Computational Optimization and Applications, 10, 195–210 (1998)

°
c 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. Manufactured in The Netherlands.

On the Solution of Linear Recurrence Equations

MOHAMAD AKRA AND LOUAY BAZZI [email protected]
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon

Received January 24, 1996; Accepted December 24, 1996

Abstract. In this article, we present a general solution for linear divide-and-conquer recurrences of the form

X
k
un = ai ub n c + g(n).
bi
i=1

Our approach handles more cases than the Master method does[1]. We achieve this advantage by defining a new
transform - the Order transform - which has useful properties for providing asymptotic answers (compared to
other transforms which supply exact answers). This transform helps in mapping the sequence under consideration
to the two dimensional plane where the solution becomes easier to obtain. We demonstrate the power of the final
results by solving many “difficult” examples.

Keywords: Divide and conquer, Linear recurrence, Running time, Algorithm, Order transform, Order of growth.

1. Introduction

In this paper, we consider linear divide-and-conquer recurrences of the form:

(
u0 n=0
un = Pk (1)
i=1 ai u b n
b c + g(n) n≥1
i

where:
Pk
• u0 , ai ∈ R∗+ , i=1 ai ≥ 1

• bi , k ∈ N, bi ≥ 2, k ≥ 1

• g(x) is defined for real values x, and is bounded, positive and nondecreasing function
∀x ≥ 0

• ∀c > 1, ∃x1 , k1 > 0 such that g( xc ) ≥ k1 g(x), ∀x ≥ x1

Such equations arise when studying the running time of divide-and-conquer algorithms.
The Master method[1] addresses the problem for the case k = 1 only, with some restrictions
on g(n). The solution we present is valid ∀k ≥ 1 and with minor restrictions on g(n).
The main idea is to define a transform to help in mapping Equation 1 into a larger
dimensional space where the order solution can be obtained easily. Consequently, we prove
that if p0 is the real solution of the characteristic equation
196 AKRA AND BAZZI

X
k
ai b−p
i =1
i=1

(which always exists and is unique and positive), then

³ Z n
g(u) ´
un = Θ(np0 ) + Θ np0 p0 +1
du
n1 u

for n1 large enough. In particular,

1. If ∃² > 0 such that g(x) = O(xp0 −² ), then un = Θ(np0 ).
2. If ∃² > 0 such that g(x) = Ω(xp0 +² ) and g(x)/xp0 +² is a non decreasing function,
then un = Θ(g(n)).
3. If g(x) = Θ(xp0 ), then un = Θ(np0 log n).
Section 4 illustrates how to apply the above results to solve several interesting recurrence
equations that cannot be handled by the Master method.

2. Literature Survey

According to Cormen, Leiserson, and Rivest [2], recurrences were studied as early as 1202
by L. Fibonacci, for whom the Fibonacci numbers are named. A. De Moivre introduced the
method of generating functions for solving recurrences. The master method was provided
by Bentley, Haken, and Saxe [1]. Knuth [3] and Liu [4] showed how to solve linear
recurrences using the method of generating functions. Purdom and Brown [5] contains an
extended discussion of recurrence solving. However, we are not aware of any work in the
literature that solves the above divide-and-conquer linear recurrences, which are the subject
of this paper.

3. The Solution

To determine the general form of the solution of Equation 1, we proceed as follows:

• In Theorem 1 we extend the domain of Equation 1 to the real line. The new “continuous”
recurrence is described in Equation 2. We show that the two equations have isomorphic
solutions.
• In Theorem 2 we define the Order transform and prove some of its interesting properties.
We use this transform to extend the domain of Equation 2 to the two-dimensional plane.
• In Lemma 2 we show that the functions of interest do possess an order transform.
• In Theorem 3 we use the properties of the Order transform to solve Equation 2 in the
plane.
• In Theorem 4 we show that our results agree with the Master method when the latter is
applicable.
LINEAR RECURRENCE EQUATIONS 197

• In Corollary 1 we summarize the results as they apply for the original recurrence
equation.

