documents and the Institutional
Review Board approved the study.
Immediately following the approval from each respective Institutional Review
Boards, the investigator sent an email contact (Appendix G) to participating university
department chairs requesting assistance in forwarding the student recruitment letter
(Appendix H) to their undergraduate populations. The initial email highlighted an
opportunity to win one of two $50.00 VISA cards (two $50.00 VISA cards were set aside
for the department chair group). Department chairs who included the investigator's email
address in the forward to undergraduates automatically were registered for the
department chair drawing.
Participants (both undergraduates and high school seniors) also had an
opportunity to win one of two $50.00 VISA cards by completing the instrument. The
recruitment letter (forwarded by counselors and university department chairs) and the
informed consent page at the start of the survey outlined this information for students
prior to the start of the study (Appendix H). Students who chose to participate were
made aware of the specific registration procedures for the VISA cards at the conclusion
of the study. Directions prompted interested participants to follow a link to a separate
Qualtrics page. This page provided participants a space to input their first name and
email address. This procedure eliminated linking identifiable information to survey data.
87
Consent
A consent statement was the landing page for the on-line study. This allowed
participants the opportunity to view a brief introduction highlighting the study’s
background, its purpose, and information regarding their rights as participants. The
consent statement informed participants that their participation was voluntary and that
they were able to exit at any time. Finally, the consent statement informed participants
that their participation indicated consent.
The study did not need written consent because it was too difficult to obtain from
the multiple study locations. More importantly, the study did not pose risks to
participants beyond those experienced in everyday life. At no time were participants
required to provide identifying data, and at no time were methods used to identify
individual participants. Lastly, the study did not involve procedures for which written
consent was required outside of the research context.
Data Analysis
Raw data from 1,127 participants were transferred from Qualtrics and placed into
SPSS. The data were subjected to a number of Principal Axis Factor Analyses with
Direct oblimin rotation. Multiple bivariate correlation studies were used to examine the
relationships between several populations of high school senior and college
undergraduate perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, esteem, and their teaching
considerations. A number of hierarchical linear regressions were also used because
correlation does not suggest causation. The analyses examined several populations of
high school senior and college undergraduates and their perceptions of teaching’s
88
prestige, status, and esteem, and measured the effects that the perceptions have on their
teaching considerations.
The final phase of the analysis investigated the impact of international education
policy on the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem, and whether
improvements in the perceptions of teaching increase high school senior and college
undergraduate interest in teaching. A number of independent t-tests were used
throughout this segment of the study to determine if policy intended to improve
teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem increased interest in teaching. Multiple bivariate
correlation analyses were also used to examine the relationships between several
populations of high school seniors and college undergraduates and their post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem, and their post-policy teaching
considerations. Lastly, numerous hierarchical linear regressions examined several
populations of high school seniors and college undergraduates and their post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem, and measured the effects that the
perceptions have on post-policy teaching considerations.
Chapter III Summary
Chapter III detailed the survey instrument, its background, and the multi-step data
collection process that required IRB approval from multiple universities, approval from
multiple school districts, and the support of numerous professionals. The chapter
reported that the survey instrument was dispersed electronically via Qualtrics, and
consent was gained once participants commenced the study. In total, Midwestern high
school seniors and college undergraduates from 5 universities, 6 rural public school
systems, 4 urban cluster public school systems, and 1 urban cluster private school system
89
had the opportunity to participate in the study. The chapter presented that 1,502 high
school seniors and college undergraduates participate in the study, but 375 were excluded
due to their insufficient knowledge of teaching. The responses from 1,127 participants
were retained for analysis.
Chapter III briefly outlined the methods used to measure the data, but a thorough
explanation of the analysis follows in Chapter IV. Chapter IV describes the data analysis
procedures and statistical techniques and reports the results. The chapter presents the
results in multiple tables with narratives providing detail. The tables are presented in
order as the data are discussed. The narratives include both table and page numbers for
reference. This may be unusual, but due to the volume of data, the inclusion of page
numbers may be necessary to support readability.
90
CHAPTER IV.
RESULTS
The data analysis used multiple Principal Axis Factor Analyses on the items that
formed the prestige, status, esteem, policy intervention prestige, policy intervention
status, and policy intervention esteem scales. A Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure
assessed the suitability of each analysis and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity ensured that
the data in each analysis were factorable. Loads with eigenvalues greater than one were
retained, and a Direct oblimin was used in each analysis to support interpretability and to
assure construct validity. Each of the scales’ skewness and kurtosis were examined to
affirm normal distribution, and Cronbach’s Alphas were employed to ensure each scales’
reliability.
Prior to analysis, concerns of multicollinearity led to a decision to center the
independent variables (Swaminathan, Groening, Mittai, & Thomaz, 2014; Sheih, 2011).
The purpose for the use of this technique was to ensure that independent variables were
not excessively related. After centering, multiple bivariate correlation analyses were
used to study the relationships between the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and
esteem and high school senior and college undergraduate teaching considerations.
Hierarchical linear regressions followed each correlation analysis to measure the
influence teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem may have on high school senior and
college undergraduate teaching considerations. The standardized β coefficient was used
91
to aid the interpretability of each analysis, and particular attention was directed toward
each of the R²s that were produced. The R²s afforded the opportunity to interpret the
effects individual independent variables may have on high school senior and college
undergraduate teaching considerations.
A number of ANOVAs and independent t-tests were used to determine whether
international education policy intended to improve teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem
in the United States would increase interest in teaching. In addition, multiple bivariate
correlation analyses were used to examine the relationships between high school senior
and college undergraduate post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and
esteem, and their post-policy teaching considerations. Hierarchical linear regressions
followed each correlation analysis to measure the effects post-policy perceptions of
teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem may have on high school senior and college
undergraduate post-policy teaching considerations. The standardized β coefficient was
used to aid the interpretability of each analysis, and particular attention was directed
toward each of the R²s that were produced. The R²s afforded the opportunity to interpret
the effects individual independent variables may have on high school senior and college
undergraduate post-policy teaching considerations.
Finally, Tables (Appendix I) and Figures (Appendix J) present the results of the
analyses and are referenced throughout the chapter in the order in which their data are
discussed. Narratives also detail the results. Table and page numbers are included for
reference. The decision to include page numbers in the narratives was made to support
the readability of the manuscript.
92
Prestige Scale
The data analysis began with a Principal Axis Factor Analysis with Direct oblimin
rotation on the 16 items that formed the prestige scale (Appendix A). The suitability of
the factor analysis was assessed by using a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (KMO
= .85) and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p = .00). The results of each measure found the
data factorable. Subsequently, the factor analysis was employed, and four loads with
eigenvalues greater than one were produced. A review of the output led to the decision to
remove items that cross loaded with other factors (promotion opportunities [.55],
teacher’s earn appropriate salary [.80], working with children [.72], working with
parents [.65], teacher career ranking [.49], and appropriate hours [.71]).
A second Principal Axis Factor Analysis with Direct oblimin rotation was
employed with the remaining 10 items (benefits, retirement plan, salary financially
secure, compensation ranking, image of classroom, daily instruction, influence raise
prestige, contract days, positive image, and general public perception). The analysis
produced three loads with eigenvalues greater than one. A review of the output led to the
decision to remove two items that were unable to load with other factors (daily
instruction [.72] and influence raise prestige [.72]).
A third Principal Axis Factor Analysis with Direct oblimin rotation was employed
with the remaining 8 items (benefits, retirement plan, salary financially secure,
compensation ranking, image of classroom, contract days, positive image, and general
public perception). The analysis produced three loads with eigenvalues greater than one.
A review of the output led to the decision to remove two items that cross loaded with
other factors (compensation ranking [.64] and contract days [.77]).
93
The final factor analysis included 6 items from the prestige scale (retirement plan,
benefits, salary financially secure, general public perception, image of classroom,
positive image). A Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (KMO = .70) and a Bartlett’s
Test of Sphericity (p = .00) demonstrated that the data was factorable. The analysis,
using Principal Axis Factoring and Direct oblimin rotation, produced two factors with
eigenvalues greater than one (Table I.2, p. 220).
The first factor (Table I.2, p. 220), prestige financials, produced an eigenvalue of
2.73 and explained 46% of the total variance. A follow-up examination (Table I.3, p.
221) of the scale’s skewness (-.01) and kurtosis (.15) affirmed its normal distribution
(within the acceptable +1 and -1 range) (Chan, 2003). The variable (Table I.2, p. 220)
was subjected to a Cronbach’s Alpha with results indicating acceptable internal reliability
(a = .76).
The second factor (Table I.2, p. 220), prestige image, produced an eigenvalue of
1.2 and explained 67% of the total variance. An examination (Table I.3, p. 221) of the
scale’s skewness (-.31) and kurtosis (-.07) demonstrated normal distribution (within the
acceptable +1 and -1 range) (Chan, 2003). The variable (Table I.2, p. 220) was subjected
to a Cronbach’s Alpha with results indicating acceptable internal reliability (a = .69).
The results of the factor analyses were expected considering that the items
forming the factors aligned with Hoyle’s theoretical framework. Hoyle theorizes that
teaching’s prestige is limited because salaries, benefits, and retirement are linked to
public tax dollars. He also claims a career’s image effects the level of prestige a society
grants it. He hypothesized that the general public perceptions, the image of the
classroom, and the positive or negative images of the career are formed by the images
94
children acquire from interactions with teachers. He theorizes that these images are a
substantial component that subdues the teaching career’s prestige (Hoyle, 2001).
Status Scale
A Principal Axis Factor Analysis with Direct oblimin rotation was used in the
analysis of the 13 items that formed the status scale. The suitability of the factor analysis
was assessed by using a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (KMO = .88) and a
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p = .00). The results of each measure found the data
factorable. Subsequently, the factor analysis was run, and three loads with eigenvalues
greater than one were produced. A review of the output led to the decision to remove
items that cross loaded with other factors (professional career [.48], brightest people
[.55], competent teachers [.57], highly sought after [.65], workforce intelligence [.67],
teacher lengthy professional training [.63]).
employed with the remaining 7 items (intellectually challenging, skilled individuals, high
level work performance, professional development, teacher expertise, other professions
view teaching as a profession, and teaching positions competitive). The analysis
produced two loads with an eigenvalue greater than one. A review of the output led to
the decision to remove four items that cross loaded with other factors (teacher expertise
[.64], other professions view teaching as a profession [.39], professional development
[.63], and positions competitive [.60]).
The final factor analysis (Table I.4, p. 222) included 3 items from the status scale
(intellectually demanding, skilled individuals, high level work performance). A Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (KMO = .71) and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p = .00)
95
indicated the data was factorable. The factor analysis using Principal Axis Factoring and
Direct oblimin rotation produced a one factor load with an eigenvalue of 2.178 (Table I.4,
p. 222). The items, intellectually demanding, high level work performance, and skilled
individuals explained 73% of the total variance. A follow-up examination (Table I.4, p.
222) of the status scale’s skewness (-.77) and kurtosis (1.51) demonstrated that the data
was slightly outside the acceptable +1 and -1 range (Chan, 2003), but a review of the
factor’s histogram (Figure 1, p. 269) affirmed normal distribution. Finally, the status
variable (Table I.4, p. 222) was subjected to a Cronbach’s Alpha with results indicating
relatively high internal reliability (a = .81).
forming the factors aligned with Hoyle’s theoretical framework. Hoyle theorizes that a
career’s status hinges on the composition of its workforce. He claims that a career’s
status is elevated when it is composed of skilled individuals who are able to meet its
intellectual demands (Hoyle, 2001).
Esteem Scale
analysis of the 12 items that formed the esteem scale (Appendix A). The suitability of
the factor analysis was assessed by using a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (KMO
= .86) and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p = .00). The results of each measure found the
data factorable. Subsequently, the factor analysis was run, and two loads with
eigenvalues greater than one were produced. A review of the output led to the removal of
items that cross loaded with other factors (e.g., trusted [.51], respect of parents [.52],
respect of community [.55], student respect [.67]).
96
employed with the remaining 8 items (government values, government respects, public
values, media portrayal, other professionals respect the career, recognized for work,
dedicated, caring teachers). The analysis produced two loads with eigenvalues greater
than one. A review of the output led to the decision to remove three items that cross
loaded with other factors (recognized for work [.71], other professionals respect the
career [.73], media portrayal [.70]).
with the remaining 5 items (government values, government respects, public values,
dedicated, caring teachers). The analysis produced two loads with eigenvalues greater
than one. A review of the output led to the decision to remove two items that were only
able to load together (dedicated [.94] and caring teachers [.94]]).
The final analysis (Table I.5, p. 223) included 3 items from the esteem scale
(government values, government respects, and public values). A Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) measure (KMO = .66) and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p = .00) indicated that
the three items were factorable. The factor analysis using Principal Axis Factoring and
Direct oblimin rotation produced one load with an eigenvalue of 2.23 (Table I.5, p. 223).
The factor esteem explained 74% of the total variance, and a follow-up examination
(Table I.3, p. 221) of the scale’s skewness (.19) and kurtosis (-.12) affirmed its normal
distribution (within the acceptable +1 and -1 range) (Chan, 2003). Lastly, esteem (Table
I.5, p. 223) was subjected to a Cronbach’s Alpha with results indicating relatively high
internal reliability (a = .83).
97
government values, government respects, and public values aligned with Hoyle’s
theoretical framework. Hoyle claims that the teaching career is often esteemed, but the
political “bashing” and blaming teachers for society’s social ills may be limiting factors.
He contends that the negative political discourse at the local, state, and national levels
may be limiting the value that the public places on the teaching career (Hoyle, 2001).
Policy Intervention: Prestige and Status Scales
analysis of the 17 items that formed the policy prestige and status interventions scale
(Appendix A). The suitability of the factor analysis was assessed by using a Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure (KMO = .95) and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p = .00).
The results of each measure indicated factorability. Subsequently, the factor analysis was
run, and two loads with eigenvalues greater than one were produced. A review of the
output led to the removal of items that cross loaded with other factors (student loan [.46],
high status [.61], ranks high prestige [.65], comprises intelligent workforce [.49], career
advancement opportunities [.64], retire at 50 [.69], and cost of living stipends [.67].
employed with the remaining 10 items (exempt from income tax, salaries for student
teachers, bonuses, teaching offers signing bonuses, similar salary levels, free university
training, recognize teachers, competitive, socially accepted profession, support for new
teachers). The analysis produced two loads with eigenvalues greater than one. A review
of the output led to the decision to remove two items that cross loaded with other factors
(free university training [.69] and support for new teachers [.70].
98
with the remaining 8 items (exempt from income tax, cost of living stipends, salaries for
student teachers, bonuses, retire at 50, teaching offers signing bonuses, similar salary
levels, recognize teachers). The analysis produced two loads with eigenvalues greater
than one. A review of the output led to the decision to remove two items relating to
bonuses (teaching offers signing bonuses and bonuses), since research indicates that these
recruitment and retention tools may be ineffective (Liu et al., 2014; Maranto & Shuls,
2012; Steele et al., 2010).
The final factor analysis was run with 6 items from the policy intervention scale
(student teacher salaries, exempt from income tax, cost of living stipends, competitive
positions, socially accepted profession, teacher recognition). A Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) measure (KMO = .79) and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p = .00) indicated the
factorability of the six items. The factor analysis using Principal Axis Factoring and
Direct oblimin rotation produced two loads with eigenvalues greater than one.
The first factor (Table I.6, p. 223), policy intervention prestige, produced an
eigenvalue of 3.04 and explained 51% of the total variance. An examination (Table I.3,
p. 221) of the scale’s skewness (.34) and kurtosis (-.43) indicated normal distribution
(within the acceptable +1 and -1 range) (Chan, 2003). The policy intervention prestige
(Table I.6, p. 223) variable was subjected to a Cronbach’s Alpha, with results displaying
relatively high internal reliability (a = .85).
The second factor (Table I.7, p. 224), policy intervention status, produced an
eigenvalue of 1.09 and explained 69% of the total variance. An examination (Table I.3,
p. 221) of the scale’s skewness (-.23) and kurtosis (.56) affirmed the variable’s normal
99
distribution (within the acceptable +1 and -1 range) (Chan, 2003). Finally, policy
intervention status (Table I.7, p. 224) was subjected to a Cronbach’s Alpha, with results
displaying acceptable internal reliability (a = .66).
The results of the factor analyses were expected considering that the items student
teacher salaries, exempt from income tax, and cost of living stipends aligned with
Hoyle’s theoretical framework. Hoyle theorizes that teaching’s prestige is limited
because teacher compensation is linked to public tax dollars. However, the perceptions
of the teaching career’s prestige may elevate once education policy is implemented to
address teacher compensation.
Additionally, the items competitive positions, socially accepted profession, and
teacher recognition aligned with Hoyle’s theoretical framework. Hoyle theorizes that a
career’s status is contingent upon the recognition of high status professions. He claims
that in order for a career to elevate its status, other high status professions must recognize
it as an equal. He claims that the teaching career is not unequivocally accepted as a
profession, but the perceptions of teaching’s status could elevate once policy addresses
the rigors of its professional training. Hoyle asserts that the teaching career may become
more competitive once the rigors are addressed (Hoyle, 2001).
Policy Intervention: Esteem Scale
A Principal Axis Factor Analysis with Direct oblimin rotation (Appendix A) was
used in the analysis of the three items (community respect, parents respect, and high
regard for the career) that formed the policy esteem intervention scale (Table I.8, p.
224). The suitability of the factor analysis was assessed by using a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) measure (KMO = .57) and a Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (p = .00). The results of
100
each measure found the data factorable. Subsequently, the factor analysis was run, and
one load with an eigenvalue greater than one was produced. (Table I.8, p. 224). The
factor policy intervention esteem (Table I.8, p. 224) produced an eigenvalue of 1.91 and
explained 64% of the total variance. An examination (Table I.3, p. 221) of the scale’s
skewness (-.58) and kurtosis (.96) indicated normal distribution (within the acceptable +1
and -1 range) (Chan, 2003). The policy intervention esteem (Table I.8, p. 224) variable
was subjected to a Cronbach’s Alpha, with results displaying adequate internal reliability
(a = .68).
community respect, parent respect, and high regard for the career aligned with Hoyle’s
theoretical framework. Hoyle claims that negative political discourse at the local, state,
and national levels may be limiting the value that the public places on the teaching career.
He also theorizes that the perceptions of teaching’s prestige and status may also effect the
perceptions of the teaching career’s esteem. Hoyle claims that society may have a higher
regard for the career if the political rhetoric becomes more positive, and that the
perceptions of teaching’s prestige and status are addressed (Hoyle, 2001).
Demographic Variables
The demographic variables presented in Table I.9 (p. 225) served three essential
purposes. First, they assisted in characterizing the study’s population. Second, they were
used as confounding variables in the multiple correlation and hierarchical linear
regression analyses that were performed. And third, they provided opportunities to
explore differences among groups.
101
The demographics in Table I.9 (p. 225) present that a total of 1,502 participants
participated in the study, 375 (27%) participants reported a lack of knowledge in
answering the survey instrument’s questions. This result was concerning, and prompted
the removal of all 375 participants from further analysis.
The demographic data (Table I.9, p. 225) demonstrate that a larger number of
female (69%) than male (30%) participants participated in the study. Additionally, the
results illustrate that a larger number of undergraduate students (73%) participated in the
study as compared to high school seniors (27%). The demographics also (Table I.9, p.
225) present that the majority of the undergraduate (58%) and high school senior (85%)
populations reported interest in careers other than teaching.
The demographics in Table I.9 (p. 225) display that a larger number of Caucasian
students (86%) participated in the study as compared to students from minority
backgrounds (14%). At first glance, this statistic appears concerning, but it should not
cause alarm as it does resemble the ethnic make-up of the upper Midwest (North Dakota,
88% Caucasian; Minnesota, 85% Caucasian) (U.S. Census, 2018).
Further, the demographics (Table I.9, p. 225) report that the majority of
participants (56%) learned about the teaching career from practitioners. Participants also
indicated that family (21%) and experiences (10%) were main sources. The category
other (13%) was developed post survey. Originally, a total of seven separate sources
formulated the main sources variable, and the sources with limited number of responses
were collapsed into the category labeled other.
The demographics in Table I.9 (p. 225) present that the majority of the study’s
population (40%) come from households with annual incomes greater than $150,000.
102
The data also reveal that the fewest number of participants (11%) reported parent or
family annual incomes ranging from $100,000 to $150,000. Interestingly, nearly the
same number of respondents indicated family or parent annual incomes ranging from
$50,000 or less (23%) and $50,000 to $100,000 (24%).
The demographics in Table I.9 (p. 225) display a slight majority of the study’s
participants characterized their hometown as urban clusters (37%). Rural classifications
followed (34%), with the least number of participants characterizing their hometown
urban (29%). The demographics in Table I.9 (p. 225) also present that the majority of the
study’s participants scored between 21 and 24 on the ACT test (36%). The 25-28 ACT
score range was the second most commonly reported (23%). This was followed by
individuals scoring 29 or higher (15%). Lastly, 19% of the study’s participants reported
their ACT scores to be 20 or less.
Descriptive Statistics
The variable summary table (Table I.3, p. 221) demonstrates the skewness and
kurtosis for the majority of the items fell within the acceptable range of +1.0 and -1.0
(Chan, 2003). The data indicate that each variable was normally distributed, despite a
few items such as hometown, parent’s income, how much consider teaching, and status
falling just outside the acceptable range. This is not cause for alarm, given that the
skewness and kurtosis of each item in question are in close proximity to the +1 and -1
acceptable range (Chan, 2003). An examination of the histograms for status (Figure 1, p.
269), hometown (Figure 3, p. 270), how much consider teaching (Figure 4, p. 270), and
parent’s income (Figure 4, p. 271) revealed the variables to be normally distributed.
103
Research Question 1
High School Senior and College Undergraduate Teaching Considerations
This section of the analysis assessed Hoyle’s occupational prestige, status, and
esteem components, as well as the effects that each may have on high school senior and
college undergraduate teaching considerations. An ANOVA led this segment of the
study and was used to measure high school senior and college undergraduate teaching
considerations. Table I.10 (p. 226) demonstrates that the analysis yielded a main effect
between the independent variable, career aspirations, and the dependent variable how
much consider teach. F(3,1123) = 429.91, p < .05. Table I.11 (p. 226) and Table I.12 (p.
227) presents the descriptive statistics and the results of a Bonferroni post-hoc
assessment. The data illustrate statistical differences were present between participants
aspiring to become teachers (M = 7.40, SD = 1.36), college undergraduates pursuing
other career fields (M = 3.09, SD = 2.10), and high school seniors considering careers
other than teaching (M = 2.45. SD = 2.19).
A bivariate correlation analysis followed the ANOVA and was used to measure
the relationships between high school senior and college undergraduate perceptions of the
financial and image components of prestige, their perceptions of status, their perceptions
of esteem and the level of consideration this population may have when considering
careers in teaching. Table I.13 (p. 228) reports that the variables status, (r = .37) and
gender (r = .27) formed sizeable relationships with the dependent variable, how much
consider teach. These results suggest that the perceptions of teaching’s status may have a
greater relationship than gender with this population’s teaching considerations. In
contrast, the results in Table I.13 (p. 228) display that the independent variable, esteem
104
(r = -.13) formed a negative correlation with the dependent variable. This result indicates
that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may have some relationship with high school
seniors and college undergraduates considering careers other than teaching.
The results of the correlation analysis led to a decision to use a hierarchal linear
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting high school
senior and college undergraduate teaching considerations. Table I.14 (p. 228) reports that
gender was a significant confounding variable. The results reveal that gender contributed
a robust .07 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β = .28). Despite its
robustness, the data indicate that the independent variable status may have a greater effect
on this population’s teaching considerations than the confounding variable gender,
F(8,906) = 29.15, p < .05. Table I.14 (p. 228) presents that status’ R² (R² = .11)
contribution was more robust than gender’s (β = .22), and that the variable was able to
produce a much larger β coefficient (β = .34). In contrast, the data demonstrate that the
perceptions of esteem may be a competing variable, F(9,905) = 29.62, p < .05. The
results report that esteem’s R² (R² = .02) contribution was less than gender’s (β = .20) and
status’ (β = .32), but was able to produce a similar beta weight as gender (β = -.20).
Status’ robust R² contribution and heavier beta suggests that the perceptions of
teaching’s status may be influential in causing high school seniors and college
undergraduates to consider teaching. The data demonstrate that gender may also have
some effect, but its influence may be comparable to esteem. The results suggest that
gender may contribute to this population’s teaching considerations, but the perceptions of
teaching’s esteem may discourage many from considering the career.
105
High School Seniors Considering Other Careers
The analysis considered the high school senior population contemplating careers
other than teaching. A bivariate correlation analysis initiated this segment and was used
to measure the relationships between this population’s perceptions of the financial and
image components of prestige, their perceptions of status, their perceptions of esteem,
and the level of consideration that this population may have when considering teaching.
Table I.15 (p. 229) demonstrates that the variables gender, (r = .33) and status (r = .28)
formed sizeable relationships with the dependent variable, how much consider teach.
This data indicate that gender and the perceptions of teaching’s status may be related to
this population’s teaching considerations. In contrast, the results demonstrate that the
independent variable, prestige financials (r = -.13) had formed a negative relationship
with the dependent variable. This result suggests that the perceptions of teaching’s
financial component of prestige may have some relationship with this population’s
decisions to choose careers other than teaching.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting high school
senior non-aspiring teacher teaching considerations. Table I.16 (p. 230) reports that the
variables, gender, F(4,199) = 5.43, p < .05, and act score, F(5,198) = 7.50, p < .05, were
significant. The data display that gender’s R² (R² = .08) contribution was slightly greater
than act score’s (R² = .06). This result suggests that gender may have a slightly greater
effect on this population’s teaching considerations than act score. Table I.16 (p. 230)
demonstrates that the confounding variables, gender and act score may be slightly
stronger predictors than status, F(8,195) = 6.07, p < .05. The results report that status
106
contributed a lesser amount to the R² (R² = .04), but generated a similar β coefficient (β =
.22) as the variables gender (β = .21) and act score (β = .23).
The data demonstrate that the independent variable, esteem was nonsignificant,
F(9,194) = 5.42, p < .05, but its interaction with the variables, prestige financials and
prestige image produced a significant interaction variable, F(10,193) = 5.64, p < .05.
Table I.16 (p. 230) displays that the independent variable, interaction prestige image
financials esteem contributed .03 to the R², and generated a β coefficient (β = -.21)
comparable to the variables, status (β = .26), act score (β = .23), and gender (β = .22).
These results indicate that the perceptions of teaching’s status, ACT results, and
gender may contribute to this population’s teaching considerations. The data also
demonstrate that esteem and its interaction with the image and financial components of
prestige may hold comparable but produce opposite effects. This interaction could
discourage a number of this population from considering teaching.
High School Senior and College Undergraduate Aspiring Teachers
The analysis continued with an investigation of the high school senior and college
undergraduate aspiring teacher population. A bivariate correlation analysis initiated this
segment and was used to measure the relationships of this population’s perceptions of the
of esteem, and the level of consideration that this population may have when considering
teaching. Table I.17 (p. 231) demonstrates that the confounding variables, gender (r =
.15) and status (r = .19) formed similar relationships with the dependent variable, how
much consider teach. In contrast, the data reveal that the independent variable,
interaction esteem prestige financials (r = -.18) formed a negative relationship with the
107
dependent variable. These results suggest that the perceptions of teaching’s status and
gender may be related to this population’s teaching considerations. Table I.17 (p. 231)
presents that the perceptions of esteem and its interaction with the financial component of
prestige may be related to this population’s decisions to consider careers other than
teaching.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting aspiring
teacher teaching considerations. Table I.18 (p. 231) indicates that the independent
variable, status was significant, F(8,305) = 3.16, p < .05. The data demonstrate that
status contributed .04 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β = .20). In
addition, the results display that the independent variable, esteem was insignificant,
F(9,304) = 2.83, p < .05 but its interaction with the independent variable, prestige
financials produced a significant variable, F(10,303) = 4.13, p < .05. Table I.18 (p. 231)
presents that the independent variable, interaction esteem prestige financials’ R² (R² =
.04) contribution and β coefficient (β = -.23) were comparable to the independent
variable, status (β = .23). These similarities demonstrate that each variable may hold
comparable but produce opposite effects. While the perceptions of teaching’s status may
encourage this population to consider teaching, the perceptions of teaching’s esteem and
its interaction with the financial component of prestige may discourage a number of
aspiring teachers from considering the career.
Summary of results: High school seniors and college undergraduates. The
results displayed that high school seniors and college undergraduates’ perceptions of
teaching’s status may contribute to their teaching considerations, and suggested that
108
teaching’s intellectual demands, its requirements for high work performance, and the
teacher workforce’s intellect may contribute to this positive outcome. In contrast, the
results indicated that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may discourage this population
from considering teaching, and demonstrated that perceptions of limited value and
respect for the career may be responsible for this phenomenon. The results also revealed
that perceptions of esteem may not be as influential as those of status, but its effects may
be comparable to those of gender. Data indicated that females are more likely to consider
teaching than males, but the perceptions of the career’s esteem may discourage many
females from considering teaching.
While perceptions of esteem may negatively influence high school seniors and
college undergraduates, the results demonstrated that perceptions of esteem may not have
a unilateral effect on the aspiring teacher and high school senior, non-aspiring teacher
population. Nonetheless, the results suggested that perceptions of esteem and its
interaction with the financial component of prestige may discourage aspiring teachers and
high school senior non-aspiring teachers from considering teaching. The results
demonstrated that teachers’ poor compensation and its effect on devaluing the career may
produce this interaction, and demonstrated further that the interaction may be equally
influential as perceptions of status, but discourages a number of aspiring teachers and
high school senior non-aspiring teachers from considering the career.
These results may not be surprising. Teacher compensation and its effect on
devaluing the career may discourage a number of high school senior non-aspiring
teachers from considering teaching. What is somewhat surprising are the phenomenon’s
potential effects on the aspiring teacher population. The results illustrated that these two
109
elements of the career may lead aspiring teachers to consider careers other than teaching.
These results raise questions about the number of aspiring teachers who may be
discouraged by these perceptions and choose not to teach, as well as questions about the
“roots” of the nation’s teacher attrition problem. Indeed, a large body of research has
demonstrated that teachers in their first five years of teaching are at-risk of early attrition.
However, data from this analysis provided evidence that demonstrated the early teacher
attrition problem may begin before new teachers sign their first teaching contracts.
Research Question 2
The Demographic Effect
This section of the analysis assessed Hoyle’s occupational prestige, status, and
esteem components, and their effects on various high school senior and college
undergraduate populations. An independent t-test initiated this segment of the study, and
was used to investigate whether differences exist between male and female teaching
considerations. Table I.19 (p. 232) demonstrates that statistical differences were present
between female (M = 4.95, SD = 2.77) and male (M = 3.23, SD = 2.79) teaching
considerations. These results were expected, but portray the wide disparities between the
genders.
Female High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
The results of the independent t-test led to the study of female high school senior
and college undergraduate teaching considerations. A bivariate correlation analysis
initiated this segment and was used to measure the relationships of this population’s
perceptions of the financial and image components of prestige, their perceptions of status,
their perceptions of esteem, and the level of consideration that this population may have
110
when considering teaching. Table I.20 (p. 233) presents that a moderate relationship was
formed between the independent variable, status (r = .33) and the dependent variable,
how much consider teach. Additionally, the data demonstrate that the variables, prestige
financials (r = .11), prestige image (r = .08) and parents income (r = .08) formed smaller
relationships with the dependent variable. These results suggest that the perceptions of
teaching’s status may hold a larger relationship with this population’s teaching
considerations. In contrast, Table I.20 (p. 233) presents that the independent variable,
esteem (r = -.11) and the confounding variable, act score (r = -.09) produced small
negative relationships with the dependent variable, how much consider teach. This data
indicate that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem and ACT results may have some
relationship with this population’s considerations to choose careers other than teaching.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting female high
school senior and college undergraduate teaching considerations. Table I.21 (p. 233)
presents that the independent variable, status was significant, F(7,634) = 15.01, p < .05.
The results report that the independent variable contributed a robust .11 to the R², and
produced a large β coefficient (β = .34). The data display that the independent variable
esteem, was also significant, F(8,633) = 16.56, p < .05, and that its R² contribution (R² =
.03) and β coefficient (β = -.24) were less than status’ (β = .31). These results suggest
that the perceptions of teaching’s status may be influential in causing this population to
consider teaching, but esteem’s moderate beta indicates that the perceptions of teaching’s
esteem may discourage some from considering the career.
111
Female High School Senior and College Undergraduate Aspiring Teachers
The analysis considered the female aspiring teacher population’s perceptions of
teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem, and the effects each may have on this population’s
teaching considerations. An examination of the descriptive statistics prior to analysis
revealed that a small number of female high school senior aspiring teachers participated
in the study (N = 30). This limited number of participants led to a decision to combine
the female undergraduate and female high school senior aspiring teacher populations into
one. Once combined, the analysis moved forward with a bivariate correlation study that
measured the relationships of this population’s perceptions of the financial and image
components of prestige, their perceptions of status, their perceptions of esteem, and the
level of consideration that this population may have when considering careers in
teaching. Table I.22 (p. 234) displays that the independent variables, status (r = .22),
prestige financials (r = .13), and prestige image (r = .12) had formed relationships with
the dependent variable, how much consider teach. These results suggest that the
perceptions of status may have a larger relationship with this population’s teaching
considerations than the image and financial components of prestige. In contrast, the data
demonstrate that the interaction variable, prestige financials esteem (r = -.19) formed a
negative relationship with the dependent variable. This result indicates that the
perceptions of teaching’s esteem and its interaction with the perceptions of the financial
component of prestige may be associated with this population’s decisions to consider
career’s other than teaching.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting female aspiring
112
teacher teaching considerations. Table I.23 (p. 234) demonstrates that the independent
variable, status was significant, F(7,304) = 2.57, p < .05. The data display that status
contributed .03 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β = .21). The results
also present that the independent variable, esteem was insignificant, F(8,303) = 3.01, p <
.05, but its interaction with the independent variable, prestige financials produced a
significant variable, F(9,302) = 3.93, p < .05. Table I.23 (p. 234) indicates that the
variable, interaction prestige financials esteem contributed .05 to the R², and produced a
similar β coefficient (β = -.24) as status (β = .24). These similarities suggest that the
perceptions of teaching’s status and the perceptions of teaching’s esteem and its
interaction with the financial component of prestige may hold comparable but produce
opposite effects. While the perceptions of status may encourage this population to
consider teaching, the results demonstrate that esteem’s interaction with the financial
component of prestige may discourage female aspiring teachers from the career.
Summary of results: Gender’s impact. The results indicated that the
