Text-based Syllabus

Design Susan Feez

This article looks at text-based syllabus design as a way of providing teachers with a systematic framework for
developing content, sequence and methodology in ESL teaching.

Introduction the needs of AMEP teachers, this publication was written with
all TESOL teachers in mind using the CSWE curriculum
Over the last few decades in the TESOL field new ideas about environment to exemplify the process of this type of syllabus
what to teach and ways of teaching have proliferated. This design. Text-based syllabus design also applies t o recent
expanding array has made the field interesting and varied but it curriculum initiatives in mainstream language education, for
has also made it very challenging for teachers when they reach example, the N S W English K-6 syllabus and the School
the point of designing a specific syllabus for a particular group Certificate course performance descriptors. It can, however,
of learners within a limited timeframe and with uneven refer to any syllabus which identifies language learning in terms
resources. This is especially true if teachers wish to avoid of whole texts.
providing their learners with a maelstrom of unrelated,
directionless material and experiences in which wonderful
Defining t e r m s
teaching ideas are set adrift and never really achieve their full
potential. Before I outline the text-based syllabus design process, I would
like t o define some of the key terms so that we share a
Sometimes we call syllabus design 'programming' or 'course common understanding as I use them. A 'text' is a unit of
design' to make it seem a bit more manageable. Sometimes we discourse in which related meanings are woven together to
work within a mandatory syllabus framework and sometimes make a unified whole. A text has structure and a unified
we prepare our syllabus well in advance, planning it in detail purpose. Halliday (1985, p. 10) has defined text in the following
and recording it onto elaborate pro formas. There are times way:
when we make it up intuitively as we go along, trusting our
instincts and experience as we respond to learner need from What do we mean by text? W e can define text, in the
day t o day. Whatever we call it and however we do it, all simplest way possible, by saying that it is language that
TESOL teachers sooner or later reach the point where they is functional. By functional we simply mean language
have to choose what they are going to teach, what sequence that is doing some job in some context... So any
they are going to teach it in and how they are going to teach it. instance of living language that is playing some part in a
Text-based syllabus design provides teachers w i t h a context of situation, we shall call a text. It may be
framework for making these choices systematically and for either spoken or w r i t t e n , or indeed in any other
integrating syllabus elements in a principled way. The result is medium of expression that we like to think of.
a syllabus environment in which innovative ideas, old
favourites and traditional language learning experiences can be Texts, these stretches of unified, meaningful and purposeful
organised and interwoven systematically to facilitate learner natural language, are the core component of a text-based
progress along clear developmental pathways. syllabus.

A 'text type' or genre, is a relatively stable pattern which

Text- based syllabus design recurs in texts used t o achieve the same general social
purpose in a culture. For example, linguists are able t o
The term 'text based syllabus design' was introduced following
describe patterns which recur when speakers and writers of
the 1995 advent of the Certificates in Spoken and Written English
English use language t o achieve, for example, building a
(CSWE) as the national Adult Migrant Education Program
relationship through casual conversation, giving instructions,
(AMEP) curriculum framework. As a result of this new
persuading someone t o your point of view or organising
framework, all AMEP teachers found themselves having to
information. This information is very useful t o language
design courses which would lead to the students in their
teachers and learners because it makes learning t o use
classes being able to achieve the general language outcomes
language effectively a much less hit-and-miss affair.
identified in the specific CSWE competencies. Significantly,
these general language outcomes were expressed in terms of The genre approach to language education was developed as a
whole texts — for example, can tell a short recount, can read a way of teaching about texts in the classroom. The genre
short narrative, can write a short description. AMEP teachers, approach is also concerned with teaching students how
therefore, had to design courses which enabled their students language varies systematically — within the stable t e x t
to use and produce whole texts in English. This approach to patterns of the culture — according to the immediate context
course design demanded of teachers by the CSWE came in which it is used, in other words, teaching students about
generally to be called text-based syllabus design. register. What I am calling text-based syllabus design is the
genre approach adapted to TESOL.
An NCELTR special project, undertaken at NSW AMES, was
designed to assist AMEP teachers with syllabus design within Here is how texts and text types are placed relative to each
the parameters of the CSWE. This project led t o the other, and to grammar, lexis and phonology on a map of
publication by NCELTR of a handbook for teachers entitled Halliday's functional model of language developed by Martin
Text-based Syllabus Design (Feez, 1998). Although initiated by and Matthiessen (1991).