Theorem 1 Let un be a sequence defined as in Equation 1. Let f (x) be a function

defined by:
½
u x ∈ [0, 1)
f (x) = P0 k (2)
a
i=1 i f ( x
bi ) + g(bxc) x ∈ [1, ∞).

Then,

1. ∀x ≥ 0, f (x) = f (bxc).

2. ∀n ≥ 0, f (n) = un .

In other words, f (x) is a staircase function which matches with un at integer values of x.
In proving the above theorem, we will use the following lemma whose proof can be found
in [2].

Lemma 1 if b ∈ N, b ≥ 1, and x ∈ R+ , then

jxk j bxc k
= .
b b

Proof of Theorem 1: To prove that f (x) = f (bxc), we use strong induction.

Note that ∀x ∈ [0, 1) we have f (x) = u0 and f (bxc) = f (0) = u0 . Hence, f (bxc) = f (x).
Now assume that f (bxc) = f (x)∀x ∈ [0, n), and let us prove that it is true ∀x ∈ [n, n + 1).
Consider

X
k ³x´
f (x) = ai f + g(bxc). (3)
i=1
bi

Let x ∈ [n, n + 1), then

x ³ n + 1´
∈ 0, since bi ≥ 2.
bi 2

But
³ n + 1´
0, ⊂ [0, n) for n ≥ 1.
2
Hence, we conclude that

x bxc j bxc k j x k
∈ [0, n), ∈ [0, n) and = ∈ [0, n) (using Lemma 1).
bi bi bi bi
198 AKRA AND BAZZI

Therefore,
³x´ ³j x k´
f = f (by assumption)
bi bi
³j bxc k´
= f (using Lemma 1)
bi
³ bxc ´
= f (by assumption).
bi
Replacing in Equation 3, we obtain

X
k ³ bxc ´
f (x) = ai f + g(bxc).
i=1
bi

However,

X
k ³ bxc ´
f (bxc) = ai f + g(bxc).
i=1
bi

Therefore,

f (x) = f (bxc)∀x ≥ 0,

which completes the proof of Part 1 of the theorem.

To prove that f (n) = un , we use strong induction again.
The equality holds trivially for n = 0. Assume it is true for all m < n and consider

X
k ³n´
f (n) = ai f + g(n) (4)
i=1
bi

Let n ≥ 1. We already proved in Part 1 that f (n/bi ) = f (bn/bi c). Now since bn/bi c ∈
[0, n) we conclude f (bn/bi c) = ubn/bi c . Replacing in Equation 4, we obtain

X
k
f (n) = ai ub bn c + g(n).
i
i=1

But,

X
k
un = ai ub bn c + g(n).
i
i=1

So, f (n) = un , which completes the proof.

Definition 1. (Regularity Conditions) Let S be the set of all real-valued function f (x)
of the real variable x satisfying the following conditions:
1. ∀x ≥ 0, f (x) is bounded.
LINEAR RECURRENCE EQUATIONS 199

2. ∀x ≥ 0, f (x) is nondecreasing.

3. ∀c > 1, ∃x1 , k1 > 0 such that ∀x ≥ x1 , f ( xc ) ≥ k1 f (x),

In Lemma 2 we will show that the functions f (x) and g(bxc) as defined in Theorem 1 both
belong to S.

Theorem 2 (The Order Transform) Let P {} be a mapping that assigns to each function
f (x) ∈ S a real-valued function F (s, p) of the real variables s ∈ R+ and p, defined by:
Z s
F (s, p) = P {f (x)} ≡ f (u)u−p−1 du.
1

Then P {} satisfies the following properties:

1. P {} exists.

2. P {} is linear.

3. P {} is one-to-one.

4. (Scaling property) Let f (x) ∈ S, F (s, p) = P {f (x)}, a ∈ R and a > 1. Then,

n ³ x ´o ³ f (s) ´
P f = a−p F (s, p) − Θs + Θs (1),
a sp

where Θs (h(s, p)) is a function bounded between c1 (p)h(s, p) and c2 (p)h(s, p), -for
some positive functions c1 (p), c2 (p)-, ∀s > s0 , ∀p.

