BASICS OF RADIO PRODUCTION

In this lesson, we shall discuss the basics of radio production. We shall start with
radio production formats. Then we shall focus on basic equipments for radio
production, stages of radio programme production, and the different types of
radio programmes. We shall also briefly discuss about writing for radio. The
lesson structure shall be as follows:

2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Presentation of Content

2.2.1 Radio Production Formats

2.2.2 Equipments for Radio Production

2.2.3 Stages of Radio Programme Production

2.2.4 Types of Radio Programmes

2.2.5 Writing for Radio

2.3 Summary

2.4 Key Words

2.5 Self-Assessment-Questions (SAQs)

2.6 References/Suggested Reading

2.0 OBJECTIVES:

The objectives of this lesson are as follows:

• To study about the various radio production formats

• To study about equipments for radio production,

• To study about stages of radio programme production,

• To study about types of radio programmes,

• To study about writing for radio.

2.1 INTRODUCTION:

Electronic media of communication bring into our homes audio and video signals
in the form of various programmes. These programmes, which come on air as
sound or both picture and sound, are either live or are already recorded or shot,
processed, and transmitted. Electronic media viz. television, radio, and film (or
motion picture) share the following attributes:

 Immediacy: These media can present topical, contemporary material live to

 the audience immediately.
 Impermanence: Programmes brought by these media are perishable
images
 and sounds.
 Diversity: They bring a variety of programme material, which appeals a
 wide range of audiences.
 Flexibility: Material can be recorded edited, and duplicated for multiple
 playbacks.

In this lesson, we shall discuss about the basic aspects of radio programme

production.

2.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT:

The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows:

 Radio production formats

 Equipments for radio production
  Stages of radio programme production
 Types of radio programmes
 Writing for radio
2.2.1 RADIO PRODUCTION FORMATS:
Many radio programmes are live. Some programmes on radio are recorded first
and broadcast later. Some programmes are studio based, while others are
recorded on outside locations. Here we shall discuss about a few different
varieties of radio production formats:
LIVE OR RECORDED RADIO PROGRAMMES: The programmes on radio and
television can be live, pre-recorded or a combination of both. The nature of
production calls for whether a programme will be produced live or recorded in
advance and used later.
Live production involves the risk of production errors, as there are no
"second chances". It has to be right the first time, which is the only time.
However, live production is cheaper than recorded production techniques and
sometimes easier and quicker.
Recorded productions allow supervision and control over quality. In this
method, first recording of programmes is done. Editing and postproduction are
done at a later time. This is an attempt at enhancement to further refine
production value and quality while shooting. This can also combine with live
production method. Portions or segments of a programme can be recorded,
edited, and processed in advance and incorporated into a studio production using
live talent.
STUDIO OR REMOTE (OUTSIDE ON LOCATION): Programmes can be produced
with in the controlled environment of an indoor studio, which offers the required
settings of a programme. Studio settings offer personnel control, light control,
temperature control, sufficient power supply, and access to supplementary
production personnel, equipment accessories and spare parts, and even
telephones and change rooms.
Production can also be done at a temporary remote location. A unique
setting can be achieved by thoughtful selection, planning and full use of a remote
outside location. The realism and detail required for the quality and success of a
production can also be obtained. However, in such a situation some production
requirements, such as extensive lighting or elaborate sets are eliminated.
A combination of studio and remote production is also possible. Most
newscasts combine anchors in the studio with reporters in the field. The anchor
introduces a story from the studio and the reporter provides the details from the
field.
OTHER PRODUCTION FORMATS:
Audio production can be carried out in many ways depending on the types and
source of programmes. Local live production employs station's own announcers
or newscasters locally and play records and tapes, which they themselves own.
Live-assist production is one way where stations retain local announcers and disc
jockeys as the backbone of the programme and uses syndicated programming,
such as reels of taped (prerecorded) music and satellite delivered music services.
In semi automation production a local radio station relies on the services of
the syndicated programme producer. The music is typically played on large tape
machines. When a break point for a programme announcement is reached,
smaller cartridge tape machines are triggered to play by a sub audible cue tone
on the master tape.
Turnkey automation refers to fully automated radio stations, which consists
largely of a satellite dish and a control board. The satellite disk downlinks radio
programmes. The services may also be localized such that new information is
telephoned to the programme producer in time for the announcers many miles
away to prepare the inserts.