perceptions of teaching’s status may encourage female high school seniors and college
undergraduates to consider teaching. While the career’s status may be attractive, the
results demonstrated that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may produce adverse
effects, and discourage large numbers of females from considering the career. The
results also demonstrated that female aspiring teachers may not be immune from the
effects of esteem, considering it’s interactions with the financial component of prestige
113
produced a negative coefficient. These perceptions may be generated by poor teacher
compensation and its devaluation of the career.
Hometown Classification and Teaching Considerations
An ANOVA initiated this segment of the analysis, which explored hometown
classifications and the effects community size may have on high school senior and
college undergraduate teaching considerations. Table I.24 (p. 235) demonstrates that the
measure yielded a main effect between the independent variable, hometown, and the
dependent variable, how much consider teach, F(2,1124) = 5.59, p < .05. Table I.25 (p.
235) and Table I.26 (p. 235) display descriptive statistics and the results of a Bonferroni
post hoc analysis. The results demonstrate that statistical differences were present in the
means of participants who classified their hometowns as rural (M = 4.80, SD = 2.91)
versus high school seniors and college undergraduates who classified their hometowns as
urban (M = 4.10, SD = 2.83).
Rural High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
The results of the ANOVA led to a decision to study rural high school senior and
college undergraduate teaching considerations. A bivariate correlation analysis initiated
this segment and was used to measure the relationships of this population’s perceptions
of the financial and image components of prestige, their perceptions of status, their
perceptions of esteem, and the level of consideration that this population may have when
considering teaching. Table I.27 (p. 236) reveals that the independent variable, status (r
= .39) and the confounding variable, gender (r = .25) formed sizeable relationships with
the dependent variable, how much consider teach. Additionally, the data demonstrate
that the independent variables, esteem (r = .11), prestige financials (r = .17), and prestige
114
image (r = .10) formed relationships with the dependent variable. These results indicate
that teaching’s status may hold the strongest relationship with this population’s teaching
considerations.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting rural high
school seniors and college undergraduates to consider careers in teaching. Table I.28 (p.
236) presents that the confounding variable, gender was significant, F(4,319) = 7.25, p <
.05. The data demonstrate that gender contributed .08 to the R², and produced a moderate
β coefficient (β = .27). The results display that the independent variable, prestige
financials was also significant, F(5,318) = 8.26, p < .05, but its R² (R² = .03) contribution
and beta weight (β = .18) were less than gender’s (β = .29).
Further, the data demonstrate that the independent variable, status was significant,
F(7,316) = 12.89, p < .05. The results report that status contributed a robust .11 to the R²,
and produced a larger β coefficient (β = .35) than gender (β = .21) and prestige financials
(β = .19). The data also suggest that status may be a stronger predictor than the
independent variable, esteem. The results demonstrate that esteem was a significant
variable, F(8,315) = 11.90, p < .05, but its R² (R² = .02) contribution and beta weight (β =
-.19) were less than status’ (β = .32), prestige financials’ (β = .24), and gender’s (β = .20).
Status’ heavier beta weight and robust R² contribution indicates that the
perceptions of teaching’s status may encourage this population to consider teaching. The
results also demonstrate that the perceptions of esteem and gender may hold comparable
but produce opposite results. The data indicate that gender may contribute to this
115
population’s teaching considerations, but the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may
discourage some from considering the career.
Rural Female High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
The analysis continued by studying the rural female high school senior and
college undergraduate population. A bivariate correlation analysis initiated this segment
and was used to measure the relationships of this population’s perceptions of the financial
and image components of prestige, their perceptions of status, their perceptions of
esteem, and the level of consideration that this population may have when considering
teaching. Table I.29 (p. 237) presents that the independent variables, status (r = .37),
prestige financials (r = .22), and prestige image (r = .12) formed relationships with the
dependent variable, how much consider teach. The results indicate that teaching’s status
may hold the strongest relationship with this population’s teaching considerations.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting rural female
high school senior and college undergraduate teaching considerations. Table I.30 (p.
237) displays that the independent variable, prestige financials was significant, F(4,242)
= 3.93, p < .05. The data demonstrate that the independent variable contributed .05 to the
R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β = .22). Like prestige financials, the results
present that the independent variable, status was significant, F(6,240) = 9.87, p < .05.
The data display that the independent variable contributed a robust .14 to the R², and
produced a much larger β coefficient (β = .38) than prestige financials (β = .24). In
contrast, the results reveal that the independent variable, esteem was also significant,
F(7,239) = 9.79, p < .05. Table I.30 (p. 237) demonstrates that esteem contributed .03 to
116
the R², and produced a smaller β coefficient (β = -.22) than status (β = .35) and prestige
financials (β = .30).
Status’ robust contribution to the R², and its heavier beta weight suggests that the
perceptions of teaching’s status may have the greatest effect on this population’s teaching
considerations. The data reveal that prestige financials’ may also have an impact and
may hold more of an influence on this population than the perceptions of teaching’s
esteem. While esteem may not be as influential as status and prestige financials, the data
indicate that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may have some effect on this
population and may discourage some from considering teaching careers.
Rural Female Aspiring Teachers
The analysis continued with an investigation studying rural female aspiring
teacher perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem, and the effects each may
have on this population’s teaching considerations. A bivariate correlation analysis
when considering teaching. Table I.31 (p. 238) presents that the variables, status (r = .26),
esteem (r = .24), prestige financials (r = .26), prestige image (r = .26), and act score (r =
.25) formed similar relationships with the dependent variable, how much consider teach.
These results indicate that the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, esteem, and ACT
results may be associated with this population’s teaching considerations.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting rural female
117
high school seniors and college undergraduates to consider careers in teaching. Table
I.32 (p. 238) reports that the confounding variable, act score was significant, F(3,109) =
2.54, p < .05. The results present that the variable, act score contributed .07 to the R², and
produced a moderate β coefficient (β = .24). The data also reveal that prestige image was
significant, F(5,107) = 4.37, p < .05, and its R² (R² = .04) contribution was slightly less
than act score’s (β = .26), but its β coefficient (β = .24) was comparable.
Table I.32 (p. 238) displays that the independent variable, status was significant,
F(6,106) = 4.89, p < .05. The results report that the independent variable’s R² (R² = .05)
contribution and β coefficient (β = .23) was similar to prestige image (β = .24) and larger
than act score (β = .19). The data also display that the independent variable, esteem was
insignificant, F(7,105) = 4.25, p < .05, but its interaction with the variables, status and
prestige financials produced a significant variable, F(8,104) = 4.38, p < .05. Table I.32
(p. 238) presents that the variable, interaction esteem status prestige financials’ R²
contribution and beta weight were (β = .23) similar to prestige image (β = .24) and act
score (β = .20). These similarities suggest that the perceptions of the teaching career’s
image component of prestige, ACT results and the effects of the three-way interaction
may encourage rural female aspiring teachers to consider teaching.
Urban High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
The analysis moved forward with an investigation of urban high school senior and
college undergraduate perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem, and the
effects each may have on this population’s teaching considerations. A bivariate
correlation analysis initiated this segment and was used to measure the relationships of
this population’s perceptions of the financial and image components of prestige, their
118
perceptions of status, their perceptions of esteem, and the level of consideration that this
population may have when considering teaching. Table I.33 (p. 239) presents that the
variables, status (r = .38), gender (r = .31), and prestige image (r = .12) formed
relationships with the dependent variable, how much consider teach. These results
indicate that the perceptions of teaching’s status and gender may be related to this
population’s teaching considerations.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting urban high
school seniors and college undergraduates to consider teaching. Table I.34 (p. 239)
reports that the confounding variable, gender was significant, F(4,242) = 6.13, p < .05.
The data display that gender contributed .09 to the R², and produced a moderate β
coefficient (β = .29). Like gender, the results present that prestige image was significant,
F(6,240) = 5.24, p < .05, but the independent variable’s R² contribution (R² = .02) and β
coefficient (β = .16) were weaker than gender’s (β = .28).
The data reveal that prestige image lost its significance with the model’s
introduction of status, F(7,239) = 9.85, p < .05. The results present that status was
significant, and its R² (R² = .11) contribution and β coefficient (β = .37) were more robust
than gender’s (β = .20). Additionally, the data signal that esteem may be somewhat of a
competing variable, F(8,238) = 10.10, p < .05. Table I.34 (p. 239) reports that esteem’s
R² (R² =.03) contribution and β coefficient (β = -.23) were greater than gender’s (β = .18),
but less than status’ (β = .35).
Status’ heavier beta weight and robust R² contribution indicates that the
perceptions of teaching’s status may encourage this population to consider teaching. In
119
contrast, the results demonstrate that the perceptions of esteem may have similar effects
as gender but produce opposite results. The data demonstrate that gender may contribute
to this population’s teaching considerations, but the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may
discourage some from considering the career.
Female Urban High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
The analysis considered the female urban high school senior and college
undergraduate population’s perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem, and the
effects each may have on this population’s teaching considerations. A bivariate
correlation analysis initiated this segment and was used to measure the relationships of
this population’s perceptions of the financial and image components of prestige, their
population may have when considering teaching. Table I.35 (p. 240) presents that the
variables, status (r = .28) and prestige image (r = .14) formed relationships with the
dependent variable, how much consider teach. These results demonstrate that the
perceptions of teaching’s status may be largely associated with this population’s teaching
considerations.
regression in order to study variables that may be influential in predicting this
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.36 (p. 240) displays that the independent
variable status was statistically significant, F(6,149) = 4.23, p < .05. The results present
that status contributed .09 to the R², and produced a sizeable β coefficient (β = .33).
Nonetheless, the data display that esteem may be a competing variable, F(7,148) = 5.16,
p < .05. Table I.36 (p. 240) reveals that esteem’s R² (R² = .05) contribution was slightly
120
less than status, but its beta weight (β = -.30) was heavier than both status (β = .29) and
prestige image (β = .21). These results indicate that the perceptions of teaching’s status
and esteem may hold comparable but produce opposite effects. While the perceptions of
teaching’s status may encourage this population to consider teaching, the perceptions of
teaching’s esteem may discourage many from considering the career.
Summary of results: Hometown classification and teaching considerations.
The results suggested that perceptions of teaching’s status may encourage rural
and urban high school seniors and college undergraduates to consider teaching, and that
these perceptions may have the greatest effect on the rural female high school senior and
college undergraduate populations. Although perceptions of teaching’s status may
encourage this population to consider teaching, the results indicated that the perceptions
of its esteem may discourage some rural females from considering the career. The results
displayed that perceptions of teaching’s status may encourage female urban high school
seniors and college undergraduates to consider teaching. However, they also indicated
that perceptions of esteem may have a substantial effect on this population’s teaching
considerations and may discourage many female urban high school seniors and college
undergraduates from considering the career.
Although the results displayed that perceptions of teaching’s status may
encourage rural female aspiring teachers to consider teaching, unlike other populations,
they demonstrated that perceptions of status may have the smallest effect on this
population, and that perceptions of prestige’s image component may have the greatest
influence on rural female aspiring teacher teaching considerations. The results
demonstrated that perceptions of esteem and its interactions with those of status and
121
prestige’s financial component may also contribute to this population’s teaching
considerations.
Household Annual Income and Teaching Considerations
An ANOVA led this segment that explored household annual incomes and high
school senior and college undergraduate teaching considerations. Table I.37 (p. 241)
reports that the measure yielded a main effect between the independent variable, parent’s
income, and the dependent variable, how much consider teach, F(3,1095) = 6.68, p = .00.
Table I.38 (p. 241) and Table I.39 (p. 241) display descriptive statistics and the results of
a Bonferroni post hoc analysis. The results demonstrate that high school seniors and
college undergraduates that derive from households with annual incomes ranging from
$100,000 to $150,000 (M = 3.54, SD = 2.87) were statistically less likely to consider
teaching than participants that derive from households with annual incomes ranging from
$50,000 or less (M = 4.46, SD = 2.76) and households with annual incomes greater than
$150,000 (M = 4.79, SD = 2.92).
Household Annual Income: $50,000 to 100,000
The results of the ANOVA led to the use of a bivariate correlation analysis to
investigate the high school senior population that derive from households with annual
incomes ranging from $50,000 to $100,000. The analysis was used to measure the
relationships between this population’s perceptions of the financial and image
components of prestige, their perceptions of status, their perceptions of esteem, and the
level of consideration that this population may have when considering careers in
education. Table I.40 (p. 242) reports that the variables, status (r = .25) and gender (r =
.24) formed similar relationships with the dependent variable, how much consider teach.
122
The data suggest that gender and the perceptions of teaching’s status may be associated
with this population’s teaching considerations. In contrast, the results present that the
confounding variable, act score (r = -.18) formed a negative relationship with the
dependent variable. The data indicate that this population’s ACT results may have some
association with their decisions to consider careers other than teaching.
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.41 (p. 242) reports that the confounding
variable, gender was significant, F(4,226) = 3.97, p < .05. The data display that gender
contributed .07 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β = .24). Additionally,
the results demonstrate that prestige financials was significant, F(5,225) = 5.37, p < .05,
but its R² contribution (R² = .04) and β coefficient (β = .21) was less than gender’s (β =
.28).
Table I.41 (p. 242) presents that the independent variable, status was significant,
F(7,223) = 8.23, p < .05. The data display that status contributed a robust .10 to the R²,
and produced a larger β coefficient (β = .33) than the variables, gender (β = .24) and
prestige financials (β = .21). While status may be a robust predictor, the results
demonstrate that esteem may be somewhat of a competing variable, F(8,222) = 8.42, p <
.05. The data demonstrate that esteem’s R² contribution (R² = .03) and beta weight (β = -
.22) were smaller than status (β = .31), prestige financials (β = .29), and gender (β = .23).
These results indicate that the perceptions of teaching’s status may have the
greatest influence on this population’s teaching considerations. Additionally, the results
demonstrate that prestige financials’ beta was comparable to status, but its R² contribution
123
was not as robust. This data suggest that the perceptions of the financial component of
prestige may have similar effects as gender (β = .23). In contrast, the results demonstrate
that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may have some effect on this population’s
teaching considerations. The results reveal that esteem produced a beta weight
comparable to gender, and an R² similar to prestige financials. These similarities suggest
that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem, gender, and prestige financials may hold
comparable but produce opposite effects. While gender and prestige financials may
encourage this population to consider teaching, the perceptions of esteem may discourage
some from considering the career.
Household Annual Income: $100,000 to 150,000
undergraduate population that derive from households with annual incomes ranging from
$100,000 to $150,000. A bivariate correlation analysis initiated this segment and was
used to measure the relationships of this population’s perceptions of the financial and
Table I.42 (p. 243) reports that the confounding variable, gender (r = .41) and the
independent variable, status (r = .33) formed sizeable relationships with the dependent
variable, how much consider teach. These relationships suggest that gender and the
perceptions of teaching’s status may be associated with this population’s teaching
considerations. In contrast, the independent variable esteem’s (r = -.25) negative
correlation indicates that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may be associated with this
population’s decisions to consider careers other than teaching.
124
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.43 (p. 243) presents that the confounding
variable, gender was significant, F(4,99) = 5.51, p < .05. The results report that gender
contributed a robust .18 to the R², and produced a large β coefficient (β = .37). The data
also display that the independent variable, status was significant, F(7,96) = 4.11, p < .05,
but the variable’s R² (R² = .05) contribution and β coefficient (β = .23) was less than
gender’s (β = .32).
Additionally, the results demonstrate that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem
may have a greater effect on this population than the perceptions of status, F(8,95) =
4.68, p < .05. Table I.43 (p. 243) displays that the independent variable, esteem’s R² (R²
= .05) contribution was comparable to status (β = .21), but its β coefficient (β = -.28) was
heavier. The results also present that status’ interaction with esteem produced a negative
predictor variable, F(9,94) = 5.22, p < .05. The data display that the variable, interaction
status esteem’s R² contribution (R² = .05) and beta weight (β = -.24) was similar to status
(β = .25) and esteem’s (β = -.26) β coefficient, but less than gender’s (β = .32).
These results demonstrate that gender and the perceptions of teaching’s status
may contribute to this population’s teaching considerations, but the data also display that
the perceptions of teaching’s esteem could have some influence. While gender and the
perceptions of teaching’s status may contribute to this population’s teaching
considerations, the results suggest that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may deter
many from considering the career. Moreover, esteem’s interaction with status may also
125
limit status’ effects, and discourage a number of this population from considering
teaching.
Household Annual Income: 150,000 or Greater
The analysis continued with an investigation of high school seniors and college
undergraduates that derive from households with annual incomes greater than $150,000.
A bivariate correlation analysis initiated this segment and was used to measure the
relationships of this population’s perceptions of the financial and image components of
prestige, their perceptions of status, their perceptions of esteem, and the level of
consideration that this population may have when considering teaching. Table I.44 (p.
244) presents that the independent variable, status (r = .44) and the confounding variable,
gender (r = .28) formed sizeable relationships with the dependent variable, how much
consider teach. This data indicate that the perceptions of status may have a larger
relationship with this population’s teaching considerations than gender. In contrast, the
independent variable, esteem’s (r = -.11) negative correlation signals that the perceptions
of teaching’s esteem may have some association with this population’s decisions to
consider careers other than teaching.
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.45 (p. 244) presents that the confounding
variable, gender was significant, F(4,381) = 10.05, p < .05, and that the variable
contributed .10 to the R², and produced a sizeable β coefficient (β = .29). The results
report that gender’s beta decreased with the introduction of status, F(7,378) = 18.30, p <
.05. The data demonstrate that status’ R² (R² = .14) contribution was greater than
126
gender’s (β = .21), and that the independent variable was able to produce a heavier beta
weight (β = .41). The results demonstrate that status was able to maintain its robustness
with the model’s introduction of esteem, F(8,377) = 4.05, p < .05. Table I.45 (p. 244)
presents that esteem contributed .03 to the R², and produced a lighter beta weight (β = -
.25) than status (β = .40).
These results indicate that the perceptions of teaching’s status may have a greater
effect on this population’s teaching considerations than gender (β = .17). While status
may be more robust, the data demonstrate that gender may have some influence, but its
effects may be limited. The data suggest that that the perceptions of esteem may have a
greater influence than gender, and may discourage some from considering teaching.
Rural Areas and Household Annual Income: $150,000 or Greater
The analysis continued with an investigation of the rural high school senior and
college undergraduate population that derive from households with annual incomes
greater than $150,000. A bivariate correlation analysis initiated this segment and was
used to measure the relationships of this population’s perceptions of the financial and
Table I.46 (p. 245) reports that the independent variable, status (r = .44) and the
confounding variable, gender (r = .28) formed sizeable relationships with the dependent
variable, how much consider teach. This data demonstrate that the perceptions of
teaching’s status may have a greater relationship with this population’s teaching
considerations than gender. In contrast, the independent variable, esteem’s (r = -.12)
127
negative correlation demonstrates that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may have
some association with this population’s decisions to avoid careers in teaching.
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.47 (p. 245) presents that gender was
significant, F(3,155) = 7.11, p < .05, and that the confounding variable contributed a
robust .12 to the R², and produced a sizeable β coefficient (β = .32). The data display that
the independent variable, status was also significant, F(6,152) = 9.54, p < .05, and its R²
(R² = .13) contribution and β coefficient (β = .39) were greater than gender’s (β = .21).
Table I.47 (p. 245) presents that the independent variable, esteem, F(7,151) =
8.88, p < .05, was insignificant, and that the independent variable, status maintained a
heavier β coefficient (β = .38) than gender (β = .18). These results suggest that the
perceptions of teaching’s status may have a significant effect on this population, and
encourage many to consider teaching careers.
Summary of results: Household annual income. The results indicated that
perceptions of status may have a considerable influence on the high school senior and
college undergraduate population that derive from households with annual incomes
exceeding $150,000. They indicated that perceptions of teaching’s status may attract this
population to teaching, while the negative perceptions of its esteem may produce only
minor effects. The results indicated that perceptions of teaching’s status may also have a
significant influence on the rural high school senior and college undergraduate population
who derive from households with annual incomes exceeding $150,000. However, unlike
the population aforementioned, the results displayed that perceptions of esteem may have
128
no influence on this population’s teaching considerations, and without the adverse effects
of esteem, this rural population of high school seniors and college undergraduates may be
more likely to consider teaching.
In contrast, the results indicated that perceptions of teaching’s status may have a
small effect on the high school senior and college undergraduate population who derive
from households with annual incomes ranging from $100,000 to $150,000. They
revealed that gender may also have some influence, but suggested that perceptions of
esteem may have a greater effect, and that these perceptions may discourage a large
number of this population from considering teaching. Further, the results demonstrated
that esteem’s interaction with perceptions of teaching’s status may also have some
adverse effects, and discourage some of this population from considering the career.
Research Question 3
Academic Aptitudes and Teaching Considerations
This section of the study examines the academic aptitudes of high school seniors
and college undergraduates considering teaching and those who are considering careers
other than teaching. An ANOVA led this segment of the study and was used to measure
ACT results and teaching considerations. Table I.48 (p. 246) demonstrates that the
analysis yielded a main effect between the independent variable, act score and the
dependent variable, how much consider teach, F(3,1034) = 11.10, p = .00. Table I.49 (p.
246) and Table I.50 (p. 247) display descriptive statistics and the results of a Bonferroni
post hoc analysis. The results demonstrate that the mean teaching considerations for
participants scoring 29 or greater on the ACT (M = 3.58, SD = 2.60) were statistically
less than participants scoring in the 25 to 28 ranges (M = 4.55, SD = 2.88), the 21 to 24
129
ranges (M = 4.69, SD = 2.87), and the 18 to 20 ranges (M = 5.08, SD = 2.87). These
results suggest that high school seniors and college undergraduates scoring in the highest
deciles of the ACT may be more inclined to consider careers other than teaching.
ACT Scores: 29 or Greater
The results of the ANOVA led to an analysis of the high school senior and college
undergraduate population scoring 29 or greater on the ACT. A bivariate correlation
analysis initiated this segment and was used to measure the relationships of this
population’s perceptions of the financial and image components of prestige, their
population may have when considering teaching. Table I.51 (p. 248) reports that the
independent variable, status (r = .30) and confounding variable, gender (r = .25) formed
sizeable relationships with the dependent variable, how much consider teach. These
results suggest that gender and the perceptions of teaching’s status may be related to this
population’s teaching considerations. In contrast, the data display that the independent
variable, esteem (r = -.29) formed a negative correlation with the dependent variable.
This data demonstrate that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may be associated with
this population’s decisions to consider careers other than teaching.
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.52 (p. 248) reports that the independent
variable, status was significant, F(7,144) = 3.27, p < .05. The data display that status
contributed .06 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β = .28). In contrast,
the results present that the independent variable, esteem may be a competing variable,
130
F(8,143) = 3.88, p < .05. The data demonstrate that esteem’s R² (R² = .04) contribution
was similar to status’ (β = .25), and that the variable was able to produce a comparable β
coefficient (β = -.26). Table I.52 (p. 248) reports that esteem’s interaction with prestige
financials and main source produced a significant variable. The data reveal that the
variable, interaction main source esteem financials was significant, F(9,142) = 4.51, p <
.05, and its R² (R² = .04) contribution and β coefficient (β = -.26) were similar to esteem
(β = -.20) and status (β = .26). These similarities in beta weights and R² contributions
indicate that the unilateral perceptions of esteem and its interaction with prestige
financials and main source may have adverse effects on this population’s teaching
considerations.
ACT Scores: 25 to 28
The analysis considered the high school senior and college undergraduate
population scoring 25 to 28 on the ACT. A bivariate correlation analysis initiated this
segment and was used to measure the relationships of this population’s perceptions of the
of esteem, and the level of consideration that this population may have when considering
teaching. Table I.53 (p. 249) reports that the variables, status (r = .47) and gender (r =
.26) formed relationships with the dependent variable, how much consider teach. The
data suggest that the perceptions of teaching’s status may have a larger relationship with
this population’s teaching considerations than gender. In contrast, the results report that
the confounding variable, hometown (r = -.14) produced a small negative correlation with
the dependent variable. This result indicates that this population’s hometown
131
classification may have some association with their considerations to choose careers
other than teaching.
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.54 (p. 249) presents that gender was a
statistically significant confounding variable, F(4,216) = 5.60, p < .05. The data display
that gender contributed a robust .10 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β =
.30). The results also present that that the independent variable, prestige financials was
significant, F(5,215) = 6.17, p < .05, but its R² contribution and beta weight (β = .16) was
less than gender’s (β = .32). Table I.54 (p. 249) reports that the independent variable,
status was a significant variable, F(7,213) = 12.44, p < .05. The data display that status
contributed a robust .16 to the R², and produced a larger β coefficient (β = .42) than
prestige financials (β = .14) and gender (β = .26). The results also present that status may
be a greater predictor variable than the independent esteem, F(8,212) = 11.18, p < .05.
The data demonstrate that esteem was insignificant, and that the variable, status
maintained a heavier beta weight (β = .41) than the variables, gender (β = .24) and
prestige financials (β = .16). Status’ heavier beta weight and large R² contribution
demonstrates that the perceptions of teaching’s status may encourage this population to
consider teaching.
The analysis moved forward with a study of the high school senior and college
undergraduate population scoring 21 to 24 on the ACT. A bivariate correlation analysis
132
when considering teaching. Table I.55 (p. 250) reports that the variables, status (r = .32),
gender (r = .24), and prestige financials (r = .11) formed relationships with the dependent
variable, how much consider teach. These results suggest that the perceptions of
teaching’s status may have a larger relationship with this population’s teaching
considerations than gender and the perceptions of the financial component of prestige. In
contrast, the independent variable, esteem’s (r = -.18) negative correlation indicates that
the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may have some association with this population’s
considerations to choose careers other than teaching.
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.56 (p. 250) presents that gender was a
significant variable, F(4,352) = 5.89, p < .05. The data display that the confounding
variable contributed .06 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β = .25).
Additionally, the results present that prestige financials was significant, F(5,351) = 5.81,
p < .05, but its R² (.01) contribution and beta weight (β = .12) were less than gender’s (β
= .26).
Table I.56 (p. 250) presents that the independent variable, status was significant,
F(7,349) = 9.41, p < .05, and that the variable’s R² (R² =.08) contribution, and β
coefficient (β = .30) were greater than gender’s (β = .21). Yet, the data report that the
independent variable, esteem may be a competing variable, F(8,348) = 11.35, p < .05.
The data demonstrate that esteem contributed .05 to the R², and produced a larger β
133
coefficient (β = -.30) than status (β = .25), prestige financials (β = .24), and gender (β =
.19). These results suggest that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may discourage a
number of this population from considering teaching.
undergraduate population scoring 18 to 20 on the ACT. A bivariate correlation analysis
when considering teaching. Table I.57 (p. 251) presents that the independent variable,
status (r = .37) and the confounding variable, gender (r = .38) formed similar
relationships with the dependent variable, how much consider teach. In contrast, Table
I.57 (p. 251) displays that the confounding variable, hometown (r = -.20) formed a
negative correlation with the dependent variable. These results suggest that the
perceptions of teaching’s status and gender may be associated with this population’s
teaching considerations. In contrast, the data indicate that this population’s hometown
classification may be related with decisions to consider careers other than teaching.
population’s teaching considerations. Table I.58 (p. 251) reports that the variable, gender
was significant, F(4,114) = 5.47, p < .05. The data display that gender contributed a
robust .12 to the R², and produced a large β coefficient (β = .36). The results also present
that the independent variable, status was significant, F(7,111) = 4.98, p < .05. Table I.58
134
(p. 251) reports that status’ R² (R² = .06) contribution was less than genders’ (β = .28), but
the variable was able to produce a similar β coefficient (β = .27). The data also
demonstrate that the independent variable, esteem was insignificant, F(8,110) = 4.70, p <
.05, and that status (β = .27) and gender (β = .26) produced heavier beta weights than the
confounding variable hometown (β = -.18). The results demonstrate that gender and
status may hold the greatest effect on this population, but hometown’s beta weight signals
that it may also be influential. While gender and the perceptions of teaching status may
encourage this population to consider teaching, the data display that hometown size may
discourage some from choosing to teach.
Summary of results: Academic aptitudes and teaching considerations. The
results demonstrated that high school seniors and college undergraduates who score 29 or
greater on the ACT may be least likely to consider teaching, and that perceptions of
teaching’s status may have some influence on this population’s decision. However, the
results suggested that perceptions of esteem may discourage many from considering the
career. The results also indicated that esteem’s interaction with prestige’s financial
component and the main sources that this population uses to learn about teaching may be
deterrents. In contrast, the results illustrated that high school seniors and college
undergraduates who score 25 to 28 on the ACT may have some interest in teaching, and
demonstrated that perceptions of teaching’s status may encourage a large number of this
population to consider the career. Moreover, unlike other populations, the results
revealed that perceptions of teaching’s esteem may not discourage this population from
considering the career.
135
Further, the data revealed that high school seniors and college undergraduates
who score 21 to 24 on the ACT may have some interest in teaching, but that their
perceptions of teaching’s esteem may significantly reduce this interest. The results
demonstrated that perceptions of teaching’s status and prestige’s financial component
may contribute to this population’s teaching considerations. However, the data illustrated
that perceptions of teaching’s esteem may be more influential, and deter a number of this
population from teaching.
Finally, the results demonstrate that high school seniors and college
undergraduates who score 18 to 20 on the ACT may be some of those most interested in
teaching. The data indicated that perceptions of teaching’s status and gender may
contribute to this interest, but hometown size may have some adverse effects. The results
illustrate that gender and perceptions of teaching’s status may have a greater effect on
this population, but hometown size may discourage some from considering teaching.
Research Question 4
The Impact of International Education Policies
This section of the analysis assessed the effects of international education policies
on the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem, and whether changes in the
perceptions of teaching would increase interest in the career. An independent t-test led
the segment and was used to measure college undergraduate teaching considerations prior
to and following the implementation of international education policy designed to
improve perceptions of the career. Table I.19 (p. 232) demonstrates that statistical
differences were present in college undergraduate teaching considerations prior to policy
136
intervention (M = 3.10, SD = 2.10), and following the implementation of policy (M =
4.16, SD = 2.19).
A second independent t-test followed to measure high school senior teaching
considerations prior to and following the implementation of policy designed to improve
the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem. Table I.19 (p. 232) displays
that statistical differences were present in high school senior teaching considerations
prior to (M = 3.09, SD = 2.63) and following international education policy intervention
(M = 3.60, SD = 2.49). These results suggest that policy designed to improve the
teaching career’s prestige, status, and esteem may encourage a greater number of high
school seniors and college undergraduates to consider teaching.
A bivariate correlation study continued the analysis and was used to measure the
relationships of this population’s post-policy perceptions of the teaching career’s
prestige, status, and esteem, and the level this population may have when considering
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.59 (p. 252) reports that the variables, status
(r = .23), esteem (r = .14), gender (r = .21), interaction policy prestige status (r = .17),
and act score (r = .14) formed relationships with the dependent variable, policy
intervention teach. The data indicate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s
esteem and status may be related to high school senior and college undergraduate post-
policy teaching considerations. Additionally, the results demonstrate that ACT scores
and gender may also have some relationship with this population’s post-policy teaching
considerations.
137
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.60 (p. 252) demonstrates that
gender, F(4,917) = 11.13, p < .05, and act score F(5,916) = 12.08, p < .05, were two
significant confounding variables. The data display that gender’s R² (R² = .05)
contribution and β coefficient (β = .21) were greater than act score’s (R² = .02, β = .13).
Table I.60 (p. 252) reports that gender may also be a stronger predictor than the
independent variable, policy intervention prestige, F(6,915) = 15.70, p < .05. The results
demonstrate that policy intervention prestige was significant, and its R² contribution (R² =
.03) and β coefficient (β = .18) were less than gender’s (β = .23).
The data reveal that the independent variable, policy intervention status was
significant, F(7,914) = 16.21, p < .05, and that its R² (R² = .02) contribution and β
coefficient (β = .15) were similar to policy intervention prestige’s (β = .11) but less than
gender’s (β = .22). Moreover, the results demonstrate that policy intervention esteem
was an insignificant variable, F(8,913) = 14.21, p < .05. Despite this outcome, the data
display that the variables, post-policy perceptions prestige and post-policy perceptions
status formed a significant interaction variable, F(9,912) = 15.96, p < .05. Table I.60 (p.
252) reports that the independent variable, interaction policy intervention prestige status’
R² contribution (R² = .03) and β coefficient (β = .17) were comparable to policy
intervention status’ (β = .16), but less than gender’s (β = .21). These results suggest that
gender and the interactions between the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige
and the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s status may contribute to high school senior
and college undergraduate teaching considerations.
138
High School Seniors Considering Other Careers
The analysis continued with an investigation of the high school senior non-
aspiring teacher population’s post-policy teaching considerations. The study began with
an independent t-test investigating this population’s pre-policy teaching considerations
versus its post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.19 (p. 232) reports that statistical
differences were present between this population’s teaching considerations prior to (M =
2.45, SD = 2.19) and following (M = 3.27, SD = 2.43) the establishment of policy
intended to improve the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem. The
results of the independent t-test suggest that the high school senior non-aspiring teacher
population may give teaching more consideration once the perceptions of teaching are
improved.
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.61 (p. 253) presents that the variables, act
score (r = .38), gender (r = .25), policy intervention status (r = .29) and policy
intervention esteem (r = .32) produced sizeable relationships with the dependent variable,
policy intervention teach. The data indicate that ACT results may be largely related to
this population’s post-policy teaching considerations, but the results also indicate that
gender, the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem, and the post-policy perceptions
of teaching’s status may also have sizeable relationships with the dependent variable.
139
gender, F(4,202) = 2.72, p < .05, and act score F(5,201) = 8.17, p < .05, were significant
confounding variables. The results indicate that act score’s R² (R² = .12) contribution was
more robust than gender’s (R² = .05), and that act score was also able to produce a
heavier beta (β = .35) than gender (β = .18). The data also display that the independent
variable, policy intervention prestige was significant, F(6,200) = 7.90, p < .05, but its R²
(R² = .02) contribution and beta weight (β = .15) were less than act score’s (β = .36) and
gender’s (β = .29).
Table I.62 (p. 253) demonstrates that policy intervention prestige lost its
significance with the model’s introduction of policy intervention status, F(7,199) = 7.77,
p < .05. The data reveal that the independent variable, policy intervention status was
significant, but was unable to maintain its significance with the addition of policy
intervention esteem, F(8,198) = 7.89, p < .05. The results reveal that the independent
variable’s R² (R² = .03) contribution and β coefficient (β = .21) was greater than gender’s
(β = .17), but less than act score’s (β = .34). The data suggest that ACT results may
contribute to this population’s post-policy teaching considerations. More importantly, the
results demonstrate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem may not