Proof:

1. Since f is bounded and the range of the integral is finite, then P {} exists.

2. Linearity of the transform is trivial.

3. Let f1 (x), f2 (x) ∈ S and let P {f1 (x)} = P {f2 (x)}. Then,
Z s Z s
−p−1
f1 (u)u du = f2 (u)u−p−1 du
1 1
Z s Z s
∂ −p−1 ∂
f1 (u)u du = f2 (u)u−p−1 du
∂s 1 ∂s 1
f1 (s)s−p−1 = f2 (s)s−p−1
f1 (s) = f2 (s)

which completes the proof that P {} is one-to-one.

200 AKRA AND BAZZI

4. To prove the scaling property, let

Z s ³u´
F1 (s, p) = f u−p−1 du
1 a

Making a change of variable v = u/a, we obtain

Z s/a
F1 (s, p) = f (v)(av)−p−1 adv
1/a
Z s/a
−p
= a f (v)v −p−1 dv
1/a
hZ s Z s Z 1 i
= a−p − + f (v)v −p−1 dv
1 s/a 1/a
Z s
= a−p F (s, p) − a−p f (v)v −p−1 dv
s/a
Z 1
+a−p f (v)v −p−1 dv (5)
1/a

Note that the last term

Z 1
−p
a f (v)v −p−1 dv = Θs (1). (6)
1/a

Rs
Let us investigate the asymptotic behavior of a−p s/a
f (v)v −p−1 dv with respect to s.
Since f ∈ S, then

(A) ∀v > 0, f (v) is a non decreasing function, and

(B) ∃k1 , s1 > 0 such that k1 (v) ≤ f (v/a) ∀v ≥ s1 .

Therefore, ∀v ∈ [s/a, s] we have

f (s/a) ≤ f (v) ≤ f (s).

Since for s ≥ s1 we have k1 f (s) ≤ f (s/a), then

k1 f (s) ≤ f (v) ≤ f (s) ∀s > s1 ,

f (s) f (v) f (s)
k1 p+1 ≤ p+1 ≤ p+1 ∀s > s1 ,
Z s v v
Z s v Z s
dv f (v) dv
k1 f (s) p+1
≤ p+1
dv ≤ f (s) p+1
∀s > s1 . (7)
s/a v s/a v s/a v

We have two cases to consider, the case of p 6= 0 and the case of p = 0.

LINEAR RECURRENCE EQUATIONS 201

(A) If p 6= 0, we get
Z s
dv 1 h 1 is 1 ³ ap − 1 ´
p+1
= − = .
s/a v p v p s/a sp ap

Replacing in Equation 7, we obtain

Z s
f (s) ³ ap − 1 ´ f (v) f (s) ³ ap − 1 ´
k1 p ≤ p+1
dv ≤ p ∀s > s1 ,
s p s/a v s p

Z ³ f (s) ´
s
f (v) ap − 1
i.e., p+1
dv = Θs ( > 0, since a > 1)
s/a v sp p

(B) If p = 0 then
Z s ³s´
dv log a
p+1
dv = log(s) − log = log a = p .
s/a v a s

Replacing in Equation 7, we obtain

Z s
f (s) f (v) f (s)
k1 log a p ≤ p+1
dv ≤ log a p ∀s > s1 ,
s s/a v s

Z s ³ f (s) ´
f (v)
i.e., dv = Θs (note that log a > 0). (8)
s/a v p+1 sp

Replacing Equations 6 and 8 in 5, we obtain

³ f (s) ´
F1 (s, p) = a−p F (s, p) − Θs + Θs (1),
sp
which completes the proof.