2.2.2 EQUIPMENT FOR RADIO PROGRAMME PRODUCTION:

The basic equipment to produce audio programme include the following:

 The studio desk (mixer console or control board or control panel)

 Microphones
 Turntable
 Compact Discs and Records
 Audiotapes
 Music and Sound effects.
THE CONSOLE: The control board or console processes the sounds and voices
during recording, editing, and dubbing. This mixes together the various
programme sources to form the broadcast output. This is located in the central
control point or control room. Three types of circuit functions are operated.

Programme circuits: A series of channels, their individual volume levels

controlled by separate rotary faders.

Monitoring circuits: Visual (meter) and aural (headphone) means of measuring

the individual sources or channels as well as the final mixed output.

Control circuits: Provision of communication with studio or outside by means of

"talk back" or telephone line.

MICROPHONE: A microphone (mics, pronounced myke) is a transducer, which

converts acoustic energy into electrical energy. Several types of microphones are

available with audio pickup pattern characteristics designed to meet various

recording requirements and situations. The directional property of microphones,

which is also called the pickup pattern, is important for selecting the right kind of

microphone. According to the pickup patterns, microphones can be classified as:

 Unidirectional microphones are appropriate for one or two people speaking

side by side.
 Background noise is undesirable. These are also called cardioid mics
because of their heart-shaped pick-up pattern.
 Bi-directional microphones are used when two people directly facing each
other.
 Omni-directional microphones are used for picking up a large number of
people and are excellent for gathering background noise.
Stereo recording requires specially designed stereo microphones. It can also be
achieved by using at least two microphones. One such approach is M-S (midside)
miking. A bi-directional microphone picks up sound to the left and right and
a super cardioid microphone picks up sound to the front. The output of both
microphones is fed through a complicated circuit. X-Y miking is another method
of stereo recording. Two cardioid microphones are placed next to each other.
One angles to the left at a 45-degree angle and other to the right at 45 degree.
This way both the microphones pick up sound from the center.

 TURNTABLE: A turntable picks up information recorded on a disc or record

and sends this information to the console for amplification, mixing,
processing, and integration with other sound elements.
 COMPACT DISCS AND RECORDS: Vinyl records or LPs are being replaced by
high quality digital recordings made on compact disc. In playing a disc, most
control desks have a "pre-fade", "pre-hear" or "audition" facility which
enables the operator to listen to the track and adjust its volume before
setting it up to play on the air. With a record, a glance at the grooves will
often be sufficient to indicate whether there is a wide variation in dynamic
range.
 AUDIOTAPE: Sounds can be recorded in the field or in the studio onto
audiotape at standard speeds. The audiotape used in studio may be in the
form of continuous loop cartridges, or carts, or materials may be recorded
on reel-to-reel audiotape machines. Digital Audio Tapes (DAT) record the
signal in digital form in which the original electrical variations are
represented by a series of pulses or bits of information.
 MUSIC AND SOUND EFFECTS: Music and sound effects may be produced
and recorded in CD or audio tape and may also be prerecorded on disc or
audio tape and integrated into the programme material using the console
or control board.
 Voice Terms: The terminology used for production describes the placement
9place of origin of voice) and quality of voices. The voices are indicated
using easily understood designations, for instance, Voice 1, character’s
name or Announcer # 1.
 On mic (on mike): A voice or character is heard at a normal distance from a
 microphone.
 Off Mic: When we want the voice to be heard as though coming from a
distance or from the back of a room we use this term.
 Fading on or fades on: We write this when we want the voice to sound as
though is approaching the centre of action in the minds eye of the listener.
 Fade off or fading off could indicate the reverse process, where the voice
starts at a normal distance from the microphone and then slowly moves
away.
 Reverb: is written to create suspense or heighten a mysterious mood when
we want the voice to be heard with a slight echo or reverberation. It is
normally written after the talents designation. To create the illusion of a
telephone conversation, the notations "filtered a "behind barrier" can be
used, or simply indicated as heard through a telephone,
 SFX: The common abbreviation for sound effects is "SFX". For sound effects
indicate both the source and the nature of the material, for instances
"CART:
MUSIC UP FULL FOR FIVE SECONDS AND THEN UNDER". Music under or
sneak under is used when the music or the sound effect is heard in the
"background" (bg.) and then is heard at full volume after a character
finishes a
particular word.
 Segue: We write, "segue" where one selection ends and the next selection
begins immediately. We write "Cross fade" when one selection gradually
fades out and the next selection gradually fades in.
 Ad lib: Sometimes audio scripts include "ad lib", which allows character or
voices momentarily to create their own words keeping with the general
tune, mood and purpose of the script.

