Complete Book Modern Physics

B.Sc.
Physics
Complete Notes of
MODERN PHYSICS
CHAPTER # 1: LIGHT AND QUANTUM PHYSICS
CHAPTER # 2: WAVE NATURE OF MATTER
CHAPTER # 3: NUCLEAR PHYSICS
CHAPTER # 4: ENERGY FROM NUCLEUS
B.Sc. Physics MODERN PHYSICS in Past Papers of University of

Sargodha
B.Sc. Physics, Paper C, Annual 2017

B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 49: Light and Quantum Physics (Edition 2015-16)
LIGHT AND QUANTUM PHYSICS

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The evidences in support of wave behavior of radiation are overwhelming. The radiations (including not only light but
all of electromagnetic radiations) show the phenomenon of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization, which can be understood by considering radiation as a wave.
In this chapter, we now move off in a new direction and consider experiments that can be understood only by making
quite a different assumption about electromagnetic radiation, namely, that it behave like a stream of particles.
49.1 Thermal Radiations
The radiations emitted by a body due to its temperature are called thermal radiations.
All bodies not only emit the thermal radiations, but also absorb these radiations from surroundings. If
the rate of emission of radiation is equal to the rate of absorption for a body, then the body is said to be in
thermal equilibrium.
The radiations emitted by a hot body depend not only on the temperature but also on the material of
which the body is made, the shape and the nature of the surface.
49.1.1 Cavity Radiator or the Black Body
A black body or cavity radiator is that which absorbs
approximately all radiations falling on it. So a black body has maximum
rate of emission and absorption of radiations.
A perfect black body does not exist. However a small hole in a
cavity whose inner wall are lamped black is the nearest approach to a
perfect black body.
For an ideal radiator (black body), the spectrum of the emitted
thermal radiation depends only on the temperature of radiating body and
not on the material, nature of the surface, size or shape of the body.
49.1.2 Radiant Intensity
Energy emitted per unit area per unit time over all the wavelengths, is called radiant intensity. It is
denoted by . Or
Power radiated per unit area over all the wavelengths is called radiant intensity.
49.1.3 Stephen-Boltzmann Law
The radiant intensity is directly proportional to the forth power of absolute temperature.
Mathematically,
where is a universal constant, called Stephen-Boltzmann constant. Its value is .
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49.1.4 Spectral Radiancy
Spectral radiancy of the black body is defined as the radiant intensity per unit wavelength at given
temperature. it is denoted by . Mathematically, it is described as:
This shows that the product of gives energy emitted per unit area per unit time over all the
wavelength lies in the range from to .
The energy emitted per unit area per unit time over all the wavelengths at a particular temperature is
obtained by integrating the equation (1), i.e.,
49.1.5 The Wien Displacement Law

Statement. The wavelength for which the spectral radiancy becomes is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of the black body.
If is the wavelength corresponding to maximum spectral radiancy
for temperature , then the Wien displacement is described mathematically as:
The constant has the value of

Problem 1: What are the surface temperatures, radiant intensity and total radiated power of stars.
Sirius
Sun
Betelgeuse
Solution:
Surface Temperatures According to Wein’s Displacement Law:
Sirius
Sun
2
Betelgeuse
Radiant Intensity
By Stephan Boltzmann’s law:
Sirius
Sun
Betelgeuse
Total Radiated Power (L)

The total radiated power can be find out by expression:
Sun
Betelgeuse
The total radiated power of Betelgeuse is about 38000 times larger

49.1.6 Failure of Classical Physics to Solve the Problem of Energy Distribution along the Curve of Black
Body Radiation
The derivation of theoretical formula for distribution of spectral radiancy among various wavelengths has
remained an unsolved problem over a long period of time. On the basis classical physics, following two
formulas were derived to solve the problem of the energy-distribution along the curve of the black body
radiation.
 Rayleigh-Jeans formula
 Wien’s formula
49.1.7 Rayleigh-Jeans Formula
Rayleigh-Jeans derived a theoretical formula for the distribution of spectral radiancy among various
wavelengths on the basis of classical physics, which is given by:
Where k is the Boltzmann constant.

This formula was excellent for longer wavelengths but not good for shorter wavelengths.
3
48.1.8 Wien’s Formula
On the basis of analogy between the spectral radiancy curve and Maxwell speed distribution curve,
the Wien’s formula about spectral radiancy is described as
Where a and b are constant. Wien’s formula was in good agreement with the experimental curve for shorter
wavelength but not good for longer wavelengths.
Conclusion
Rayleigh-Jeans and Wien’s formulae were failed to solve the problem of distribution of spectral
radiancy among various wavelengths in cavity radiations because these formulae were based upon the
classical theory.
49.1.9 Success of Quantum Physics to Solve the Problem of Energy Distribution along the Curve of
Black Body Radiation
49.1.10 Max-Plank’s Quantum theory of Radiation

In 1900, Max-Planks gave the new concept about the nature of radiation, called Quantum theory of
radiation in which Planks assumed the discrete nature of radiation. He assumed the atoms of the cavity emit
and absorb radiation in the form of packet of energy, called quanta. The energy of each quanta is directly
proportional to the frequency:
Where h is the plank’s constant having the numerical value of .

In addition to this concept Max-Planks made the following assumption to derive his radiation law:
 The atoms of the cavity behave like tiny harmonic oscillators.
 The oscillators radiate and absorb energy only in the form of packets or bundles of electromagnetic
waves.
 An oscillator can emit or absorb any amount of energy which is the integral multiple of .
Mathematically,
Where n is an integer.
Using these assumptions, Plank’s derived his radiation law given by:
Where and are the constant whose values can be chosen from the best fit of experimental curve. Within
two months, Plank’s succeeded to reform his law as:
4
49.1.11 Derivation of Rayleigh-Jeans Formula from Max-Plank’s Radiation Law
Plank’s radiation law approaches to Rayleigh-Jeans law at very long wavelengths. The Plank’s
radiation law is given by:
-------------- (1)
Putting
For a very long wavelengths i.e.,
And
Putting these values in equation (1), we get:
Back substituting the value of , we have
This is the Rayleigh-Jeans formula.

49.1.12 Derivation of Wien’s Formula from Max-Plank’s Law
Plank’s radiation law approaches to Wien’s formula at very short wavelength. The Plank’s radiation
law is given by:
Putting and
For very short wavelengths, i.e.,
So
Putting these values in equation (2), we have:
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This is the Wien’s formula for spectral radiancy.
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49.2 Photo Electric Effect

The interaction between radiation and atoms of the
cavity lead to the idea of quantization of energy. It means that
energy can be emitted and radiated in the form of packets.
Photo electric effect is another example of interaction between
radiation and matter.
Definition: When a light of suitable frequency falls on a metal
surface, the electrons are emitted out. These electrons are called
photo electrons and this phenomenon is called photo electric
effect.
49.2.1 Experimental Set-up
The apparatus used to study the photo electric effect is shown in the figure. The light of a suitable
frequency falls on the metal surface, which is connected to the negative terminal of variable voltage source. If
the frequency is high enough, the electrons are emitted out from metal plate and accelerate towards anode.
These electrons are called photo electrons and current flows through circuit due to photo electrons is called
photo electric current. This phenomenon is called photo electric effect.
49.2.2 Maximum K.E of Photo Electrons
The maximum K.E of photo electrons can be measured by reversing the polarity of the battery. Now
the photo electric current will be reduced. The photo electric current does not drop to zero immediately
because the photo electrons emit from metal plate with different speeds. Some will reach the cathode even
though the potential difference opposes their motion. However if we make the reversed potential difference
large enough (called stopping potential) at which the photo electric current drops to zero. This potential
difference multiplied by the electronic charge gives the maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons.
Mathematically, the maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons is described as:
where is the stopping potential and is the charge of an electron.
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49.2.2 Experimental Results
 Photo electrons are emitted out from the given metal surface when the frequency of incident light is
equal to or greater than a critical value , called threshold frequency,
whatever the intensity of light may be.
 Photo electric emission will not take place from a given metal surface if the
frequency of the incident light is less than the
threshold frequency whatever the intensity
of light may be.
 Threshold frequency depends upon
the nature of the metal surface.
 The energy of photo electrons

depends upon the frequency of incident
light and independent of the intensity of light.
 The number of photo electrons emitted per second is directly

proportional to the intensity of light provided that the frequency of light
is equal to or greater than the threshold frequency.
49.2.4 Threshold Frequency

The frequency of the incident light required to remove least tightly bound electron from the metal
surface, is called threshold frequency.
49.2.5 Photo Electric Effect on the Basis of Classical Wave Theory
According to classical wave theory, the light consists of electromagnetic waves and their function is
to transfer energy from one place to another.
When light falls on metal surface, it transfer energy to the electrons continuously. When an electron
acquires sufficient energy, it escapes out the metal surface.
This theory successfully explains the emission electrons apparently, but this theory can’t explain the
three major features of photo electric effect.
 The Intensity Problem
 The Frequency Problem
 Time Delay Problem
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49.2.5.1 The Intensity Problem
According to classical wave theory, the light consists of oscillating electric and magnetic vector,
which increases in amplitude as the intensity of light beam is increased. Since the force applied to the
electrons is ‘ ’, therefore the kinetic energy of the electrons should also increased with the intensity of
light. However, the experimental results suggest that the K.E of electrons is independent of intensity of light.
49.2.5.2 The Frequency Problem
According to classical wave theory, the photo electric effect should occur for any frequency of light
provided that the incident light is intense enough to supply the energy needed to eject the photo electrons.
However, the experimental results show that there exists a critical frequency for each material. If the
frequency of the incident light is less than the photo electric effect does not occur, mo matter how much the
intensity of light is.
49.2.5.3 Time Delay Problem
The classical wave theory predicts that there must be a time interval between the incidence of light on
the metal surface and the emission of photo electrons. During this time, the electron should be absorbing
energy from the beam until it has accumulated enough energy to escape the metal surface. However the
experimental results show that there is no detectable time interval between the incidence of light and emission
of photo electrons provided that frequency of light is equal to or greater than the threshold frequency.
Conclusion
These three major features could not be explained on the basis of wave theory of light. However
Quantum light theory has successfully explained the photo electric effect which was proposed by the Einstein
in 1905.
49.2.6 Photons
In 1905, Einstein proposed quantum theory to explain the photo electric effect, according to which the
light consist of bundles or packets of energy, called photons. The energy E of a single photon is
where is the frequency of light and is the planks constant .