discourage, but attract this population to teaching.
The results prompted the use of an ANOVA to study the impact policy
intervention may have on high school senior non-aspiring teacher ACT participants, and
their post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.63 (p. 254) presents that the measure
yielded a main effect between the independent variable, act score, and the dependent
policy intervention teach, F(4,253) = 7.99, p = .00. Table I.64 (p. 254) and Table I.65 (p.
140
255) display descriptive statistics and the results of a Bonferroni post hoc analysis. The
results demonstrate that statistical differences were present in the mean post-policy
teaching considerations between high school seniors scoring 29 or higher on the ACT (M
= 4.75, SD = 2.71) and their peers scoring 21 to 24 (M = 3.27, SD = 2.25), 18 to 20, (M =
2.97, SD = 2.72), and 17 or less (M = 2.42, SD = 2.00). These results indicate that high
school senior non-aspiring teachers scoring 29 or greater on the ACT may have a greater
desire than others to consider teaching once the perceptions of teaching have been
improved.
An independent t-test followed to study high school senior non-aspiring teachers
scoring 29 or higher on the ACT. The t-test was used to compare this population’s pre-
policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.19 (p. 232) demonstrates that
statistical differences were found in this population’s teaching considerations prior to (M
= 3.63, SD = 2.62) and following (M = 4.81, SD = 2.72) the establishment of policies
designed to improve the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem.
A second independent t-test followed to study high school senior non-aspiring
teachers scoring 25 to 28 on the ACT. The t-test was used to compare this population’s
pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.19 (p. 232) demonstrates that
statistical differences were found in this population’s mean teaching considerations prior
to (M = 2.54, SD = 2.16) and following (M = 3.26, SD = 2.17) the establishment of
policies designed to improve the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem.
These results indicate that high school senior non-aspiring teachers scoring in the upper
deciles of the ACT may have a greater interest in teaching once perceptions of the career
have been improved.
141
College Undergraduates Considering Other Careers
The analysis continued with a study of the college undergraduate non-aspiring
teacher population that derive from households with annual incomes exceeding $50,000,
and those scoring 25 or greater on the ACT. The study began with an independent t-test
to compare this population’s pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table
I.19 (p. 232) demonstrates that statistical differences were present between this
population’s mean teaching considerations prior to (M = 2.79, SD = 2.18) and following
(M = 4.30, SD = 2.23) policy implementation. These results illustrate that this population
may have a greater interest in teaching once the perceptions of the career’s prestige,
status, and esteem have been improved.
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.66 (p. 256) reports that the independent
variables, policy intervention prestige (r = .44) and policy intervention status (r = .39)
formed large relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention teach. These
relationships suggest that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige and status
may be largely related to this population’s post-policy teaching considerations. In
contrast, the data present that the confounding variable, main source (r = -.23) formed a
negative relationship with the dependent variable. This result suggests that the main
sources that this population use to gain information about teaching may be related to their
post-policy considerations to choose careers other than teaching.
142
the confounding variable main source, was significant, F(5,154) = 2.69, p < .05. The
data display that main source contributed .06 to the R², and produced a moderate β
coefficient (β = -.24). The results demonstrate that the independent variable, policy
intervention prestige was also significant, F(6,153) = 8.34, p < .05. Table I.67 (p. 256)
presents that the independent variable contributed a robust .17 to the R², and produced a
much larger β coefficient (β = .42) than main source (β = -.16) and gender (β = .17).
The data display that main source was unable to retain its significance with the
model’s introduction of the independent variable, policy intervention status, F(7,152) =
8.07, p < .05. The results reveal that policy intervention status was significant, and its R²
(R² = .02) contribution and beta weight (β = .19) were considerably less in comparison to
policy intervention prestige (β = .33). The data display that policy intervention prestige
maintained its robustness with the model’s introduction of policy intervention esteem,
F(8,151) = 7.24, p < .05. Table I.67 (p. 256) indicates that the independent variable was
insignificant, and that policy intervention prestige continued to produce a larger β
coefficient (β = .35) than policy intervention status (β = .23) and gender (β = .16). These
results suggest that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige may be influential
in causing this population to consider teaching following the implementation of policy
intended to improve the perceptions of the career.
143
High School Senior and College Undergraduate Aspiring Teachers
The analysis considered the aspiring teacher population that derive from
households with annual incomes exceeding $100,000, those who come from rural or
urban cluster areas, and those scoring 21 or greater on the ACT. Table I.19 (p. 232)
reports that an independent t-test produced statistical differences in this population’s
mean teaching considerations prior to (M = 7.56, SD = 1.25) and following (M = 6.30,
SD = 1.94) the establishment of policy designed to improve perceptions of teaching’s
prestige, status, and esteem. Table I.19 (p. 232) reports a reduction in this population’s
post-policy teaching means. Despite this result, the data indicate that this population of
aspiring teachers may have the greatest post-policy interests in teaching.
relationships between this population’s post-policy perceptions of the teaching career’s
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.68 (p. 257) displays that the independent
variables, policy intervention prestige (r = .33) and policy intervention status (r = .23)
formed large relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention teach. The
data indicate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige may have a larger
relationship with this population’s post-policy teaching considerations than the post-
policy perceptions of status. In contrast, Table I.68 (p. 257) presents that gender (r = -
.19) formed a negative relationship with the dependent variable, policy intervention
teach. This result suggests that gender may have some relationship with this population’s
post-policy teaching considerations.
144
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.69 (p. 257) displays that the
variable, policy intervention prestige was significant, F(6,103) = 2.90, p < .05. The data
display that the independent variable contributed .08 to the R², and produced a large β
coefficient (β = .31). The results indicate that policy intervention status, F(7,102) = 2.46,
p < .05, and policy intervention esteem were insignificant variables, F(8,101) = 2.50, p <
.05. Yet, the data display that policy intervention prestige maintained its significance and
produced a larger β coefficient (β = .35) than the confounding variable, gender (β = -.19).
Despite gender’s negative beta weight, the data present that its interaction with policy
intervention status and policy intervention esteem produced a significant variable,
F(9,100) = 2.55, p < .05. Table I.69 (p. 257) displays that the interaction variable
contributed .04 to the R², and produced a smaller β coefficient (β = .22) than policy
intervention prestige (β = .38) and the confounding variable, gender (β = -.26).
The data demonstrate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige may
be influential in causing this population to consider teaching. While, gender’s negative
beta signals that it may encourage some to reconsider their career choice, the
confounding variable’s interaction with the post-policy perceptions of esteem and status
may encourage a number of aspiring teachers to consider teaching.
Summary of results: High school seniors and college undergraduates. The
results demonstrated that high school senior and college undergraduates’ interest in
teaching may increase following the establishment of policies designed to improve
perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem. The data revealed that the
145
interactions between the post-policy perceptions of prestige and status may contribute to
this increased interest, and that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem may not
be a deterrent. Moreover, the results indicated that college undergraduate non-aspiring
teachers that derive from households with annual incomes exceeding $50,000, and those
who score 25 or greater on the ACT displayed a significant increase in their post-policy
teaching considerations. These results illustrate that post-policy perceptions of teaching’s
prestige may be the reason for this population’s increased interest in teaching. More
importantly, the results demonstrated that policy designed to improve the perceptions of
teaching may lead college undergraduates who score in the highest deciles of the ACT to
have a greater interest in the career.
The results demonstrated that the post-policy perceptions of esteem may be a
reason for high school senior non-aspiring teachers to have an increased interest in
teaching. The results also indicated that ACT scores may have a strong effect on high
school senior non-aspiring teachers’ post-policy teaching considerations. These findings
are substantial considering that improved perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and
esteem may encourage larger numbers of high school senior non-aspiring teachers who
score in the highest deciles of the ACT to have a greater interest in teaching.
Lastly, the results revealed that the post-policy teaching interests of aspiring
teachers who derive from households with annual incomes exceeding $100,000, and
those who score 21 or greater on the ACT decrease. This result may be surprising, but
not alarming, given that the population’s mean teaching considerations remain greater
than those of the other populations. The data demonstrated that the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s prestige may have a significant effect on this population’s
146
teaching considerations. The results also indicated that the interactions between the post-
policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem, and status may contribute to this population’s
post-policy teaching considerations. More importantly, the data demonstrated that
aspiring teachers who score in the upper deciles of the ACT may have a greater desire to
teach, and that their post-policy perceptions of esteem may not place this population at-
risk of reconsidering their teaching intentions.
Male and Female Post-Policy Teaching Considerations
The analysis continued with an investigation of the male and female populations’
post-policy teaching considerations. An independent t-test initiated this segment to
investigate whether differences exist between male and female teaching considerations
following the establishment of policy designed to improve the perceptions of the teaching
career’s prestige, status, and esteem. Table I.70 (p. 258) reports that statistical
differences were present between female (M = 4.96, SD = 2.33) and male (M = 3.85, SD
= 2.53) post-policy teaching considerations. Despite this outcome, a follow-up
independent t-test was employed. Table I.70 (p. 258) reports that statistical differences
were present in male teaching considerations prior to (M = 3.23, SD = 2.79) and
following policy implementation (M = 3.85, SD = 2.53). The results suggest that males
may have a greater interest in teaching once the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status,
and esteem have improved.
Female College Undergraduates Considering Other Careers
The analysis moved forward with an investigation of the female college
undergraduate population who are considering careers other than teaching. An
independent t-test initiated the study to learn whether statistical differences were present
147
between this population’s pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.70
(p. 258) presents that statistical differences were present in this population’s mean
teaching considerations prior to (M = 3.25, SD = 2.12) and following policy interventions
(M = 4.29, SD = 2.21). The data indicate that female college undergraduates considering
careers other than teaching may be more interested in teaching following the
implementation of policy designed to improve perceptions of the teaching career’s
prestige, status, and esteem.
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.71 (p. 259) displays that that the
independent variables, policy intervention prestige (r = .32) and policy intervention status
(r = .29) produced sizeable relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention
teach. These results indicate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige and
status may hold the largest relationships with this population’s post-policy teaching
considerations. The data also display that policy intervention esteem (r = .19) and act
score (r = .12) produced smaller relationships with the dependent variable. While the
relationships may not be as robust as policy intervention prestige and policy intervention
status, the results indicate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem and ACT
results may have some association with this population’s post-policy teaching
considerations. In contrast, Table I.71 (p. 259) presents that the confounding variable,
main source (r = -.12) produced a small negative correlation with the dependent variable.
148
The data suggest that the sources this population use to learn about teaching may have
some relationship with their post-policy decisions to choose careers other than teaching.
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.72 (p. 259) reports that the
independent variable, policy intervention prestige was significant, F(5,286) = 7.56, p <
.05. The data display that the independent variable contributed a robust .09 to the R², and
produced a sizeable β coefficient (β = .31). The results also indicate that policy
intervention prestige may be a stronger predictor than policy intervention status, F(6,285)
= 7.32, p < .05. The data present that the independent variable, policy intervention status
was significant, but its R² (R² = .02) contribution and beta weight (β = .15) were less than
policy intervention prestige (β = .24).
Table I.72 (p. 259) demonstrates that the variable, policy intervention esteem was
insignificant, F(7,284) = 6.28, p < .05. Despite this outcome, the results display that the
variables, policy intervention prestige (β = .25) and policy intervention status (β = .17)
maintained significance. The data indicate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s
prestige may have the greatest impact on this population, and may influence many to gain
interest in teaching once the perceptions of teaching have improved.
Rural High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
The analysis moved forward with an investigation of the rural high school senior
and college undergraduate population’s post-policy teaching considerations. An
independent t-test initiated the study to determine whether statistical differences were
present between this population’s pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations.
149
Table I.70 (p. 258) demonstrates that statistical differences were not present in this
population’s mean teaching considerations prior to (M = 4.80, SD = 2.91) and following
policy intervention (M = 4.71, SD = 2.41). The data demonstrate that this population
may remain interested in teaching following the implementation of policy designed to
improve perceptions of the teaching career’s prestige, status, and esteem
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.73 (p. 260) reports that the variables, policy
intervention status (r = .23), act score (r = .21), policy intervention esteem, (r = .18), and
gender (r = .19) all formed similar relationships with the dependent variable, policy
intervention teach. These results suggest that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s
status and esteem, and the confounding variables, gender, and ACT results may be related
to this population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Additionally, the results present
that the variable, interaction policy intervention prestige status (r = .15) formed a small
relationship with the dependent variable. This result indicates that the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s prestige and its interaction with the post-policy perceptions of
teaching’s status may have some relationship with the rural high school senior and
college undergraduate population’s post-policy teaching considerations.
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.74 (p. 260) reports that the
confounding variables, gender, F(3,324) = 5.20, p < .05, and act score were significant,
150
F(4,323) = 7.09, p < .05. The data display that gender (R² = .05) and act score’s (R² =
.04) R² contributions were similar, and that each produced comparable beta weights
(gender (β = .20) and act score (β = .19). The results also present that the independent
variable, policy intervention prestige was significant, F(5,322) = 6.68, p < .05., but was
unable to maintain significance with the addition of policy intervention status, F(6,321) =
7.01, p < .05. The data display that policy intervention status was significant, but it was
unable to maintain significance with the model’s introduction of the variable policy
intervention esteem, F(7,320) = 6.10, p < .05.
Table I.74 (p. 260) reports that policy intervention esteem was insignificant, but
the interaction variable, policy intervention prestige status produced significance,
F(8,319) = 7.19, p < .05. The results demonstrate that the interaction variable’s R² (R² =
.04) contribution was comparable to gender’s (β = .19) and act score’s (β = .13), but its
beta weight (β = .21) was heavier than both confounding variables. The data suggest that
the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige and its interaction with the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s status may contribute to this population’s interest in teaching.
Female Rural High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
The analysis continued with an investigation of the female rural high school
senior and college undergraduate population deriving from households with minimum
annual incomes of $100,000. An independent t-test initiated the study to determine
whether statistical differences in this population’s teaching considerations were present
between their pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.70 (p. 258)
demonstrates that statistical differences were not present in this population’s mean
teaching considerations prior to (M = 5.51, SD = 2.75) and following (M = 5.05, SD =
151
2.35) the establishment of policies designed to improve the perceptions of teaching’s
prestige, status, and esteem. The results indicate that this population may remain
interested in teaching following the implementation of policy designed to improve
perceptions of the teaching career’s prestige, status, and esteem
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.75 (p. 261) reports that the independent
variables, policy intervention status (r = .30), interaction policy intervention prestige
status (r = .26), policy intervention prestige (r = .20), and policy intervention esteem (r =
.19) formed relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention teach. The
data indicate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s status, and the interaction
between the post-policy perceptions of prestige and status may be largely related to this
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. The results also report that the post-
policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem and the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s
prestige may be associated with this population’s post-policy teaching considerations.
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.76 (p. 261) reports that policy
intervention status was a significant variable, F(5,130) = 2.79, p < .05. The results
display that the variable contributed .05 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient
(β = .26). The data also demonstrate that policy intervention status may be a stronger
predictor than policy intervention esteem, F(6,129) = 2.31, p < .05. Table I.76 (p. 261)
152
demonstrates that the independent variable was insignificant, and that policy intervention
status was able to maintain its significance (β = .27). The results display that the
independent variable, interaction policy intervention prestige status was also significant,
F(7,128) = 4.26, p < .05. The data present that the independent variable contributed a
robust .09 to the R², and produced a similar β coefficient (β = .35) as status (β = .37).
While the beta weights may be comparable, the interaction variable’s robust R²
contribution demonstrates that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige and its
interaction with the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s status may have slightly more
of an effect on this population’s post-policy teaching considerations.
Urban High School Seniors and College Undergraduates
The analysis continued with a study of the urban high school senior and college
undergraduate population that derive from households with annual incomes exceeding
$50,000, and those that have scored a minimum of 21 on the ACT. An independent t-test
initiated the investigation to determine whether statistical differences were present
between this population’s pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.70
(p. 258) demonstrates that statistical differences were not present in this population’s
mean teaching considerations prior to (M = 4.19, SD = 2.82) and following (M = 4.67,
SD = 2.45) the establishment of policies designed to improve the teaching career’s
prestige, status, and esteem.
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.77 (p. 262) reports that the variables, gender
153
(r = .38) and interaction policy intervention prestige status (r = .29) formed sizeable
relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention teach. The data indicate
that gender may have a large relationship with this population’s post-policy teaching
considerations. Although not as robust, the results suggest that the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s prestige and its interactions with the post-policy perceptions of
teaching’s status may also hold a sizeable relationship with this population’s post-policy
teaching considerations. Finally, the data indicate that that the post-policy perceptions of
teaching’s status (r = .21) may also have some relationship with urban high school senior
and college undergraduate post-policy teaching considerations.
gender was significant, F(4,135) = 6.60, p < .05, and that the confounding variable
contributed a robust .12 to the R², and produced a large β coefficient (β = .35). The
results report that policy intervention prestige was also significant, F(5,134) = 6.90, p <
.05, but its R² (R² = .04) contribution and β coefficient (β = .20) were less than gender’s
(β = .39). Table I.78 (p. 262) reveals that policy intervention prestige was unable to
maintain significance with the model’s introduction of policy intervention status,
F(6,133) = 6.26, p < .05. The data display that policy intervention status and policy
intervention esteem were insignificant, F(7,132) = 5.37, p < .05. Despite this
insignificance, the results demonstrate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s
prestige and its interaction with the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s status produced
a significant variable, F(8,131) = 5.36, p < .05. The results present that the variable,
154
interaction policy intervention prestige status’ R² (R² = .03) contribution and β coefficient
(β = .20) were less than gender’s (β = .39).
The data suggest that gender may have a considerable effect on this population’s
post-policy teaching considerations. Yet, the interaction variable’s beta and R²
contribution signals that it too may hold some influence. While the interaction may not be
as robust as gender, the data suggest that the post-policy perceptions of prestige and the
variable’s interaction with the post-policy perceptions of status may have some effect on
urban high school senior and college undergraduate post-policy teaching considerations.
Female Urban/Urban Cluster College Undergraduates Considering Other Careers
The analysis moved forward with an investigation of the urban and urban cluster
female college undergraduate non-aspiring teacher population that derive from
households with annual incomes exceeding $50,000, and those who have scored 21 or
greater on the ACT. An independent t-test initiated the investigation to compare this
population’s pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.70 (p. 258)
demonstrates that statistical differences were present in this population’s mean teaching
considerations prior to (M = 3.04, SD = 2.09) and following policy intervention (M =
4.32, SD = 2.27). These results suggest that this population may be more interested in
teaching following the establishment of policy designed to improve the perceptions of
155
intervention prestige (r = .33) and policy intervention status (r = .31) formed sizeable
relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention teach. The data indicate
that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige and status may be related to this
population’s post-policy teaching considerations.
the independent variable policy intervention prestige was significant, F(4,118) = 4.32, p
< .05. The data display that the independent variable contributed a robust .10 to the R²,
and produced a sizeable β coefficient (β = .32). The results reveal that the independent
variable, policy intervention status was also significant, F(5,117) = 4.37, p < .05, but its
R² (R² = .03) contribution and β coefficient (β = .20) were less than policy intervention
prestige’s (β = .23). Policy intervention prestige and policy intervention status remained
robust with the model’s introduction of policy intervention esteem, F(6,116) = 3.65, p <
.05. Table I.80 (p. 263) presents that the independent variable was insignificant, and that
policy intervention prestige continued to produce a heavier beta (β = .24) than policy
intervention status (β = .21). The data indicate that the post-policy perceptions of
teaching’s prestige may encourage this population to consider teaching once the
perceptions of the career have been improved.
Summary of results: Gender and hometown classifications. The results
demonstrated that males may have a greater interest in teaching following the
establishment of policy designed to improve the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status,
and esteem. In addition, the data indicated that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s
156
prestige may encourage female college undergraduates who are considering careers other
than teaching to have greater interest in the career. The results revealed that post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s prestige may also heighten the urban/urban cluster female
college undergraduate non-aspiring teacher population’s interests. Moreover, the results
demonstrated that post-policy perceptions of esteem may not discourage this population
or others from considering teaching.
Lastly, the results suggested that the rural high school senior and college
undergraduate population’s pre and post-policy teaching considerations may be
comparable. This phenomenon may also be true for rural females, but the results
indicated that post-policy teaching considerations may be more robust for this population
than for the rural high school senior and college undergraduate population, in that they
demonstrated that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige and status may have
the most significant effect on this population, and may be the reason for a greater post-
policy interest in teaching.
Household Annual Income: $50,000 or $100,000
The analysis considered the high school senior and college undergraduate non-
aspiring teacher population that derive from households with annual incomes ranging
from $50,000 to $100,000. An independent t-test initiated the investigation to determine
whether statistical differences persist between this population’s pre-policy and post-
policy teaching considerations. Table I.81 (p. 264) demonstrates that statistical
differences were present in this population’s mean teaching considerations prior to (M =
2.93, SD = 2.11) and following policy intervention (M = 3.93, SD = 2.30). The data
suggest that this population of high school seniors and college undergraduates may be
157
more interested in teaching following the establishment of policies designed to improve
intervention prestige (r = .27), policy intervention status (r = .30), and act score (r = .26)
formed similar relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention teach. The
data demonstrate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige, the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s status, and ACT results may be associated with this
population’s post-policy teaching considerations.
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.83 (p. 265) presents that the
confounding variable, act score was significant, F(4,154) = 3.89, p < .05. The data
display that act score contributed .06 to the R², and produced a moderate β coefficient (β
= .25). The results also report that the independent variable, policy intervention prestige
was significant, F(5,153) = 6.66, p < .05, and that its R² (R² = .09) contribution and β
coefficient (β = .30) were greater than act score’s (β = .23) and gender’s (β = .19).
Table I.83 (p. 265) presents that the independent variables, policy intervention
status, F(6,152) = 5.90, p < .05, and policy intervention esteem were insignificant,
F(7,151) = 5.11, p < .05. Despite these outcomes, the data display that policy
intervention prestige was able to maintain a heavier beta weight (β = .26) than act score
158
(β = .20) and gender (β = .17). These results indicate that the post-policy perceptions of
teaching’s prestige may encourage this population to consider teaching.
Household Annual Income: $150,000 or Greater
undergraduate population that derive from households with annual incomes exceeding
$150,000, and those scoring 25 or greater on the ACT. An independent t-test began the
study to determine whether statistical differences were present between this population’s
pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.81 (p. 264) reports that
statistical differences were present in this population’s mean teaching considerations
prior to (M = 4.61, SD = 2.92) and following policy intervention (M = 5.25, SD = 2.37).
This data indicate that this population of high school seniors and college undergraduates
may be more interested in teaching following the establishment of policy designed to
improve the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem.
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.84 (p. 266) demonstrates that that the
variables, policy intervention status (r = .41), policy intervention prestige (r = .35), and
policy intervention esteem (r = .31) formed large relationships with the dependent
variable, policy intervention teach. The data display that the independent variable,
interaction policy intervention prestige esteem (r = .27) also formed a sizeable
relationship with the dependent variable. These results indicate that the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s status, the post-policy-perceptions of teaching’s prestige, and
159
the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem may be largely related to this
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. The data also suggest the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s prestige and its interactions with the post-policy perceptions of
teaching’s esteem may also be associated with this population’s post-policy teaching
considerations.
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.85 (p. 266) displays that the
independent variable, policy intervention prestige was significant, F(5,148) = 5.91, p <
.05, and that the variable’s R² (R² = .12) contribution and beta (β = .36) were larger than
gender’s (β = .19). The data also report that the independent variable, policy intervention
status was significant, F(6,147) = 6.79, p < .05. The results report that policy
intervention status’ R² (R² = .05) contribution was weaker than policy intervention
prestige (β = .20), but its beta weight (β = .28) was heavier.
Table I.85 (p. 266) displays that the independent variable, policy intervention
esteem was insignificant, F(7,146) = 5.86, p < .05. Despite this outcome, the results
demonstrate that the variable’s interaction with policy intervention prestige formed a
significant variable, F(8,145) = 6.28, p < .05. The data present that the interaction
variable’s R² (R² = .04) contribution and β coefficient (β = .21) were slightly less than
policy intervention status (β = .26). These results indicate that the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s status and the interaction between the post-policy perceptions
of teaching’s prestige and esteem may encourage this population to consider teaching.
160
ACT Score: 25 to 28
The analysis continued with an investigation of the college undergraduate non-
aspiring teacher population scoring 25 to 28 on the ACT. An independent t-test began
the investigation to determine whether statistical differences were present in this
population’s pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.81 (p. 264)
presents that statistical differences were present in this population’s mean teaching
considerations prior to (M = 2.96, SD = 2.18) and following post-policy interventions (M
= 4.35, SD = 2.19). These results suggest that this population of college undergraduates
may be more interested in teaching following the establishment of policy designed to
improve the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem.
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.86 (p. 267) reports that that the variables,
policy intervention prestige (r = .43) and policy intervention status (r = .32) formed large
relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention teach. These results
suggest that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige may have a stronger
relationship with this population’s teaching considerations than the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s status. In contrast, the data display that the confounding
variable, main source formed a negative relationship (r = -.27) with the dependent
variable. This result indicates that the sources that this population uses to learn about
teaching may be associated with their post-policy considerations to consider careers other
than teaching.
161
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.87 (p. 267) reports that main
source was the single significant confounding variable, F(4,105) = 3.03, p < .05. The
data display that the independent variable contributed a sizeable .08 to the R², and
produced a moderate β coefficient (β = -.28). Despite main source’s strength, the results
report that the independent variable, policy intervention prestige may be a stronger
predictor, F(5,104) = 8.38, p < .05. The data demonstrate that the independent variable’s
R² (R² = .18) contribution and β coefficient (β = .45) were greater than main source’s (β =
-27).
Table I.87 (p. 267) displays that policy intervention status and policy intervention
esteem were insignificant variables. The data display that policy intervention prestige
maintained a larger β coefficient (β = .39) than the variable main source (β = -.21). These
results demonstrate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige may have a
stronger impact on this population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Nevertheless,
main source’s moderate beta weight indicates that the sources this population uses to
learn about teaching may discourage some of this population from teaching despite
improvements to the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem.
ACT Score: 20 or Less
The final analysis studied the high school senior population scoring 20 or less on
the ACT, and those that derive from households with annual incomes greater than
$50,000. An independent t-test initiated the investigation to determine whether statistical
differences persist in this population’s pre-policy and post-policy teaching considerations.
162
Table I.81 (p. 264) presents that statistical differences were not present in this
population’s teaching considerations prior to (M = 4.51, SD = 3.06) and following the
establishment of policy designed to improve the teaching career’s prestige, status, and
esteem (M = 4.24, SD = 2.68).
post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.88 (p. 268) reports that that the variables,
policy intervention esteem (r = .29), policy intervention status (r = .22), and gender (r =
.29) formed sizeable relationships with the dependent variable, policy intervention teach.
These results indicate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem, the post-
policy perceptions of teaching’s status, and gender may be related to this population’s
post-policy teaching considerations.
population’s post-policy teaching considerations. Table I.89 (p. 268) presents that the
confounding variable, gender was significant, F(4,132) = 3.84, p < .05. The data display
that gender contributed a robust .10 to the R², and produced a large β coefficient (β =
.31). The results also report that the independent variable, policy intervention prestige
was insignificant, F(5,131) = 3.05, p < .05.
Table I.89 (p. 268) reveals that the independent variable, policy intervention
status was significant, F(6,130) = 4.61, p < .05, and that the variable’s R² (R² = .07)
contribution and β coefficient (β = .28) were less than gender’s (β = .34). Despite this
163
results, the data display that policy intervention status lost its significance with the
model’s introduction of policy intervention esteem, F(7,129) = 5.11, p < .05. The data
demonstrate that the independent variable’s R² contribution was less than gender’s (β =
.29), but its beta weight (β = .30) was comparable.
Finally, Table I.89 (p. 268) presents that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s
prestige and its interaction with the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s status produced
a significant variable, F(8,128) = 5.43, p < .05. The data reveal that the independent
variable, interaction policy intervention prestige status contributed .04 to the R², and
produced a smaller β coefficient (β = .22) than policy intervention esteem (β = .34) and
gender (β = .26). The data indicate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s esteem
and gender may have an effect on this population’s post-policy teaching considerations.
The results also demonstrate that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige and its
interaction with the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s status may also have some
impact on this population’s post-policy teaching considerations.
Summary of results: Household incomes and ACT scores. The results
indicated that high school seniors and college undergraduates who score 25 to 28 on the
ACT may be more interested in teaching once the perceptions of teaching’s prestige,
status, and esteem improve, and that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige
may have the greatest effect on this population. Additionally, the results demonstrated
that high school seniors and college undergraduates that derive from households with
annual incomes exceeding $150,000, and those who score 25 or greater on the ACT may
have a greater post-policy interest in teaching than do other high school senior and
college undergraduate populations. The data revealed that the post-policy perceptions of
164
teaching’s status may be a reason for this increased interest in the career. Further, the
results demonstrated that the post-policy perceptions of prestige and its interactions with
the post-policy perceptions of esteem may have a secondary effect on this population’s
increased interest in teaching.
The data illustrated that high school seniors and college undergraduates who
derive from households with annual incomes ranging from $50,000 to $100,000 may also
have a greater interest in teaching following policy intervention. The results
demonstrated that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige may be a reason for
this population’s increased interest in teaching. Additionally, the data revealed that ACT
scores may also have some influence on their post-policy teaching considerations.
Lastly, the results demonstrated that high school seniors and college
undergraduates who derive from households with annual incomes exceeding $50,000,
and those who score 20 or less on the ACT may have neither an increased nor decreased
interest in teaching following policy intervention. The results indicated that this
population may be interested in teaching regardless of the way in which the career is
perceived. Despite this outcome, the results demonstrated that the post-policy
perceptions of teaching’s esteem may be a reason for this population to remain interested
in teaching.
Summary of Chapter IV
The arrows connecting the perceptions of teaching’s status to consider teaching in
Figure 5 (p. 272) represents the positive effects the career’s status may have on a large
number of high school senior and college undergraduate teaching considerations. For
example, the results revealed that the perceptions of teaching’s status may be a reason
165
high school seniors and college undergraduates scoring 25 to 28 on the ACT (r = .47; β =
.41) would consider teaching. Similarly, the results demonstrated that the perceptions of
teaching’s status may be a reason high school seniors and college undergraduates from
households with annual incomes greater than $150,000 (r = .44; β = .40) would consider
the career.
In contrast, the arrows flowing to the right of status represent the negative effects
of teaching’s esteem. The results indicated that the perceptions of esteem may
discourage large numbers of high school seniors and college undergraduates from
considering the career. For example, the results demonstrated that high school seniors
and college undergraduates from households with annual incomes ranging from $100,000
to $150,000 (r = -.25, β = -.26) may be a population discouraged by the perceptions of
teaching’s esteem. Moreover, the results demonstrated that high school seniors and
college undergraduates scoring 21 to 24 on the ACT (r = -.18, β = -.30) may also be more
likely to be discouraged by the perceptions of teaching’s esteem. These results may be
significant considering the size of this population. In 2018, ACT reported that the
national mean composite score was 21 (ACT, 2018). This data illustrates the large
number of high school seniors and college undergraduates that may be discouraged by
the perceptions of teaching’s esteem.
The arrows linking esteem and the financial component of prestige represents an
interaction. The results demonstrated that the perceptions of the financial component of
prestige did not produce any effects on its own, but it did produce an interaction with the
perceptions of teaching’s esteem. The results demonstrated that the interaction (r = -.19,
β = -.24) may have an effect on the female aspiring teacher population. The results
166
indicated that poor teacher compensation may limit the perception of teaching’s esteem.
These limited perceptions may be a reason that this population reconsiders their teaching
intentions. These limited perceptions may also initiate thoughts of early attrition at the
preservice teacher level and come to fruition once the realities of teaching are
experienced.
The arrows linking esteem, the financial component of prestige, and main sources
represent an additional interaction. The results demonstrated that high school seniors and
college undergraduates scoring in the upper deciles of the ACT may learn of the
limitations that the financial component of prestige may have on teaching’s esteem from
their own teachers. The descriptive statistics appear to support these results, with over
half (56%) of this population reporting they learned about the teaching career from
current faculty. The results demonstrated that this population may be discouraged by the
effects teacher compensation may have on the perceptions on teaching’s esteem.
Moreover, the results raise additional questions as to the effects teacher morale may have
on this population’s teaching considerations.
The results demonstrated that the implementation of international policy had
positive effects on the majority of high school seniors and college undergraduates.
However, the analyses were unable to establish whether improvements in the perceptions
of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem led to an increased interest for all populations.
For example, males (M = 3.23, SD = 2.79; M = 3.85, SD = 2.53) may be more likely to