2.2.3 STAGES OF RADIO PROGRAMME PRODUCTION:

Radio productions are planned in three stages.
PRE-PRODUCTION:
This is the planning and development stage. This begins with the generation of a
script. Unless a script is developed it is difficult and there will be confusion on
what type of programme you are producing. The script contains instructions and
guidelines for the production of the programme.
PRODUCTION: The second stage is production. All the material for the
programme is recorded or organized at this stage. Selecting and positioning of the
microphones, the type of tapes to be used, and selection of various sources of
sound through the mixer are all part of this stage.
POSTPRODUCTION: This stage generally includes editing. Sounds recorded during
production and dubbing if required, are the principal focus of postproduction.
Putting together the previously recorded sound and selection of sound are
important. The purpose of editing can be summarized as:
 To arrange recorded material into a more logical sequence.
 To remove the uninteresting, repetitive, or technically acceptable portion.
 To compress the material in time.
 For creative effect to produce new juxtaposition of speech, music, sound
and
even silence.
2.2.4 WRITING FOR RADIO:
We know that script is the backbone of production. So writing is an essential part
of it. We write what type of sound would be required at a given situation and
what would follow. Sound is the entire means of communication in radio. Sounds
help create and enhance mental images.
Sounds have the unique capability of creating an environment for the
listener. Through the creative use of various writing and production techniques,
entire worlds can be created in the human mind. Many techniques are availed to
create an environment with sound.
Language: The primary goal of language is to communicate ideas and
information to be easily understood. The selection and using words and the
combining of words into meaningful sentences are important for good
 production.
Words: Words are the primary tools for the expression of thoughts, ideas, and
emotions, regardless of the medium. Words have meaning and power. Words
need to be selected carefully. Use words that comes close to reality. Informal,
rather than formal words are preferred.
Sentences: Sentences are the principal units of organised thought. The keys
to construct effective sentences are clarity, simplicity, conversational style and
conciseness.
2.2.5 DIFFERENT RADIO PROGRAMMES:

NEWS AND SPORTS:

Newscasts and sportscasts represent a station or network's largest daily

commitment of time, effort, personnel and facilities. Several steps are followed to
develop news stories.

 The idea for a story is suggested by a reporter,

 The idea in evaluated.
 The logistics governing the story are identified and finalized.
 The story is produced into finished form.
 The process of writing and structuring the first version of story should
include the
 following:
 Reading the source material carefully and thoughtfully. What is
newsworthy?
 What is the essence of the story? What impact it might have on the
audience?
 Highlighting the main points on the original source material.
 Tell the story informally to a friend or a fellow newsroom reporter
 Determine how the story can best be told.
 Write the first draft.
 Arrange the structure, lead, sentence pattern, ending, etc.
 Check your copy against the original source.
  Revise the copy

DOCUMENTARIES AND FEATURES:

A documentary presents, facts, based on documentary evidence about a relevant
subject from real events, persons or places to reflect, interrelate, creatively
interpret or comment on current concerns and realities. The feature programme
on the other hand need not be wholly true in the factual sense. It may include folk
song, poetry & fictional drama to help illustrate its theme.
Reality is the basic requirement for a documentary. Documentaries may be
classified as information, interpretation, or persuasion according to the ultimate
objective. They may also be combined.
To develop a subject (idea) of a documentary the following process is
normally followed:
1. Information
to
2. Knowledge
to
3. Understanding
to
4. Expression.
Some suggestions are given for the production of documentaries.
 Prepare as detailed an advance script as possible.
 Divide programme elements into those that are under your control and
those that are not.
 Write narration involving the audience.
 Provide narration that sounds natural and conversational.
 Avoid long lists, unnecessary statistics, complex terms and jargons and
hackneyed expressions.
 Make narration clear, precise, and easy to understand.
 Do not inundate the programme with too much narration.
 Do not use narration when a sound will communicate the information or
mood more meaningfully.
TALK PROGRAMMES (INTERVIEWS):
The general programme category of public affairs includes the talk programmes,
interviews, newspaper programmes, and discussions. When regular broadcasting
began in the 1920s, among the first types of programmes to appear on radio
networks were those of featured interviews. The aim of an interview is to provide
facts, reasons, opinions in a particular topic in the interviewee's own words, so
that the listener can form a conclusion as to the validity of what the interviewee is
saying.
Electronic media interviews are done under a variety of circumstances - live
or recorded and edited for later use, in the studio, on the telephone, or on a
remote location in the field. Interviews can be divided into three types the
information interview, the opinion interview, and the personality interview.
What ever is the type of interview; the following methods of approaching
the task can be used.
8. The style of the interview
8. The wishes and comfort of the guest.
8. The time available for preparation.
8. The nature of the topic.
8. The interview policies of the station - some prefer the spontaneous,
unrehearsed method while other prefer more structural and predictable
interview situation.