According to quantum theory, on photon of energy is absorbed by a single electron. If this energy is
greater than or equal to a specific amount of energy (called work function), then the electrons will be ejected,
otherwise not.
49.2.7 Work Function
The minimum amount of energy required to eject the electrons out of metal surface, is called work
function , which can be described as:
Here is the threshold or cur off frequency and is known as cut off wavelength.
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49.2.8 Threshold Frequency or Cut Off Frequency
It is the minimum frequency of incident light at which the photoelectric effect takes place.
49.2.9 Einstein’s Photo Theory or Quantum Theory of Photoelectric Effect
When a incident light of suitable energy is exposed to the metal surface, then a part of this energy is
utilized in ejecting electron from metal surface and the excess energy ( ) becomes the kinetic energy of
photoelectrons. If the electrons does not lose any energy by the internal collision as it escapes from the metal,
then its energy will be maximum which can be described by the
formula:
As and
------------ (1)
( )
From equation (1), it is clear that the stopping potential and

the frequency of light has a linear relationship and graph between these
quantities is a straight line.
Conclusion
In 1916, Millikan showed that Einstein’s equation agreed with experiments in every detail. Hence the
photon theory explains that, if the frequency of light is less than the threshold frequency , then no
photoelectrons will be emitted, how much the intensity of light may be.
If the frequency of light is equal to greater than cut off value , then weakest possible beam of light
can produce photo electric effect. Because the energy of one photon depends upon the frequency of light i.e.,
and not on the intensity of light.
Sample problem 6. Find the work function of sodium for which the threshold frequency is
.
Solution: Threshold frequency is
Work Function
As
Problem 29. An atom absorbs a photon having a wavelength 375 nm and immediately emits another
photon having wavelength 580 nm. What was the energy absorbed in this process?
Solution
Wavelength of incident photon
Wavelength of emitted photon
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Energy Absorbed
( ) ( )
( )
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Problem 35. (a) The energy needed to remove an electron from metallic sodium is 2.28 eV. Does the
sodium show photoelectric effect for red light with ? (b) What is the cur off wavelength for
photoelectric emission from sodium and to what color this wavelength corresponds?
Solution:
Wavelength of incident Photon
Work function
Energy of incident photon
As , so no photoelectric effect will take place.

(b) Cut off Wavelength
Work function
The cut off wavelength corresponds to green color.

Problem 36: Find maximum kinetic energy in eV of photoelectrons if the work function of the material
is 2.33 eV and frequency of radiation is
Solution:
Work function
Frequency of incident photon
Maximum kinetic energy of Photoelectrons
The maximum kinetic energy of electrons can be find out by expression:
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Now
Therefore,
Problem 38: light of wavelength 200 nm falls on an Aluminum surface. In Aluminum 4.2 eV is required
to remove an electron. What is:
a) Kinetic energy of fastest electron
b) Kinetic energy of slowest electrons
c) Find stopping potential
Solution:
(a)
(b)
The minimum K.E of photoelectrons is zero as it consumes all of its K.E in colliding with the atoms
of the metal.
(c)
As
Also
Therefore:
Problem 39: If the work function for the metal is . (a) What would be the stopping potential for
light having a wavelength of . (b) what would be the maximum speed of the emitted
photoelectrons at the metal surface?
Solution: (a)
(b)
As
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√ √
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49.3 The Compton Effect

In 1923, Compton performed an experiment and he observed that the wavelength of X-rays changes
after scattering from a graphite target. Compton explained his experimental results postulating that the
incident X-rays beam consists of photons, and these photons experienced Billiard-Ball like collision with the
free electrons in the scattering target.
The experimental set-up for observing the Compton effect is shown in the figure below.
Compton effect can be explained by considering the elastic collision between X-ray photon and
electrons.
Consider an incident photon having energy and momentum and respectively. The
photon is scattered by a stationary electron along an angle with its regional direction, as shown in the figure.
The energy and momentum of the scattered photon are and respectively. The
rest mass energy of electron is , which is recoiled making an angle θ with the original direction of
incident photon.
During the elastic collision, both the energy and momentum remains conserved. So the energy
equation in this case is:
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Dividing equation by ‘ ’, we get:
Squaring both sides of the equation,
( )
( ) --------- (1)
The conservation of momentum along the original direction of incident photon (along x-axis) is
Squaring both sides, we get:
--------- (2)
The conservation of momentum along the direction perpendicular to the original direction of photon
(y-axis) is:
Squaring both sides, we get:
--------- (3)
Adding equation (2) and (3)
--------- (4)
Subtracting equation (4) from equation (1), we get:
( )
13
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
This is the expression of Compton shift, which shows consistency with experimental results. As collision is a
particle phenomenon, hence the particle nature of radiations was confirmed.
Sample Problem 8: X-rays with are scattered from a carbon target. The scattered
radiation is viewed at to the incident beam. (a) What is Compton shift ? What kinetic energy is
imparted to the recoiling electron?
Solution: (a)
(b) K.E imparted to electron
( ) ( )
Problem 51: A particular X-ray photon has a wavelength . Calculate the photon’s (a) energy
(b) frequency (c) the momentum
Solution: (a)
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(b)
(c)
Problem 55: Photon of wavelength are incident on free electrons. Find the wavelength of
photon that is scattered at from the incident direction? Do the same if the if the scattering angle is
.
Solution:
a) for
b) for
(a)
(b)
This result shows that as the angle of scattering increases, the wavelength of scattered photon also
increases.
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15
B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 50: The Wave Nature of Matter (Edition 2015-16)
In this chapter, we present experimental evidence supporting the claim that matter, long regarded as made up
of particles, has an equally convincing wave aspect. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle will show us the limit
to which we can extend the concept of “particle” to into quantum mechanics.
We then introduce the Schrodinger’s equation, the fundamental equation to quantum mechanics, which deals
with the wave behavior of the particles.
THE WAVE NATURE OF MATTER

50.1 Dual Nature of Radiation
The electromagnetic radiations like light, X-rays etc., can produce the phenomenon of interference,
diffraction and polarization due to their wave nature. But under certain circumstances they can produce
photoelectric effect and Compton Effect which is the evidence of their particle nature. It means that
electromagnetic radiations have dual nature; wave as well as particle nature.
50.2 Dual Nature of Matter
In a similar way the particles like electrons, neutrons and protons etc. must have dual nature. If the
beam of electrons accelerated through a known potential difference ‘V’, is made to fall on a double slit and
after passing through the double slit, they are allowed to strike on a fluorescent screen. It has been observed
that pattern obtained on the screen is similar to the pattern of interference of light.
50.2.1 Double Slit Experiment
In Double slit experiment, a filament produces a spray of electrons which are accelerated through a
potential difference of about 50 kV. After passing through double slit, the electrons produce a visible
interference pattern on fluorescent screen, which can be photographed.
50.3 De Broglie Hypothesis
A wave is associated with every moving particle. Such a wave is called matter wave whose
wavelength can be find out by expression:
Where h is Plank’s constant, m is mass and v is velocity of moving object.