TESOL in Context Volume 9 No. I July 1999 Page I I

Susan Feez

If learners need to access a service within the community, they

may learn how to write:

• a description of something lost or damaged or in need of

repair, f o r example, a damaged or stolen car, lost
jewellery, house repairs (field), written on to a form
(mode), as if for the police, insurance company or landlord
(tenor).

If learners are working on English for the workplace, they may

learn how to write:

• a description of a faulty machine (field) on a shift hand­

over report (mode) for the foreman (tenor) (Feez, in
press).

"...all T E S O L teachers sooner

or later reach the point where
they have to choose what they
a r e going t o t e a c h , w h a t
Figure I: Language and context (Adapted from Martin and sequence they are going t o
Mattheisson 1991) (Feez, 1998, p.8) t e a c h it in and how they
In this paper I am using the term 'curriculum' to describe a
are going t o t e a c h it. Text-
generalised curriculum framework at the institutional level. based syllabus design provides
The CSWE was written to be a general curriculum framework teachers with a framework for
within which teachers retained the responsibility for designing
syllabus in response to learner need. It remains the teacher's
making these choices..."
task to select the actual texts learners will work with. That
selection occurs during the course design process and is based Once a course has been planned as a syllabus, it is
on learner needs and goals. implemented in the classroom t h r o u g h methodology.
'Methodology' is the means through which the syllabus is
'Course design' is the process undertaken by the teacher to brought to life for the learners. Methodology is the H O W of
plan a syllabus and to implement through methodology a the course and determines the processes of learning in terms
particular course of study. 'Syllabus' and 'methodology' are of activities undertaken by the learners (Feez, 1998, pp. 2-3). It
really two perspectives on the process of course design. The is at the level of methodology that a teacher working within a
syllabus, or the W H A T of the course, outlines a plan of text-based syllabus is able to draw together, systematically and
content which will lead to the desired learning outcomes. coherently, favourite activities and classroom management
Outcomes are general statements of what a learner will be techniques, the best of traditional, communicative or task-
able to do with language at the end of a course of study (Feez, based approaches, learner-centred or individualised classroom
1998, p. 2).
management techniques, and any other development in TESOL
practice, into the cycle of teaching and learning which is the
A teacher designing a syllabus for a course is customising
hallmark of the genre approach.
general curriculum outcomes for specific groups of learners.
For example, if a teacher is designing a unit of work within a
syllabus towards the generalised CSWE I outcome: Can write a UNIT OF WORK
CASUAL C O N V E R S A T I O N
short description, the needs analysis and the learning objectives
Goal
will determine whether a specific group of learners will learn
To enable learners t o participate in a casual conversation in a
to write any of the following texts:
workplace.

• a description of a place of beauty or interest visited on an Objectives

excursion (field), for a class book (mode) being prepared The learners will:
for visitors to the teaching centre on open day (tenor); - understand the purpose of casual conversation in Australian
workplace culture
• a description of a mystery object (field), written on cards
- know which conversation topics are appropriate in Australian
(mode), to be used with classmates in a guessing game workplaces
(tenor); - recognise and use the key elements of a casual conversation ie
greetings and closures, feedback, topic shifts
• a description of things or people of interest or value. For
- recognise and use conversation chunks such as comments,
example, types of fish or flowers, the uniform of a descriptions or recounts
favourite sporting team, a painting, sculpture or piece of - take turns appropriately within simple exchanges ie
music, a person's country of origin, home, child o r question/answer, statement/agreement, statement/disagreement
grandchild (field), to be combined with illustrations in a - use language appropriate t o casual conversation including
book (mode) for children (tenor); politeness strategies, informal language, idiom
- build pronunciation and paralinguistic skills and strategies,
• a description of a new home (field) written on a postcard specifically in the areas of intonation and gesture
or in a letter (mode) to a friend (tenor).