Lemma 2 Let f (x) be a function defined as in Theorem 1. In other words,

(
u0 ³ ´ x ∈ [0, 1)
f (x) = Pk (9)
i=1 ai f b bi c + g(bxc) x ∈ [1, ∞)
x

where:
Pk
• u0 , ai ∈ R∗+ , i=1 ai ≥ 1
• bi , k ∈ N, bi ≥ 2, k ≥ 1
202 AKRA AND BAZZI

• g(x) is a bounded, positive and nondecreasing function ∀x ≥ 0

• ∀c > 1, ∃x1 , k1 > 0 such that g( xc ) ≥ k1 g(x), ∀x ≥ x1 .
Then,
1. g(bxc) ∈ S,
2. f (x) ∈ S (see footnote)1 .

Proof:
1. Note that g(x) ∈ S by definition. Hence, g(bxc) is clearly bounded and non-decreasing.
Moreover, g(bxc) is positive. There remains to prove that
x
∀c > 1, ∃x2 , k2 , such that g(b c) ≥ k2 g(bxc) ∀x ≥ x2 .
c
2
c
Let c > 1 be given. Let x > max{x1 + c + 1, c−1 + 1}, then the following three useful
inequalities can be derived:

x > x1 + c + 1
bxc > x1 + c
bxc − c > x1 (10)
On the other hand,
c2
x > +1
c−1
c2
bxc >
c−1
bxc(c − 1) > c2
bxc
bxc − > c
c
bxc
bxc − c > (11)
c
Finally,
x > x1 + c + 1
bxc > x1 (12)
Using Inequalities 10, 11, and 12, we conclude
³j x k´ ³j bxc k´
g = g (using Lemma 1)
c c
³ bxc ´
≥ g − 1 (since g is non-decreasing)
c
LINEAR RECURRENCE EQUATIONS 203

³ bxc − c ´
= g
c
≥ k1 g(bxc − c) (using Inequality 10)
³ bxc ´
> k1 g (using Inequality 11)
c
> k1 2 g(bxc) (using Inequality 12).
2
Therefore, ∀c > 1, ∃x2 = max(x1 + c + 1, c−1 c
+ 1) > 0, k2 = k1 2 > 0, such that
g(b xc c) ≥ k2 g(bxc), which completes the proof that g(bxc) ∈ S.
2. To prove that f (x) ∈ S, note that f is defined in terms of a finite sum of positive
terms each of which is bounded and also positive. So, f is bounded and positive. Also
according to Theorem 1, f (x) = f (bxc). So, it is sufficient to prove that
(A) f (n) is non-decreasing for all n > 0,
(B) ∀c > 1, ∃n3 , k3 such that f ( nc ) ≥ k3 f (n) ∀n > n3 .
To prove that f (n) is non-decreasing, we use strong induction. Note that
f (0) = u0 ,
X
k
Pk
f (1) = ai u0 + g(1) ≥ u0 (since i=1 ai ≥ 1 and g(1) ≥ 0)
i=1

Assume that for all k < n we have f (k) ≥ f (k − 1), and let us prove that f (n) ≥
f (n − 1). Consider

X
k ³n´
f (n) = ai f + g(n)
i=1
bi
X
k ³j n k´
= ai f + g(n)
i=1
bi
X
k ³j n − 1 k´
≥ ai f + g(n − 1) (g(n) is nondecreasing)
i=1
bi
X
k ³n − 1´
= ai f + g(n − 1)
i=1
bi
= f (n − 1).
So, for all n ≥ 1 we have f (n) ≥ f (n − 1). Therefore, f is non-decreasing.
To prove the other regularity condition, we use strong induction again. Using the results
of the previous Part, ∃k2 , x2 , such that g(b xc c) ≥ k2 g(bxc) ∀x ≥ x2 , ∀c > 1. Consider
n0 = bx2 c,
n f (0) o
k3 = min , k2 .
f (n0 )
204 AKRA AND BAZZI

f is nondecreasing and strictly positive. So, ∀m ∈ [0, n0 ]