As the value of Plank’s constant is very small and is of the order of , the wavelength
associated with ordinary object (e.g., A moving tennis ball) is so small and is difficult to observe. But for the
small objects like electrons and neutron etc., the wave behavior of particles is dominant.
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50.4 The Davison-Germer Experiment
The De Broglie hypothesis was confirmed by Davison and Germer. The schematic diagram of
Davison and Germer experimental setup is shown in the figure.
The electrons from a heated filament F are accelerated
by an adjustable potential difference V. The beam of electrons is
allowed to fall on a nickel crystal. The diffracted beam of
electrons is detected by a movable detector at different values of
angles.
It is observed that there is a strong diffracted beam
obtained for and . This situation is
similar to the diffraction of light produced by the diffraction
grating.
In nickel crystal, the atoms are arranged in definite order; hence the crystal surface acts like a
diffraction grating. The first order maxima is obtained at an angle . The wavelength associated with
electrons can be determined by using the equation:
Here for the first order diffraction peak

Inter-planner spacing for nickel
Angle of diffraction
The wavelength of the matter wave, can be find out by using de Broglie hypothesis:
The kinetic energy of the electron is:
√
By putting the value of constants and , we have:
So, the value of de Broglie wavelength is in good agreement with the experimentally observed
wavelength associated with electrons.
50.5 G. P. Thomson Experiment
In 1927, G. P. Thomson (son of J. J. Thomson) performed an experiment and confirmed the de
Broglie equation of matter waves.
He obtained a fine beam of electrons accelerated through a potential difference of 15 kV and made it
to fall on a target which was not a single crystal, but it was made up of a large number of tiny, randomly
oriented crystallites (powdered aluminum).
17
A photographic plate was placed parallel to the target on which the diffraction pattern was obtained. It
was observed that the diffraction pattern of electrons was very similar to the diffraction of X-rays. As the
diffraction is a wave property, so the wave nature of electrons was confirmed experimentally.
The wavelength of the matter waves associated with the electrons can be determined by using the
Bragg’s equation:
------------ (1)
Where d is the inter-planner spacing, is the glancing angle and m is the order of diffraction.
If V is the potential difference through which the electrons are accelerated, then the kinetic energy of
electrons is:
According to de Broglie hypothesis
√
√
G. P. Thomson observed that the de Broglie wavelength associated with moving electrons was good in
agreement with experimentally observed value, that was find out by using Bragg’s law.
The atomic structure of solids are studied the diffraction beam of electrons. The electrons are less
penetrating than X-rays, so the electrons are used to study the surface morphology of solids.
Sample problem 2: Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of (a) a virus particle of mass
moving at the speed of , and (b) an electron whose kinetic energy is .
Solution.
Mass of virus
Velocity
De Broglie Wavelength
( )
(b) Kinetic Energy of electron
( )
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Problem 1. A bullet of mass 41 g travels at 960 m/s. what wavelength can we associate of the bullet not
reveal itself though diffraction effects?
Solution
Mass of bullet
Velocity of bullet
( )
For diffraction condition:
Wavelength Size of diffracting aperture
As the wavelength of associated with bullet is very small, so diffraction effects of bullets can’t be revealed.
Problem 3: Calculate the wavelength of a 1 keV (a) electron (b) photon (c) neutron.
Solution: Kinetic Energy
We know
( )
√ ( )
(a) For an electron
So
√ ( ) √
(b) For photon
(c) For neutron
So
√ ( ) √
Problem 4: The wavelength of yellow spectral emission line of sodium is . At what K.E would
an electron have same de Broglie wavelength?
Solution: Given wavelength
(a) For an electron
As we know:
√ ( )
( )
( )
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Problem 5: If the de Broglie wavelength of proton is 0.113 pm, (a) What is the speed of the proton and
(b) what electric potential would the proton have to be accelerated from rest to acquire this speed?
Solution
(a) Wavelength associated with proton
Velocity of proton
Mass of proton
As
(b) Electric Potential

For present case:
Problem 15: A neutron crystal spectrometer utilizes crystal planes of spacing in a

Beryllium crystal. What must be the Bragg’s angle so that only neutrons of energy are
reflected? Consider only fist order spectrum.
Solution:
Given Inter-planner spacing
Bragg’s Angle
Order of diffraction
Kinetic Energy
According to Bragg’s Law:
√ √
( )
Sample Problem 4. Thermal neutrons (293 K) coming out of a nuclear reactor fall on a crystal. The
spacing between the Bragg’s planes is . Find the most probable de Broglie wavelength in
the beam of these neutrons. (b) Find the Bragg’s scattering angle for the first order Bragg’s Diffraction.
Solution: (a) Boltzmann’s constant
Temperature
Order of diffraction
Inter-planner Spacing
√ √
20
Now according to Bragg’s Law:
( )
50.6 Waves and Particles

The evidence of the matter is wave like is very strong. On the other hand, the evidence that a matter is
particle like is equally as strong. In these situations, the description of wave as well as the particle nature of
matter has remained a challenge for the scientists.
One property that we like for the particles (even particles with the wave like nature) to have the ability
to be localized. For example, an electron in an atom of 0.1 nm diameter is localized in certain region of space.
On the other hand, a wave cannot be localized in space and time like a particle.
The amplitude of a matter wave carries information about the location of the particle. The wave has
the large amplitude where the particle is likely to be found, and it has the small amplitude where the particle is
unlikely to be found. If the wave has the constant amplitude throughout a given region of space, the particle is
equally likely to be found anywhere in that region. If the amplitude of the matter wave is zero in a specific
region, then the particle never found there.
50.7 Localizing Wave in Space
A wave packet is associated with a moving particle. Many waves adds up to make a wave packet of
length and adds to zero everywhere else. Thus for the present case, the particle is localized in space. The
particle is likely to be found in the region of size and unlikely to found outside that region.
This wave packet no longer contains a single wave number but rather a spread of wave numbers
centered about . Let is the rough measure of the spread of wave numbers. The product of and is
proves to be of the order of unity:
This expression tells that the smaller the value of , the larger must be the range of wave numbers .
Conversely, the narrower the spread in , the less localized the particle will be.
50.8 Localizing Wave in Time
A particle is localized in space as well as in time. So, the space variable x must be replaced by time
variable t (as the wavelength by the time period ). And the wave number must be replaced by the
angular frequency .
Similarly, the spread of wave number must be replaced by and the displacement by the
interval of time . So we have
It means that the product is of the order of unity.
21
50.9 Derivation of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Relationship by Localization of Wave in Space
Consider a particle of mass m is moving along x-axis with velocity . By Localization of Wave in space, we
know:
( )
Where is the region in which the particle is likely to be found and is the rough measure of the spread of
wave numbers.
According to the de Broglie Hypothesis, the wavelength of the matter wave associated with moving
particle is described as:
Where h is the Plank’s constant and is the linear momentum of moving particle.
The angular wave number associated with this particle is described as:
( )
The spread of wavenumber will be:
( )
( )
Putting value of in equation (1), we get:
( )
This is the expression of Heisenberg Uncertainty Relationship for the particle moving along x-axis. If
the motion of the particle depends upon the three coordinates x, y, z, the generalizing above relation, we have:
According to these relationships:

It is not possible to determine both the position and
the momentum of a particle with ultimate precision.
The width of the wave packet indicates the probable location of the particle, and is the range
in momentum.
It means that due to the wave nature, the exact position x of a particle cannot be determine, but it will
be in the range . Similarly, the true or exact momentum of the particle cannot be determined, but it will
be in the range of .
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50.10 Derivation of Uncertainty Principle by Single-Slit Diffraction of Electron Experiment
Consider the experiment of diffraction of electrons by single slit. Let a beam of electrons moving with
speed passes through a single slit of width . The diffraction pattern is obtained on the screen B as shown
in the figure.
Due to the wave nature, the electron
beam bends on the either side of the central
point producing the diffraction pattern. Let
is the uncertainty in the component of
velocity along y- axis for the first minimum,
then we have
Consider the angle is very small, then

:
( )
In case of location of the first minimum of diffraction, we have:
Here m=1 and if is very small, then
( )
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we have:
According to the de Broglie hypothesis:
( )
It means that, if the position of the particle is made more and more precise, the uncertainty in the
momentum of the particle increases and vice versa. On other words,
It is not possible to determine both the position and the momentum
of a particle with unlimited precision.
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23
50.11 The Energy-Time Uncertainty Relationship
The wave nature of a particle can be represented by the wave packet having angular frequency . So
the spread of angular frequency and the time interval are related as:
( )
According to Einstein’s photon equation is
where is frequency of photon.
The uncertainty in the frequency of the matter waves will be:
As , put in equation (1):
( )
This is another form of Uncertainty principle. It may be stated as:

It is not possible to determine both the energy and time co-ordinates with ultimate precision.
Problem 23: A nucleus in an excited state will return to its ground state, emitting a gamma ray in the
process. If its mean life time is 8.7 ps in a particular excited state of energy 13.2 MeV, find the
uncertainty in the energy of the corresponding emitted gamma-ray photon.
Solution:
By Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
Problem 25: A microscope using photons is employed to locate an electron in an atom within a distance
of 12 pm. What is the minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron located in this way?
Solution:
Now as
24
Problem 26. Imagine playing a base ball in a universe where the planks constant is 0.60 J-s. what
would be the uncertainty in the position of a 0.5 kg base ball moving at 20 m/s with an uncertainty in
velocity is 1.2 m/s? Why would be hard to catch such a ball?
Solution:
Planks constant
Mass of the ball
Uncertainty in velocity
Now
The base ball will be in a region anywhere in a distance of 0.159 m=15.9 cm. so it will be hard to catch such a
ball.
Sample Problem 7: The rest mass energy of a massive particle is . The uncertainty of
measurement is only . What is the mean life interval between production and decay of this
particle?
Solution:
Sample Problem 6: (a) A free 10 eV electron moves in the x-direction with a speed of .
Assume that the speed can be measured to a precession of 1%. With what precision its position can be
simultaneously measured? (b) A golf ball has a mass of 45 g and a speed of 40 m/s, what you can
measure with a precision of 1%. What would be the uncertainty in its position?
Solution: Velocity of electron
Now
(a) Mass of golf ball