F i g u r e 2 : (Feez, 1998, p. 23)

Page 12 TESOL in Context V o l u m e 9 N o . I July 199

 Text-based Syllabus Design

The elements of a text-based syllabus

It is i m p o r t a n t f o r t e a c h e r s w o r k i n g w i t h i n a t e x t - b a s e d
syllabus model t o be familiar w i t h the r e p e r t o i r e of syllabus 2
e l e m e n t s f r o m w h i c h t h e y can c h o o s e w h e n designing a / \ X
/ \ Modelling and X\
syllabus f o r a particular group of learners. Key elements of a
\ deconstructing / \
text-based syllabus are:
\ the text / \
I \ / \
• topics, organised in the C S W E e n v i r o n m e n t according t o
Building the \ /
w h e t h e r they relate t o c o m m u n i t y access, employment o r
context \ /
f u r t h e r study; \ / Joint construction
\ / of the text
• texts, identified according t o the type, o r genre, they
belong t o , and t h e r e f o r e , in t h e C S W E c o n t e x t , t o t h e
curriculum o u t c o m e t o which they relate; 5 / ^
Linking related / 4
• language features, related t o the type of t e x t in which they
texts / Independent
are used;
/ construction of
• skills and strategies, organised according to / the text
situation/register especially macroskill;

• activities and tasks, including teaching activities and

assessment activities, w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e materials and
resources required. F i g u r e 3: (Feez, 1998, p. 28; adapted from Callaghan & Rothery,
1988; Green, 1992; Cornish, 1992)

" W h a t I am calling text-based T h i s t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s is n e i t h e r a r e t u r n t o t h e