consider teaching with the implementation of international policy, but the researcher was
unable to establish whether improvements in the aforementioned perceptions had an
effect on the male population’s increased interest in teaching.
167
Figure 6 (p. 273) illustrates the effects that the improvements of the perceptions of
teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem may have on a number of high school senior and
college undergraduate populations. The results demonstrated that improved perceptions
of teaching’s prestige (r = .44, β = .35) may have a significant effect on the college
undergraduate non-aspiring teacher population from households with annual incomes
exceeding $50,000 and those scoring 25 or greater on the ACT (r = .44, β = .35).
Additionally, improvements in the perceptions of prestige may have a significant effect
on the urban and urban cluster female college undergraduate non-aspiring teacher
population from households with annual incomes exceeding $50,000, and those who have
scored 21 or greater on the ACT (r = .33, β = .24). These results suggest that
improvements in the perceptions of teaching’s prestige could elevate teaching into being
a competitive profession in the contemporary labor market. The improvements in the
perceptions of teaching’s prestige may be a reason that high school seniors and college
undergraduates with strong academic backgrounds would consider teaching. The results
also suggest that the improvements in teaching’s prestige may attract a greater number of
academically inclined females who would otherwise consider more prestigious
professions. Finally, the results demonstrated that improvements in the perceptions of
prestige may also have a significant effect on the aspiring teacher population (r = .33, β =
.38) from households with annual incomes exceeding $100,000 and those who have
scored 21 or greater on the ACT. These results appear significant because they indicate
that improvements in the perceptions of teaching’s prestige may stabilize this
population’s career intentions. This population may be more likely to become teachers
once the perception of teaching’s prestige has improved. Moreover, these results suggest
168
that improvements in the perception of teaching’s prestige may limit consideration of
early exit and ease some of the burdens of early teacher attrition.
Low Correlation Coefficients
The correlation coefficients were relatively low throughout the study. This is not
uncommon considering social science research involves the study of human behavior.
Human behavior is not physical in nature and the assumption that a perfect correlation
(e.g., r = 1.00) can be formed in social science research may be unrealistic. Indeed,
benchmarks have been established to illustrate the size of correlations (r = .10 is small, r
= .30 is medium, and r = .50 is large), but their use may be more realistic in research
involving physical phenomena versus human behavior (Cohen, 1988). Some scholars
contend that it is more optimal to let relationships serve as mental benchmarks (Meyer,
Finn, Eyde, Kay, Moreland, Dies, Eisman, Kubiszyn, & Reed, 2001). Meyer and
colleagues assert that relatively low positive or negative correlations in the study of
human behavior can provide valuable information. For example, “the association
between prominent movie critics' reviews and box office success (r = .17) produced a
small correlation, but the results proved to be valuable” (Meyer, et al., 2001, p. 133).
Low R-Squared Values
Like the correlation coefficients, a number of the R-squared values were relatively
low throughout the study. This is not uncommon considering the nature of this research.
It is typical for any study that attempts to predict human behavior to produce lower R-
squared values. Human behavior is more difficult to predict than physical phenomena
and it is expected that R-squared values may be low. Despite low R-squared values, the
significant F values in the regression analyses demonstrated that the effects are
169
statistically significant. This allows for important conclusions to be made because the
predictor values are associated with changes in the response value. Regardless of the R-
squared values, the significant beta weights still represent the mean change in the
response for one unit of change in the predictor while holding other predictors in the
model constant (Onditi, 2013).
Chapter V provides a description of formal and semantic status and describes the
implications of each. An explanation of international education policy is included in the
chapter, and presents the effects this policy may have on the perceptions of teaching’s
prestige, status, and esteem. The chapter explains that improvements to the perceptions
of teaching may increase the career’s status from formal to semantic. If semantic status
comes to fruition, larger numbers of high school seniors and college undergraduates may
be interested in teaching.
170
CHAPTER V.
DISCUSSION
Chapter V begins with an explanation of semantic status and its implications for
the teacher shortage. It addresses the erosion of teaching’s esteem and the limitations
that perceptions of esteem place on the career’s ability to realize semantic status. The
chapter discusses international education policy and the effects policies designed to
improve the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem may have on teaching’s
semantic status in America. The suggestion is made that the burdens of the teacher
shortage may ease once teaching acquires semantic status. The chapter concludes with
implications for practice, recommendations for state education agencies, school districts,
and for further research.
Semantic Status
An occupation realizes semantic status when a society unequivocally considers it
a high-status profession. This is a powerful ideology, given that many are attracted to the
idea of working in a high-status profession. Many assume that the fruits of their labor
will be sweeter and that the rewards from high-status professions will be plentiful. In
contrast, a governing body may afford a career a professional label, but its professional
status may not be absolute (Hoyle, 2001). Internally, its workforce may perceive itself as
a profession, but externally, society may hold different perceptions. This ideology may
171
place public service occupations such as teaching at a disadvantage (Wan, Wong, &
Kong, 2014; Domenico & Jones, 2006).
The results from this study illustrated that an occupation’s semantic status is
unbalanced when a society holds negative perceptions of at least one of prestige’s
components, financial and image, as well as status and esteem (Figure 7, p. 274). This
instability can lead to a limited interest in teaching and shortages in a quality workforce,
which seems to be the current state of the teaching career in the United States. The data
demonstrated that high school seniors and college undergraduates may hold positive
perceptions of teaching’s status. In fact, perceptions of teaching’s status may be higher
than that of other public service occupations (Hoyle, 1995, 2001). This seems to be good
news, but the results also indicated that perceptions of teaching’s status may plateau
beneath professions perceived commonly to hold high status, and teaching’s semantic
status’ instability may be a reason for this limitation. While perceptions of teaching’s
status appear promising, esteem’s negative implications and its negative interaction with
prestige’s image and financial components may prevent teaching from achieving
semantic status.
In contrast, an occupation may realize semantic status when negative perceptions
of its prestige (financial and image components), status, and esteem do not persist. In
fact, an occupation’s semantic status may strengthen when a society holds positive
perceptions of one or more of these elements. This stability can generate great interest in
an occupation and lead to the development of a quality workforce. This theory appears to
portray the state of teaching in nations such as Finland, Taiwan, Singapore, and South
Korea, in which teaching’s semantic status has afforded the opportunity to attract the
172
brightest and most capable students into teaching (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Sahlberg,
2015). With highly skilled teachers, these nations have developed a stable and quality
teacher workforce able to produce robust student achievement. The results have
generated world-wide interest, but more importantly, they demonstrate that a strong
teacher workforce is an essential component of student learning (Sahlberg, 2015).
People argue that PISA scores do not tell the whole story. This may be true, but
economic activity may provide additional insight. At present, Finland, Taiwan,
Singapore, and South Korea’s economies are continuing to grow. This economic vitality
has not always existed, and leaders from these nations attribute the economic growth to
their nation’s education systems. Policymakers assert that the teacher is the core of their
education systems, and is the single most important variable in student achievement
(Sahlberg, 2015).
Although teaching is considered to hold formal status in the United States, there
may be regions where the career possesses semantic status. This may be the case in
wealthy rural areas. The data illustrated that perceptions of teaching’s status may
encourage high school seniors and college undergraduates from these regions to consider
teaching. Moreover, the negative implications of teaching’s esteem appear to be absent
in these regions. This suggested that teaching may have realized semantic status in these
areas, which may a reason that this population may be more likely to consider teaching
than those in other regions.
Despite these indications of semantic status, the rural population’s uniqueness
should be considered as well. The literature has demonstrated the significance of social
capital and its implications in this population’s career decisions (Bajema, Miller, &
173
Williams, 2002; Byun, Meece, Irvin, & Hutchins, 2012). Byuan et al. defined social
capital as “…capital inherent in the relations among persons, which is separable from
other forms of resources such as financial capital (e.g., income) and human capital (e.g.,
years of schooling)” (p. 357). Previous research has demonstrated that higher levels of
social capital may exist in rural regions compared to suburban and urban areas. Much of
this research has suggested that commonly, rural community members place greater value
on family and community relationships than on income or educational attainment (Byun
et al., 2012). Together with semantic status, these core values may contribute to the rural
high school senior and college undergraduate population’s willingness to teach.
Indeed, social capital may affect rural female aspiring teachers, but perceptions of
teaching’s status may also be important. Additionally, the data demonstrated that rural
female aspiring teachers may be the single population drawn to teaching by prestige’s
image component. This anomaly may stem from the relationships between this
population and their teachers. Traditionally, rural students form stronger relationships
with their teachers than do students in non-rural environments. This phenomenon may
increase this population’s perceptions of the image component of teaching’s prestige and
attract them to the career (Ballou & Podgursky, 1995).
These results appear to be good news for rural schools, but teachers’ geographic
mobility patterns may be a reason for unequal distribution. Social capital often motivates
teachers to seek employment close to home (Boyd et al., 2005). The desire to live and
work near family and friends may provide some rural districts with an adequate pool of
qualified teachers. However, social capital may not be as prevalent in certain rural
174
communities. Moreover, teaching may not have acquired semantic status in some rural
areas, and both can lead often to problems recruiting qualified candidates.
Lastly, the rural economy could also contribute to rural teacher shortages. Rural
high school seniors often begin to work immediately following graduation. Many do not
see the need to further their education because the jobs within a rural economy typically
do not require one. Teaching may hold semantic status in these regions, but only a small
number of rural students may see a purpose in attending college.
The Erosion of Esteem
It is plausible that the media’s representation of teachers, consistent political
criticism, poor teacher compensation, and a public that undervalues teaching may be
eroding the perceptions of teaching’s esteem. Comments such as “the decline of
American education has long been a national embarrassment” may sell magazines and
newspapers, but the discourse may also chip away at the career’s esteem (Draper, 2010,
p. 1). Negative comments on the part of governmental leaders and the decades-long
political war on public education could also be taking a toll (Draper, 2010; Reilly, 2018).
Combined with such negative discourse, poor teacher compensation seems to be eroding
teaching’s esteem. Low salaries signal that a teacher’s work in educating the nation’s
children is undervalued, which may significantly affect its ability to fill its teacher
pipelines.
Esteem’s implications may also be complicating efforts to recruit prospective
teachers. Maslow (1943) asserted that this is a natural response because “all people in
our society have a need or desire for a stable, firmly based, high evaluation of
themselves, for self-respect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others” (p. 381). His
175
work illustrates that an esteemed career satisfies the needs for both professional and
personal validation, and serves as a foundation in the quest for “reputation or prestige” (p.
382). This quest may be a driving force in career and personal life decisions, but it also
can be a chief deterrent. It is plausible that many high school seniors and college
undergraduates are unwilling to teach because they perceive teaching as a career that
limits their individual abilities to reach their fullest personal and professional potentials
(McClelland, 2001; Petty, 2014).
These assumptions may be the reason that high school seniors and college
undergraduates who score 29 or greater on the ACT may be less likely to consider
teaching than those who score in the lower deciles. Perceptions of teaching’s status may
encourage this population to consider teaching, but perceptions of esteem, and its
interaction with prestige’s financial component, and the main sources used to learn about
teaching, may deter its members. This population often avoids teaching because they
believe that the career will prevent them from reaching their fullest potential. Further,
they are unwilling to sacrifice their basic financial needs for a career, and are more
inclined to elect occupations consistent with their financial goals (Wan, Wong, & Kong,
2014).
Table I.9 (p. 225) presents that 56% of the total population reported that they
acquired information about teaching from their own teachers, administrators, and school
counselors. These data, in concert with main source’s interaction with esteem and
prestige’s financial component, demonstrated that the implications of low teacher morale
may negatively influence high school seniors and college undergraduates who score in
the upper deciles of the ACT (Lawver & Torres, 2011). Figure 8 (p. 275) illustrates the
176
discontent within the teacher workforce, in which the majority of 4,275 teachers reported
that they have considered leaving teaching (Klimek, 2018). This evidence supports
commentary that suggests teacher morale may be at its lowest in decades. It is plausible
that this discontent may be modeled in the classroom and discourage a large number of
high achievers from considering teaching (Sutcher, Darling-Hammond, & Carver-
Thomas, 2016).
The results displayed that low teacher morale may prompt practicing teachers to
discourage those who score in the upper deciles of the ACT from considering teaching.
Figure 9 (p. 275) displays the results of 4,275 teachers’ reports of the degree to which
they would encourage others to enter the career. The results demonstrate that 54% of
teachers reported some degree of discouragement, while 45% reported some degree of
encouragement. The largest differences were in the percentage of teachers who would
strongly encourage others to teach (4%) versus those who would not (17%: Klimek,
2018). This may be problematic considering the occupation’s nature. Teaching is the
single occupation that interacts with the majority of a population. This uniqueness can
serve as a strong recruitment tool, but it also can pose problems. In its current state, it
appears that teachers may serve more as a deterrent than a recruitment tool.
Low teacher morale may affect the high school senior population that is
considering careers other than teaching. The results indicated that teaching’s image, and
its interaction with perceptions of esteem and prestige’s financial component may
discourage this population from teaching. Like others, perceptions of teaching’s status
may positively influence this population’s teaching considerations, but its implications
may be insignificant. The images of classroom struggles, compensation that undervalues
177
teachers’ work, and the struggles to provide basic personal needs appear to have a greater
influence on this population than does status. The results suggested that high school
seniors considering careers other than teaching may be unwilling to sacrifice their desires
for the sake of others.
The erosion of teaching’s esteem appears to considerably affect urban females.
For decades, this population has been taken for granted, as it was assumed often that they
would educate America’s youth, and the nation always could count on them to replenish
the teacher pipeline. However, as the labor markets expanded, the teacher pipeline began
to run dry (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014). The contemporary labor market’s
expansion opened new career opportunities of which this population took advantage. At
present, career opportunities continue to expand, and thus, this population can avoid
careers with limited esteem (Corcoran, 2004), and choose instead those that they believe
will allow them to reach their fullest professional and personal potentials (Wan, Wong, &
Kong, 2014; DiPrete & Buchmann, 2013; Zhao & Zhou, 2008; Maslow, 1943).
In addition to urban females, the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may deter a
number of high school seniors and college undergraduates that derive from households
with annual incomes ranging from $100,000 to $150,000. It appears that esteem’s
implications may be a reason that this population may be less likely to consider teaching
than many others. Esteemed careers are important to this population, and they may
perceive that the negative perceptions of teaching’s esteem will interfere with their
abilities to reach their full potential, in that teacher compensation will not reflect their
work’s value and provide them with the financial freedoms that they desire (Wan, Wong,
& Kong, 2014; DiPrete & Buchmann, 2013; Zhao & Zhou, 2008; Maslow, 1943).
178
The implications of teaching’s esteem also appear to negatively influence seniors
and undergraduates who score 21 to 24 on the ACT. This may be problematic
considering the size and academic integrity of this population. The data did display that
perceptions of status and its interaction with prestige’s financial component may have
positive implications, but suggested that esteem’s effects may be greater. While the
results revealed some evidence of an academic recovery, they demonstrated that high
school seniors and college undergraduates who score in the lower deciles of the ACT
may be more likely to consider teaching (Podgursky, Monroe, & Watson, 2004).
The data indicated that the aspiring teacher population may not be immune from
the negative implications of teaching’s esteem. Like others, perceptions of teaching’s
status may be an attractive component, but esteem’s interaction with prestige’s financial
component may exert similar effects. Poor compensation and its reflection of teaching’s
devaluation may be placing this population at-risk of choosing alternative careers.
These results raise questions as to the reasons for early teacher attrition. Previous
research has reported that the foundation of early teacher attrition may be laid within the
first five years of a teacher’s career (Reilly, 2018; Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014;
Parham & Gordon, 2011). Indeed, a large body of evidence illustrates this phenomenon,
but the results reported here suggest that the foundations of early teacher attrition may be
found at the preservice teacher level. It could be that the perceptions of poor
compensation and teaching’s devaluation begin to motivate thoughts of early attrition
before new teachers accept their first teaching assignment. Once exposed to the career’s
realities, it is plausible that thoughts of early attrition will come to fruition.
179
The erosion of teaching’s esteem appear to destabilize teaching’s semantic status.
The results demonstrated consistently that positive perceptions of teaching’s status may
be planted firmly, but the component itself may be unable to support teaching’s semantic
status on its own. The evidence indicates that a career achieves semantic status when
negative perceptions of its prestige (financial and image), status, and esteem do not
persist. This may be the reason society has not yet granted teaching semantic status, and
forecasts into the future predict that the status quo will remain unless the perceptions of
teaching’s esteem are addressed. Indeed, these realities appear grim, but the results may
demonstrate the promise of policy that is designed to support the perceptions of
Implications of International Policy
Nations that expend effort in developing policy to increase the perceptions of
teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem are having success recruiting and retaining quality
teachers, and these successes have yielded both strong academic achievement and
contributed to economic growth. These experiences from around the world demonstrate
that the United States can no longer stand idle in its approaches to developing a strong
teacher workforce. The world is becoming more competitive than ever, and thus, public
schools in America must be able to educate a populace capable of meeting global
competition.
Several international education policies were embedded within this present study,
and a number of analyses were performed to investigate the effect each may have on
teaching’s semantic status in America. Participants had the opportunity to view the
perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem through a different lens, and the
180
results appear encouraging. The data revealed no negative implications of teaching’s
prestige, status, and esteem, and that greater numbers of high school seniors and college
undergraduates may be interested in teaching. These results demonstrated that the
implementation of international policy may be a reason for teaching to realize semantic
status in the United States, which may lead high school seniors and college
undergraduates to be more willing to teach, and will thereby ease the burdens of the
teacher shortage.
The data revealed that the post-policy perceptions of prestige and its interaction
with status may significantly affect high school senior and college undergraduates’ post-
policy teaching considerations. These results indicated that compensation may moderate
a career’s status. More importantly, they illustrated that competitive teacher
compensation can no longer be left for debate, because a career’s prestige and status are
the primary rewards that attract individuals to any occupation (Zhao & Zhou, 2008).
However, political discourse foretells that prestige may be the component that will elicit
the most debate, as teacher compensation depends directly on public tax dollars (Hoyle,
2001). Regardless of the political firestorms that may erupt, the teacher workforce’s
quality relies on policymakers who are willing to seriously consider developing strategies
to strengthen teaching’s prestige. In today’s contemporary labor market, policymakers
no longer can afford to compensate teachers poorly, because poor compensation will not
allow teaching to realize semantic status. Without semantic status, policymakers run the
risk of placing large numbers of inadequate teachers in the nation’s classrooms who are
incapable of preparing youth for the demands of a global economy (Wan, Wong, &
Kong, 2014).
181
The data demonstrated that competitive compensation had a significant effect on
post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige. These improvements may have some of
the greatest effects on high school students and college undergraduates who score in the
upper deciles of the ACT. The results indicated that those that derive from households
exceeding $50,000 and score 25 or greater on the ACT may be more interested in
teaching following policy reforms that address teaching’s prestige. This outcome
indicated that improvements to the perceptions of teaching’s prestige may improve the
teacher workforce’s academic integrity.
Similarly, improvements in the perceptions of teaching’s prestige may encourage
female undergraduates who are considering other careers to reconsider teaching. While
teaching is a majority female occupation, it is losing large numbers of academically
capable females to the contemporary market. With improvements in teaching’s prestige,
and its moderating effects on status, a larger number of female undergraduates may
become interested in the career.
The results indicated that policy that addresses the perceptions of prestige, status,
and esteem may significantly affect the aspiring rural and urban cluster teacher
populations scoring 21 or greater on the ACT and those that derive from households with
annual incomes exceeding $100,000. Rather than being at-risk of choosing an alternative
career, policy reforms may confirm this population’s teaching decisions. While these
results demonstrated opportunities, it will require concerted efforts on the part of
policymakers, teachers, and education leaders to develop and implement policy reforms.
182
Implications for Practice
Successful organizations strive consistently for continuous improvement.
Mediocrity has no place in their missions, as complacency most often leads to negative
outcomes. Education systems are not immune to the dangers of complacency, and most
would agree that public schools must continue to improve to meet the global economy’s
demands (Marx, 2014). While the desire for continuous improvement persists, the ability
to do so may be thwarted by an unstable and unqualified teacher workforce. This is a
pressing issue, and its seriousness has led policymakers from such states as Oklahoma,
South Dakota, and Utah to explore additional revenue sources for teacher compensation.
Pressure from constituents persuaded Oklahoma legislators to introduce House
Bill 1099XX in 2018. The legislation’s intent was to secure and use online state sales tax
dollars for teacher salaries. The bill, which is estimated to generate $20.5 million, was
able to pass both chambers of the state’s legislature, and was signed into law. The
legislation afforded Oklahoma school districts the opportunity to increase teacher salaries
by an average of $6,100 (OK Energy Today, 2018; Krehbiel–Burton, 2018).
Burdened by the teacher shortage, South Dakota policymakers considered
additional revenue streams to increase teacher compensation, and in 2016, the state’s
governor encouraged legislators to approve a half-cent increase in the state’s sales tax.
The legislation was passed, and the additional revenue allowed South Dakota school
districts the opportunity to increase teacher compensation by 3.9 to 14.5% (Anderson,
2016).
The State of Utah also has struggled with a teacher shortage. In response,
legislators drafted a measure that was placed on the November 2018 ballot to obtain voter
183
approval for a 10-cent increase in the state’s gas tax. Budget forecasts predicted that this
increase would generate an additional $386 million for education, but Utahans voted
down the measure (U.S News, 2018).
More often than not, competitive teacher compensation has not been a priority in
the United States. For decades, teachers have been calling for adequate compensation,
but policymakers have refrained from allocating appropriate resources. Common
discourse cites limited revenue sources, but when pressed, policymakers in states like
Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Utah have demonstrated that additional revenue streams
exist.
Some commentary has argued that competitive teacher compensation is a moral
imperative (Marx, 2014). Indeed, it may be a moral issue, but competitive teacher
compensation may extend beyond morality’s scope. In today’s rapidly changing world, it
is imperative that schools are comprised of talented teachers who are able to improve
their approaches consistently to meet the demands of a global economy. If competitive
compensation does not come to fruition in the U.S., schools may remain inflexible in
their practices, and most likely will graduate students who are ill equipped for the 21st
century world’s demands.
Despite these implications, competitive teacher compensation is a regular political
issue, but “if we continue to unbendingly do what we’ve always done, we’ll likely get to
the top of our game” (Marx, p. 404, 2014). This leads to limited student achievement, a
byproduct of mediocrity. When schools are unable to hire quality teachers, it becomes
very difficult to deliver a quality product. This may be a reason for the public to lose
trust in its public school systems, and opens a niche for alternative education platforms,
184
such as online, private, and charter schools, as well as home-schooling and others to fill
the void of unmet needs (Marx, 2014).
Research demonstrates that the nation may be losing trust in its public school
systems; for example, homeschooling is becoming increasingly more mainstream today
(Hill, 2000), and nearly 2.2 million U.S. students are participating in some form of
homeschool program (Ray, 2015). Further, the concept of virtual schools is becoming
popular, with 200 online schools serving a total enrollment of nearly 200,000 students
(Gill, Walsh, Wulsin, Matulewicz, Severn, Grau, Lee, & Kerwin, 2015).
The lack of trust in America’s public schools serves as the most viable threat to
public education’s future (Gasoi & Meier, 2018). Voucher proponents argue that
standards and high-stakes testing are not sufficient to improve public education. They
feel that it holds a monopoly, and does not produce a strong product because of the lack
of competition (Carnoy, 2017). In their opinion, competition will solve the woes of
education in America. In reality, it may lead to the end of public education, widen the
gap between the haves and have-nots, and put the nation’s vital interests at-risk (Gasoi &
Meier, 2018).
In contrast, competitive teacher compensation is a priority in nations in which
teachers enjoy semantic status. These nations have discovered that competitive
compensation raises teaching’s prestige, but also naturally increases its status because
higher quality candidates are attracted to the career. They also have experienced
improvements in the perceptions of teaching’s esteem. Teachers feel that competitive
compensation demonstrates that their work is valued, and society and government display
a genuine respect for the career. Teaching’s semantic status has allowed these nations to
185
increase rigor at the preservice level, and many require teachers to hold Master’s degrees
before beginning a career in education. The increased rigor has allowed these countries
to strive consistently for continuous improvement, and produce a teacher workforce
capable of producing results.
This increased rigor could also come to fruition in the United States if teaching
realizes semantic status. The Master’s degree requirement would elevate teaching’s
status, but more importantly, better prepare teachers for the complexities of teaching.
Teaching requires in-depth study not only in instructional methods, but in child
psychology as well. Mental health concerns are on the rise in American schools, and
many are ill prepared to work with students who struggle with mental illness. The
Master’s degree component may provide better approaches to these issues, and produce
results worthy of regaining the American public’s trust.
In addition to compensation, such nations have successfully raised teaching’s
prestige by providing teachers with income tax exemptions, tuition reimbursement, and
compensating student teachers. Teaching is one of the few careers in the United States
that does not compensate its interns (student teachers) or their supervisors, and
universities often struggle to find practitioners willing to accept the responsibility of
supervising an intern. This may result in their assignment to mediocre supervisors, which
can leave them ill equipped for the career’s demands. With appropriate compensation,
standards can be established to ensure student teachers are assigned to master teachers,
and internships can be extended to provide preservice teachers a greater opportunity to
develop skills.
186
Evidence has demonstrated that competitive teacher compensation, income tax
exemptions, and paid tuition and internships can enhance teaching’s prestige. The data
displayed further that improvements to the perceptions of prestige may positively
influence perceptions of teaching’s esteem as well. This may encourage larger numbers
of high school seniors and college undergraduates to consider teaching if a teacher’s
work is rewarded with competitive compensation. Evidence has also suggested that
respectful political rhetoric and a genuine respect for teaching may increase interest in the
career (Podgursky & Springer, 2011; Vegas, 2007; Fwu & Wang, 2002). Policymakers
from nations in which teachers enjoy semantic status often are at the forefront in creating
education policy that supports teaching’s esteem, and their governments allow teachers to
participate actively in the development of education policy. Policymakers realize that
teachers are the experts and must be allowed to “critique, adapt, and contribute to
educational policies” (Hargreaves, 2009, p. 227).
In contrast, teaching in the United States is one of the few career fields in which
individuals without teaching experience dictate policy. This practice may have
devastating adverse effects not only on student learning, but on teaching’s esteem.
Boards of educators that are not union affiliated can be established at the state and federal
levels to ensure that teachers are included in the policymaking process. Such boards
would consist of teachers that constituencies and policymakers assigned by legislative
bodies elect. Teachers and policymakers alike would work together to draft, critique, and
propose legislation that affords American teachers the same level of prestige, status, and
esteem as educators in nations in which teaching enjoys semantic status.
187
In addition to policy, teachers need to be provided opportunities to engage in
professional discourse with a broader audience. “Teachers themselves need to inform
others about their work, and enable the public to see beyond the impression that class
control is their major role” (Hargreaves, 2009, p. 226). The public needs to understand
instruction’s complexities, and the work that is required to properly educate the whole
child.
Education leaders and teachers must take control of the media cycle, because it
reports negative issues too often. This negative cycle can be reversed by sharing the
many successes that occur in the nation’s classrooms. The public needs to understand
that such successful outcomes outweigh the negative (Draper, 2010). The combination of
success stories and teacher recognition can be shared on a variety of platforms to improve
and maintain the public’s trust in, and respect for, teachers. It also is important to
recognize teachers publicly for their exceptional work. This recognition should not be
limited to the traditional teacher of the year award. Teacher recognition must be on-
going, so the public comes to understand the professional work that is being performed in
the nation’s schools (Hargreaves, 2009).
Finally, nations in which teachers enjoy semantic status provide release time and
compensation for them to participate in education research. This practice allows teachers
to seek solutions for complex problems, and contribute results to the literature. Active
participation in research also provides them with an additional platform to engage in
professional discourse. The combination of research and discourse can have a positive
influence on perceptions of teaching’s status and esteem.
188
Recommendations for State Agencies
The data presented in this study demonstrate the need for state education agencies
to inform policymakers of the effects teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem have on the
teacher shortage, the teacher workforce’s quality, and student achievement.
Policymakers must understand that the contemporary labor market does not compel
graduates to select careers that the government and general public undervalue, as
reflected in poor compensation and negative rhetoric. Policymakers need to be aware
that these perceptions are the current state of teaching, and are causing many high school
seniors and college undergraduates to lose interest in considering the career.
Policymakers must realize that this limited interest in the career weakens the teaching
workforce, limits student achievement, reduces economic prosperity, and damages the
nation’s health overall. Policymakers must realize that a proactive investment in its
teacher workforce is wiser than spending tax dollars to mend social ills that develop when
the public is inadequately educated.
Further, state task forces comprised of state policymakers and education officials,
teachers, university faculty, and other public stakeholders should be assembled to review
and prioritize state revenue streams. Such task forces should identify appropriate revenue
sources that can be directed to teacher compensation. Once sources are identified, it is
recommended that the task forces use a variety of media sources, public listening
sessions, and other platforms to communicate teaching’s current state, and its multiple
implications.
It is critical that these taskforces emphasize teaching’s complexities and demands.
America’s classrooms are experiencing not only growing numbers of students with
189
mental health concerns, but those who are impoverished and have limited English
proficiency. The taskforces must communicate that these complexities require a strong
teacher workforce that is able to cope effectively with these challenges, and produce high
student achievement. They also must communicate that this will require an investment in
teacher compensation.
An additional task force should be formed once policymakers are committed to
making appropriate investments in their state’s teacher workforce. This task force’s
primary goal would be to increase rigor in teacher education programs and teacher
licensing requirements. These taskforces composed of state policymakers and education
officials, teachers, university faculty, state licensing officials, and other public
stakeholders combined should work with university faculty to design rigorous courses at
both the undergraduate and graduate levels. In addition, it is recommended that
taskforces develop policy to require preservice teachers to participate in yearlong paid
internships and earn Master’s degrees before receiving teacher licensure. This policy will
elevate teaching’s status, promote greater interest in teaching, and prepare teachers better
for teaching’s rigorous demands. This advanced preparation will improve teacher
efficacy, and ease the burdens of early teacher attrition.
Finally, boards of educators who are not union affiliated should be established at
the state and federal levels to ensure that teachers are part of the policymaking process.
Such boards should consist of teachers who are elected by constituencies and
policymakers assigned by legislative bodies. These boards should hold the authority to
draft, critique, and propose legislation related to education.
190
Recommendations for School Districts
School district officials should work with local media sources to share the
successes that occur in their schools. They can flood the media with a combination of
success stories and teacher recognition. This practice will reestablish the public’s trust in
its teachers, and provide the opportunity to understand the type of professional work that
occurs in their children’s schools.
School districts should also provide release time for teachers to participate in local
chamber of commerce and city council meetings, and other appropriate events. This time
will provide teachers with opportunities to engage larger audiences and hold discussions
about their professional work. They will also allow teachers to clarify misconceptions,
and modify the general public’s perceptions of their career.
Lastly, school boards, educational leaders, and teachers are recommended to
collaborate to restructure teacher salary schedules to reflect years of service,
professionalism, and areas of expertise. Salary schedules could be designed to allow
teachers to move both vertically and horizontally through the schedule. Vertical
movements should be based on years of experience, horizontal movements on rank (e.g.,
instructor, master teacher). This design allows teachers to earn additional compensation
for years of service, but also encourages them to strive for professional improvement.
School districts should establish professional criteria for teachers to advance from one
rank to the next (e.g., publishing educational research and gaining expertise in mental
health), and provide significant compensation for those who earn promotion.
191
Recommendations for Further Research
Further research should be conducted to investigate the different high school
senior and college undergraduate populations that were examined in this study. The
research needs to be replicated in multiple regions, but with the use of an abridged
version of this study’s instrument. It is recommended that future research use the
independent variables that loaded in this study, so that survey fatigue does not interfere
with data collection.
Further research will lead to an established body of literature that demonstrates
the effects teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem have on specific populations of high
school seniors and college undergraduates. This research will provide policymakers and
practitioners with a deep understanding of the way the aforementioned perceptions affect
teaching decisions, and also will afford policymakers the opportunity to develop policy
that targets specific populations and regions.
Concluding Remarks
This study’s results demonstrated that perceptions of teaching’s status may
significantly influence high school seniors and college undergraduates. Although this is
indeed encouraging, perceptions of status alone may not attract large numbers of young
people to careers in teaching. Status requires support from prestige and esteem, but it
appears that they are perceived negatively at present, and these negative perceptions are
preventing teaching from realizing semantic status. Without semantic status, the nation
will continue to experience challenges in filling the nation’s classrooms with quality
teachers.
192
This lack of an effective teacher workforce may place the nation’s vital interests
at-risk. The inability to hire quality teachers will lead public schools to be inflexible in
their approaches and prevent them from reshaping their practices to meet the demands of
the 21st century. While this future appears bleak, the results indicated that policy
designed to improve the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem may be a
reason for teaching to realize semantic status, which may produce a greater interest in
teaching, and persuade greater numbers of talented individuals to consider a teaching
career.
Limitations
These results must be interpreted within the confines of its limitations. The
findings reflected the outcomes of a single study that investigated the effects that the
perceptions of a teaching career’s prestige, status, and esteem may have on high school
senior and college undergraduates’ teaching considerations. The study was limited to a
representative sample in the Midwest. Therefore, this population’s perceptions may
differ from those of high school seniors and college undergraduates who reside in other
regions of the United States.
193
APPENDICES
194
The Survey Instrument
Thank you for your willingness to spend 15 minutes of your time participating in the
study. This research aims to explore your perceptions of the teaching career. Your opinions are
essential for the completion of this research, but most importantly, your perceptions will assist in
gaining a better understanding of the teacher shortage. The answers you provide are strictly
anonymous, and the collected data will remain confidential. At the conclusion of the study, you
will find directions detailing procedures to follow if you are interested in entering the drawing for
one of two $50.00 VISA gift cards.
Q1 Choose a main source where you have gained information of the teaching career.
Family
Friends
Teachers, Administrators
School Counselors
Social Media, Internet
Television, Print News (newspapers, books, journals)
Experiences
Q2 Gender?
Male
Female
Other
Q3 Select description that best describes you.