Velocity of electron
Now
25
50.12 The Wave Function
The wave nature of a particle can be represented by wave function , which is the function of space
and time co-ordinates. The behavior of the particle in terms of wave can be determined by knowing the wave
function for every point in the space and for every instant of time:
( )
Explanation
Consider a matter wave associated with a particle of mass travelling in the direction of increasing x
and on which no force acts, so called free particle. To describe the displacement associated with such a wave,
the American physicist Erwin Schrodinger introduced a quantity ( ) for such a free particle, called wave
function. The wave function for a free particle moving in the direction of increasing x is given by:
( ) ( )
Here is the amplitude of the wave, ( ) is the wave number and ( ) is the angular
frequency. As this wave function contains the imaginary number ( √ ), so it a complex quantity.
Physical Interpretation of Wave Function
The physical interpretation of the wave function was given by the German Physicist Max Born. He
asserted that physical meaning should not be given to itself, but to the product of and its complex
conjugate . Specifically, Born postulated:
The product gives the probability that the particle
in question will be found between position and .
50.13 Schrodinger’s Equation
The Schrodinger equation is used to find out the expression of wave function of moving particle in a specific
direction. As it is described earlier, that a wave function is the function of both space and time variables. So
we can write the wave function for the particle moving along axis as:
( ) ( ) ( )
That is, the wave function of a particle can be described as the product of space dependent wave
function ( ) and time dependent wave function ( ). In the rest of the chapter we will focus our attention to
the space dependent portion of wave function.
Now the Schrodinger’s equation for a particle travelling in the direction is:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
where is the total energy of the particle and ( ) is its potential energy.
50.14 Schrodinger’s Equation for a Free Particle
If the particle is a free particle, its potential energy ( ) is a constant which we can take to be zero
for all values of . The total energy E of the moving particle must be taken entirely kinetic. That is, in which
we must have , in which is the momentum of the particle. With this assumption, the
Schrodinger’s equation becomes:
26
( )
( )
( )
( )
Put --------------- (1), where is the wave number.
( )
( )
( )
( )
Putting , we have:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
The characteristic equation is described as:
The characteristic solution of this equation will be: ban

( ) ------------ (2)
As the particle is moving along positive x-direction, so the equation (2) will become:
( ) ------------ (3)
where A is the amplitude of the wave. The expression in equation (3) is wave function for the free particle
moving along direction.
Probability Density
For the free particle, the probability density P(x) is described as:
( ) [ ][ ]
Thus the probability density of a free particle is constant and is independent of or . Thus we conclude
that the particle can be find with equal probability, at any point along the x-directin from to .
Wave Number
From equation (1), we have
For the free particle, the total energy , in which is the momentum of the particle.
( ⁄ )
Using de Broglie hypothesis, we have
27
50.15 Particle in a Well or One Dimensional Box
Let a particle of mass m is moving in a one-dimensional box of length . Consider that the particle
moves back and forth along x-axis between the perfectly hard and infinite high walls of the box, from
to , and no force acts on it during its motion. The particle suffers elastic collisions and its total energy
remains constant.
As there is no force acting on the particle, therefore
For convenience, we take the potential energy of the particle as zero, i.e., , inside the box. Since
the walls of the box are infinitely high, therefore the potential energy of the particle outside the box is infinite.
Since the particle cannot have an infinite amount of energy, so it cannot exist outside the box. Hence the wave
function of the particle ( ) is zero for and .
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Put --------------- (1)
( )
( )
Putting , we have
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
For characteristic solution, we have:
The characteristic solution of this equation will be:

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) --------- (2)
Let
Thus equation (2) will become:

( ) ---------- (3)
Where the constants A and B can be evaluated from the boundary conditions, which are:
28
(i) at
And (ii) at
st
Applying the 1 boundary condition, the equation (3):
Applying the 2nd boundary condition:
, where n is an integer
----------- (4)
Thus equation (3) will become:

( ) ----------- (5)
The solution of the wave function for the particle in a box, since we have not yet determined the
constant A. for this purpose, we make use of the normalization condition:
∫ | ( )|
For the present case:
∫| ( )|
∫ ( ) ∫[ ( )]
Thus the equation (4) will become:
( ) √
Energy of the particle in the Box

From equation (1) and (4), we have:
----------------- (6)
For , . Thus the equation (6) will become:
This shows that the particle in the box have discrete values. Hence, the energy of the particle in the box is
quantum box is quantized.
29
50.16 The Potential Step and Barrier Tunneling
When a particle is moving in a region of a constant potential suddenly comes across another region of
different constant potential, the common boundary of the two regions is
called potential step. In the figure, the height of the potential step is ,
say at . According to the classical physics, the particle coming from
region I, approach the potential barrier of potential step with energy,
and are slow down by the force , so that the kinetic

energy is converted into potential energy. If the particles have sufficient
energy to overcome the barrier, then there will be total transmission. And
if , then the particles are stopped by the barrier and their motion will be reversed. In this case, there is
the total reflection of the beam.
Quantum mechanically, for this potential step, we have the potential function as:
( )
( )
For the present case, the Schrodinger wave equation will be:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
[ ( )] ( )
( )
[ ( )] ( ) ---------------- (1)
Case-1.
Region-1
Let the particles with total energy E moves from region-I to region-II along x-axis. In region-I,
( ) . Therefore, the equation (1) will become:
( )
( )
Put --------------- (2)
where is the wave number.

( )
( )

( ) ------------ (3)
The first and the second term of equation (3) represent the incident and reflected particles respectively.
Region-II
For region-II, ( ) . Therefore, the eqution (1) for the case of region-II will be:
( )
[ ] ( )
( )
Put --------------- (4)
30
( )
( )

( ) ------------ (5)
In equation (5), the first term represents the transmitted wave. And the second term represents a wave coming
from in the negative direction. Clearly, for , no particle can flow to region-I and D must be zero.
Therefore, the equation (5) becomes:
( ) ------------ (6)
Case-2.
Region-I.
When is less than , then solution of Schrodinger wave equation for region-I is:
( )
( )
Put ------------ (7)

( )
( )

( ) ------------ (8)
The first and the second terms corresponds to the incident and reflected beams respectively.
Region-II.
When is less than , then solution of Schrodinger wave equation for region-II is:
( )
[ ] ( )
As , therefore the Schrodinger wave equation will become:

( )
[ ] ( )
( )
Put --------------- (9)

( )
( )

( ) ------------ (10)
The first and the second terms corresponds to the incident and reflected beams respectively. The
equation (10) describes that there is always be a probability for a particle to move through a barrier.
‫وگرٹنمنڈرگیاکجلونرہشہ‬،‫ںیمہاساکرریخوکرتہبانبےنےکےئلآپیکدمدیکرضورتےہ۔اینپیتمیقآراءاورونسٹایلیمرکںیایسیفکباڈیسیرپجیسیمرکںی۔دمحمیلعکلم‬
[email protected],
31
B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 54: Nuclear Physics (Edition 2015-16)
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Deep within the atom lies its nucleus, occupying only of the volume of the atom but providing most of its mass as well as
the force that holds it together.
In order to understand the structure of nucleus, our task becomes easier by many similarities between the study of atoms and
the study of nuclei. Both systems are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics. Like atoms, nuclei have excited states that
can decay to ground state through the emission of photons (gamma rays).
In this chapter we study the structure of nuclei and their constituents. We consider some experimental techniques for studying
their properties, and we conclude with a description of the theoretical basis for understanding the structure of nucleus.
54.1 Rutherford Experiment for the Discovery of the Nucleus

In 1897 J. J. Thompson discovered electrons. He also suggested a model of atom. According to his
model, an atom consisted equal amount of positive and negative charge. The positive charge of the atom was
considered to be spread out through the entire volume of the atom and electrons were thought to be distributed
throughout this volume like seeds embedded in a watermelon. Thompson‟s model of atom could not account
for the deflection of the particles passing near the surface of
the atom and particularly by the backward deflection of an
particle.
In 1911, Ernest Rutherford performed an experiment to
investigate the model of the atom. The apparatus consisted of a
source of particles, thin gold foil and a moveable detector.
A fine beam of high energy particles was made to fall on a
thin gold foil.
The scattered particles were detected at different
angle by a moveable detector. It was discovered that most of the
particles passed through the gold foil without any
deflection, or at very small angles of deflection. A very small fraction of particles were scattered through
large angles approaching 180˚.
A graph is plotted between the number of particles scattered and the scattering angle as shown in
the figure.
The results obtained were very surprising to Rutherford. He concluded that there is a very small
region inside an atom which is massive and whole mass of the atom is concentrated at this region which has
positive charge. This small region was give the name „nucleus‟. This is the reason why most of the
particles passed through the gold foil at small scattering angles. Only those particles could be deflected
through large angles which suffered head-on collision with the nuclei.
Therefore, according to Bohr and Rutherford, the model of atom may consist of a nucleus which is
massive and positive charged part, while the electrons are moving around the nucleus in allowed circular
orbits.
32
54.2 Some Nuclear Properties
(i) Nuclear Systematic

Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons. But these particles are not true elementary particles;
these are made up of other particles called quarks.
The number of protons in a nucleus is called the atomic number or charge number. It is represented by
Z. The number of neutrons is called the neutron number. It is represented by N. The total number of nucleon
is called the mass number. It is represented by .
The charge on one proton is , while the neutron is a neutral particle. The nuclei,
having same charge number Z but different mass number is called isotopes. The nuclei which are not stable,
used to emit , and rays are called radioactive nuclides.
(ii) The Nuclear Force
A nucleus is packed with protons and neutrons. As proton is a positively charged particle, so, there
must be electrostatic repulsion. But the nucleus is very much rigid and stable. So, there must be some other
force inside the nucleus which is responsible for the stability and rigidity of the nucleus. This force is called
Strong Nuclear Force.
The electrostatic force (Coulomb force) is a long range force, but the Strong Nuclear Force is a short
range force, having the range of . This force binds every nuclear pair: proton-proton, neutron-neutron
and proton-neutron pair with in the tiny nuclear volume. For the short range of the order of , the
coulomb force is much smaller than the Strong Nuclear Force. If the separation between the nucleons is
increased beyond , the strong nuclear force drops to zero rapidly, then the Coulomb‟s force of
repulsion will be able to break the nucleus.
(iii) Nuclear Radii
The Bohr radius is , while the radius of the nucleus is of the order of .
So, the nuclei are smaller than the atoms by a factor of . The size and structure of the nuclei can be studied
by scattering experiments using incident beam of high energy electrons.
The energy of incident electrons must be greater than 200 MeV. These
experiments measure the diffraction pattern diffraction pattern of the
scattered particles and of deduce the shape of the scattering object (the
nucleus). The nucleus does not have sharply defined surface, however
have a characteristic radius „R‟. the density has constant value inside
the nucleus, but it falls to zero through fuzzy surface zone. The mean
radius is given by:
Where A is the mass number and is a constant whose value is 1.2 fm. For example, the has the radius
.
33
(iv) Nuclear Mass and Binding Energies
Atomic masses are measured in atomic mass units ( ). The atomic mass unit is defined as times
the atomic mass of . Thus
One atomic mass unit „ ‟ is equivalent to the energy:
This means that we can write as .

(v) Nuclear Spin and Magnetism
Just like atoms, the nuclei have intrinsic angular momentum (nuclear spin) whose maximum value
along z-axis is , where is total intrinsic angular momentum or nuclear spin quantum number.
In atomic magnetism, the Bohr magneton is given by:
Where is the mass of electron and T stand for tesla. Similarly for nuclear magneton , we have:
The magnetic moment of the heavier nuclei can be analyzed in terms of the magnetic moments of its
constituent protons and neutrons.
54.3 Binding Energy
It is the amount of energy required to tear a nucleus into its constituent nucleons. Or when nucleons
are fused to form a nucleus, then some energy is released which is called binding energy.
Example
The nucleus of Deuteron (a heavy hydrogen atom) consists of a protons and a neutron bounded
together by a strong nuclear force. The energy that we must add to deuteron to tear it apart in to its
constituent nucleons is called the energy. If , and are the masses of deuteron, neutron and proton
respectively, then according to the law of conservation of energy:
( )
----------------- (1)
Here and are the masses of the hydrogen and deuteron atom, respectively.
34
[ ] ---------------- (2)
In which, .
As , and . So by substituting the
values (2) and replacing by its equivalent , we find the binding energy to be:
.
54.3.1 Binding Energy per Nucleons
This is the binding energy of the deuteron. If the binding energy is divided by mass number A,
then binding energy per nucleon ( ) is obtained. Figure show a graph between energy per nucleon ( ) and
mass number A.
 The ( ) is high for middle mass nucleons. It means
that these nucleons are tightly bound and the nucleus

is much stable. The region of greatest stability
corresponds to mass number about 50 to 80.
 The biding energy per nucleon curves drops at both
high and low mass numbers has the practical
consequence of the greatest importance. The dropping
of the binding energy curve at high mass numbers tells
us energy can be released in the nuclear fission of a
single massive nucleus into two smaller fragments.
 The dropping of the binding energy curve at low mass
numbers tells us that energy will be released if the two nuclei of small mass numbers combined to form a
single middle mass nucleus. This process, the reverse of fission, is called nuclear fusion.
Sample problem 3. Find the total energy required to split into its constituent protons and
neutrons. (b) Find the energy per nucleon. The atomic mass of is
Solution. Number of proton (Atomic Number)
Atom Mass
Number of Neutrons (Neutron #)
Binding Energy
Mass Defect [ ]
Now
(b)Binding energy per Nucleon
35
Problem. Find the energy per nucleon . The atomic mass of is
Solution.
Number of proton (Atomic Number)
Atom Mass
Number of Neutrons (Neutron #)
Binding Energy
Mass Defect [ ]
Now
Binding energy per Nucleon
54.4 Radioactive Decay

The elements having charge number greater than 82, are not stable. They disintegrate and emit
particles or radiation spontaneously. Such elements are radioactive and this process of spontaneous emission
of particles or radiations is called radioactive decay or natural radioactivity.
Experiment
The radioactive sample is placed in a cavity in a lead block
above which a photographic plate is held. The whole apparatus is
placed inside a vacuum chamber, in which magnetic field is also
applied, as shown in the figure.
Three images are obtained on the photographic plate. It means
that three types of radiations are emitted by the radioactive sample,
which particles, particles and rays.
(i) particles
particles is a helium nucleus which consist of two protons and two neutrons. Its charge number is
2 and mass number is 4. It is highly ionizing particle, but its range is small. Emissions of particles from an
atom reduces its mass number A by four units and atomic number Z by two units. As a result, the product
element moves two places backward in the periodic table.
Explanation
The radionuclide decays spontaneously according to the scheme:
With the half life of . In this process, an energy of 4.27 MeV is emitted appearing
as the kinetic energy of the alpha particle and the recoiling residual nucleus .
36
In order to explain the alpha decay, a model is used in which the particle is assumed to be exist
preformed inside the nucleus before it escapes.
The figure shows the approximate potential energy function U(r) for the particle and the residual
nucleus as the function of their separation. It is a combination of a potential well associated with the
attractive strong nuclear force that acts in the nuclear interior ( ) and a Coulomb‟s potential associated
with the repulsive electrostatic force that acts between the two particles after the decay has occurred ( ).
The line that intersect the potential energy curve at point and , is the measure of emitted during
one alpha decay. The energy of 4.27 MeV is emitted appearing as the kinetic energy of the alpha particle
and the recoiling residual nucleus .
The decay of the alpha particle is accompanied by the emission of energy. Now the question arises
that why did not decay shortly after they were created?
The answer to this question is given is background of the
potential barrier consideration. We can visualize this barrier as a
spherical shell whose inner radius is and whose outer radius is
, its volume being forbidden to the particle under the law of
classical physics.
But according to the quantum mechanics, there is a chance
of tunneling through barrier. It is this tunneling due to which an
alpha particle gets a chance to come out of nucleus. But its
probability is extremely little, (1 out of ). It is one about in
years. That is why nucleus has such long half life.
If energy of alpha particle is comparatively high, the potential barrier will be appear to it thinner and
lower. Hence in this case, tunneling will occur more readily, and half life is reduced considerably. For
example, alpha particle emitted by has energy of 6.81 MeV.
Sample problem 6. Find the energy released during the alpha decay of . The needed atomic masses
are
Solution.
The reaction equation is :
(ii) particles
A particle is a positive or negative electrons which is emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive
element. When a proton in the nucleus transforms into a neutron, a positive particles is emitted.
When a neutron inside a nucleus changes into protons, then negative particles are emitted:
37
Emission of negative particles leaves the mass number of the product nucleus unchanged, but the
atomic number (charge number) increases by one unit. So the product element moves on place ahead in the
periodic table.
Similarly, emission of positive particles leaves the mass number of the product nucleus unchanged
but the atomic number (charge number) decreases by one unit. So the product element moves one place
backward in the periodic table.
Explanation: Emission of electron or a positron from a nucleus is known as beta decay. Beta particles don't
exist in nucleus. They are emitted as soon as they are formed by disintegration of a neutron or a proton in a
nucleus. The examples of beta decay are as follows:
Here and are electron and positron.

The kinetic energy of beta particle does not remain constant, but it changes over a range as shown in the
figure. The maximum value of kinetic energy of the beta particle is 0.653 MeV, which is also the total
disintegration energy for the case of beta decay from Cu. The kinetic energy of the beta particle changes over
the range because the disintegration energy is shared by
beta particle and neutrino.
Beta particle is not emitted alone. But with
every beta particle another particle is emitted, called
neutrino. Total energy of beta particle and neutrino is
quantized. But the disintegration energy is shared by
the beta particle and neutrino in any proportion, i.e.,
beta particle may take any energy between 0 and maximum. The rest of energy is carried by neutrino. Thus
the above mentioned equations of beta decay take the modified form as given below:
̅
Here and ̅ are neutrino and anti-neutrino respectively. Neutrino is emitted with positron ( ) and
anti-neutrino is emitted with electron ( ). The neutrino and anti-neutrino are very light particles having no
charge and mass nearly of the order of of mass of electron. So they interact with matter weakly and are
very difficult to detect.