authoritarian teacher-centred pedagogies of the past, n o r is it
syllabus design is t h e genre
a pedagogy w h i c h abandons the learner t o make t h e i r o w n
approach adapted to T E S O L . " learning choices w h e n they have neither the knowledge n o r
the experience t o make those choices in a way which will help
t h e m meet t h e i r learning goals.
Course objectives, and t h e r e f o r e learner need, determine the
selection of syllabus elements. Figure 2 shows an outline f o r a W h e n w o r k i n g w i t h i n such a methodological f r a m e w o r k , the
unit of w o r k on casual conversation t o illustrate h o w syllabus teacher has the f r e e d o m t o begin w i t h any syllabus element,
e l e m e n t s have been s e l e c t e d t o c u s t o m i s e a g e n e r a l and t o w o r k backwards o r f o r w a r d s until a full cycle has been
c u r r i c u l u m o u t c o m e t o t h e needs o f a specific g r o u p o f designed. For example, if beginning w i t h a topic, the teacher
learners. fills in t h e c o n t e x t r e l a t e d t o t h a t t o p i c , t h e n t h e t e x t s ,
language features, activities and materials. Equally the teacher
Sequencing the elements: the teaching- could start w i t h a t e x t , w o r k back t o a topic and c o n t e x t , then
learning cycle f o r w a r d t o the rest of the elements, and so o n . Teachers can
even begin w i t h materials o r activities, if this is relevant t o the
T h e original teaching-learning cycle w h i c h was developed as c o u r s e o b j e c t i v e s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e cyclical n a t u r e o f t h e
the basis of genre pedagogy (see Callaghan & Rothery, 1988), f r a m e w o r k allows teachers t o modify the syllabus plan in the
p r o v i d e s t e a c h e r s w i t h a f r a m e w o r k f o r o r g a n i s i n g and light of classroom reality. For example, w h e r e m o r e practice is
sequencing syllabus elements in a c o h e r e n t and systematic needed, more time might be spent on modeling,
way, and in a way w h i c h supports learners as they gradually d e c o n s t r u c t i o n and j o i n t c o n s t r u c t i o n practice activities, but
m o v e t o increasingly i n d e p e n d e n t language use. B e l o w is a w h e r e learners are finding the material quite straightforward,
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h a t t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g cycle d e v e l o p e d they could progress directly t o independent w o r k .
s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r T E S O L (see Figure 3). T h i s c y c l e r e l a t e s
particularly t o teaching literacy but Burns, Joyce and Gollin T h e phase w h i c h is particularly i m p o r t a n t in TESOL is t h e
( 1 9 9 6 , p. 88) have also p r o p o s e d an a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l o f c o n t e x t - b u i l d i n g phase. D u r i n g t h i s phase l e a r n e r s have
shifting responsibility m o r e relevant t o the teaching of spoken o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e x p e r i e n c e and e x p l o r e t h e c u l t u r a l and
language in the TESOL classroom. situational aspects of the social c o n t e x t of the target t e x t . The
c o n t e x t - b u i l d i n g phase is also an i m p o r t a n t o p p o r t u n i t y t o
T h e cycle is a sequence o f different phases of teaching and b u i l d v o c a b u l a r y . T h i s phase l e n d s i t s e l f t o t a s k - b a s e d ,
learning which starts w i t h the teacher taking responsibility f o r e x p e r i e n t i a l l e a r n i n g , t o f i e l d w o r k and e x c u r s i o n s and t o
t h e classroom i n t e r a c t i o n . A t this stage t h e t e a c h e r is t h e activities which build cross-cultural awareness.
expert, collaborating w i t h learners t o scaffold t h e i r learning so
they are able t o do what they w o u l d be unable t o do alone. As It is d u r i n g t h e m o d e l l i n g and d e c o n s t r u c t i o n phase t h a t
the cycle progresses, and as learners gain m o r e knowledge and TESOL learners build t h e i r knowledge about specific features
e x p e r t i s e , t h e y are able t o take an increasing share of t h e of English at the level of grammar, as well as t h e i r knowledge
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r l e a r n i n g ( V y g o t s k y , 1934, p. 9 7 8 ; of cohesive links such as reference and conjunction and t h e i r
B r u n e r , 1983; G r a y , 1987; H a m m o n d , 1990). R o t h e r y has knowledge of t e x t s t r u c t u r e . D i r e c t teaching, communicative
pointed o u t that the cycle is "always represented as a circle t o language t e a c h i n g activities, d i s c o v e r y learning t e c h n i q u e s ,
indicate t h e r e are different points of e n t r y f o r students practice activities and drills can all be i n c o r p o r a t e d at this
according t o t h e i r development in learning and literacy" (1996, p o i n t so t h a t t h e l e a r n e r s have v a r i e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s to
p. 102). explore, manipulate and practise language at w h o l e t e x t and
clause level.

TESOL in Context Volume 9 No. I July 1999 Page 13

Susan Feez

A t the j o i n t construction phase the teacher takes on the role References

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idea t h a t s e c o n d language l e a r n e r s l e a r n a f i x e d s e t o f
grammatical structures in a fixed o r d e r does n o t make sense
w h e n w e t h i n k about language in terms of w h o l e texts being
used p u r p o s e f u l l y in social c o n t e x t s . F r o m t h e t e x t - b a s e d
perspective, second language d e v e l o p m e n t appears t o be a
m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n o n , as r e s e a r c h i n t o f i r s t [ A longer v e r s i o n o f this paper was f i r s t p r e s e n t e d at t h e
language development by Halliday and his colleagues suggests. Matters f o r t h e Millennium A C T A / A T E S O L ( N S W ) National
T h e r e is much w e need t o learn about degrees of difficulty and Conference, Sydney, 17-20 January 1999.]
progression f o r different profiles of second language learners
w h e n it comes t o w h o l e texts and social contexts, but it is
clear that w e can use o u r knowledge of t e x t t o map multiple
Susan Feez is currently seconded from NSW AMES to the National
developmental pathways across t h e different levels o f language.
Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR) at
T h e pathways w e choose will be in response t o the needs of
Macquarie University where she works in the Professional
the specific learners w e are teaching as they w o r k t o w a r d s
Development Section.
t h e i r language learning goals.

Page 14 TESOL in Context Volume 9 No. I July 1999