Caucasian
Black
American Indian
Asian
Pacific Islander
Hispanic
Other
Q4 Please indicate your education status.

I am currently a high school senior attending a high school.
I am currently an undergraduate student attending a university.
Q5 Please indicate your career aspirations.

I am currently a high school senior planning to pursue a career in teaching.
I am currently a high school senior planning to pursue a career OTHER than teaching.
I am currently an undergraduate student majoring in or intending to major in education.
I am currently an undergraduate student majoring in a field OTHER than education.
Q6 Please choose one of the following that best describes your hometown.
Rural (a community that consists of 2,500 or less people)
Urban Cluster (a community that consists of 2,500 to 50,000 people)
Urban (a community that consists of 50,000 or more people)
195
Q7 Please select one of the following that best describes your parent’s/family income.
$50,000 or less in annual income
$50,000 to $100,000 in annual income
$100,000 to $150,000 in annual income
$150,000 or more in annual income
Q8 What was your ACT score?

17 or less
18 to 20
21 to 24
25 to 28
29 or higher
I have not taken the ACT
Q9 Please use the slider to answer the following question. Slide the slider from 0 to 8, with 0
indicating that you have not considered teaching, while 8 indicates that you definitely plan to pursue
teaching as a career.
0 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
To what degree have you considered teaching as

a career?
196
Q10 Please read through the following statements and indicate your level of agreement with each
statement.
Very Very
Firmly Somewhat Somewhat Firmly
Much Disagree Agree Much
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
Disagree Agree
Teachers
earn an
appropriate
salary.
The
teaching
career
offers
promotion
opportuniti
es.
The public
has a
positive
image of
the
teaching
career.
Providing
daily
instruction
is a
positive
aspect of a
teacher's
job.
The
teaching
career
ranks high
above other
careers.
Teachers
put in the
appropriate
number of
hours a
week.
Teachers
receive
quality
benefits
through
their
employers.
197
statement.
Very Very
Disagree Agree
Teacher
compensatio
n positively
impacts the
career’s
ranking
among other
occupations.
Working
with
children is a
positive
aspect of a
teacher's
job.
Teachers
work the
appropriate
number of
contract
days per
year.
Teachers
receive an
appropriate
retirement
plan.
Working
with parents
is a positive
aspect of a
teacher's
job.
Teachers
earn a salary
that allows
them to feel
financially
secure.
The
influence
teachers
have raises
the teaching
career’s
prestige.
198
Q10 Please read through the following statements and indicate your level of agreement with each statement.
Very Some Very
Firmly Somewhat Firmly
Much Disagree what Agree Much
Disagree Disagree Agree
Disagree Agree Agree
The image
of the
classroom
environment
produces
positive
perceptions
of teaching.
The general
public has a
positive
impression
of the
American
teacher.
indicating that your perceptions of the teaching career highly discourages you to become a teacher,
while 8 indicates your perceptions highly encourage you to become a teacher.
0 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
To what degree do the perceptions of the

teaching career encourage or discourage you to
become a teacher?
199
Very Very
Disagree Agree
The
workforce
has teachers
who are
recognized
to have
expertise in
certain areas.
The
workforce is
made up of
teachers with
lengthy
professional
training.
Teaching
positions are
competitive.
The
professional
development
available for
teachers is
appropriate.
Teaching is
a highly
sought after
career.
Teachers
exhibit a
high level of
work
performance.
Teaching is
considered a
professional
career.
Many of
America’s
brightest
choose a
career in
teaching.
200
Very Very
Disagree Agree
The teacher
workforce is
comprised of
skilled
individuals.
Teaching is
an
intellectually
demanding
career
Other
professionals
view
teaching as a
profession.
The teaching
workforce is
comprised of
society’s
most
intelligent
individuals.
The teacher
workforce
consists of
competent
teachers.
indicating that the professional status of teaching discourages you to pursue a career in teaching,
while 8 indicates that teaching's professional status highly encourages you to become a teacher.
0 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
To what degree do the perceptions of the

teaching career's professional status encourage
or discourage you to become a teacher?
201
s statement.
Very Very
Disagree Agree
Government
officials
demonstrate
a respect for
the teaching
career.
Teachers are
trusted by
the wider
community.
Teachers
have the
respect of
their
students.
Teachers are
publicly
recognized
for their
work.
Other
professionals
respect the
teaching
career.
The teacher
workforce
consists of
dedicated
teachers.
The teacher
workforce
consists of
caring
teachers.
The media
portrayal of
the teaching
career is
accurate.
202
s statement.
Very Very
Disagree Agree
The public
values the
teaching
career.
The
government
values the
teaching
career.
Teachers
have the
respect of
parents.
Teachers
have the
respect of
community
members.
203
Q15 Indicate your perceptions
Extremely Very of teaching
Low
if you perceived
Somewhat Somewhateach statement
High
to be true.
Very Extremely
Low Low Low High High High
Extremely Somewhat
Very Low Low Somewhat Low High Very High
Teaching Low High
careers
The teaching
offer
career is a
signing
socially
bonuses.
accepted
profession.
Teaching
careers
Teaching
offer salary
careers have
levels
opportunities
similar to
for career
comparable
advancement.
professions
.
Teaching
careers offer
Teaching
support for
careers
new teachers.
offer
student
The teaching
loan offers
career
repayment
full-retirement
programs.
at 50.
Teaching
The teaching
careers
career is
offer free
competitive.
university
teacher
The teaching
training.
career publicly
recognizes
Teaching
exceptional
careers
teachers.
offer
salaries for
The teaching
student is
workforce
teachers. of
comprised
society’s most
Teaching
intelligent
careers
individuals.
offer cost
of livinghas a
Society
stipends
high regard for
thewhile
teaching
students
career.
attend
teacher
The teaching
education
career is
training. a
considered
high status
Teachers
occupation.
are exempt
The from
teaching
payingranks
career
income tax.
high among
other
Teaching
prestigious
careers
professions.
offer yearly
bonuses.
204
Q16 Please use the slider to answer the following question. Slide the slider from 0 to 8, with 0 indicating
that you would not consider teaching if the statements in question 15 were true, while 8 indicates that you
would definitely pursue a career in teaching if the statements in question 15 were true.
0 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
To what degree would you consider the teaching

career if you perceived the aforementioned
statements in question 15 to be true?
Q17 Did you feel knowledgeable in answering the survey questions?

yes
no
205
Survey Instrument Codebook
Demographics
Information 1. Choose a main source where you have gained information of the teaching career?
inform1 1. Family
inform2 2. Friends
inform3 3. Teachers, Administrators
inform4 4. School Counselors
inform5 5. Social Media, Internet
inform6 6. Television, Print News (newspapers, books, journals)
inform7 7. Experiences
Research Question(s): Question 2
Gender 2. Gender?
gender1 1. male
gender2 2. female
gender3 3. other
Ethnicity 3. Select description that best describes you.

ethnicity1 1. Caucasian
ethnicity2 2. Black
ethnicity3 3. American Indian
ethnicity4 4. Asian
ethnicity5 5. Pacific Islander
ethnicity6 6. Hispanic/Latino
ethnicity7 7. Other
Education Status 4. Please indicate your education status.
educationstatus1 1. I am currently a high school senior attending a high school.
educatioinstatus2 2. I am currently an undergraduate student attending a university.
Research Question(s): Questions 2
Career Aspirations 5. Please indicate your career aspirations.

careeraspirations1 1. I am currently a high school senior planning to pursue a career in teaching.
careeraspirations2 2. I am currently a high school senior planning to pursue a career OTHER than teaching.
careeraspirations3 3. I am currently an undergraduate student majoring in or intending to major in education.
careeraspirations4 4. I am currently an undergraduate student majoring in a field OTHER than education.
Research Question(s): Questions 2 and 4
Hometown 6. Please choose one of the following that best describes your hometown.
hometown1 1. Rural (a community that consists of 2,500 or less people)
hometown2 2. Urban Cluster (a community that consists of 2,500 to 50,000 people)
hometown3 2. Urban (a community that consist of 50,000 or more people)
206
Demographics
Family Income 7. Please select one of the following that best describes your parent’s/family
income1 income.
income2 1. $50,000 or less in annual income
income3 2. $50,000 to $100,000 in annual income
income4 3. $100,000 to $150,000 in annual income
4. $150,000 or more in annual income
ACT Score 8. What was your ACT score?

actscore1 1. 17 or less
actscore2 2. 18 to 20
actscore5 5. 29 or higher
actscore6 6. I have not taken the ACT
Research Question(s): Questions 2 and 3
9. Slider Please use the slider to answer the following

question.
Research Question(s): Questions 1-4 Slide the slider from 0 to 8, with 0 indicating that
you have not considered teaching as a career,
while 8 indicates that you plan to pursue teaching
as a career.
To what degree have you considered teaching as a

career?
207
Variable Name
Occupational Prestige Item
10. Please read through the following Research Question(s): Questions 1-4
statements and indicate your level of
agreement with each.
prestige1 Teachers earn an appropriate salary.

prestige2 The teaching career offers promotion opportunities.
prestige3 The public has a positive image of the teaching
career.
prestige4 Providing daily instruction is a positive aspect of a
teacher's job.
prestige5 The teaching career ranks high above other careers.
prestige6 Teachers put in the appropriate number of hours a
week.
prestige7 Teachers receive quality benefits through their
employers.
prestige8 Teacher compensation positively impacts the
career’s ranking among other occupations.
prestige9 Working with children is a positive aspect of a
teacher's job.
prestige10 Teachers work the appropriate number of contract
days per year.
prestige11 Teachers receive an appropriate retirement plan.
prestige12 Working with parents is a positive aspect of a
teacher's job.
prestige13 Teachers earn a salary that allows them to feel
financially secure.
prestige14 The influence teachers have raises the teaching
career’s prestige.
prestige15 The image of the classroom produces positive
perceptions of teaching.
prestige16 The majority of people have a positive impression of
the American teacher.
Sources: (Hargreaves et al., 2007; Hoyle, 2001)
208
Slider1-8 11. Please use the slider to answer the following
question.
Research Question(s): Questions 1-4 Please use the slider to answer the following question.
Slide the slider from 0-8, with 0 indicating that your
perceptions of the career highly discourages you to
become a teacher, while 8 indicates your perceptions
highly encourage you to become a teacher.
To what degree do the perceptions of the teaching
career encourage or discourage you to become a
teacher?
Variable Item
Occupational Status
Occupational Status
status1 The workforce has teachers who are recognized to have
expertise in certain areas.
status2 The workforce is made up of teachers with lengthy
professional training.
status3 Teaching positions are competitive.
status4 The professional development available for teachers is
appropriate.
status5 Teaching is a highly sought after career.
status6 Teachers exhibit a high level of work performance.
status7 Teaching is considered a professional career.
status8 Many of America’s brightest choose a career in teaching.
status9 The teacher workforce is comprised of skilled individuals.
status10 Teaching is an intellectually demanding career.
status11 Other professionals view teaching as a profession.
status12 The teaching workforce is comprised of society’s most
intelligent individuals.
status13 The teacher workforce consists of competent teachers.
209
Slider1-8
Research Question(s): Questions 1-4 13. Please use the slider to answer the following question.
Slide the slider from 0 to 8, with 0 indicating that the
professional status of teaching discourages you to pursue the
teaching career, while 8 indicates that teaching's professional
status encourages you to become a teacher.
To what degree do the perceptions of the teaching career’s
professional status encourage or discourage you to become a
teacher?
Variable Name Item

Occupational Esteem
esteem1 Government officials demonstrate a respect for the teaching

career.
esteem2 Teachers are trusted by the wider community.
esteem3 Teachers have the respect of their students.
esteem4 Teachers are publicly recognized for their work.
esteem5 Other professionals respect the teaching career.
esteem6 The teacher workforce consists of dedicated teachers.
esteem7 The teacher workforce consists of caring teachers.
esteem8 The media portrayal of the teaching career is appropriate.
esteem9 The public values the teaching career.
esteem10 The government values the teaching career.
esteem11 Teachers have the respect of parents.
esteem12 Teachers have the respect of community members.
210
Variable Name Item
15. Indicate your perceptions of the teaching career Research Question(s): Questions 1-4
if you perceived the following statements to be true.
updatedperceptions1 Teaching careers offer signing bonuses.

updatedperceptions2 Teaching careers offer salary levels similar to
comparable professions.
updatedperceptions3 Teaching careers offer student loan repayment programs.
updatedperceptions4 Teaching careers offer free university teacher training.
updatedperceptions5 Teaching careers offer salaries for student teachers.
updatedperceptions6 Teaching careers offer cost of living stipends while
students attend teacher education training.
updatedperceptions7 Teachers are exempt from paying income tax.
updatedperceptions8 Teaching careers offer yearly bonuses.
updatedperceptions9 The teaching career is a socially accepted profession.
updatedperceptions10 Teaching careers have opportunities for career
advancement.
updatedperceptions11 Teaching careers offer support for new teachers.
updatedperceptions12 The teaching career offers full-retirement at 50.
updatedperceptions13 The teaching career is competitive.
updatedperceptions14 The teaching career publicly recognizes exceptional
teachers.
updatedperceptions15 The teaching workforce is comprised of society’s most
intelligent individuals.
updatedperceptions16 Society has a high regard for the teaching career.
updatedperceptions17 The teaching career is considered a high status
occupation.
updatedperceptions18 The teaching career ranks high among other prestigious
professions.
211
Slider1-8
Research Question(s): Question 4 16. Please use the slider to answer the following question.
Slide the slider from 0 to 8, with 0 indicating that you would not
consider teaching, while 8 indicates that you would pursue a career
in teaching.
To what degree would you consider the teaching career if you
perceived the statements in the aforementioned question (question
15) to be true?
17. Question Knowledge Did you feel knowledgeable in answering the survey questions?
questionknowledge1 1. yes
questionknowledge2 2. no
212
Email Permission Letter to Superintendents
Dear XXXX,
My name is Scott Klimek and I am currently a doctoral student at the University of North
Dakota (UND). I am reaching out to you in hopes that you will assist me in completing
my dissertation study this spring by allowing your school counselors to distribute an
email (with a link to a survey) to your high school seniors.
My research is a quantitative study that will invite high school seniors and university
undergraduates from across North Dakota and Minnesota to participate in an anonymous
survey. The study will not attach identifying information to any retrieved data, or will
not present individual data in the reported findings. The survey contains items developed
from a United Kingdom study titled the Teacher Status Project. In addition, questions
were generated from literature centering on teacher status, teacher shortage, and teacher
retention. My hope is that the perceptions gained by high school seniors, and the results
of my research will provide a better understanding of the influence teacher status,
prestige, and esteem have on the teacher shortage.
Your assistance in allowing your high school counselors to disperse the study’s link to
seniors will be vital in obtaining a large sample size. I have attached a letter to
counselors for your review as well as an agreement form. If you are willing to assist in
this study, please open the attachment, sign, copy the agreement on your school district’s
letterhead, and email the scanned permission letter to me at [email protected]. If
you have questions, you may reach me at the aforementioned email address, or telephone
701-373-5572.
Thank you for your assistance. Please email me at [email protected] if you would
like a copy of the final abstract containing the results once the study is completed and
approved by the University North Dakota.
With gratitude,
Scott Klimek
213
School District Permission to Conduct Research
UND Institutional Review Board:
This letter confirms that [name of school district] permits Scott Klimek, a University of
North Dakota PhD student, to conduct the study: Do the Perceptions of Prestige, Status,
and Esteem Contribute to the Teacher Shortage? The [name of school district] agrees to
disperse an electronic survey link (created by Mr. Klimek) to high school seniors. Other
than dispersal, [name of school district] will have no other involvement in the research.
Sincerely,
School Superintendent/Designee
214
Email Letter to School Counselors and Principals
Dear XXXXX:
Dakota (UND). I am reaching out to you because your school district superintendent has
granted permission to disperse a survey to your high school senior student population. It
is my hope that you will assist me in distributing the attached email (with link to the
survey) in order to collect data from the seniors that you work with.
retention. My hope is that the perceptions gained by high school seniors will provide a
better understanding of the influence teacher status, prestige, and esteem have on the
teacher shortage.
Your assistance in dispersing the study’s link to students will be vital in obtaining a large
sample size. If you choose to disperse the survey, you will have an opportunity to enter
into a drawing for a chance to win one of two $50.00 VISA gift cards. In order to be
eligible to win, you are required to disperse the attached recruitment email to a minimum
of 60% of your senior population. Please be certain to send an email to
[email protected] once you have met the requirements. Indeed, this drawing is on
the honor system, however, the nature of your professional position does not cause me
concern. If you have questions, you may reach me at the aforementioned email address,
or telephone 701-373-5572.
With gratitude,
Scott Klimek
215
On-line Survey: High School Senior Recruitment Email
Dear High School Senior:
Dakota (UND). I hope this email finds you in the midst of a great school year! I am
reaching out to you because your school superintendent agreed to assist me in completing
my dissertation study. My research aims to explore high school senior perceptions of the
teaching career. Your opinions are essential for the completion of this research, but most
importantly, your perceptions will assist in gaining a better understanding of the teacher
shortage.
If you choose to participate, you will have an opportunity to enter into a drawing for a
chance to win one of two $50.00 VISA gift cards. Your participation is anonymous, and
the collected data will remain confidential. The study will require approximately 10-15
minutes of your time, and will be accessible from [date] to [date]. To participate, please
click the URL below:
https://und.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_9YnChG80Ygw7cYl
Thank you for your time. Please email me at [email protected] if you would like a
copy of the final abstract containing the results once the study is completed and approved
by the University North Dakota.
With gratitude,
Scott Klimek
216
Email Letter to University Department Chairs
Dear XXXXX:
Dakota (UND). I am reaching out to you because the university has granted permission
to disperse a survey to your undergraduate population. It is my hope that you will assist
me in distributing the attached email (with link to the survey) in order to collect data from
the undergraduates that you work with.
retention. My hope is that the perceptions gained by undergraduates will provide a better
understanding of the influence teacher status, prestige, and esteem have on the teacher
shortage.
Your assistance in dispersing the study’s link to students will be vital in obtaining a large
sample size. If you choose to disperse the survey, you will have an opportunity to enter
into a drawing for a chance to win one of two $50.00 VISA gift cards. In order to be
eligible to win, you are required to disperse the attached recruitment email to your
undergraduate population. Please be certain to include my email address
([email protected]) in the distribution list to ensure that you are included in the
drawing. If you have questions, you may reach me at the aforementioned email address,
or telephone 701-373-5572.
With gratitude,
Scott Klimek
217
On-line Survey: Undergraduate Recruitment Email
Dear University Student:
Dakota (UND). I hope this email finds you in the midst of a great school year! I am
reaching out to you because the university has agreed to assist me in completing my
dissertation study. My research aims to explore undergraduate perceptions of the
teaching career. Your opinions are essential for the completion of this research, but most
importantly, your perceptions will assist in gaining a better understanding of the teacher
shortage.
If you choose to participate, you will have an opportunity to enter into a drawing for a
chance to win one of two $50.00 VISA gift cards. Your participation is anonymous, and
the collected data will remain confidential. The study will require approximately 15
minutes of your time, and will be accessible from [date] to [date]. To participate, please
click the URL below:
https://und.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_9YnChG80Ygw7cYl
Thank you for your time. Please email me at [email protected] if you would like a
copy of the final abstract containing the results once the study is completed and approved
by the University North Dakota.
With gratitude,
Scott Klimek
218
Tables
Table I.1
University Enrollment Trends in Teacher Education Programs
State Total Enrollment Total Enrollment Total Enrollment %Change
2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2012-13 to
2014-15
Illinois 26,045 17,934 14,699 -46.6%
Iowa 9,308 7,885 7,142 -23.3%
Michigan 18,483 14,372 11,287 -39%
Minnesota 8,856 7,300 7,549 -14.8%
Wisconsin 10,998 9,561 8,887 -19.2%
Arizona 42,251 37,564 24,591 -41.8%
Colorado 8,460 8,437 6,651 -21.4%
New York 47,872 42,361 40,048 -16.4%
Ohio 20,079 17,032 14,829 -26.2%
Pennsylvania 23,546 18,630 15,124 -35.8%
Kentucky 11,208 7,429 4,994 -56%
Oklahoma 7,887 4,916 5,488 -30.5%
Arkansas 6,161 5,258 3,944 -36%
Idaho 5,833 5,397 3,065 -47.5%
Montana 2,948 2,598 2,226 -24.5%
Nation 623,190 499,800 465,189 -25.4%
Source: U.S. Dept. of Education Title II Report (2016)
219
Table I.2
Prestige Scales
Item Prestige_Financials Prestige_Image
benefits .88
retirement plan .88
salary financially secure .69
general public perception .90
positive image .86
image of classroom .56
Eigenvalues 2.73 1.20

% Variation 46% 67%
a .76 .69
220
Table I.3
Variable Summary Table
N M SD Min Max Skewness Kurtosis
Item
males 342 1.70 .48 1 3 -.63 -.85
females 778 1.70 .48 1 3 -.63 -.85
other 7 1.70 .48 1 3 -.63 -.85
Caucasian 975 1.13 .34 1 3 2.14 2.58
minorities 152 1.13 .34 1 3 2.14 2.58
main source 1127 2.55 .94 1.00 4.00 -.55 -.78
hometown 1127 1.95 .79 1.00 3.00 .09 -1.40
parent’s income 1099 2.71 1.22 1.00 4.00 -.19 -1.59
act score 1039 3.30 1.19 1.00 8.00 -.22 -.48
how much consider 1127 3.91 2.21 .00 8.00 -.13 -1.42
prestige financials 1127 9.99 2.90 2.33 18.67 -.01 .15
prestige image 1127 11.19 3.05 2.33 18.67 -.31 -.07
status 1087 13.38 2.74 2.33 18.67 -.77 1.51
esteem 1032 10.42 3.05 2.33 18.67 -.35 -.14
policy interv prestige 1028 8.41 3.97 2.33 18.67 .49 -.54
policy interv status 1028 11.76 2.97 2.33 18.67 -.29 .50
policy interv teach 1028 4.62 2.44 .00 8.00 -.26 -.93
policy interv esteem 1028 15.05 3.47 3.00 24.00 -.57 .96
prestige image x finance esteem 1032 1482.21 892.02 5.44 324.00 .95 1.54
esteem x prestige financial 1032 118.45 54.47 6.22 342.22 .33 .22
esteem x status x prestige financ 1022 1610.62 844.38 14.52 5940 .79 1.27
status x esteem 1022 143.76 53.48 5.44 384.44 .24 .30
main source x esteem prest fina. 1032 301.09 180.77 7.78 1026.7 .68 .21
policy intervention pres x status 1028 106.45 68.61 5.44 348.44 1.15 1.23
policy inter gend x status x este 1028 316.00 160.90 7.00 896.00 .66 .25
221
Table I.4
Status Scale
Item Status
intellectually demanding .87
skilled individuals .84
high level work performance .84
Eigenvalues 2.178
% Variation 73%
a .81
222
Table I.5
Esteem Scale
Item Esteem
government values .92
government respect .86
public values .80
Eigenvalues 2.23
% Variation 74%
a .83
Table I.6
Policy Intervention Prestige Scale
Item Intervention Prestige
income tax exempt .92
student teacher salaries .88
similar salary levels .77
Eigenvalues 3.04
% Variation 51%
a .85
223
Table I.7
Policy Intervention Status Scale
Item Intervention Status
competitive .78
recognize teachers .75
socially accepted profession .75
Eigenvalues 1.09
% Variation 69%
a .66
Table I.8
Policy Intervention Esteem Scale
Item Intervention Esteem
community respect .89
parents respect .88
high regard for the career .58
Eigenvalues 1.91
% Variation 64%
a .68
224
Table I.9
Demographics
Item N Percent
Total Respondents 1,502
Knowledge of Questions
Yes 1,127 73%
No 375 27%
Main Source of Information

Family 241 21%
Teachers, Administrators 631 56%
Experiences 113 10%
Other 142 13%
Gender
Male 342 30%
Female 778 69%
Other 7 1%
Ethnicity
Caucasian 975 86%
Minority 152 14%
Parent/Family Annual Income

Less than $50,000 255 23%
$50,000 to $100,000 266 24%
$100,000 to $150,000 124 11%
$150,000 or greater 454 40%
ACT Score
17 or less 79 7%
18 to 20 132 12%
21 to 24 402 36%
25 to 28 254 23%
29 or greater 172 15%
Career Aspirations
High school Seniors Planning to Teach 45 15%
High School Seniors Planning on Other Career 260 85%
Undergraduates Planning to Teach 344 42%
Undergraduates Planning on Other Career 478 58%
Hometown
Rural 383 34%
Urban Cluster 417 37%
Urban 327 29%
225
Table I.10
ANOVA: Senior and Undergraduate Teaching Considerations
Variable SS df MS F p
how much consider teach
career aspirations 5308.67 1123 1769.56 492.91 .00*
p < .05*
Table I.11
ANOVA Descriptive Statistics
Variable Mean SD n Range
high school senior aspiring teachers 7.02 1.36 45 0-8
high school senior non-aspiring teachers 2.45 2.19 260 0-8
college undergraduate aspiring teachers 7.45 1.32 344 0-8
college undergraduate non-aspiring teachers 3.09 2.10 478 0-8
226
Table I.12
Bonferroni Post-Hoc Analysis
CI
Comparison Mean Std. Error Lower Upper Bound
Differences Bound
college undergraduate non- -4.36* .14 -4.71 -.19

aspiring teachers vs. college
undergraduate aspiring teachers
college undergraduate non- -3.93* .30 -4.71 -3.15

aspiring teachers vs high school
senior aspiring teachers
college undergraduate non- .64* .15 .25 1.02

aspiring teachers vs. high school
senior non-aspiring teachers
high school senior non-aspiring -4.99* .16 -5.40 -4.58

teachers vs. high school senior
non-aspiring teachers
high school senior non-aspiring -4.57* .31 -5.38 -3.76

teachers vs. high school senior
aspiring teachers
p < .05*
227
Table I.13
Bivariate Correlation: Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. consid teach -
2. prest financi .06* -