(iii) Rays
rays are not material particles but they are electromagnetic rays moving with the velocity of light.
These are the most energetic electromagnetic radiations having shortest wavelength and largest frequency.
ray can produce photoelectric effects, Compton effect and pair production. These radiations have largest
range. rays are emitted from the excited nuclei of radioactive elements.
Emission of rays does not change the mass number and atomic number of the product nucleus.
ray
38
54.5 Laws of Radioactivity and Half Lift of Radioactive Element
It is the time during which one half of the atoms of the parent element decay in to daughter element.
The half life of a radioactive element may vary from fraction of a second to millions of year.
The radioactive decay obeys the following two statistical laws:
 The number of atoms that decay at any instant is proportional to the number of atoms present at that
instant.
 No sample of radioactive element can ever completely decay in a finite time.
Let is the number of atoms initially present at time . Let N is the number of atoms at any time
t. If are the number of atoms decay during the interval of time , then the rate of decay is directly
proportional to the number of atoms present. i.e.,
Where is the decay constant. It is the characteristics of radioactive element.
Initially at , there are radionuclide of parent element and N is the number of atoms at any time t.
Integrating above differential equation over appropriate limits, we have:
∫ ∫
| | | |
( )
---------------- (1)
This is known as radioactive decay law. It is clear from equation (1), that radioactivity follows an exponential
law and it takes an infinite time to decay a radioactive element completely.
When , then
Putting values in equation (1), we have:
( )
39
( )
This is the expression of half life of a radioactive element.

Question: Show that decay rate of radionuclide follows an exponential law.
Ans. The rate of decay ( ) i.e., activity R can be find out by differentiating
the equation of law of radioactivity :
Where Decay rate at .

It is clear from equation that radioactive follows an exponential law and it takes an infinite time to
decay a radioactive element completely.
Problem 23. The half life of a radioactive isotope is 140 days. How many days would it take fit the
activity of the sample to fall to one forth of its initial decay rate?
Solution:
Law of radioactivity:
Problem 24. The half life of a particular radioactive isotope is 6.5 hr. if there are initially
of this isotope in a paricualr sample, how many atoms of this isotope remains after 26 hrs.
Solution:
40
As
Problem 25. A radioactive isotope of gold with a decay constant of . Calculate its: (a)
Half life (b) what fraction of the original will remain after three half lives? (c) After 10 days
Solution.
(a)
(b)
As
(c) for
As
54.6 Mean Life of Radioactive Element

As the possible life of a radioactive element varies from 0 to , so the total life of all initially
present atoms in a given sample can be find out by the expression ∫ .
The mean or average life for a sample can be described by the expression:
∫
∫
∫ | |
Also,
as
Putting values in equation (1), we have:
41
∫ ( )
[| | ∫ ]
[ ∫ ] [ ∫ ]
| | [ ] [ ] [ ]
This is the expression of mean life of a radioactive element.

Question: Derive the relationship between Half Life and Mean Life of a radioactive element.
Ans. The half life and mean life of radioactive element is described by formulae and
, respectively. Now,
This expression shows the mean life of a radioactive element is greater than its half life.
54.7 Units for Measuring Ionizing Radiation
Becquerel
SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel. One Becquerel is one disintegration per second.
The Curie
The unit of activity or rate of decay of a radioactive source is Curie Ci. It is defined as the activity of
one gram of radium in equilibrium.
The Roentgen
It is the unit of exposure which may be defined as the exposure of beam of or to
produce , the air being dry and at standard temperature and pressure.
42
The Rad
This is acronym for radiation absorbed dose and is a measure of the dose actually delivered to a
specified object. The specified part of a body (the hand, say) is said to have received and absorbed dose of 1
rad when have been delivered to it by ionizing radiation.
The rem
This is acronym for roentgen equivalent in man and is a measure of dose equivalent. The dose
equivalent (in rem) is found by multiplying the absorbed dose (in rad) by quality factor QF. According to the
recommendation of the National Council on Radiation Protection, no individual who is exposed to radiations
should receive a dose equivalent greater than 500 m rem (0.5 rem) in any one year.
54.8 Radioactive Dating
The age of a sample can be determined by radioactive dating. Suppose an initial radio nuclide I decays
to a final product F with a known half-life
At particular time , we start with initial nuclei with product (final) nuclei equal to zero. After
a time t, the initial nuclei at reduce to „ ‟ with the product (final) nuclei „ ‟, where .
To determine the age of radioactive sample we make use of exponential law of radioactivity:
where the decay constant
Taking logarithm on both sides, to the base e, we get:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
Using formula of half life, we have :
( )
Put
( )
( )
It is clear from expression that the age of radioactive sample can be determined by the ratio . This
method can be used to determine the time since the formation of the solar system. Example include the ration
of to , to and to . The terrestrial rocks, moon rocks are analyzed by these
method, all seem to have common age of around year, which we take to be the age of our solar
system.
43
Sample Problem 9. In a sample of rock, the ratio of to nuclie is found to be 0.65. What is the
age of the rock? of is years.
Ratio =
( )
54.9 Energy in Nuclear Reactions

A nuclear reaction can be represented by:
Here is the target nucleus, is the projectile nucleus, is the residual nucleus and is the emerging
nucleus. The projectile particle a may be charged particle which can be accelerated Van de Graph accelerator
or cyclone, or it may be a neutron from the nuclear reactor.
When the projectile particle penetrates a target nucleus, then a nuclear reaction takes place. The
reaction energy Q is defined as (rest mass energies)
------------- (1)
Here ,
,
If „ ‟ represents the kinetic energy, then the reaction energy „ ‟ is given by:
------------- (2)
Equation (1) and (2) are only valid, when Y and b are in their ground state.
Exothermic: If the reaction energy has positive value i.e., , then such nuclear reaction is known as
exothermic .
Endothermic: If the reaction energy Q is negative i.e., , then such a nuclear reaction is known as
endothermic. Such a reaction will not “go” unless a certain minimum kinetic energy (the threshold energy) is
carried into the system b the projectile. Its means that endothermic reaction needs some certain energy for its
performance.
Scattering: A nuclear reaction is called scattering, if the particles „a‟ and „b‟ are identical and so „X‟ and „Y‟
are also identical.
Elastic Scattering: If the kinetic energy of the system before the reaction is equal to the kinetic energy after
collision ( ), and all nuclei remains in their ground state, then such scattering is known as elastic
scattering.
Inelastic Scattering
If the kinetic energies of the system are different before and after the reaction i.e., , then it is
called inelastic scattering. In this case „Y‟ and „b‟ may be left in excited states.
For this reaction Q=8.13 MeV. In this reaction, the system loses rest mass energy and gives some kinetic
energy.
44
B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 55: Energy from the Nucleus
ENERGY FROM THE NUCLEUS
55.1 Nuclear Reaction

Rutherford suggested in 1919 that a massive particle with sufficient kinetic energy
might be able to penetrate a nucleus. The result would be either a new nucleus with greater
atomic number and mass number or a decay of the original nucleus. Rutherford bombarded
nitrogen (l4N) with a particles and obtained an oxygen ( 17O) nucleus and a proton:
Nuclear reactions are subject to several conservation laws. The classical conservation
principles for charge, momentum, angular momentum, and energy (including rest energies)
are obeyed in all nuclear reactions. An additional conservation law, not anticipated by
classical physics, is conservation of the total number of nucleons. The numbers of protons
and neutrons need not be conserved separately.
55.2 Reaction Energy
The difference between the masses before and after the reaction corresponds to the
reaction energy, according to the mass-energy relationship . If initial particles A
and B interact to produce final particles C and D, the reaction energy Q is defined as:
------------- (1)
Here
If ‘ ’ represents the kinetic energy, then the reaction energy ‘ ’ is given by:
------------- (2)
When Q is positive, the total mass decreases and the total kinetic energy increases. Such a
reaction is called an exothermal reaction. When Q is negative, the mass increases and the
kinetic energy decreases, and the reaction is called an endothermal reaction.
55.3 Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is a decay process in which an unstable nucleus splits into two
fragments of comparable mass. Fission was discovered in 1938 through the experiments of
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman in Germany. Pursuing earlier work by Fermi, they bombarded
uranium (z = 92) with neutrons. The resulting radiation did not coincide with that of any
known radioactive nuclide. Urged on by their colleague Lise Meitner, they used meticulous
1
Written and composed by: Prof. Muhammad Ali Malik (M. Phil. Physics), Govt. Degree College, Naushera
chemical analysis to reach the astonishing but inescapable conclusion that they had found a
radioactive isotope of barium (Z = 56). Later, radioactive krypton (Z = 36) was also found.
Meituer and Otto Frisch correctly interpreted these results as showing that uranium
nuclei were splitting into two massive fragments called fission fragments. Two or three free
neutrons usually appear along with the fission fragments.
238 235
Both the common isotope (99.3%) U and the uncommon isotope (0.7%) U (as
235
well as several other nuclides) can be easily split by neutron bombardment: U by slow
238
neutrons (kinetic energy less than 1 eV) but U only by fast neutrons with a minimum of
about 1 MeV of kinetic energy. Fission resulting from neutron absorption is called induced
fission. Some nuclides can also undergo spontaneous fission without initial neutron
absorption, but this is quite rare.
235 236
When U absorbs a neutron, the resulting nuclide U is in a highly excited state
and splits into two fragments almost instantaneously.
Over 100 different nuclides, representing more
than 20 different elements, have been found among the
fission products. Figure shows the distribution of mass
235
numbers for fission fragments from the fission of U.
Most of the fragments have mass numbers from 90 to
100 and from 135 to 145; fission into two fragments
with nearly equal mass is unlikely.
Following are the two different nuclear fission reactions:
2
The total kinetic energy