³m´
f ≥ f (0)
c
f (m)
≥ f (0)
f (n0 )
f (0)
= f (m)
f (n0 )
≥ f (m)k3

i.e., ∀m ∈ [0, n0 ] we have f ( m

c ) ≥ k3 f (m). Now assume that for all m ∈ [0, n) where
n > n0 we have f ( m c ) ≥ k3 f (m), and let us prove that f ( nc ) ≥ k3 f (n). Since n > n0 ,
we have n/c > 1. So,
³n´ Xk ³ n/a ´ ³j n k´
i
f = f +g
c i=1
c c
Xk ³j n/a k´ ³j n k´
i
= f +g (since f (n) = f (bnc)) ,
i=1
c c
Xk ³j bn/a c k´ ³j n k´ jnk j bnc k
i
= f +g (since = ),
i=1
c c c c
X
k ³ bn/a c ´ ³j n k´
i
= f +g (since f (n) = f (bnc)),
i=1
c c
X
k ³j n k´ jnk
≥ k3 f + k3 g(n) (since < n and g(n) ∈ S),
i=1
ai ai
X
k ³n´
= k3 f + k3 g(n) (since f (n) = f (bnc)),
i=1
ai
= k3 f (n).

As a result,
n f (0) o ³n´
∀c > 1, ∃n3 = 0, k3 = min , k2 , such that f ≥ k3 f (n) ∀n ≥ n3 ,
f (n0 ) c

which completes the proof.

Theorem 3 Let f (x) be a function defined as in Theorem 1. Let p0 be the real solution
Pk
of the characteristic equation i=1 ai b−p
i = 1. Then p0 always exists and is unique and
positive. Furthermore,
³ Z x ´
g(u)
f (x) = Θ(xp0 ) + Θ xp0 p +1
du
x1 u
0
LINEAR RECURRENCE EQUATIONS 205

for x1 large enough.

Proof:
Since g(x) ∈ S, then according to Lemma 1 both g(bxc) and f (x) belong to S. Hence,
both functions possess an Order transform. Rewriting the definition of f (x),
X
k ³x´
f (x) = ai f + g(bxc) ∀x > 1
i=1
bi
nX
k ³x´ o
P {f (x)} = P ai f + g(bxc) ∀s > 1
i=1
bi
X
k n ³ x ´o Z s g(buc)
P {f (x)} = ai P f + du
i=1
bi 1 up+1
X
k ³ ³ f (s) ´ ´ Z s
g(buc)
F (s, p) = ai b−p
i F (s, p) − Θs + Θs (1) + du
i=1
sp 1 up+1

³ Xk ´ ³ f (s) ´ Z s g(buc)
−p
i.e., F (s, p) 1 − ai bi + Θs = du + Θs (1). (13)
i=1
sp 1 up+1
Pk
Let h(p) = 1 − i=1 ai b−p
i . Then,

X
k
h(0) = 1 − ai ≤ 0,
i=1
lim h(p) = 1 > 0,
p→∞

d Xk
h(p) = ai (log bi )b−p
i > 0, ∀p (bi ≥ 2, ai > 0).
dp i=1

So, h(p) = 0 has a unique positive solution p0 . Replacing p0 in Equation 13, we get
³ f (s) ´ Z s g(buc)
Θ s p0 = p0 +1
du + Θs (1)
s 1 u

³ Z x
g(buc) ´
i.e., f (x) = Θ xp0 du + Θ(xp0 ). (14)
1 up0 +1

Since g(x) ∈ S and g(x) is non-decreasing, then

³x´
∀x ≥ 1, g ≤ g(bxc) ≤ g(x), and
2

³x´
∃k1 , x1 > 0 such that g ≥ k1 g(x)∀x > x1 .
2
206 AKRA AND BAZZI

In other words, ∀x > x1, k1 g(x) < g(bxc) < g(x),

Z x Z x Z x
g(u) g(buc) g(u)
i.e., k1 du ≤ du ≤ du
x1 up0 +1 x1 up0 +1 x1 up0 +1

Z x ³ Z x ´
p0 g(buc) p0 g(u)
i.e., x du = Θ x du .
x1 up0 +1 x1 u
p0 +1

Replacing in Equation 14 we obtain

³ Z x1 Z x
g(buc) ´ ³ g(u) ´
f (x) = Θ xp0 du + Θ xp0
du + Θ(xp0 )
1 up0 +1 x1 u
p0 +1

³ Z x
g(u) ´
i.e., f (x) = Θ(xp0 ) + Θ xp0 du ,
x1 up0 +1

which completes the proof.