2.3 SUMMARY:

o Radio programmes can be live, pre-recorded or a combination of both. Live

production involves the risk of production errors, as there are no "second

chances". It has to be right the first which is the only time. However, live

production is cheaper than recorded production techniques and sometimes

easier and quicker. Recorded productions allow supervision and control over

quality. In this method, first recording of programmes is done.

o Studio settings offer personnel control, light control, temperature control,

sufficient power supply, and access to supplementary production personnel,

equipment accessories and spare parts, and even telephones and change

rooms. Production can also be done at a temporary remote location. A unique

setting can be achieved by thoughtful selection, planning and full use of a

remote outside location.

o Local live production employs station's own announcers or newscasters locally

and play records and tapes, which they themselves own. In semi automation

production a local radio station relies on the services of the syndicated

programme producer. Turnkey automation refers to fully automated radio

stations, which consists largely of a satellite dish and a control board.

o The Console is the central control board that processes the sounds and voices
during

recording, editing, and dubbing. This mixes together the various programme
sources to form the broadcast output. This is located in the production control
room.

o A microphone converts acoustic energy into electrical energy. Several types of

microphones are available with different audio pickup patterns. According to

the pickup patterns, microphones can be classified as: Unidirectional,

Bidirectional, and Omni-directional.

2.4 KEY WORDS:

Live or Recorded Radio Programmes: Radio programmes can be live, prerecorded
or a combination of both. Live production involves the risk of production errors,
as there are no "second chances". It has to be right the first which is theonly time.
However, live production is cheaper than recorded production
techniques and sometimes easier and quicker. Recorded productions
allowsupervision and control over quality. In this method, first recording of
programmes is done. Editing and postproduction are done at a later time.
Studio or Remote (outside on location): Studio settings offer personnel control,
light control, temperature control, sufficient power supply, and access to
supplementary production personnel, equipment accessories and spare parts,
and even telephones and change rooms. Production can also be done at a
temporary remote location. A unique setting can be achieved by thoughtful
selection, planning and full use of a remote outside location.
Basic Equipment Audio Programme Production: The basic equipment to
produce audio programme include: The studio desk (mixer console or control
board or control panel), Microphones, Turntable, Compact Discs and Records,
and Audiotapes.
The Console: This is the central control board that processes the sounds and
voices during
recording, editing, and dubbing. This mixes together the various programme
sources to form
the broadcast output. This is located in the production control room.
Microphone: A microphone converts acoustic energy into electrical energy.
Several types of microphones are available with different audio pickup patterns.
Unidirectional Microphones: These are appropriate for one or two people
speaking side by side.
Background noise is undesirable. These are also called cardioids microphones
because of their heartshaped pick-up pattern.
Bi-directional Microphones: These are used when two people directly facing each
other.
Omni-directional Microphones: These are used for picking up a large number of
people and are excellent for gathering background noise.
Pre-production Stage: This stage involves planning and development for the
programme. This begins with the generation of a script. Unless a script is
developed it is difficult and there will be confusion on what type of programme
you are producing. The script contains instructions and guidelines for the
production of the programme.
Production Stage: This is the second stage. All the material for the programme
is recorded or organized at this stage. Selecting and positioning of the
microphones, the type of tapes to be used, and selection of various sources of
sound through the mixer are all part of this stage.
Postproduction Stage: This stage generally includes editing. Sounds recorded
during production and dubbing if required, are the principal focus of
postproduction. Putting together the previously recorded sound and selection of
sound are important.
Editing: Editing involves: arranging recorded material into a more logical
sequence;
removing the uninteresting, repetitive, or technically acceptable portion;
compressing the material in time, etc.
2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs):

0. Write a detailed note on radio programme production.

0. Discuss the equipment used for radio programme production.

0. What are the various formats of radio programme production? Discuss in

detail.

2.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READINGS:

o Keith, Michael C & Krause, Joseph M. (1989) — “The Radio Station” published
by

Focal Press, Boston, London.

o Chatterji, P.C. (1993) — “ Indian Broadcasting”.

o Dilliard (190) — “Television Journalism and Broadcasting”.

o Bhatt, S.C. (1995) — “Broadcast Journalism”.