of the fission fragments is
enormous, about 200 MeV
(compared to typical and
energies of a few MeV). The
reason for this is that nuclides
at the high end of the mass
spectrum (near A = 240) are
less tightly bound than those
nearer the middle (A = 90 to
145). Referring to the binding
energy per nucleon curve, the
average binding energy per
nucleon is about 7.6 MeV at
A = 240 but about 8.5 MeV at
A = 120. Therefore a rough
estimate of the expected
increase in binding energy
during fission is about
8.5 MeV - 7.6 MeV = 0.9 MeV per nucleon, or a total of (235)(0.9 MeV) = 200 MeV.
Fission fragments always have too many neutrons to be stable. The neutron-proton
ratio (N/Z) for stable nuclides is about 1 for light nuclides but almost 1.6 for the heaviest
nuclides because of the increasing influence of the electrical repulsion of the protons. The
N/Z value for stable nuclides is about 1.3 at A = 100 and 1.4 at A = 150. The fragments have
235
about the same N/Z as U, about 1.55. They usually respond to this surplus of neutrons by
undergoing a series of - decays (each of which increases Z by 1 and decreases N by 1) until
a stable value of N/Z is reached. A typical example is
The nuclide 140Ce is stable. This series of f3 - decays produces, on average, about 15 MeV
of additional kinetic energy. The neutron excess of fission fragments also explains why two
or three free neutrons are released during the fission.
3
55.3.1 Bohr Wheeler Theory or Liquid Drop Model

According to Bohr’s liquid drop model, a nucleus can be compared with a (charged) liquid
drop. Two types of forces play their role. One type of force try to keep the drop intact. They included
intermolecular forces of attraction and the surface tension. Collectively they are called cohesive
forces.
On the other hand, there are some forces witch try to de-shape the drop and to destroy its
structure. they included external forces such as weight of drop. If the drop is charged, then the
repulsive forces between charges on drop also try to destroy the structure of the drop. These forces are
called destructive forces.
In normal liquid drop, the cohesive forces dominate destructive forces and the drop is stable.
But if the charged liquid drop is of bigger size, the cohesive forces are hardly able to balance the
destructive forces. And the liquid drop is in a state of highest instability and the surface oscillations
will be set-up. A slight provocation may cause splitting of a drop into two or more smaller drops.
Similarly, two types of forces are effective in case of a nucleus:
Strong nuclear force between the nucleon: This is a short range force which is attractive in nature. It
can be compared with the cohesive forces of the liquid drop model.
Coulomb Repulsive force between protons: These forces are repulsive in nature and play the role of
destructive force in nucleus.
In the lighter nucleus, short range nuclear forces dominate coulomb forces of repulsion and so
the nucleus is stable. But in the heavy nucleus such as , short range nuclear forces are hardly
able to balance the coulomb repulsive force. So such nucleus is in the state of highest instability.
When the nucleus absorbs a slow neutron, the neutron falls into the potential well
associated with the strong nuclear force. Its potential energy is converted into excitation energy of the
nucleus. the nucleus which has already the surface oscillations, will acquire a dumbbell shape. This
excess energy causes violent oscillations, during which a neck between two lobes develops. The
electrical repulsion of these two lobes stretches the neck further and finally two smaller fragments are
formed that move rapidly apart.
4
The sequence of events for a fission reaction is as follows:

1. The 235U nucleus captures a thermal (slow-moving) neutron.
2. The capture results in the formation of 236U*, and the excess energy of this nucleus
causes it to undergo violent oscillations.
3. The 236U* nucleus becomes highly elongated, and the force of repulsion between
protons in the two halves of the dumbbell-shaped nucleus tends to increase the
distortion.
4. The nucleus splits into two fragments, emitting several neutrons in the process.
This qualitative picture has been developed into a more quantitative theory to explain why
some nuclei undergo fission and others don't. This explanation is given on a hypothetical
potential energy function for two possible fission fragments described in the figure below:
If neutron absorption results in an

excitation energy greater than the energy
barrier height , fission occurs
immediately. Even when there isn't quite
enough energy to surmount the barrier,
fission can take place by quantum-
mechanical tunneling. In principle, many
stable heavy nuclei can fission by
tunneling. But the probability depends very critically on the height and width of the barrier.
For most nuclei this process is so unlikely that it is never observed.
55.3.2 Chain Reactions
Fission of a uranium nucleus, triggered by neutron bombardment, releases other
neutrons that can trigger more fissions,
suggesting the possibility of a chain
reaction. The chain reaction may be
made to proceed slowly and in a
controlled manner in a nuclear reactor or
explosively in a bomb. The energy
release in a nuclear chain reaction is
enormous, far greater than that in any
5
chemical reaction. (In a sense, fire is a chemical chain reaction.) For example, when uranium
is “burned” to uranium dioxide in the chemical reaction:
The heat of combustion is about 4500 J/g. Expressed as energy per atom, this is about 11 eV
per atom. By contrast, fission liberates about 200 MeV per atom, nearly 20 million times as
much energy.
55.4 Nuclear Fission Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a system in which a controlled nuclear chain reaction is used to
liberate energy. In a nuclear power plant, this energy is used to generate steam, which
operates a turbine and turns an electrical generator.
235
On average, each fission of a U nucleus produces about 2.5 free neutrons, so 40%
235
of the neutrons are needed to sustain a chain reaction. A U nucleus is much more likely to
absorb a low-energy neutron (less than I eV) than one of the higher-energy neutrons (1 MeV
or so) that are liberated during fission. In a nuclear reactor the higher-energy neutrons are
slowed down by collisions with nuclei in the surrounding material, called the moderator, so
they are much more likely to cause further fissions. In nuclear power plants, the moderator is
often water, occasionally graphite. The rate of the reaction is controlled by inserting or
withdrawing control rods made of elements (such as boron or cadmium) whose nuclei absorb
238
neutrons without undergoing any additional reaction. The isotope U can also absorb
239
neutrons, leading to U*, but not with high enough probability for it to sustain a chain
reaction by itself. Thus uranium that is used in reactors is often "enriched" by increasing the
235
proportion of U above the natural value of 0.7%, typically to 3% or so, by isotope-
separation processing.
The most familiar application of nuclear reactors is for the generation of electric
power. As was noted above, the fission energy appears as kinetic energy of the fission
fragments, and its immediate result is to increase the internal energy of the fuel elements and
the surrounding moderator. This increase in internal energy is transferred as heat to generate
steam to drive turbines, which spin the electrical generators.
The energetic fission fragments heat the water surrounding the reactor core. The
steam generator is a heat exchanger that takes heat from this highly radioactive water and
generates nonradioactive steam to run the turbines.
6
Nuclear fission reactors have many other practical uses. Among these are the
production of artificial radioactive isotopes for medical and other research, production of
high-intensity neutron beams for research in nuclear structure, and production of fissionable
nuclides such as 239Pu from the common isotope 238U.
Earlier we mentioned that an average of about 2.5 neutrons is emitted in each fission
event of 235U. In order to achieve a self-sustained chain reaction, one of these neutrons must
be captured by another 235U nucleus and cause it to undergo fission. A useful parameter for
describing the level of reactor operation is the reproduction constant K, defined as the
average number of neutrons from each fission event that will cause another event. As we
have seen, K can have a maximum value of 2.5 in the fission of uranium. In practice,
however, K is less than this because of several factors.
A self-sustained chain reaction is achieved when K = 1. Under this condition, the
reactor is said to be critical. When K is less than one, the reactor is subcritical and the
reaction dies out. When K is greater than one the reactor is said to be supercritical, and a
runaway reaction occurs. In a nuclear reactor used to furnish power to a utility company, it is
necessary to maintain a K value close to one.
Neutron Leakage
In any reactor, a fraction of the neutrons produced in fission will leak out of the core
before inducing other fission events. If the fraction leaking out is too large, the reactor will
not operate. The percentage lost is large if the reactor is very small because leakage is a
function of the ratio of surface area to volume. Therefore, a critical requirement of reactor
7
design is choosing the correct surface-area-to volume ratio so that a sustained reaction can be
achieved.
Regulating Neutron Energies
The neutrons released in fission events are highly energetic, with kinetic energies of
about 2 MeV. It is found that slow neutrons are far more likely than fast neutrons to produce
235 238
fission events in U. Further, U doesn’t absorb slow neutrons. In order for the chain
reaction to continue, therefore, the neutrons must be slowed down. This is accomplished by
surrounding the fuel with a substance called a moderator.
Neutron Capture
In the process of being slowed down, neutrons may be captured by nuclei that do not
238
undergo fission. The most common event of this type is neutron capture by U. The
238
probability of neutron capture by U is very high when the neutrons have high kinetic
energies and very low when they have low kinetic energies. The slowing down of the
neutrons by the moderator serves the dual purpose of making them available for reaction with
235
U and decreasing their chances of being captured by 238U.
55.4.1 Control of Power Level
It is possible for a reactor to reach the critical stage (K= 1) after all neutron losses
described previously are minimized. However, a method of control is needed to adjust K to a
value near one. If K were to rise above this value, the heat produced in the runaway reaction
would melt the reactor. To control the power level, control rods are inserted into the reactor
core. These rods are made of materials such as cadmium that are highly efficient in absorbing
neutrons. By adjusting the number and position of the control rods in the reactor core, the K
value can be varied and any power level within the design range of the reactor can be
achieved.
Fission events in the reactor core supply heat to the water contained in the primary
(closed) system, which is maintained at high pressure to keep it from boiling. This water also
serves as the moderator. The hot water is pumped through a heat exchanger, and the heat is
transferred to the water contained in the secondary system. There the hot water is converted
to steam, which drives a turbine–generator to create electric power.
8
55.5 Nuclear Fusion