Theorem 4 Let f (x) be a function defined as in Theorem 1. Let p0 be the unique solution
of the characteristic equation. Then,
1. If ∃² > 0 such that g(x) = O(xp0 −² ), then f (x) = Θ(xp0 ).
2. If ∃² > 0 such that g(x) = Ω(xp0 +² ) and g(x)/xp0 +² is a non decreasing function,
then f (x) = Θ(g(x)).
3. If g(x) = Θ(xp0 ) then f (x) = Θ(xp0 log x).

Proof:
1. Suppose ∃² > 0 such that g(x) = O(xp0 −² ), i.e.,

∃x0 , k > 0, such that g(x) < kxp0 −² , ∀x > x0 .

Let x1 > x0 , then ∀x > x1 we have

Z x Z x p0 −²
g(u) ku
p +1
du ≤ k p0 +1
du
x1 u x1 u
0
Z x
du
= k p0 +1
x1 u
³
k 1 1´
= −
² x²1 x²
k 1
<
² x²1
= O(1) (15)
LINEAR RECURRENCE EQUATIONS 207

But we proved in Theorem 3 that

³ Z x
g(u) ´
f (x) = Θ(xp0 ) + Θ xp0 du (16)
x1 up0 +1

Replacing Equation 16 in 15 we obtain

f (x) = Θ(xp0 ) + O(xp0 ) = Θ(xp0 )

which completes the proof.

2. Suppose ∃² > 0 such that g(x) = Ω(xp0 +² ) and g(x)/xp0 +² is a non-decreasing
function for large x. Let φ(x) = g(x)/xp0 +² . Then,

g(x) = φ(x)xp0 +²

Z x Z x
g(u)
i.e., xp0 du = xp0 φ(u)u²−1 du
x1 up0 +1 x1

for x1 large enough to make φ(x) non-decreasing. Therefore, ∀x > x1

Z x Z x
g(u)
xp0 p0 +1
du < x p0
φ(x) u²−1 du
x1 u x1
1
= xp0 φ(x) (x² − x²1 )
²
p0 1 ²
< x φ(x) x
²
1
= g(x)
²
= O(g(x)) (17)
Furthermore,
Z x Z x Z x/a
p0 g(u) g(u) g(u)
x du = xp0 du + xp0 du.
x1 up0 +1 x/a up0 +1 x1 up0 +1

But g(x) ∈ S, so
Z x ³ g(x) ´
g(u)
p +1
du = Θ (from proof of scaling property)
x/a u
0 xp0

Therefore,
Z x Z x/a
p0 g(u) g(u)
x du = Θ(g(x)) + xp0 du
x1 up0 +1 x1 up0 +1
= Ω(g(x)) (18)
208 AKRA AND BAZZI

Equations 17 and 18 imply that:

Z x
g(u)
xp0 du = Θ(g(x)) (19)
x1 up0 +1

But we proved in Theorem 3 that

³ Z x
g(u) ´
f (x) = Θ(xp0 ) + Θ xp0 du
x1 up0 +1

replacing Equation 19 in the above equation we obtain

f (x) = Θ(xp0 ) + Θ(g(x))

= Θ(g(x)) since g(x) = Ω(xp0 +² ),

which completes the proof.

3. Suppose g(x) = Θ(xp0 ). Replacing in the result of Theorem 3, we get

Z x
du
f (x) = Θ(xp0 ) + Θ(xp0 )
x1 u
= Θ(xp0 log x),

which completes the proof.