3. prest image .07* .36* -
4. status .37* .04 .25* -
5. esteem -.13* .47* .56* .02 -
6. act score -.04 -.08* -.09* .00 -.06 -
7. hometown -.10* .01 .05 -.05 .08* .10* -
8. main source .04 .01 -.02 -.02 -.03 -.07* -.02 -
9. parent inco .05 .04 -.03 -.01 .05 .03 -.04 -.06* -
10. gender .27* -.14* -.00 .21* -.15* .01 -.09* .06 -.02
p < .05*
Table I.14
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Seniors and Undergraduates
Predictors Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5
SE β SE β SE β SE β SE β
main source .10 .04 .10 .03 .10 .03 .09 .04 .09 .04
gender .20 .28* .20 .29* .20 .29* .19 .22* .19 .20*
hometown .12 -.06 .12 -.06 .12 -.06 .11 -.04 .11 -.04
parents income .08 .06 .08 .05 .08 .06 .07 .06* .07 .07*
act score .08 -.04 .08 -.03 .08 -.03 .08 -.04 .08 -.05
prestige financials .03 .10* .03 .08* .03 .10* .03 .16*
prestige image .03 -.04 .04 .05
status .03 .34* .03 .32*
esteem .04 -.20*
R² .09 .10 .10 .21 .23
p < .05*
228
Table I.15
Bivariate Correlation: Seniors Considering Other Careers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. consi tea -
2. prest fina -.13* -
3. prest ima -.03 .45* -
4. status .28* .06 .30* -
5. esteem -.07 .38* .51* .25* -
6. act score .28* -.15* -.05 .09 -.14* -
7. hometown -.01 .12 .16* .07 .14* .08 -
8. main sour -.11 .11 .00 -.07 .02 -.05 -.03 -
9. parent inc -.08 .02 -.05 .03 .11 -.04 -.05 -.03 -
10. gender .33* -.17* -.09 .24* -.15* .12 -.06 .09 -.07 -
11. interact -.07 .49* .50* .33* .47* -.07 .06 .09 .15 .02
p < .05*
229
Table I.16
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Seniors Considering Other Careers
Predictors Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
SE β SE β SE β SE β
main source .17 -.09 .16 -.08 .17 -.08 .17 -.08
gender .29 .28* .28 .26* .28 .26* .29 .26*
hometown .20 -.02 .19 -.03 .19 -.03 .20 -.04
parents income .13 -.09 .12 -.09 .13 -.09 .13 -.08
act score .11 .25* .11 .25* .11 .25*
prestige financials .06 .00 .07 -.02
prestige image .05 .05
status
esteem
R² .10 .16 .16 .16
Predictors Step 5 Step 6 Step 7

SE β SE β SE β
main source .16 -.06 .16 -.06 .16 -.05
gender .29 .21* .29 .21* .29 .22*
hometown .19 -.03 .19 -.03 .19 -.04
parents income .12 -.09 .12 -.09 .12 -.06
act score .11 .23* .11 .23* .11 .23*
prestige financials .07 -.01 .07 -.01 .07 .06
prestige image .06 -.02 .07 -.01 .07 .04
status .05 .21* .05 .22* .05 .26*
esteem .06 -.05 .06 -.00
interaction .00 -.21*
R² .21 .21 .23
p < .05*
230
Table I.17
Bivariate Correlation: Aspiring Teachers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. cons teach -
2. prest finan .07 -

3. prest imag .02 .42* -
4. status .19* -.00 .09 -
5. esteem -.03 .52* .65* -.05 -
6. act score .02 -.10 -.15* .11* -.15* -
7. hometown -.05 -.03 .08 .01 .09 .07 -
8. main sour .09 .01 -.06 -.03 -.05 -.01 -.00 -
9. parent inc .03 -.05 -.05 .07 .01 .05 -.07 -.05 -
10. gender .15* -.21* -.04 .08 .16* -.03 -.07 .02 -.01 -
11. interact -.18* -.35* -.11* .12* -.05 -.08 -.00 -.08 .06 -.01
p < .05*
Table I.18
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Aspiring Teachers
Predictors Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
SE β SE β SE β SE β SE β SE β
main source .08 .04 .08 .04 .08 .04 .08 .05 .08 .05 .08 .03
gender .20 .14* .20 .17* .20 .17* .20 .16* .20 .15* .20 .14*
hometown .10 -.04 .10 -.04 .10 -.04 .10 -.03 .10 -.03 .09 -.04
parents income .06 .03 .06 .04 .06 .04 .06 .03 .06 .03 .06 .03
act score .08 .03 .08 .05 .08 .05 .08 .02 .08 .02 .08 -.01
prestige financial .03 .13* .03 .12 .03 .14* .03 .15* .03 .04
prestige image .03 .01 .03 -.03 .04 -.01 .03 -.03
status .03 .20* .04 .19* .04 .23*
esteem .03 -.04 .03 .01
R² .03 .04 .04 .08 .08 .12
p < .05*
231
Table I.19
Independent t-test Results
Mean
N M(SD) Range Difference t df p
consider teach
male 342 3.23(2.79) 0-8 1.72 4.59 1118 .00*
female 778 4.95(2.77) 0-8
college
undergraduates
pre-policy teach 475 3.10(2.10) 0-8 1.06 7.50 917 .00*
post-policy teach 444 4.16(2.19) 0-8
high school seniors

pre-policy teach 299 3.09(2.63) 0-8 .51 2.35 565 .02*
senior non-teachers
pre-policy teach 260 2.45(2.19) 0-8 .81 -3.91 492 .00*
senior non-teachers
ACT 29 or higher
pre-policy teach 60 3.63(2.62) 0-8 1.18 2.34 111 .02*
senior non-teachers
ACT 25 to 28
pre-policy teach 128 2.54(2.16) 0-8 .72 2.60 241 .01*
undergraduate non-
teachers
pre-policy teach 170 2.79(2.18) 0-8 1.51 -6.21 328 .00*
rural/urban cluster
aspiring teachers that
derive from
households with
annual incomes
greater than
$100,000/scoring 21
or greater.
pre-policy teach 124 7.56(1.25) 0-8 1.27 5.88 182 .00*
p < .05*
232
Table I.20
Bivariate Correlation: Female Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. consi teach -
2. prest financ .11* -
3. prest image .08* .36* -
4. status .33* .03 .23* -
5. esteem -.11* .49* .60* -.01 -
6. act score -.09* -.10* -.11* -.00 -.04 -
7. hometown -.06 -.01 .04 -.04 .08* .10* -
8. main source .03 -.01 -.03 -.04 -.05 -.12* -.02 -
9. parents inco .08* .03 -.02 .01 .02 .06 -.06 -.02
p < .05*
Table I.21
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Seniors and Undergraduates
main source .12 .04 .12 .04 .12 .04 .11 .05 .11 .05
hometown .14 -.05 .14 -.06 .14 .06 .13 -.04 .13 -.04
parents income .09 .08 .09 .08 .09 .08 .09 .08* .08 .09*
act score .10 -.08 .10 -.07 .10 -.07 .10 -.07* .10 -.06
prestige financials .04 .10* .04 .08 .04 .11* .04 .19*
prestige image .04 .05 .04 -.04 .05 .09
status .04 .34* .04 .31*
esteem .04 -.24*
R² .02 .03 .03 .14 .17
p < .05*
233
Table I.22
Bivariate Correlation: Female Aspiring Teachers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. consi teac -
2. prest finan .13* -

3. prest imag .12* .45* -
4. status .22* -.03 .08 -
5. esteem .04 .53* .65* -.09 -
6. act score .06 -.09 -.15* .10 -.15* -
7. hometown -.04 -.01 .08 -.00 .09 .08 -
8. main sourc .08 .03 -.05 -.03 -.05 -.07 -.05 -
9. paren inco -.00 -.04 -.07 .08 -.02 .08 -.07 .01 -
10. interaction -.19* -.48* -.23* .13* -.22 -.07 -.01 -.05 .06
p < .05*
Table I.23
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Aspiring Teachers
main source .08 .04 .08 .04 .08 .05 .08 .05 .08 .05 .08 .03
hometown .10 -.06 .10 -.06 .10 -.06 .10 -.06 .10 -.05 .10 -.05
parents income .06 .02 .06 .03 .06 .03 .06 .02 .06 .03 .06 .03
act score .08 .04 .08 .05 .08 .05 .08 .02 .08 .02 .08 -.02
prestige financial .03 .09 .03 .09 .03 .10 .03 .12 .03 .01
prestige image .03 .01 .03 -.02 .04 .01 .03 -.02
status .04 .21* .04 .20* .04 .24*
esteem .03 -.06 .03 -.00
R² .01 .02 .02 .06 .06 .11
p < .05*
234
Table I.24
ANOVA: Hometown Teaching Considerations
hometown 92.03 1124 46.01 5.59 .004*
p < .05*
Table I.25
participants from rural communities 4.80 2.91 383 0-8
participants from urban clusters 4.35 2.86 417 0-8
participants from urban areas 4.10 2.83 327 0-8
Table I.26
ANOVA: Bonferroni Post-Hoc Analysis
CI
Comparison Mean Std. Error Lower Upper
Differences in Bound Bound
Perceptions
participants from urban areas .70* .21 -1.22 -.19

vs. participants from rural areas
p < .05*
235
Table I.27
Bivariate Correlation: Rural Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. consid teach -
2. prest financ .17* -
3. prest image .10* .34* -
4. status .39* .23* .30* -
5. esteem .11* .44* .52* .01 -
6. act score .07 -.01 -.06 .08 -.05 -
7. main source .04 -.01 -.09 .01 -.03 .05 -
8. gender .25* -.10* .10 .27* -.10 .03 .06 -
9. parent inco .08 -.01 .01 -.02 -.11 .03 -.07 .02
p < .05*
Table I.28
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Seniors and Undergraduates
main source .16 .01 .16 .01 .16 .02 .15 -.00 .15 .00
gender .36 .27* .36 .29* .36 .29* .35 .21* .35 .20*
parents income .12 .07* .12 .06 .12 .06 .11 .06 .11 .07
act score .15 .06 .15 .06 .15 .06 .14 .02 .14 .02
prestige image .06 .01 .06 -.09 .06 .00
status .06 .35* .06 .32*
esteem .06 -.19*
R² .08 .12 .12 .22 .24
p < .05*
236
Table I.29
Bivariate Correlation: Rural Female Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. consider teach -
2. prest financial .22* -
3. prest image .12* .37* -
4. status .37* .05 .22* -
5. esteem -.06 .48* .60* -.01 -
6. act score -.01 -.02 -.09 .09 -.01 -
7. main source .04 -.04 -.10 .02 .10 -.09 -
8. parent income .13* -.03 -.03 .05 -.01 -.04 -.05 -
p < .05*
Table I.30
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Female Seniors and Undergraduates
main source .19 .04 .18 .05 .18 .05 .17 .02 .17 .02
act score .18 .01 .17 .02 .17 .02 .16 -.04 .16 -.02
parents income .14 .10 .14 .11 .14 .11 .13 .10 .13 .10
prestige financial .06 .22* .06 .22* .06 .24* .06 .30*
prestige image .07 .02 .06 -.07 .07 .04
status .07 .38* .07 .35*
esteem .07 -.22*
R² .01 .06 .06 .20 .22
p < .05*
237
Table I.31
Bivariate Correlation: Rural Female Aspiring Teachers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. consider teach -
2. prest financial .26* -
3. prest image .26* .47* -
4. status .26* .00 .03* -
5. esteem .24* .48* .64* -.01 -
6. act score .25* -.09 -.09 .24* -.02 -
7. main source .07 -.02 -.09 -.02 -.09 -.05 -
8. parent incom -.05 .02 .02 .11 .01 .04 -.03 -
9. interaction .18* -.29* -.22* .52* -.14 .15 -.07 .13 -
p < .05*
Table I.32
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Female Aspiring Teachers
main source .11 .07 .11 .09 .11 .11 .11 .10 .11 .10 .10 .12
act score .12 .24* .11 .25* .12 .26* .12 .19* .12 .19* .12 .20*
parents income .09 -.08 .24 .02 .09 -.07 .08 -.08 .09 -.09 .08 -.10
prestige financial .11 -.10 .04 .14 .04 .13 .05 .09 .05 .15
prestige image .04 .26* .04 .24* .14 .24* .05 .24* .05 .24*
status .05 .23* .05 .23* .06 .11
esteem .05 .09 .05 .07
interaction .00 .23*
R² .07 .13 .17 .22 .22 .25
p < .05*
238
Table I.33
Bivariate Correlation: Urban Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. consider teach -
2. prest financial -.06 -
3. prest image .12* .29* -
4. status .38* -.01 .36* -
5. esteem .10 .48* .56* .10 -
6. act score .05 -.12* -.11* -.00 -.10 -
7. main source .06 -.06 -.07 -.06 -.02 -.08 -
8. gender .31* -.16* .03 .23* -.09 .01 .08 -
9. parents income .03 .08 .00 -.04 .08 .07 -.14* -.06
p < .05*
Table I.34
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Urban Seniors and Undergraduates

main source .19 .07 .19 .07 .19 .08 .18 .10 .17 .11
gender .36 .29* .36 .29* .36 .28* .35 .20* .34 .18*
act score .16 .05 .16 .05 .16 .06 .15 .05 .15 .05
parents income .14 .07 .15 .07 .14 .07 .14 .08 .13 .10
prestige financial .06 .01 .07 -.04 .06 -.00 .07 .07
prestige image .06 .16* .06 .02 .07 .13
status .06 .37* .06 .35*
esteem .06 -.23*
R² .09 .09 .12 .22 .25
p < .05*
239
Table I.35
Bivariate Correlation: Female Urban Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. consider teach -
2. prest financials .04 -
3. prest image .14* .25* -
4. status .28* .03 .39* -
5. esteem -.12 .47* .54* .10 -
6. act score .04 -.15* -.12 -.06 -.13 -
7. main source .03 -.00 -.02 -.05 .01 -.23* -
8. parents income .06 .05 -.04 -.02 .06 .19* -.13 -
p < .05*
Table I.36
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Urban Seniors and Undergraduates

main source .24 .10 .24 .10 .24 .11 .23 .12 .22 .12
act score .22 .05 .22 .06 .22 .08 .21 .09 .20 .08
parents income .18 .09 .19 .08 .18 .09 .17 .09 .17 .11
prestige financial .08 .05 .08 -.00 .08 .03 .08 .13
prestige image .08 .20* .08 .06 .09 .21*
status .08 .33* .08 .29*
esteem .08 -.30*
R² .02 .02 .05 .15 .20
p < .05*
240
Table I.37
ANOVA: Household Income and Teaching Considerations
parent’s income 162.88 1095 54.29 6.68 .00*
p < .05*
Table I.38
participants originating from families earning 4.46 2.76 255 0-8
$50,000 or less annual income
$50,000 to $100,000 annual income
$100,000 to $150,000 annual income
$150,000 or more annual income
Table I.39
CI
Perceptions
participants originating from -1.25* .29 -2.01 -.48

families earning $100,000 to
$150,000 annual income vs.
participants originating from
families earning $150,000 or
more annual income
participants originating from -.92* .31 -1.74 -.10

families earning $100,000 to
$150,000 annual income vs.
participants originating from
families earning $50,000 or less
p < .05*
241
Table I.40
Bivariate Correlation: Household Income ($50,000 to $100,000)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. consider teach -

3. prest image .02 .28* -
4. status .25* .01 .25* -
5. esteem -.10 .44* .45* -.05 -
6. act score -.18* -.14 -.12 -.08 -.05 -
7. main source .06 .04 .09 -.05 -.02 -.04 -
8. gender .24* -.21* -.07 .14 -.09 -.11 -.05 -

9. hometown .01 .19* .05 .02 .08 .00 -.01 -.20* -
p < 05*
Table I.41
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Household Income ($50,000 to $100,000)
main source .19 -.01 .19 -.01 .19 -.01 .18 .01 .17 -.01
act score .17 -.07 .19 -.05 .17 -.05 .18 -.04 .16 -.03
hometown .25 -.01 .24 -.01 .24 -.01 .23 .01 .23 .01
gender .40 .24* .40 .28* .40 .28* .38 .24* .37 .23*
prestige image .07 .01 .06 -.06 .07 .03
status .06 .33* .06 .31*
esteem .07 -.22*
R² .07 .11 .11 .21 .23
p < .05*
242
Table I.42
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. consider tea -
2. prest financi .03 -

4. status .33* -.02 .09 -
5. esteem -.25* .33* .49* -.11 -
6. act score -.11 -.15 -.14 -.06 -.16 -
7. main source -.03 .01 -.06 -.18 .05 .04 -
8. gender .41* -.05 .04 .23* -.25* .09 .01 -
9. hometown -.05 .14 .11 -.08 .00 .14 -.00 .01 -
10. interaction -.09 .15 -.02 .21* -.00 .03 .04 .24* -.11 -
p < .05*
Table I.43
main source .28 .03 .28 .03 .30 .03 .28 .07 .27 .08 .26 .08
gender .53 .37* .53 .37* .53 .37* .53 .32* .54 .26* .53 .32*
hometown .36 -.10 .36 -.10 .37 -.10 .36 -.08 .35 -.09 .34 .12
act score .23 -.17 .24 -.16 .24 -.16 .23 -.15 .23 -.17 .22 -.15
prestige financial .10 .02 .11 .00 .10 .01 .10 .04 .10 .09
prestige image .12 .04 .11 .01 .12 .14 .12 .09
status .09 .23* .09 .21* .09 .25*
esteem .10 -.28* .10 -.26*
R² .18 .18 .18 .23 .28 .33
p < .05*
243
Table I.44
Bivariate Correlation: Household Income ($150,000 or Greater)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. consider teach -
2. prest financial .06 -
3. prest image .11* .34* -
4. status .44* .05 .26* -
5. esteem -.12* .46* .61* .08 -
6. act score -.01 -.05 -.07 .03 -.04 -
7. main source .10* -.02 -.05 .04 -.06 -.08 -
8. gender .28* -.14* .02 .26* -.16* .05 .12* -
9. hometown -.11* .01 .02 -.05 .09 .11* -.08 -.12* -
p < .05*
Table I.45
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Household Income ($150,000 or Greater)
main source .15 .06 .15 .07 .15 .08 .14 .06 .14 .06
gender .32 .29* .32 .30* .32 .29* .30 .21* .30 .17*
hometown .19 -.03 .19 -.03 .19 -.03 .17 -.03 .17 -.02
act score .13 -.01 .13 -.01 .13 -.01 .12 -.02 .12 -.01
prestige financials .05 .09 .05 .05 .05 .07 .05 .14*
prestige image .05 .09 .05 -.02 .06 .11
status .05 .41* .05 .40*
esteem .05 -.25*
R² .10 .10 .11 .25 .29
p < .05*
244
Table I.46
Bivariate Correlation: Rural Household Income ($150,000 Plus)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. consider teach -
4. status .44* .02 .20* -
5. esteem -.12* .44* .53* -.00 -
6. act score -.11 -.02 -.08 .05 .04 -
7. main source .04 -.03 -.08 .03 .02 -.09 -
8. gender .28* -.14 .11 .33* -.22* .02 .05 -
p < .05*
Table I.47
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Household Income ($150,000 Plus)
main source .23 .05 .23 .06 .23 .07 .22 .04 .21 .06
gender .51 .32* .51 .34* .52 .23* .50 .21* .51 .18*
act score .21 .12 .21 .12 .21 .13 .20 .11 .20 .09
prestige financials .08 .12 .08 .09 .07 .11 .08 .15
prestige image .09 .08 .08 .02 .09 .10
status .08 .39* .08 .38*
esteem .08 -.17
R² .12 .13 .14 .27 .29
p < .05*
245
Table I.48
ANOVA: ACT Scores and Teaching Considerations
act score 356.95 1034 89.24 11.10 .00*
p < .05*
Table I.49
seniors and undergraduates scoring 17 or less on the 3.06 2.96 79 0-8
ACT
seniors and undergraduates scoring in the 18 to 20 5.08 2.87 132 0-8
range on the ACT
senior and undergraduates scoring in the 21 to 24 range 4.69 2.87 402 0-8
on the ACT
range on the ACT
seniors and undergraduates scoring 29 or higher on the 3.58 2.60 172 0-8
ACT
246
Table I.50
CI
Perceptions
seniors and undergraduates -1.49* .33 -2.42 -.57

scoring 29 or higher vs. seniors
and undergraduates scoring 18-
20
seniors and undergraduates -1.11* .26 -1.84 -.39

24
seniors and undergraduates -.97* .28 -1.75 -.18

28
p < .05*
247
Table I.51
Bivariate Correlation: ACT Scores 29 or Greater
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. consider tea -
2. prest financi -.15 -
3. prest image -.11 .32* -
4. status .30* -.17* .12 -
5. esteem -.29* .46 .47* -.13 -
6. main sourc -.01 .08 .03 -.13 .06 -
7. parents inco -.00 .17* .02 -.08 .17* -.02 -
8. hometown .03 -.01 .13 .13 .10 -.01 -.09 -
9. gender .25* -.13 .05 .27* -.04 .02 .12 -.25* -
10. interaction -.26* .32* .06 -.14 .29* .40* -.03 -.15 -.11 -
p < .05*
Table I.52
Hierarchal Linear Regression: ACT Scores 29 or Greater
main source .22 .01 .22 .01 .22 .01 .22 .05 .21 .06 .23 .15
gender .44 .24* .44 .23* .45 .25 .45 .16 .44 .16* .44 .13
hometown .31 .05 .31 .05 .32 .08 .31 .04 .30 .06 .30 .01
parents income .18 -.04 .18 -.02 .18 -.03 .18 .00 .18 .03 .17 .01
prestige financia .07 -.07 .07 -.04 .07 .01 .08 .09 .08 .14
prestige image .08 -.11 .08 -.16 .09 -.06 .08 -.07
status .08 .28* .08 .25* .08 .26*
esteem .08 -.26* .08 -.20*
R² .06 .06 .07 .14 .18 .22
p < .05*
248
Table I.53
Bivariate Correlation: ACT Scores 25 to 28
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. consider teach -
4. status .47* .02 .23* -
5. esteem -.08 .38 .54* .03 -
6. main source .02 .01 .03 -.05 -.02 -
7. parents income .06 -.01 -.06 -.05 -.05 -.02 -
8. hometown -.14* -.02 -.08 -.21* .10 -.00 .02 -
9. gender .26* -.20* -.05 .18* -.04 -.23 -.08 -.08 -
p < .05*
Table I.54
Hierarchal Linear Regression: ACT Scores 25 to 28
main source .19 .06 .19 .07 .19 .07 .18 .03 .18 .08
gender .43 .30* .44 .32* .44 .32* .40 .26* .41 .24*
hometown .23 -.10 .23 -.09 .23 -.09 .21 -.01 .21 -.01
parents income .16 .09 .16 .10 .16 .11 .15 .11 .15 .11
prestige financial .07 .16* .07 .13 .07 .14* .07 .16*
prestige image .07 .09 .06 .42* .07 .03
status .06 .41*
esteem .07 -.11
R² .11 .13 .14 .29 .30
p < .05*
249
Table I.55
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. consider teach -
2. prest financials .11* -
4. status .32* .01 .25* -
5. esteem -.18* .52* .59* -.06 -
6. main source .05 .01 -.02 -.01 -.03 -
7. parents income .05 .04 -.02 -.04 -.05 -.06 -
8. hometown .08 .02 -.04 -.07 -.06 -.00 -.04 -
9. gender .24* .17* -.02 .14* -.16* .09 -.08 -.11* -
p < .05*
Table I.56
main source .16 .01 .16 .01 .16 .01 .15 .02 .15 .02
gender .34 .25* .34 .26* .34 .26* .33 .21* .32 .19*
hometown .19 -.07 .19 -.07 .19 -.07 .19 -.05 .18 -.05
parents income .13 .09 .12 .09 .13 .09 .12 .07 .12 .09
prestige image .06 .02 .06 -.07 .06 .08
status .06 .30* .06 .25*
esteem .06 -.30*
R² .11 .13 .14 .29 .30
p < .05*
250
Table I.57
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. consider teach -
4. status .37* .24 .40* -
5. esteem -.02 .41* .60* .25* -
6. main source .01 -.16 -.27* -.01 -.22* -
7. parents income .05 -.15 .12 -.01 .10 -.11 -
8. gender .38* -.00 .13 .27* -.03 .16 -.02 -
9. hometown -.20* .02 .12 .00 .11 .03 -.01 -.11 -
p < .05*
Table I.58
main source .27 .04 .26 -.03 .26 -.01 .27 .02 .26 -.01 .26 -.01
hometown .32 -.19* .30 -.16 .30 -.17 .30 -.18* .29 -.18* .29 -.18*
parents income .21 .03 .20 .04 .20 .02 .20 .01 .19 .03 .19 .03
gender .55 .36* .55 .35* .56 .33* .55 .28* .55 .26*
prestige financial .09 .11 .09 .08 .09 .03 .09 .06
prestige image .11 .11 .12 .11 .12 .11
status .09 .27* .09 .27*
esteem .11 -.17
R² .04 .16 .17 .18 .24 .26
p < .05*
251
Table I.59
Bivariate Correlation: Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. policy teach -
2. policy presti .16* -
3. policy status .23* .46* -
4. policy estee .14* .41* .59* -
5. gender .21* -.12* -.02 -.06 -
6. act score .14* .08* .18* .05 .01 -
7. hometown -.03 .09* .06 .14* -.09* .10* -
8. main source -.05 -.08* -.12* -.06 -.03 -.07* -.02 -
9. parents incom .04 -.01 -.01 .01 .06 .03 -.04 -.06* -
10. interaction .17* .27* -.05 -.12* .04 .08* -.03 -.01 .01
p < .05*
Table I.60
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Seniors and Undergraduates
main source .08 -.05 .08 -.04 .08 -.03 .08 -.02 .08 -.02 .08 -.02
hometown .10 -.01 .10 -.02 .10 -.04 .10 -.03 .10 -.04 .10 -.03
parents income .07 .04 .07 .04 .06 .04 .06 .04 .06 .04 .06 .04
gender .17 .21* .17 .21* .17 .23* .17 .22* .17 .22* .17 .21*
act score .07 .13* .07 .11* .07 .09* .07 .09* .07 .08*
policy prestige .02 .18* .02 .11* .02 .11* .02 .03
policy status .03 .15* .03 .14* .03 .16*
policy esteem .03 .02 .03 .06
R² .05 .06 .09 .11 .11 .14
p < .05*
252
Table I.61
Bivariate Correlation: Seniors Considering Other Careers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. policy teach -
4. policy estee .32* .33* .56* -
5. gender .25* -.04 .05 .06 -
6. act score .38* -.09 .15* .07 .12 -
7. hometown .01 -.05 .06 .18* -.06 .08 -
8. main source -.07 .06 -.04 -.01 .09 -.05 -.03 -
9. parents inco -.02 -.05 -.03 .04 -.07 -.04 -.05 -.06* -
p < .05*
Table I.62
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Seniors Considering Other Careers
main source .19 -.07 .18 -.06 .18 -.08 .18 -.07 .17 -.07
hometown .22 .02 .21 -.01 .21 -.00 .21 -.01 .21 -.04
parents income .15 -.04 .14 -.03 .14 -.02 .13 -.01 .13 -.03
gender .33 .22* .31 .18* .30 .19* .30 .18* .30 .17*
act score .12 .35* .12 .36* .12 .34* .12 .34*
policy prestige .05 .15* .05 .15* .05 .10 .05 .05
policy status .06 .16* .07 .06
policy esteem .06 .21*
R² .05 .17 .19 .22 .24
p < .05*
253
Table I.63
ANOVA: ACT Score Post-Policy Teaching Considerations
post policy teach
act score 179.69 253 44.92 7.99 .00*
p < .05*
Table I.64
post policy teach
seniors and undergraduates scoring 17 or less on 2.42 2.00 43 0-8
the ACT
range on the ACT
senior and undergraduates scoring in the 21 to 24 3.27 2.22 88 0-8
range on the ACT
range on the ACT
seniors and undergraduates scoring 29 or higher 4.75 2.21 52 0-8
on the ACT
254
Table I.65
Bonferroni Post Hoc-Assessment
CI
Comparison Mean Std. Error Lower Bound Upper
Differences in Bound
Perceptions
seniors and undergraduates 1.78* .53 .27 3.29