Corollary 1 Let un be a sequence defined as in Equation 1. Then,

³ Z n
g(u) ´
un = Θ(np0 ) + Θ np0 du for n1 large enough,
n1 up0 +1
Pk
where p0 is the real solution of the equation i=1 ai b−p
i = 1 which always exists and is
unique and positive. Furthermore,

1. if ∃² > 0 such that g(x) = O(xp0 −² ) then un = Θ(np0 ).

2. If ∃² > 0 such that g(x) = Ω(xp0 +² ), and g(x)/xp0 +² is a non-decreasing function,

then un = Θ(g(n)).

3. If g(x) = Θ(xp0 ) then un = Θ(np0 log n).

Proof: The proof can be quickly obtained by combining the results of Theorems 1, 2, 3,
and 4.
LINEAR RECURRENCE EQUATIONS 209

4. Illustrative Examples

In this section we present five examples illustrating how to apply the above results.

Example: un = 2ub n2 c + Θ(n log2 log n)

Solving the characteristic equation, we get

2 × 2−p0 = 1
p0 = 1.
So,
³ Z n
u log2 log u ´
un = Θ(n) + Θ n du
n1 u2
= Θ(n) + Θ(n log u(2 − 2 log log u − log2 log u)]nn1 )
= Θ(n log log2 log n).

Example: un = 2ub n3 c + 1.5ub n4 c + 5ub n2 c + Θ(n2 )

Solving the characteristic equation, we get

2 × 3−p0 + 1.5 × 4−p0 + 5 × 2−p0 = 1
p0 = 2.57450.
Since ∃² > 0 such that x2 = O(x2.57450−² ), then un = Θ(n2.5745 ).

Example: un = 2ub n5 c + ub n6 c + Θ(n2 )

Solving the characteristic equation, we get

2 × 5−p0 + 6−p0 = 1
p0 = 0.678670.
Since ∃² > 0 such that x2 = Ω(x0.678670+² ), and x2 /n0.678670+² is non-decreasing, then
un = Θ(n2 ).

4 16
Example: un = ub n c + 3ub n3 c + ub n4 c + Θ(n2 log log n)
3 2 3
Solving the characteristic equation, we get
4 −p0 16
2 + 3 × 3−p0 + 4−p0 = 1
3 3
p0 = 2.
210 AKRA AND BAZZI

So,
³ Z u2 log log u ´
n
un = Θ(n ) + Θ n2
2
du
1 u3
= Θ(n2 ) + Θ(n2 log n log log n)
= Θ(n2 log n log log n).

3
Example: un = ub n c + ub n3 c + ub n6 c + ub n8 c + Θ(n)
4 2
Solving the characteristic equation, we get
3 −p
2 + 3−p + 6−p + 8−p = 1
4
p0 = 1.

Since g(x) = Θ(x) = Θ(xp0 ), then un = Θ(n log n).

5. Conclusion

In this article we provided a general method for solving linear divide-and-conquer recur-
rences. The solution turned out to have an integral form. The solution includes a parameter
p0 which is the root of the recurrence characteristic equation. The root can be computed
by simple numerical algorithms.

Notes

1. The proof of this Lemma is quite lengthy and may be skipped at first reading.

References

1. J.L.Bently, D.Haken, and J.B.Saxe. A general method for solving divide-and-conquer recurrences. SIGACT
News, 12(3):6-44, 1980.
2. T.Cormen, C.Leiserson and R.Rivest. Introduction to Algorithms. McGraw-Hill, 1990, Chapter 4.
3. Donald E. Knuth. Fundamental Algorithms, volume 1 of The Art of Computer Programming. Addison-
Wesley, 1968. Second edition, 1973.
4. C. L. Liu. Introduction to Combinatorial Mathematics. McGraw-Hill, 1968.
5. Paul W. Purdom, Jr., and Cynthia A. Brown. The Analysis of Algorithms. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,
1985.