20

24

and undergraduates scoring 17
or less
p < .05*
255
Table I.66
Bivariate Correlation: Undergraduates Considering Other Careers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. policy teach -
4. policy estee .16* .40* .50* -
5. gender .11 -.12 -.03 -.10 -
6. act score .03 .12 .16* .09 -.03 -
7. hometown .07 .13 .05 .12 -.14 .03 -
8. main source -.23* -.19* -.27* -.08 .05 -.00 .05 -
9. parents inco -.04 .00 -.11 -.01 -.03 .03 -.00 -.05 -
p < .05*
Table I.67
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Undergraduates Considering Other Careers
hometown .25 .08 .24 .10 .22 .05 .22 .05 .22 .05
parents income .20 -.04 .19 -.05 .17 -.05 .17 -.03 .17 -.02
gender .38 .12 .37 .13 .34 .17* .34 .16* .34 .16*
act score .36 .03 .35 .02 .32 -.02 .32 -.04 .31 -.04
main source .18 -.24* .17 -.16* .17 -.13 .17 -.12
policy prestige .04 .42* .05 .33* .05 .35*
policy status .06 .19* .06 .23*
policy esteem .06 -.09
R² .02 .08 .25 .27 .28
p < .05*
256
Table I.68
Bivariate Correlation: Aspiring Teachers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. policy teach -
4. policy estee .09 .55* .67* -
5. gender -.19* -.06 -.04 -.11 -
6. act score .11 .33* .37* .23* .03 -
7. hometown .00 .12 .07 .07 -.02 .03 -
8. main source -.06 -.07 -.07 -.08 .06 .13 .08 -
9. parents inco .06 -.01 .03 -.01 -.08 .04 -.21* .10 -
10. interaction .08 -.22* -.17* -.34* .35* .07 -.02 .05 -.02 -
p < .05*
Table I.69
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Aspiring Teachers
main source .20 -.08 .19 -.04 .19 -.04 .19 -.05 .19 -.04
parents income .63 .06 .61 .05 .61 .05 .61 .05 .60 .05
gender .49 -.20* .47 -.18 .48 -.18 .47 -.19* .49 -.26*
act score .28 .14 .29 .03 .30 .04 .30 .03 .20 .00
hometown .38 .01 .37 -.03 .37 -.03 .37 -.03 .36 -.04
policy prestige .04 .31* .05 .32* .06 .35* .05 .38*
policy status .07 -.01 .08 .10 .07 -.12
policy esteem .06 -.20 .06 .20
R² .06 .14 .15 .17 .20
p < .05*
257
Table I.70
Independent t-test results
Mean
N M(SD) Range Difference t Df p
post policy teach
males 313 3.85(2.53) 0-8 1.11 -6.86 102 .00*
females 708 4.96(2.33) 0-8
males
pre-policy teach 342 3.23(2.79) 0-8 .61 2.95 653 .00*
female undergraduates non-

aspiring teachers
pre-policy teach 345 3.25(2.12) 0-8 1.04 -6.17 662 .00*
female senior non-aspiring

teachers
pre-policy teach 121 3.24(2.16) 0-8 .70 -2.40 226 .00*
rural seniors and

undergraduates
pre-policy teach 383 4.80(2.91) 0-8 .10 .502 721 .62
rural female seniors and

undergraduates
pre-policy teach 154 5.51(2.75) 0-8 .46 1.55 290 .12
urban seniors and

undergraduates
pre-policy teach 155 4.19(2.82) 0-8 .48 -1.56 293 .12
female urban/urban cluster

seniors and undergraduate
non-aspiring teachers
pre-policy teach 133 3.04(2.09) 0-8 1.28 4.69 254 .00*
p < .05*
258
Table I.71
Bivariate Correlation: Female Undergraduates Considering Other Careers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. policy teac -
2. policy prest .32* -
3. policy statu .29* .42* -
4. policy estee .19* .38* .56* -
5. act score .12* .11 .22* .06 -
6. hometown .05 .08 .09 .15* .11 -
7. main sourc -.12* -.05 -.19* -.02 -.12 .04 -
8. parents inc .00 -.02 -.06 .02 .09 -.03 -.06 -
p < .05*
Table I.72
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Undergraduates Considering Other Careers
main source .14 -.10 .13 -.09 .14 -.07 .14 -.07
parents income .11 .01 .10 .00 .10 .02 .10 .02
act score .12 .10 .12 .07 .12 .04 .12 .05
hometown .16 .02 .16 .00 .15 .00 .16 .00
policy prestige .03 .31* .04 .24* .04 .25*
policy status .05 .15* .05 .17*
R² .02 .12 .13 .13
p < .05*
259
Table I.73
Bivariate Correlation: Rural Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. policy teach -
4. policy estee .18* .43* .64* -
5. act score .21* .10 .05 .06 -
6. gender .19* -.12* .09 -.05 .06 -
7. main source -.03 -.03 -.19* -.03 -.08 .06 -
8. parents inco .00 -.01 -.06 .05 -.01 .02 -.07 -
9. interaction .15* .20* -.20* -.25* .08 .05 .01 -.03 -
p < .05*
Table I.74
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Rural Seniors and Undergraduates
main source .14 -.05 .14 -.03 .14 -.03 .13 -.01 .13 -.01 .13 -.02
parents income .11 -.01 .10 -.01 .10 -.01 .10 -.00 .10 -.01 .10 -.03
gender .31 .21* .30 .20* .30 .21* .30 .21* .30 .21* .30 .19*
act score .13 .19* .13 .18* .13 .14* .13 .15* .13 .13*
policy prestige .03 .12* .04 .04 .07 .09 .04 -.07
policy status .05 .17* .06 .14 .06 .19*
policy esteem .05 .06 .05 .11
R² .05 .08 .09 .12 .12 .15
p < .05*
260
Table I.75
Bivariate Correlation: Female Rural Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. policy teach -
4. policy estee .19* .35* .67* -
5. act score .14 .23* .35* .03 -
6. main source .08 -.15 -.15 -.07 -.05 -
7. parents inco -.04 -.11 -.11 -.02 .06 .06 -
8. interaction .26* .30 -.15 -.20* .01 .01 -.04 -
p < .05*
Table I.76
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Rural Seniors and Undergraduates
main source .21 -.06 .21 -.04 .21 -.02 .21 -.02 .20 -.04
parents income .67 -.03 .67 -.01 .65 -.01 .66 -.01 .63 .00
act score .20 .13 .20 .04 .21 .03 .22 .03 .21 .00
policy prestige .05 .18* .06 .06 .06 .06 .06 -.12
policy status .08 .26* .10 .27* .10 .37*
policy esteem .08 -.02 .07 .04
R² .02 .05 .10 .10 .19
p < .05*
261
Table I.77
Bivariate Correlation: Urban Seniors and Undergraduates
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. policy teach -
2. policy prest .13 -
4. policy este .04 .34* .39* -
5. act score .14 .17* .17* -.04 -
6. main source -.02 -.18* -.05 -.04 -.08 -
7. parents inco .15 .02 .01 -.04 -.12 -.09 -
8. gender .38* -.19* -.04 -.09 .05 -.03 .21* -
9. interaction .29* .49* .36* .10 .08 -.22* .08 .07 -
p < .05*
Table I.78
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Urban Seniors and Undergraduates
main source .22 .01 .21 .01 .21 .05 .21 .04 .21 .04 .21 .07
parents income .23 .16 .22 .11 .22 .10 .21 .10 .22 .09 .21 .09
act score .28 .15 .26 .11 .26 .08 .26 .06 .27 .05 .26 .07
gender .42 .35* .42 .39* .42 .39* .42 .39* .42 .39*
policy prestige .05 .20* .05 .14 .05 .15 .06 .06
policy status .07 .16 .07 .17 .08 .12
policy esteem .07 -.04 .07 -.01
R² .05 .16 .20 .22 .22 .24
p < .05*
262
Table I.79
Bivariate Correlation: Female Urban and Urban Cluster Undergraduates Considering Other
Careers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. policy teach -
4. policy estee .14 .38* .43* -
5. act score -.15 .19* .17 .01 -
6. main source .08 -.03 -.15 .06 -.02 -
7. parents inco .00 .07 -.09 .05 .02 .02 -
p < .05*
Table I.80
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Female Urban and Urban Cluster Undergraduates Considering
Other Careers

main source .22 -.15 .21 -.14 .21 -.12 .21 -.11
parents income .23 .03 .22 .05 .22 .07 .22 .07
act score .25 .04 .24 -.02 .24 -.03 .22 -.04
policy prestige .05 .32* .06 .23* .06 .24*
policy status .07 .20* .08 .21*
R² .03 .13 .16 .16
p < .05*
263
Table I.81
Independent t-test results
Mean
N M(SD) Range Difference t df p
senior and undergraduate
non-aspiring teacher
household annual
incomes $50,000 to
$100,000
pre-policy teach 184 2.93(2.11) 0-8 1.00 -4.27 349 .00*
seniors and
undergraduates scoring
25 or greater on the ACT
and originating from
households with annual
incomes $150,000 or
greater
pre-policy teach 170 4.61(2.96) 0-8 .64 -2.20 318 .03*
undergraduate non-
aspiring teachers scoring
25 to 28 on the ACT
pre-policy teach 118 2.96(2.18) 0-8 1.39 4.79 226 .00*
seniors and
undergraduate
scoring 20 or less on the
ACT
pre-policy teach 146 4.51(3.06) 0-8 .27 -.799 280 .43
p < .05*
264
Table I.82
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. policy teach -
4. policy estee .14 .41* .55* -
5. act score .26* .07 .29* .15 -
6. gender .12 -.19* .04 -.11 -.06 -
7. main source -.06 .11 -.02 .14 -.04 .02 -
8. hometown .09 .11 .14 .28* .20* -.14 .06 -
p < .05*
Table I.83

main source .20 -.08 .20 -.07 .19 -.10 .19 -.09 .19 -.08
gender .40 .14 .38 .14 .37 .19* .38 .18* .38 .17*
hometown .26 .12 .25 .07 .24 .06 .24 .04 .25 .05
act score .17 .25* .16 .23* .16 .20* .17 .20*
policy prestige .05 .30* .05 .25* .05 .26*
policy status .07 .12 .08 .15
R² .03 .09 .18 .19 .19
p < .05*
265
Table I.84
Bivariate Correlation: Household Income ($150,000 or Greater)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. policy teac -
2. polic prest .35* -
3. polic statu .41* .58* -
4. polic estee .31* .50* .61* -
5. act score -.08 .00 -.01 .06 -
6. gender .15 -.07 .08 .01 .03 -
7. main sour -.09 -.20* -.21* -.11 .01 .09 -
8. hometown .05 .08 -.02 .08 .03 -.07 -.10 -
9. interaction .27* .36* .11 .05 -.08 -.06 -.04 .06 -
p < .05*
Table I.85
Hierarchal Linear Regression: Household Income ($150,000 or Greater)
main source .20 -.10 .19 .03 .18 .00 .18 -.00 .18 -.03
gender .41 .17* .39 .19* .38 .15* .38 .15* .38 .16*
hometown .23 .03 .23 .03 .23 .06 .23 .05 .23 .04
act score .40 -.08 .37 -.08 .36 -.08 .37 -.08 .36 -.07
policy prestige .04 .36* .05 .20* .07 .25* .05 .08
policy status .06 .28* .06 .07 .07 .26*
policy esteem .06 .10
R² .04 .17 .22 .22 .26
p < .05*
266
Table I.86
Bivariate Correlation: ACT Score 25 to 28
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. policy teach -
2. policy presti .43*
4. policy estee .16 .38* .47* -
5. parents inco -.11 .08 .02 .03 -
6. gender .10 -.20 -.09 -.21 -.20* -
7. main source -.27* -.09 -.18 .04 -.05 -.07 -
8. hometown .06 .16 -.03 .10 .13 -.17 .05 -
p < .05*
Table I.87
Hierarchal Linear Regression: ACT Score 25 to 28

gender .49 .10 .47 -.07 .43 .15 .43 .16 .44 .16
hometown .27 .09 .26 .11 .23 .05 .23 .06 .23 .06
parents income .19 -.11 .18 -.13 .16 -.13 .16 -.13 .16 -.13
main source .21 -.28* .19 -.23* .19 -.21* .20 -.21*
policy prestige .05 .45* .05 .39* .05 .39*
policy status .07 .13 .08 .13
R² .03 .10 .29 .29 .29
p < .05*
267
Table I.88
Bivariate Correlation: ACT Score 20 or Less
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. policy tea -
2. policy pre -.09 -
3. policy stat .22* .28* -
4. policy este .29* .40* .67 * -
5. parents inc .03 -.06 -.03 .08 -
6. gender .29* -.30* -.17 -.05 -.04 -
7. main sour -.10 -.07 -.18* -.03 -.02 .12 -
8. hometown -.01 .11 .01 .06 -.06 -.18* -.02 -
9. interaction .08 -.18* -.44* -.38* .13 .17* .13 .00 -
p < .05*
Table I.89
Hierarchal Linear Regression: ACT Score 20 or Less
main source .24 -.13 .24 -.13 .23 -.09 .23 -.11 .23 -.13
hometown .29 .04 .29 .04 .28 .05 .27 .03 .27 .02
parents income .25 .05 .25 .05 .24 .05 .24 .01 .24 .00
gender .48 .31* .50 .31* .48 .34* .48 .29* .48 .26*
policy prestige .07 -.00 .07 -.07 .07 -.16 .07 -.16
policy status .08 .28* .10 .09 .10 .15
policy esteem .09 .30* .09 .34*
R² .10 .10 .18 .22 .25*
p < .05*
268
Figures
Figure 1. Status variable’s normal distribution.
269
Figure 2. Hometown variable’s normal distribution.
Figure 3. How much consider teaching variable’s normal distribution.
270
Figure 4. Parents’ income variable’s normal distribution.
271
Discouraged from
Consider Teaching
Teaching
Esteem – Prestige – Main Sources –

Teaching is Teachers are Refers to the
perceived to be a perceived to be sources students
valued, respected, compensated use to learn
and trusted appropriately for about the
career. their work. teaching career.
Status – The
teacher workforce
is perceived to be
skilled and
knowledgeable.
High School Seniors and

College Undergraduates
Gender
Figure 5. The effects of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem.

The visual illustrates the effects that the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and
esteem may have on high school senior and college undergraduate teaching
considerations. Additionally, the visual demonstrates that the confounding variable
gender may also have an effect. The results demonstrated that females may be more
likely to consider teaching than males.
272
Consider Teaching
Discouraged
from
Teaching
Prestige – Status – The Esteem –

Teachers are teacher workforce Teaching is
perceived to be is perceived to be perceived to be a
compensated skilled and valued, respected,
appropriately for knowledgeable. and trusted
their work. career.
ACT Test Score High School Seniors Gender

and College
Undergraduates
Figure 6. The effects of policy designed to improve the perceptions of teaching.

The visual illustrates the effects that the post-policy perceptions of teaching’s prestige,
status, and esteem may have on high school senior and college undergraduate teaching
considerations. The visual demonstrates that improved perceptions may generate greater
interest in teaching, and that the perceptions of teaching’s esteem may not be a deterrent.
The results demonstrated that males and high school seniors and college undergraduates
scoring in the upper deciles of the ACT may also have more interest in teaching.
273
Consider Teaching
Semantic Status – A
society unequivocally
grants teaching
professional status.
Prestige – Teachers
Status – The
are perceived to be
teacher workforce
compensated
is perceived to be
appropriately for
skilled and
their work.
knowledgeable.
Esteem – Teaching
Prestige – The
is perceived to be a
image of teaching
valued, respected,
is positive.
and trusted career.
Figure 7. Conceptual framework that was developed from the results of the study.
Semantic status may be similar to a four-legged stool. Semantic status becomes unsteady
when one or more of its essential components are absent.
274
To What Degree Have You Considered Leaving ?
50% 47%
45%
40%
35%
30% 26%
25%
20%
15%
8% 9%
10% 5% 5%
5%
0%
The Thought has I Have a Love for Would Not Some I have I am Actively
NOT Crossed my Teaching and Consider It Consideration Considered It Considering a
Mind Would Not Career Change
Consider It
To What Degree Have You Considered Leaving ?
Figure 8. To what degree have you considered leaving (Klimek, 2018)?
To What Degree Would You Encourage Others to

Enter Teaching?
30% 28%
25%
21%
20% 18%
15%
15% 13%
10%
5% 4%
0%
Strongly Encourage Somewhat Somewhat Discourage Strongly
Encourage Encourage Discourage Discourage
To What Degree Would You Encourage Others to Enter Teaching?
Figure 9. To What Degree Would You Encourage Others to Enter Teaching (Klimek,
2018)?
275
REFERENCES
276
REFERENCES
ACT. (2015). The condition of future educators 2014. Retrieved from
http://www.act.org/newsroom/ data/2014/states/pdf/FutureEducators.pdf
ACT. (2017). American College Testing website (ACT). Retrieved from www.act.org
ACT. (2018). The condition of college and career readiness. Retrieved from
https://www.act.org/content/dam/act/unsecured/documents/cccr2018/National-
CCCR-2018.pdf
Adecco. (2015). Survey of children in Singapore reveals that becoming a teacher is the
career of choice. Asia Fresh News. Retrieved from
https://asiafreshnews.wordpress.com/2015/01/06/adecco-childrens-career-survey-
singapore-children-show-desire-to-mould-future-generations/
Akiba, M., LeTendre, G., & Scribner, J. (2007). Teacher quality, opportunity gap, and
national achievement in 46 countries. Educational Researcher, 36, 369–387.
Aldeman, C., Carey, K., Dillon, E., Miller, B., & Silva, E. (2011). A measured approach
to improving teacher preparation. Education Sector. Retrieved from
http://elenamsilva.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/TeacherPrepFederal.pdf
Allen, M. (2003). Eight questions on teacher preparation: What does the research say?
Education Commission of the States (ECS). Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED479051.pdf
American Association for Employment in Education. (2015). Educator supply and
demand report 2014–15: Executive summary. Retrieved from
http://www.aaee.org/resources/Documents/2015-
16_AAEE_Supply_Demand_Summary.pdf
277
Amrein, A. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2002). The impact of high-stakes tests on student
academic performance: An analysis of NAEP results in states with high-stakes
tests and ACT, SAT, and AP test results in states with high school graduation
exams. Retrieved from Education Policy Studies Laboratory
http://epsl.asu.edu/epru/documents/EPSL-0211-126-EPRU.pdf
Aragon, S. (2016). Teacher shortages: What we know. Education Commission of the
States. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED565893
Anderson, P. (2016, Jan. 16). What a half-cent sales tax would mean for your school
district. Retrieved from https://www.argusleader.com/story/news/2016/01/16/
what-half-cent-sales-tax-would-mean-your-school-district/78851066/
Auguste, B., Kihn, P., & Miller, M. (2010). Closing the talent gap: Attracting and
retaining top third graduates to careers in teaching. Retrieved from McKinsey
and Company website: http://mckinseyonsociety.com/downloads/reports/
Education/Closing_the_talent_gap.pdf
Bacolod, M. (2007). Do alternative opportunities matter? The role of female labor
markets in the decline of teacher quality. Review of Economics and Statistics, 89,
737–751.
Bajema, D., Miller, W.W., & Williams, D. (2002). Aspirations of rural youth. Journal of
Agricultural Education, 43(3), 61–71.
Baker, B. (2012). Revisiting the age-old question: Does money matter in education?
Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED528632.pdf
278
Ballou, D. & Podgurskey, M. (1995). Rural schools: Fewer highly trained teachers and
special programs, but better learning environment. Rural Development
Perspectives, 10(3), 6–16.
Barber M., & Mourshed M. (2007). How the world’s best-performing school systems
come out on top. Retrieved from https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/social-
sector/our-insights/how-the-worlds-best-performing-school-systems-come-out-
on-top
Barth, P., Dillon, N., Hull, J., & Higgins, B. H. (2016). Fixing the holes in the teacher
pipeline. Retrieved from Center for Public Education website:
http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-Menu/Staffingstudents/An-
Overview-of-Teacher-Shortages-At-a-Glance/Overview-of-Teacher-Shortages-
Full-Report-PDF.pdf
Berry, B., Montgomery, D., Curtis, R., Hernandez, M., Wurtzel, J., & Snyder, J. (2008).
Creating and sustaining urban teacher residencies: A new way to recruit,
prepare, and retain effective teachers in high-needs districts. Aspen Institute.
Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED512419
Berry, B., & Shields, P. (2017). Solving the teacher shortage: Revisiting the lessons
we’ve learned. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(8) 8–18.
Bireda, S., & Chait, R. (2011). Increasing teacher diversity: Strategies to improve the
teacher workforce. Center for American Progress. Retrieved from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED535654.pdf
279
Black, D. (2017). Averting educational crisis: Funding cuts, teacher shortages, and the
dwindling commitment to public education. Washington University Law Review,
94(2). Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=2745915
Boyd, D., Grossman, P., Hammerness, K., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., Ronfeldt, M., &
Wyckoff, J. (2012). Recruiting effective math teachers: Evidence from New
York City. American Educational Research Journal, 49, 1008–1047.
Boyd, D., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., Rockoff, J., & Wyckoff, J. (2000). Teacher
preparation and student achievement. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis,
31(4), 416–440.
Boyd, D., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2004). The draw of home: How
teachers’ preferences for proximity disadvantage urban schools. Journal of
Policy and Analysis, 24(1), 113–132.
Boyd, D., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2005). Explaining the short careers of
high-achieving teachers in schools with low-performing students. American
Economic Review, 95, 166–171.
Braun, H. (2004). Reconsidering the impact of high-stakes testing. Educational Policy
Analysis Archives, 12(1), 1–40.
Braun, H. I., Wang, A., Jenkins, F., & Weinbaum, E. (2006). The black-white
achievement gap: Do state policies matter? Education Policy Analysis Archives,
14(8), 1–110.
Breaux, A., & Wong, H. (2003). New teacher induction: How to train, support, and
retain new teachers. Mountain View, CA: Harry Wong Publications.
280
Brill, S., & McCartney, A. (2008). Stopping the revolving door: Increasing teacher
retention. Politics and Policy, 36, 750–774.
Brimley, V., Verstegen, D., & Garfield, R. (2016). Financing education in a climate of
change (12th ed.). New York: Pearson.
Burnell, B. (2003). The “real world” aspirations of work-bound rural students. Journal
of Research in Rural Education, 18, 104–113.
Bushaw, W. J., & Lopez, S. J. (2011). Betting on teachers. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(1), 9–
26.
Byun, S. Meece, J., Irvin, M. & Hutchins, B. (2012). The role of social capital in
education aspirations of rural youth. Rural Sociology, 77(3), 355–379.
Carnoy, M. (2017). School vouchers are not a proven strategy for improving student
achievement. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED579337.pdf
Carrasco, B. (2017). Wichita public schools face worse teacher shortage than previous
years. Retrieved from http://www.kwch.com/content/news/Wichita-Public-
Schools-face-worse-teacher-shortage-than-previous-years-441456833.html
Carver-Thomas, D., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Addressing California’s growing
teacher shortage 2017 update. Learning Policy Institute. Retrieved from
https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-
files/Addressing_Californias_Growing_Teacher_Shortage_2017_Update_REPOR
T.pdf
281
CBS. (2017). California districts deal with teacher shortage as school year begins.
Retrieved from http://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2017/08/11/california-school-
districts-teacher-shortage/
Certo, J. L., & Fox, J. E. (2002). Retaining quality teachers. High School Journal,
86(1), 57–76.
Chan, Y. H. (2003). Biostatistics 101: Data presentation. Singapore Medical Journal,
44, 280–285.
Cherubini, L. (2007). Speaking up and speaking freely: Beginning teachers’ critical
perceptions of their professional induction. Professional Educator, 29(1), 1–12.
Chiu, M., & Khoo, L. (2005). Effects of resources, inequality, and privilege bias on
achievement: Country, school, and student level analyses. American Educational
Research Journal, 42, 575–603.
Clotfelter, C., Glennie, E., Ladd, H., & Vigdor, J. (2008). Teacher bonuses and teacher
retention in low-performing schools: Evidence from the North Carolina $1,800
teacher bonus program. Public Finance Review, 36(1), 63–87.
Clotfelter, C., Ladd, H., & Vidgor, J. (2007). Achievement: Longitudinal analysis with
student fixed effects. Economics of Education Review, 26, 673–682.
Cochran-Smith, M. (2005). Studying teacher education: What we need to know.
Journal of Teacher Education, 56, 301–306.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd Ed.).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
282
Cohen, J., & Wyckoff, J. (2016). Teacher education: Expanding the intersection of
evidence and policy. SREB Teacher Preparation Commission. Retrieved from
https://www.sreb.org/sites/main/files/fileattachments/srebteacherpreparationbackg
roundpaper_0.pdf
Colorado Department of Education. (2015). Definitions of selected terms. Retrieved
from https://www.cde.state.co.us/cdereval/rvdefine
Cook, B., & Schirmer, B. (2003). What is special about special education? Overview
and analysis. Journal of Special Education 37, 200–205.
Coolahan, J. (2002), Teacher Education and the Teaching Career in an Era of Lifelong
Learning, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 2, OECD Publishing.
Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/226408628504
Cooley, N., Bicard, S., Bicard, D., & Baylot, L. (2008). A field at risk: The teacher
shortage in special education. Phi Delta Kappan, 89, 597–600.
Corcoran, S. & Evans, W. (2010). Income inequality, the median voter, and the support
for public education. Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/papers/w16097
Corcoran, S., Evans, W., & Schwab, R. (2004). Changing labor-market opportunities for
women and the quality of teachers, 1957–2000. American Economic Review, 94,
230–235.
Cowan, J., Goldhaber, D., Hayes, K., & Theobald, R. (2016). Missing elements in the
discussion of teacher shortages. Educational Researcher, 45, 460–462.
Croft, S., Roberts, M., & Stenhouse, V. (2016). The perfect storm of education reform:
High-stakes testing and teacher evaluation. Social Justice, 42(1), 70–92.
283
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010a). The flat world and education: How America’s
commitment to equity will determine our future. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010b). Recruiting and retaining teachers: Turning around the
race to the bottom in high-need schools. Journal of Curriculum and Instruction,
4(1), 16–32.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher education around the world: What can we learn
from international practice? European Journal of Teacher Education, 40, 291–
309.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Berry, B. (2006). Highly qualified teachers for all.
Educational Leadership, 64(3). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/
profile/Linda_Darling-Hammond/publication/234670054_
Highly_Qualified_Teachers_for_All/links/0a85e537c69b3b83e5000000.pdf
Darling-Hammond, L., Chung, R., & Frelow, F. (2002). Variation in teacher
preparation: How well do different pathways prepare teachers to teach? Journal
of Teacher Education, 53, 286–302.
Darling-Hammond, L., Furger, R., Shields, P., & Sutcher, L. (2016). Addressing
California’s emerging teacher shortage: An analysis of sources and solutions.
Learning Policy Institute. Retrieved from https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/03/LPI-Report-AddressingCA_TeacherShortage.pdf.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Haselkorn, D. (2009). Reforming teaching: Are we missing
the boat? Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/ew/ articles/2009/04/01/27
hammond.h28.html
284
Darling-Hammond, L., & Rothman, R. (2015). Teaching in the flat world: Learning
from high-performing systems. New York: Teachers College Press.
Dee, T., & Goldhaber, D. (2017). Understanding and addressing teacher shortages in
the United States. The Hamilton Project. Retrieved from
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/05e4/9ddc234dc666b540c20001b89d2958473cc3
.pdf.
DeNisco, A. (2015). Teacher shortage at ‘crisis’ levels. District Administration.
Retrieved from http://www.districtadministration.com/article/teacher-shortage-
%E2%80%98crisis%E2%80%99-levels
Dillon, S. (2011, March 16). Study: U.S. must raise status of its teachers. The New
York Times. Retrieved from http://go.galegroupcom.ezproxy.library.und.edu/ps
/i.do?p=EAIM&sw=w&u=ndacad_58202zund&v=2.1&it=r&d=GALE57CA2525
05195&asid=21f92e6913d2662ad837ea4f1179ad3
DiPrete, T., & Buchmann, C. (2013). The rise of women: The growing gender gap in
education and what is means for American schools. New York: Russell Sage
Foundation.
Dolton, P., & Marcenaro-Guiterrez, O. (2013). Varkey GEMS foundation global teacher
status index. Gems Education. Retrieved from
http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/63812/1/2013%2BGlobal%2BTeacher%2BStatus%2BInde
x%2BI.pdf
Dolton, P., & von der Klaauw, W. (1995). Leaving teaching in the U.K.: A duration
analysis. Economic Journal, 105, 431–444.
285
Domenico, D. & Jones, K. (2006). Career aspirations of women in the 20th century.
Journal of Career and Technical Education, 22(2), 1–7.
Draper, J. (2010). Crucial conversations about America’s schools. Alexandria, VA:
Educational Research Service.
DuFour, R., & Mattos, M. (2013). How do principals really improve schools?
Principalship, 70(7), 34–40.
Dwinal, M. (2015). Solving the nation’s teacher shortage: How online learning can fix
the broken teacher labor market. Clayton Christenson Institute. Retrieved from
Eagan, K., Stolzenberg, E., Zimmerman, H., Aragon, M., Sayson, H., & Rios-Aguilar, C.
(2016). The American freshman: National norms fall 2016. Cooperative
Institutional Research Program. Retrieved from https://www.heri.ucla.edu
/monographs/TheAmericanFreshman2016.pdf
Educator Recruitment & Retention Task Force. (2015). Educator retention and
recruitment report. Arizona Department of Education. Retrieved from
http://www.azed.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/err-initial-report-final.pdf
Elferes, A., Plecki, M., St. John, E., & Wedel, R. (2008). Undergraduates’ views of k-12
teaching as a career choice. University of Washington College of Education.
Retrieved from http://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/publications/
PDF_versions/undergrad%20Report.pdf
Eppley, K. (2009). Rural schools and the highly qualified teacher provision of no child
left behind: A critical policy analysis. Journal of Research in Rural Education,
24(4), 1–11.
286
Federal Student Aid. (2017). Glossary of terms. Retrieved from
https://studentaid.gov/sa/glossary
Feng, L. (2009). Opportunity wages, classroom characteristics, and teacher mobility.
Southern Economic Journal, 75, 1165–1190.
Fleischman, H., Hopstock, P., Pelczar, M., & Shelley, B. (2010). Highlights from PISA
2009: Performance of U.S. 15-year-old students in reading, mathematics, and
science literacy in an international context. National Center for Education
Statistics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp
?pubid=2011004
Flynt, S., & Morton, R. (2009). The teacher shortage in America: Pressing concerns.
National Forum of Teacher Education Journal, 19(33), 1–5.
Franquiz, M. & Ortiz, A. (2016). Co-editors’ introduction: Every Student Succeeds
Act—a policy shift. Bilingual Research Journal, 39(1) 1–3.
Freedman, S., & Appleman, D. (2009). In it for the long haul: How teacher education
can contribute to teacher retention in high-poverty, urban schools. Journal of
Teacher Education, 60, 323–337.
Friedman, I. A. (2000). Burnout in teachers: Shattered dreams of impeccable
professional performance. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 595–606.
Fulbeck, E. (2014). Teacher mobility and financial incentives: A descriptive analysis of
Denver’s ProComp. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36(1), 67–
82.
Fuller, C., Goodwyn, A., & Francis-Brophy, E. (2013). Advanced skills teachers:
professional identity and status. Teachers and Teaching, 19, 463–474.
287
Fwu, B., & Wang, H. (2002). The social status of teachers in Taiwan. Comparative
Education, 38, 211–224.
Gasoi, E. & Meier, W. (2018). To strengthen democracy, invest in our schools.
American Educator, 42, p. 36-37.
Gerckens, K. (2016). Teacher Shortage in California getting worse: Ventura County
offers incentives to new teachers. Retrieved from
http://www.keyt.com/news/california/teacher-shortage-in-california-getting-
worse_20160830074904659/65256807
Gill, L., Walsh, C., Matulewicz, H., Severn, V., Grau, A., Kerwin, T. (2015). Inside on-
line charter schools. Retrieved from https://www.mathematicampr.com/~/
media/publications/ pdfs/education/inside_online_charter_schools.pdf.
Ginsburg, A., Cooke, G., Leinwand, S., Noell, J., & Pollock, E. (2005). Reassessing
U.S. international mathematics performance: New findings from the 2003 TIMSS
and PISA. American Institutes for Research. Retrieved from
Glazerman, S., Isenberg, E., Dolfin, S., Bleeker, M., Johnson, A., Grider, M., & Jacobus,
M. (2010). Impacts of comprehensive teacher induction: Final results from a
randomized controlled study. National Center for Education Evaluation and
Regional Assistance. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED565837.pdf
Glazerman, S., Mayer, D., & Decker, P. (2006). Alternative routes to teaching: The
impacts of Teach for America on student achievement and other outcomes.
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 25, 75–96.
288
Goe, L. (2007). The link between teacher quality and student outcomes: A research
synthesis. National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality. Retrieved from
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED521219
Goldenberg, B. (2014). White teachers in urban classrooms: Embracing non-white
students’ cultural capital for better teaching and learning. Urban Education, 49,
111–144.
Goldhaber, D., & Brewer, D. (2000). Does teacher certification matter? High school
teacher certification status and student achievement. Educational Evaluation and
Policy Analysis, 22, 129–145.
Goldhaber, D., Krieg, J., Theobald, R., & Brown, N. (2015). Refueling the STEM and
special education teacher pipelines. Phi Delta Kappan, (97)4, 56–62.
Goldin, C. (2004). From the valley to the summit: A brief history of the quiet revolution
that transformed women’s work. National Bureau of Economics. Retrieved from
https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/goldin/files/from_the_valley_to_the_summit_the
_quiet_revolution_that_transformed_womens_work.pdf
Goldrick, L., Osta, D., Barlin, D., & Burn, J. (2012). Review of state policies on teacher
induction. The New Teacher Center. Retrieved from
https://newteachercenter.org/wp-content/uploads/brf-ntc-policy-state-teacher-
induction.pdf
Goldstein, R. (2011). Imaging the frame: Media representations of teachers, their
unions, NCLB, and education reform. Educational Policy, 25, 543–576.
Goyder, J. (2005). The dynamics of occupational prestige: 1975–2000. Canadian
Review of Sociology & Anthropology, 42, 1–23.
289
Gray, L., Taie, S., & O’Rear, I. (2015). Mobility in the first five years. National Center
for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2015
/2015337.pdf
Guarino, C., Santibañez, L., & Daley, G. (2006). Teacher recruitment and retention: A
review of the recent empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 76,
173–208.
Guha, R., Hyler, M., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). The power and potential of
teacher residencies. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(8), 31–37.
Guin, K. (2004). Chronic teacher turnover in urban elementary schools. Education
Policy Archives, 12 (42), 1–25.
Haberman, M. (2005). Teacher burnout in black and white. New Educator, 1(3), 153–
175.
Hahs-Vaughn, D.L., & Scherff, L. (2008). Beginning English teacher attrition, mobility,
and retention. Journal of Experimental Education, 77, 21–53.
Hakanen, J., Bakker, A., & Schuafeli, W. (2006). Burnout and work engagement of
teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 43(6), 495–513.
Hammer, M. D., & Williams, P. (2005). Rejuvenating retirees: Mentoring first-year
teachers. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 71(4), 20–25.
Hammer, P., Hughes, G., McClure, C., Reeves, C., Salgado, D. (2005). Rural teacher
recruitment and retention practices: A review of the research literature, national
survey of rural superintendents, and case studies of programs in Virginia.
Appalachia Educational Laboratory at Edvantia. Retrieved from
290
Hammerness, K., Williamson, P., & Kosnick, C. (2016). Introduction to the special
issue on urban teacher residencies: The trouble with the “generic” teacher
education. Urban Education, 51, 1155–1169.
Hanushek, E. (2007). The single salary schedule and other issues of teacher pay.
Peabody Journal of Education, 82, 574–586.
Hanushek, E. (2011). The economic value of higher teacher quality. Economics of
Education Review, 30, 466–479.
Hanushek, E. (2016). School human capital and teacher salary policies. Journal of
Professional Capital and Community, 1, 23–40.
Hanushek, E., Kain, J., & Rivkin, S. (2004). The revolving door. Education Next,
4(1), 77–82.
Hanushek, E., Peterson, P., & Woessmann, L. (2012). Achievement growth:
international and U.S. trends in student performance. PEPG Report No.: 12-03.
Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED534652
Hanushek, E., & Rivkin, S. (2007). Pay, working conditions, and teacher quality.
Future of Children, 17(1), 69–86.
Hanushek, E., & Rivkin, S. (2010). Generalizations about using value-added measures
of teacher quality. American Economic Review, 100, 267–271.
Hanushek, E., Ruhose, J., & Woessmann, L. (2016). It pays to improve school quality.
Education Next, 16(3), 16–24.
Hanushek, E., & Woessmann, L. (2016). Knowledge capital, growth and the East Asian
miracle. Science, 351, 344–345.
291
Hargreaves, L. (2009). The status and prestige of teachers and teaching. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225316562_The_Status_and_Prestige_o
f_Teachers_and_Teaching
Hargreaves, L., Cunningham, M., Everton, T., Hansen, A., Hopper, B., McIntyre, D., &
Turner, P. (2007). The status of teachers and the teaching profession in
England: Views from inside and outside the profession. University of
Cambridge. Retrieved from https://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/
teacherstatus/Evidencebase_25Jan07_print_ready_version.pdf
Harris, D., & Adams, S. (2007). Understanding the level and causes of teacher turnover:
A comparison with other professions. Economics of Education Review, 26, 325–
337.
Hill, P. (2000). Home schooling and the future of public education. Peabody Journal of
Education, 75, 20 -31.
Hough, H., & Loeb, S. (2013). Can a district-level teacher salary incentive policy
improve teacher recruitment and retention? Policy Analysis for California
Education. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED562531.pdf
Hoyle, E. (2001). Teaching prestige, status, and esteem. Educational Management
Administration & Leadership, 29, 139–152.
Humphrey, D., & Wechsler, M. (2007). Insights into alternative certification: Initial
findings from a national study. Teachers College Record, 109, 483–530.
Indiana Interim Study Committee on Education. (2015). Final report. Retrieved from
https://iga.in.gov/documents/e51cda43
292
Ingersoll, R. (1999). The problem of underqualified teachers in American secondary
schools. Educational Researcher, 28(2), 26–37.
Ingersoll, R. (2001). Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational
analysis. American Education Research Journal, 38, 499–534.
Ingersoll, R. (2003). Is there really a teacher shortage? University of Pennsylvania
Scholarly Commons. Retrieved from https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi
/viewcontent.cgi?article=1133&context=gse_pubs
Ingersoll, R., & May, H. (2012). The magnitude, destinations, and determinants of
mathematics and science teacher turnover. Education Evaluation and Policy
Analysis, 34, 435–464.
Ingersoll, R., & Merrill, E. (2011). The status of teaching as a profession. University of
Pennsylvania Scholarly Commons. Retrieved from http://repository.upenn.edu
/gse_pubs/221
Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L., & Stuckey, D. (2014). Seven trends: The transformation of the
teaching force. Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Retrieved from
http://www.cpre.org/sites/default/files/Workingpapers
Ingersoll, R., & Perda, D. (2008). The status of teaching as a profession. Retrieved
from http://www.gse.upenn.edu/pdf/rmi/SSSAE-RMI-2008.pdf
Ingersoll, R., & Perda, D. (2009). The mathematics and science teacher shortage: Fact
and myth. Consortium of Policy and Research in Education. Retrieved from
http://repository.upenn.edu/cpre_researchreports/51/
Ingersoll, R., & Perda, D. (2010). Is the supply of mathematics and science teachers
sufficient? American Educational Research Journal, 47, 563–594.
293
Ingersoll, R., & Smith, T. (2004). Do teacher induction and mentoring matter?
Graduate School of Education. University of Pennsylvania Scholarly Commons.
Retrieved from http://repository.upenn.edu/gse_pubs/134/
Ingersoll, R., & Strong, M. (2011). The impact of induction and mentoring programs for
beginning teachers: A critical review of the research. Review of Educational
Research, 81, 201–233.
Jacobs, B. (2007). The challenges of staffing urban schools with effective teachers. The
Future of Children, 17(1), 129–153.
Johnson, J., Showalter, D., Klein, & Lester, C. (2014). Why rural matters: The condition
of rural education in the 50 states. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/
fulltext/ED556045.pdf
Johnson, S. (2006). The workplace matters: Teacher quality, retention, and
effectiveness. National Education Association Research Department. Retrieved
from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED495822.pdf
Johnson, S. (2008). The status of male teachers in public education today. Education
Policy Brief, 6(4), 1–12.
Kang, N. H., & Hong, M. (2008). Achieving excellence in teacher workforce and equity
in learning opportunities in South Korea. Educational Researcher, 37, 200–207.
Kang, S., & Berliner, D. (2012). Characteristics of teacher induction programs and
turnover rates of beginning teachers. Teacher Educator, 47, 268–282.
294
Kastberg, D., Chan, Y., & Murray, G. (2017). Performance of U.S. 15-year-old students
in science, reading, and mathematics literacy in an international context: First
look at PISA 2015. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED570968
Kee, A., (2011). Feelings of preparedness among alternatively certified teachers: What
is the role of program features? Journal of Teacher Education, 63(1), 23–38.
Kini, T., & Podolsky, A. (2016). Does teaching experience increase teacher
effectiveness? Learning Policy Institute. Retrieved from
https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/does-teaching-experience-increase-
teacher-effectiveness-review-research
Klimeks, S. (2018). [Do the perceptions of teaching’s prestige, status, and esteem impact
early teacher attrition?] Unpublished raw data.
Kokka, K. (2016). Urban teacher longevity: What keeps teachers of color in one under-
resourced urban school? Teaching and Teacher Education, 59, 169–179.
Krehbiel – Burton, L. (2018, Apr. 4). Oklahoma house approves education tax bill amid
teacher walk-out. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oklahoma-
education/oklahoma-teachers-pressure-state-lawmakers-for-higher-funding-
idUSKCN1HB2ZK
Kukla-Acevedo, S. (2009). Leavers, movers, and stayers: The role of workplace
conditions in teacher mobility decisions. Journal of Education Research, 102,
443–452.
295
Lankford, H., Loeb, S., McEachin, A., Miller, L., & Wyckoff, J. (2014). Who enters
teaching? Encouraging evidence that the status of teaching is improving.
National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research.
Lawver, R. & Torres, R. (2011). Determinants of pre-service students’ choice to teach
secondary agricultural education. Journal of Educational Education, 52(1), 61–
71.
Leithwood K., & McAdie, P. (2007). Teacher working conditions that matter.
Education Canada, 47(2), 42–45.
LeMieux, M. (2017). Sustaining millennials in teaching careers: A comparison of
entering and veteran teacher views. Retrieved from https://scholar.dominican.edu
/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1277&context=masters-theses
Lim, K. M. (2014). Teacher education & teaching profession in Singapore. Paper
presented at the International Conference on the Teaching Profession in ASEAN,
Bangkok, Thailand. doi: 10.13140/2.1.3315.072
Liu, E., Johnson, S., & Peske, H. (2004). New teachers and the Massachusetts signing
bonus: The limits of inducements. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,
26, 217–236.
Ludlow, C. (2013). Alternative certification pathways filling a gap? Education and
Urban Society. 45, 440–458.
Mackenzie, N. (2007). Teacher morale: More complex than we think? Australian
Educational Researcher, 34(1), 89–104.
296
Malen, B. (2003). Tightening the Grip? The Impact of State Activism on Local School
Systems. Educational Policy, 17(2), 195–216.
Malatras, J., Gais, T., & Wagner, A. (2017). A background on potential teacher
shortages in the United States. Rockefeller Institute of Government. Retrieved
from http://www.rockinst.org/pdf/education/2017-07-27-
background_on_teacher_shortages.pdf
Maranto, R., & Shuls, J. (2012). How do we get them on the farm? Efforts to improve
rural teacher recruitment and retention in Arkansas. Rural Educator, 34(1).
Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1000101.pdf
Marshall, D., & Scott, M. (2015). Urban teacher residencies: Indicators of successful
recruitment. New Waves-Educational Research & Development, 18(2), 29–39.
Martin, L., & Mulvihill, T. (2016). Voices in education: Teacher shortage: Myth or
reality? Teacher Educator, 51, 175–184.
Marx, G. (2014). Twenty-one trends for the 21st century. Bethesda, MD: Education
Week Press.
Massachusetts Department of Education. (2002). Induction of beginning educators.
Massachusetts Department of Elementary & Secondary Education. Retrieved
from www.doe.mass.edu/educators/mentor/teachers.html
McClelland, D. C. (2001). Achievement motivation. In W. E. Natemeyer, & J. T.
McMahon. (Eds)., Classics of organisational behavior (3rd. ed), (pp. 73-80). Long
Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc.
297
McKinney, S., Berry, R., Dickerson, D., & Campbell-Whately, G. (2007). Addressing
urban high-poverty school teacher attrition by addressing urban high-poverty
school teacher retention: Why effective teachers persevere. Educational
Research and Review, 3(1), 1–9.
McLeskey, J., & Billingsley, B. (2008). How does the quality and stability of the
teaching force influence research-to-practice gap? A perspective on the teacher
shortage in special education. Remedial and Special Education, 29, 293–305.
McLeskey, J., Tyler, N., & Flippin, S. (2004). The supply of and demand for special
education teachers: A review of research regarding the chronic shortage of
special education teachers. Journal of Special Education, 38, 5–21.
Mead, S., Aldeman, C., Chuong, C., & Obbard, J. (2015). Rethinking teacher
preparation: Empowering local schools to solve California’s teacher shortage
and better develop teachers. Bellwether Education Partner. Retrieved from
https://bellwethereducation.org/sites/default/files/Bellwether_TFA-CA.pdf
Mensah, F. (2011). The DESTIN: Preservice teachers’ drawings of the ideal elementary
science teacher. School Science and Mathematics, 111, 379–388.
MetLife. (2013). The MetLife survey of the American teacher: Challenges for school
leadership. Retrieved from: https://www.metlife.com/metlife-foundation/
about/survey-american-teacher.html?WT.mc_id=vu1101
Meyer, G., Finn, S., Eyde, L., Kay, G., Moreland, K., Dies, R., Eisman, E., Kubiszyn, T.,
& Reed, G. (2001).
Mitchell, D., & Romero, L. (2010). The politics and practice of alternative teacher
certification. Educational Administration Quarterly, 46, 363–394.
298
Moin, L., Dorfield, J., & Schunn, C. (2005). Where can we find future k-12 science and
math teachers? A search by academic year, discipline, and academic level.
Science Education, 89, 980–1006.
Moir, E. (2009). Accelerating teacher effectiveness: Lessons learned from two decades
of new teacher induction. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(2), 14–19.
Monk, D. (2007). Recruiting and retaining high-quality teachers in rural areas. Future
of Children, 17(1), 155–174.
Morgan, C., Isaac, J., & Sansone, C. (2001). The role of interest in understanding the
career choices of male and female college students. Sex Roles: A Journal of
Research, 44(5-6), 295–320.
Moye, J. (2009). Technology education teacher supply and demand-a critical situation.
Technology Teacher, 69(2), 30–36.
Murnane, R., & Steele, J. (2007). The challenge of providing effective teachers for all
children. Future of Children, 17(1), 15–43.
Murphy, P., DeArmond, M., & Guin, K. (2003). A national crisis or localized problems?
Getting perspective on the scope and scale of the teacher shortage. Education
Policy Analysis Archives, 11(23).
National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2018). Preliminary starting salaries
for class of 2018 new college graduates. Retrieved from
http://www.naceweb.org/uploadedfiles/files/2018/publication/executive-
summary/2018-nace-salary-survey-fall-executive-summary.pdf
National Center for Education Statistics. (2016a). The Condition of Education.
Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016144.pdf
299
National Center for Education Statistics. (2017). About us. Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/about/
National Education Association. (2016). Definition of high performing nations.
Retrieved from neatoday.org/2016/01/20/high-performing-nations-professional-
development/
Niemi, H., & Jakku-Sihvonen, R. (2006). In the front of the Bologna process: Thirty-
years of research-based teacher education in Finland. Finland: University of
Helsinki Press.
Nix, N. (2015). Why Oklahoma is racing to put nearly 1,000 uncertified teachers in its
classrooms. Retrieved from https://www.the74million.org/article/why-oklahoma-
is-racing-to -put-nearly-1000-uncertified-teachers-in-its-classrooms
Noddings, N. (2014). High morale in good cause. Educational Leadership, 71(5), 14–
18.
North Central Association of Colleges and Schools. (2003). History of the North Central
Association. Retrieved from http://www.northcentralassociation.org/
HISTORY%20OF%20THE%20NORTH%20CENTRAL%20ASSOCIATION.ht
North Dakota Education Standards and Practices Board. (2015). Critical shortage area
declaration. Retrieved from https://www.nd. gov/espb/licensure
/criticalshortagearea.html
300
Nowatzki, M. (2015). North Dakota’s teacher shortage has education leaders
considering nontraditional routes. The Grand Forks Herald. Retrieved from
http://www.grandforksherald.com/news/education/3773456-north-dakotas-
teacher-shortage-has-education-leaders-considering
OECD. (2001). PISA 2000 RESULTS: Executive summary. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/2960581.pdf
OECD. (2005). Teachers matter: Attracting, developing, and retaining effective
teachers. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/edu/school/34990905.pdf
OECD. (2007). Education at a glance. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/
education/skills-beyond-school/39313286.pdf
OECD. (2010a). Lessons for the United States. Retrieved from
https://www.oecd.org/unitedstates/46581520.pdf
OECD. (2010b). PISA 2009 results: Executive summary. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/46619703.pdf
OECD. (2011a). Building a high-quality teaching profession: Lessons from around the
world. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/about/inits/ed/internationaled/
background.pdf
OECD. (2011b). Strong performers and successful reformers in education: Lessons
from PISA for the United States. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/
46623978.pdf
OECD. (2012). Viewing the United States school system through the prism of PISA.
Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/PISA2012-US-
CHAP2.pdf
301
OECD. (2013). PISA 2012 results: Executive summary. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf
OECD. (2015). Education at a glance: OECD indicators. OECD Publishing.
Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eag-2015-en
OECD. (2016). OECD mission. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/about/
OK Energy Today. (2018, Apr. 11). Governor signs bills on education funding.
Retrieved from http://www.okenergytoday.com/2018/04/governor-signs-bills-on-
education-funding/
Onditi, A. (2013). Relationship between customer personality, service features, and
customer loyalty in the banking sector: A survey of banks in Homabay County,
Kenya. International Journal of Business and Social Science, (4)15, 132–150.
Ostroff, C. (2017). Schools throughout the country are grappling with teacher shortage,
data show. CNN. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2017/08/21/health
/teacher-shortage-data-trnd/index.html
Ovando, M., & Trube, B. (2000). Capacity building of beginning teachers from
alternative certification programs: Implications for instructional leadership.
Journal of School Leadership, 10, 346–366.
Paine, S., & Schleicher, A. (2010). What the U.S. can learn from the world’s most
successful education reform efforts. Retrieved from http://68.77.48.18/RandD/
Other/ McGraww-Hill%20PISA%20Report.pdf
Papay, J., West, M., Fullerton, J., & Kane, T. (2012). Does an urban teacher residency
increase student achievement? Early evidence from Boston. Educational
Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 34, 413–434.
302
Parham, J., & Gordon, S. (2011). Moonlighting: A harsh reality for many teachers. Phi
Delta Kappan, 92(5), 47–51.
Partelow, L. (2016). Teacher shortages are solvable. U.S. News and World Report.
Retrieved from https://www.usnews.com/opinion/articles/2016-08-11/fill-teacher-
shortages-before-the-back-to-school-rush
Perda, D. (2013). Transitions into and out of teaching: A longitudinal analysis of early
career teacher turnover. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital Dissertations.
(1444146830)
Perrachione, B., Peterson, G., & Rosser, V. (2008). Why do they stay? Elementary
teachers’ perceptions of job satisfaction and retention. Professional Educator,
32(2), 1–17.
Petrin, R., Schafft, K., & Meece, J. (2014). Educational sorting and residential
aspirations among rural high school students: What are the contributions of
schools and educators to rural brain drain? American Educational Research
Journal, 51(2), 294–326.
Petty, T., Fitchett, P., & O’Connor, K. (2012). Attracting and keeping teachers in high-
need schools. American Secondary Education, 40(2), 67–88.
Petty, T. (2014). Motivating first-generation students to academic success and college
completion. College Student Journal, 48(2), 257–264.
Pike, M. (2014). The perceptions of teacher status and impact on the American
educational system. Baylor University, Waco, TX. Retrieved from https://baylor-
ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9009/Meagan %20Pike%20
Honors%20Thesis.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y
303
Player, D. (2009). Monetary returns to academic ability in the public teacher labor
market. Economics of Education Review, 28, 277–285.
Player, D. (2015). The supply and demand for rural teachers. Rural Opportunities
Consortium of Idaho. Retrieved from http://www.rociidaho.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/03/ROCI_2015_RuralTeachers_FINAL.pdf
Podgursky, M., Monroe, R., & Watson, D. (2004). The academic quality of public
school teachers: An analysis of entry and exit behavior. Economics of Education
Review, 23, 507–518.
Podgursky, M., & Springer, M. (2011). Teacher compensation systems in the United
States k-12 public school system. National Tax Journal, 64(1), 165–192.
Poon, C., Lam, K., Chan, M., Ching, M, Kwek, D., & Tan, S. (2016). Preparing
students for the twenty-first century: A snapshot of Singapore’s approach. In
Choo, S., Sawch, D., Villanueva, A., & Vinz, R. (Eds.), Educating for the 21st
century: Perspectives, policies, and practices from around the world (225–241).
Singapore: Springer.
Programme for International Student Assessment. (2000). Results in focus. Retrieved
from http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternational
studentassessmentpisa/33690591.pdf
from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf
304
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) [brochure]. (2014). Retrieved
from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/PISA-trifold-brochure-2014.pdf
Pryor, J., Hurtado, S., DeAngelo, L., Palucki-Blake, L., & Tran, S. (2009). The
American Freshman: National Norms Fall 2016. Cooperative Institutional
Research Program. Retrieved from https://www.heri.ucla.edu/PDFs/pubs
/TFS/Norms/Monographs/TheAmericanFreshman2009-Expanded.pdf
Psacharopoulos, G., & Patrinos, H. A. (2018). Returns to Investment in Education : A
Decennial Review of the Global Literature. Policy Research Working Paper No.
8402. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29672
Ray, B. (2015). Research facts on homeschooling. National Home Education Research.
Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED556234.
Reback, R. (2008). Teaching to the rating: School accountability and the distribution of
student achievement. Journal of Public Economics, 92, 1394–1415.
Reilly, K. (2018, Sept. 13). 13 stories of life on a teacher’s salary. Retrieved from
https://www.yahoo.com/news/13-stories-life-teacher-apos-100043101.html
Reininger, M. (2012). Hometown disadvantage? It depends on where you’re from:
Teachers’ location preferences and the implications for staffing schools.
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 34, 127–145.
305
Rich, M. (2015, Aug. 9). Teacher shortages spur a nationwide hiring scramble
(credentials optional). The New York Times. Retrieved from
https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/10/us/teacher-shortages-spur-a-nationwide-
hiring-scramble-credentials-optional.html
Rivkin, S., Hanushek, E., & Kain, J. (2005). Teachers, schools, and academic
achievement. Econometrica, 73, 417–458.
Robertson, S. L. (2012). Teachers’ work, denationalisation, and transformations in the
field of symbolic control: A comparative account. Centre for Globalisation,
Education and Societies, University of Bristol. Retrieved from
https://educationanddevelopment.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/robertson-2012-
teachers-denationalisation.pdf
Rockoff, J. (2004). The impact of individual teachers on student achievement: Evidence
from panel data. American Economic Review, 94, 247–252.
Rockoff, J., Jacob, B., Kane, T., & Staiger, D. (2008). Can you recognize an effective
teacher when you recruit one? National Bureau of Economic Research.
Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w14485
Ronfeldt, M., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2013). How teacher turnover harms student
achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 50(1), 4–36.
Ronfeldt, M., & McQueen, K. (2017). Does new teacher induction really improve
retention? Journal of Teacher Education, 68, 394–410.
Rothstein, J. (2010). Teacher quality in educational production: Tracking, decay, and
student achievement. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(1), 175–214.
306
Sahlberg, P. (2011). The professional educator: Lessons from Finland. American
Educator, 35(2), 34–38.
Sahlberg, P. (2015). Finnish lessons 2.0: What can the world learn from educational
change in Finland (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.
Sanders, W., & Horn, S. (1998). Research findings from the Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment System (TVAAS) database: Implications for educational evaluation
and research. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 12, 247–256.
Sanders, W., & Rivers, J. (1996). Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future
student academic achievement. University of Tennessee Value-Added Research
and Assessment Center. Retrieved from http://www.cgp.upenn.edu/pdf/
Sanders_Rivers -TVASS_teacher%20effects.pdf
Sawchuk, S. (2011). Teacher residencies make strides, encounter obstacles. Education
Week, 30(36), 12–13.
Sawchuk, S. (2015). Steep drops seen in teacher-prep enrollment numbers. Education
Digest, 80(7), 9–12.
Scafidi, B. (2012). The school staffing surge: Decades of employment growth in
America’s public schools. Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice.
Scafidi, B., Sjoquist, L., & Stinebrickner, T. (2007). Race, poverty, and teacher
mobility. Economics of Education, 26, 145–159.
Schleicher, A. (Ed.). (2012). Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the
21st century: Lessons from around the world. OECD. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/site/eduistp2012/49850576.pdf
307
Seongja, J. (2008). English education and teacher education in South Korea. Journal of
Education for Teaching, 34, 371–381.
Shakrani, S. (2008). Teacher turnover: Costly crisis, solvable problem. Education
Policy Center. Retrieved http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED502130.pdf
Sheih, G. (2011). Clarifying the role of mean centering in multicollinearity of interaction
effects. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 64(3), 462–
477.
Silva, T., McKie, A., Knechtl, V., Gleason, P., & Makowsky, P. (2014). Teaching
Residency Programs: A multisite look at a new model to prepare teachers for
high-need schools. National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20154002/
pdf/20154002.pdf
Simola, H. (2005). The Finnish miracle of PISA: Historical and sociological remarks on
teaching and teacher education. Comparative Education, 41, 455–470.
Skaalvik, E., & Skaalvik, S. (2011). Teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave the
teaching profession: Relations with school context, feeling of belonging, and
emotional exhaustion. Education, 27, 1029–1038.
Smith, D., & Smith, B. (2006). The views of teachers who left urban schools. High
School Journal, 89(3), 34–42.
Solomon, J. (2009). The Boston teacher residency: District-based teacher education.
Journal of Teacher Education, 60, 478–488.
308
Startz, D. (2016). Teacher pay around the world. Brown Center Chalkboard. Retrieved
from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-
chalkboard/2016/06/20/teacher-pay-around-the-world/
Steele, J., Murnane, R., & Willet, J. (2010). Do financial incentives help low-
performing schools attract and keep academically talented teachers? Evidence
from California. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 29, 451–478.
Strasser, D. (2014). An open letter on teacher morale. Educational Leadership, (71)5,
10–13.
Strauss, V. (2017, August 28). Teacher shortages affecting every state as 2017–18
school year begins. The Washington Post. Retrieved from
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2017/08/28/teacher-
shortages-affecting-every-state-as-2017-18-school-year-
begins/?utm_term=.f228c6044dd4
Stronge, J., Ward, T., & Grant, L. (2011). What makes good teacher’s good? A cross-
case analysis of the connection between teacher effectiveness and student
achievement. Journal of Teacher Education, 62(4), 339–355.
Struyven, K., & Vanthournout, G. (2014). Teachers' exit decisions: An investigation
into the reasons why newly qualified teachers fail to enter the teaching profession
or why those who do enter do not continue teaching. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 43, 37–34.
309
Sutcher, L., Darling-Hammond, L., & Carver-Thomas, D. (2016). A coming crisis in
teaching? Teacher supply, demand, and shortages in the U.S. Learning Policy
Institute. Retrieved from https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/
default/files/product files/National_Teacher_Supply_Demand_DC_9.15.16.pdf
Swaminathan, V., Groening, C., Mittai, V., & Thomaz, F. (2014). How achieving the
dual goal of consumer satisfaction and efficiency in mergers affects a firm’s long-
term financial performance. Journal of Service Research, 17(2), 182–194.
Swetnam, L. (1992). Media distortion of the teacher image. Clearing House: A Journal
of Educational Strategies, Issues, and Ideas, 66(1), 30–32.
Tan, O. S. (2012). Fourth way in action: Teacher education in Singapore. Educational
Research for Policy and Practice, 11(1), 35–41.
Third Way National Online Survey of Education Attitudes (2014). Retrieved from
http://www.thirdway.org/polling/national-online-survey-of-college-students-
education-attitudes
Tirozzi, G., Caronaro, P., & Winters, M. (2014). Addressing a shortage of high quality
teachers: An escalating dilemma for Arizona schools (Education Policy Paper
3). Retrieved from http://azsba.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/02-Shortage-of-
High-Quality-Teachers-1-page-abstract.pdf
Title II Higher Education Reporting System. (2015). New you can use: Enrollment in
teacher preparation programs. Retrieved from
https://title2.ed.gov/Public/44077_Title_II_Issue_Brief_Enrollment.pdf
310
Towse, P., Kent, D., Osaki, F., & Kirua, N. (2002). Non-graduate teacher recruitment
and retention: Some factors affecting teacher effectiveness in Tanzania. Teaching
and Teacher Education, 18, 637–652.
Treiman, D. (1977). Occupational prestige in comparative perspective. New York:
Academic Press.
Ulrich & Straus, (2014). Mid and Late Career Teachers Struggle with Paltry Incomes.
Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED564594.pdf
U.S. Bureau of Labor and Statistics. (2017). Glossary. Retrieved from
https://www.bls.gov/bls/glossary.htm.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). 2010 census urban and rural classification and urban area
criteria. Retrieved from www.census.gov/geo/reference/ua/urban-rural-
2010.html.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2017). Glossary. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/
glossary/#term_Elementaryschool
U.S. Census Bureau. (2018). Quick facts for North Dakota and Minnesota. Retrieved
from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/ND,MN/PST045216
U.S. Department of Education. (2010). A blueprint for reform. The reauthorization of
the elementary and secondary act. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/blueprint/
U.S. Department of Education. (2017a). Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
[Definition]. Retrieved from https://www.ed.gov/essa?src=rn
U.S. Department of Education. (2017b). Definition of Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act. Retrieved from www.idea.ed.gov
311
U.S. Department of Education. (2017c). Glossary of terms. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/nclb/index/az/glossary.html
U.S. Department of Education. (2017d). Definitions. Retrieved from
https://www.ed.gov/race-top/district-competition/definitions
U.S. Dept. of Education Title II Report. (2016). Wyoming. Retrieved from
https://title2.ed.gov/Public/Report/FullReport/FullReport.aspx?p=3_01
University of Cambridge. (2017). Teacher status: Final brief and reports. Retrieved
from https://www.educ.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/teacherstatus/
USLegal.com. (2017). Average daily attendance [Definition]. Retrieved from
https://definitions.uslegal.com/a/average-daily-attendance/
U.S. News, (2018, Apr. 16) Utah governor hails education plan that could triple funding.
Retrieved from https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/utah/articles/2018-04-
16/utah-governor-hails-education-plan-that-could-triple-funding
Van Ells, M. (2012, July 8). North Dakota schools struggling to fill key teaching
positions. The Bismarck Tribune. Retrieved from
http://bismarcktribune.com/news/state-and-regional/north-dakota-schools-
struggling-to-fill-key-teaching-positions/article_a0d23c04-c7ab-11e1-9265-
0019bb2963f4.html
Vegas, E. (2007). Teacher labor markets in developing countries. Future of Children,
17(1), 219–232.
Wan, Y., Wong, I., & Kong, W. (2014). Student career prospect and industry
commitment: The roles of industry attitude, perceive social status, and salary
expectations. Tourism Management, 40, 1–14.
312
Watlington, E., Shockley, R., Guglielmino, P., & Felsher, R. (2010). The high cost of
leaving: An analysis of the cost of teacher turnover. Journal of Education
Finance, 36(1), 22–37.
Wei, R.C., Darling-Hammond, L., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009).
Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher
development in the United States and abroad. National Staff Development
Council. Retrieved from https://learningforward.org/docs/pdf/nsdcstudy2009.pdf
Weiner, L., & Jerome, D. (2016). Urban teaching, the essentials. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Weisberg, D., Sexton, S., Mulhern, J., & Keeling, D. (2009). The widget effect: Our
national failure to acknowledge and act on differences in teacher effectiveness
(2nd ed.). New Teacher Project. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
ED515656.pdf
Wolfensberger, W. (2000). A brief overview of social role valorization. Mental
Retardation, 38, 105–123.
Xu, Z., Hannaway, J., & Taylor, C. (2011). Making a difference? The effects of Teach
for America in high school. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 30(3),
447–469.
Yaffe, D. (2016). Tackling the teacher shortage. Education Digest 81(8), 11–15.
Yuan, K., Vi-Nhuan, L., McCaffrey, D., Marsh, J., Hamilton, L., Stecher, B., & Springer
M. (2013). Incentive pay programs do not affect teacher motivation or reported
practices. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 35(1), 3–22.
313
Zhan, C. (2015). Money vs. prestige: Cultural attitudes and occupational choices.
Labour Economics, 32, 44–56.
Zhang, G., & Zeller, N. (2016). A longitudinal investigation of the relationship between
teacher preparation and teacher retention. Teacher Education Quarterly, 43(2),
73–92.
Zhao, W., & Zhou, X. (2008). Intraorganizational career advancement and voluntary
turnover in a multinational bank in Taiwan. Career Development International,
13(5), 402–424.
Zuzovsky, R., & Libman, Z. (2006). Standards of teaching and teaching tests: Is this the
right way to go? Studies in Educational Evaluation, 32, 37–52.
314

Prestige, Status, Esteem, and The Teacher Shortage

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prestige, Status, Esteem, and The Teacher Shortage

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prestige, Status, Esteem, and The Teacher Shortage

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the purpose of the document?

What is the purpose of the document?

What topics are covered in the literature review?

What topics are covered in the literature review?

PRESTIGE, STATUS, AND ESTEEM AND THE TEACHER SHORTAGE

Scott Gene Klimek

Bachelor of Science, Valley City State University, 1995

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

University of North Dakota

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree

Grand Forks, North Dakota

Title Prestige, Status, and Esteem and the Teacher Shortage

Department Educational Leadership

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a

Scott Gene Klimek

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ xvii

In the Spotlight .................................................................................... 2

The Scope of the Problem.................................................................... 3

A Persistent Problem ........................................................................... 6

Theoretical Framework ........................................................................ 8

Semantic Status .......................................................................... 15

Purpose of the Study .......................................................................... 15

Research Questions ............................................................................ 16

Importance of the Study..................................................................... 16

Definition of Terms and Acronyms ................................................... 21

Chapter Outlines ................................................................................ 32

II. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 33

Feeling the Impact of the Teacher Shortage ...................................... 33

Specialized Teaching Fields .............................................................. 34

The Challenges in Urban Schools...................................................... 36

The Challenges in Rural Schools ....................................................... 37

Early Attrition and Teacher Recruitment Efforts .............................. 38

New Teacher Induction Programs ..................................................... 40

Teacher Recruitment Bonuses ........................................................... 41

Alternative Teacher Certification ...................................................... 42

Resident Teacher Programs ............................................................... 44

The Ever Growing Teacher Workforce ............................................. 46

Falling Preservice Teacher Enrollments ............................................ 47

The Labor Market .............................................................................. 52

Teacher Compensation ............................................................... 52

Career Advancements ................................................................. 55

Academic Aptitudes ................................................................... 56

Socio-Familial Factors ....................................................................... 59

The Issue of Teacher Status ............................................................... 60

Lessons from Around the World ....................................................... 61

South Korea ................................................................................ 65

Economic Implications ...................................................................... 69

Summary of Chapter II ...................................................................... 72

III. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 73

Population Locations ......................................................................... 73

Urban Public School Districts .................................................... 74

Public and Private School Systems Located in Urban Clusters . 75

Rural School Districts................................................................. 77

University Settings ..................................................................... 80

Data Collection Procedures ............................................................... 86