The biding energy per nucleon curve described that the energy can be released if light nuclei
are combined to form nuclei of larger mass number. When two light nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus, the process is called nuclear fusion. Because the mass of the final nucleus is less than the
masses of the original nuclei, there is a loss of mass, accompanied by a release of energy.
However the process of nuclear fusion is hindered by the mutual Coulomb’s repulsion that
tends to prevent two such (positively) charged particles from coming within range of each other’s
attractive nuclear force. Thus the nucleons have to overcome the potential barrier in order to make the
nuclear fusion.
In case of the alpha decay, two charged particles − the alpha particle and the residual nucleus
− are initially inside their mutual potential barriers. For alpha decay to occur, the alpha particle must
leak through the barrier through barrier tunneling process and appear on outside. In nuclear fusion, the
situation is just reversed. Here the two particles must penetrate their mutual barrier from the outside.
for the case of the fusion of deuterons, the particles have to penetrate through the potential barrier of
200 keV. One way to arrange for the nuclei to penetrate their mutual Coulomb barrier is to use one
light particle as a target and to accelerate other by using cyclotron. But this technique is not useful for
obtaining the energy in a controlled manner. The best hope for obtaining the fusion in bulk matter in
controlled fashion is to raise the temperature of the material, so that that the particles have sufficient
energy to penetrate the barrier due to their thermal motion. This process is called thermonuclear
fusion.
The mean thermal kinetic energy K of the particle in equilibrium at a temperature T is given
by the expression
3
K  kT
2
Where k is the Boltzmann constant.
55.6 Thermonuclear Fusion in Stars
The composition of the sun’s core is about 35% hydrogen by mass, about 65% helium and
about 1% other elements. The temperature at the center of the sun is about 1.5 10 K . At this
7
temperature, the light elements are essentially totally ionized. The sun radiates at the rate of
3.9 10 26W and has been doing so for as long as the solar system has existed, which is about
4.5 109 years.
9
The Sun’s energy is generated by the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen to form helium. The
thermonuclear fusion by the proton-proton cycle is described as follows:
1
H 1H 2 H  e   (Q  0.42MeV ) 1
H 1H 2 H  e   (Q  0.42MeV )
e   e      ( Q  1.02 MeV ) e   e      ( Q  1.02 MeV )
 
2
H 1H 3He   (Q  5.49MeV ) 2
H 1H 3He   (Q  5.49MeV )
 

3
He  3He  4 He 1H 1H (Q  12.86MeV )
The cycle is initiated by the collision of two protons ( 1H 1H ) to form a deuteron ( 2H )
with the simultaneous creation of positron and a neutrino. The positron very quickly encounters a free
electron ( e  ) in the sun and both particles annihilates, their rest energies appearing as two  -ray
26
photons. Such events are extremely rare. In fact, only once in about 10 proton-proton collisions a
deuteron formed. In vast majority of cases, the colliding protons simply scatter from each other. It is
the slowness of this process that regulates the rate of energy production and keeps the sun from
exploding. Inspite of this slowness, there are so very many proton in the huge volume of the sun’s
12
core that deuterium is produced in this way at the rate of about 10 kg / s .
Once the deuteron has been produced, it quickly (within a few seconds) collides with another proton
3 3
and forms a He nucleus. Two such He nuclei may then eventually collide, forming an alpha
4
particle ( He ) and two protons.
Taking an overall view of the proton-proton cycle, we see that it amounts to the combination f
four protons and two electrons to form an alpha particle, two neutrinos, and six gamma rays:
4 1H  2e   4He  2  6
Now in formal way, by adding two electrons to each side of above equation yields:
4 (1H  e  )  ( 4He  2e  )  2  6
The quantities in the parenthesis represent the atoms (not bare nuclei) of hydrogen and
helium. The energy released in this whole process can be fond out by using the atomic masses of
hydrogen and helium.
Q  m c 2  [4m( 1H )  m( 4 He)] c 2
 [4(1.007825 u)  4.002603u] (931.5 MeV / u)
Q  26.7 MeV
10
Neutrino and gamma-ray photons have no mass and thus do not enter into the calculation of
disintegration energy.
If the core temperature heats upto about 108 K , energy can be released by burning helium to
make carbon.
4
He  4 He  4 He  12C   (Q  7.3 MeV )
As a star evolves and becomes still hotter, other elements can be formed by other fusion reactions.
However the elements beyond A  56 cannot be manufactured by futher fusion process. The elements
with A  56 ( 56 Fe, 56Co, 56Ni ) lie near the peak of the binding energy per nucleon curve, and the
fusion between nuclides beyond this point involves consumption, and not the production, of energy.
55.7 Controlled Nuclear Fusion
Thermonuclear reactions have been going on in the universe since its creation. Such reactions
have been taken place on earth, however, only since October 1952, when the first fusion (or
hydrogen) bomb was exploded. The high temperature needs to initiate the thermonuclear reaction in
this case were provided by fission bomb used as a trigger.
A sustained and controllable thermonuclear power source (fusion reactor) is proving much more
difficult to achieve. The goal, however, is being vigorously pursued because many look to the fusion
reactor as the ultimate power source of the future, at least as for as the generation of electricity is
concerned.
The proton-proton interaction is not suitable for use in a terrestrial fusion reactor because this
process is hopelessly slow. The reaction cross-section is in fact so small that it cannot be measured in
the laboratory. The reaction succeeds under the condition that prevail in stellar interiors only because
of the enormous number of protons available in the high density stellar cores.
The most attractive reactions for terrestrial use appear to be the deuteron-deuteron (d-d) and
deuteron-triton (d-t) reactions:
2
H  2H 3He  n (Q  3.27 MeV )
2
H  2H 3H 1H (Q  4.03 MeV )
2
H  3H 4 He  n (Q  17.59 MeV )
Deuteron whose natural abundance in normal hydrogen is 0.015 %, is available in unlimited
quantities as a component of sea water. Tritium is a radioactive and is not normally found in naturally
occurring hydrogen.
55.8 Requirements for a Thermonuclear Reactor
There are three basic requirements for the successful operation of a thermonuclear reactor.
1. A high particle density n
The number of interacting particles (deuterons) per unit volume must be great enough to ensure a
sufficiently high deuteron-deuteron collision rate.
11
2. A High Plasma Temperature T

High temperature is required, so that the deuterium gas would be completely ionized into natural
plasma consisting of deuterons and electrons. Moreover the colliding deuterons should be
energetic enough to penetrate the mutual Coulomb’s barrier. A plasma temperature of
2.8 108 K , corresponding to kinetic energy of 33 KeV, has been achieved in laboratory.
3. A Long Confinement Time
A major problem is containing the hot plasma to ensure that its density and temperature remains
sufficiently high. It is clear that no actual solid container can withstand with the high
temperatures, so the special techniques must be employed
55.8.1 Lawson’s Criterion
For the successful operation of a thermonuclear reactor to have
nT  10 20 s . m 3
This condition is called Lawson’s criterion. This condition tells that we have a choice
between confining a lot of particles for a relatively short time or confining fewer particles for a
somewhat longer time. Beyond meeting this criterion, it is also necessary that the plasma temperature
be sufficiently high.
There are two techniques that have been used to attempt to achieve the combination of
temperature T and Lawson’s parameter nT that are necessary to produce fusion reactions.
1. Magnetic confinement uses magnetic fields to confine the plasma while its temperature is
increased.
2. In inertial confinement, a small amount of fuel is compressed and heated so rapidly that
fusion occurs before the fuel can expand and cool.
12
UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
B.A. / B.Sc. 1st Annual Exam 2017
Physics Paper: C
Time Allowed: 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 50
Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each part. All questions carry equal marks.
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a) How the N-Type and P-Type materials are formed? Explain in detail.
(b) Describe the action of a semi-conductor diode for half wave rectification.
(c) What is the effect of temperature on resistivity of intrinsic semi-conductor?
Q # 2. (a) Explain the circuit of common emitter amplifier.
(b) Discuss two input AND logic gate giving their symbolic form and truth table.
(c) Name minority charge carriers in an N-type and P-Type semi-conductor.
Q # 3. (a) What is an oscillator? Explain the action of a transistor as an oscillator.
(b) What is load line? Define quiescent point.
(c) Define positive and negative feedback.
SECTION-II
Q # 4. (a) State Compton Effect and derive an expression for Compton shift in wave length.
(b) A particular X-ray photon has a wavelength of 41.6 pm. Calculate the energy and frequency of photon.
(c) Why a threshold frequency is necessary for the photoelectric effect.
Q # 5. (a) Using Schrodinger wave equation. Discuss the motion of free electron.
(b) What do you mean by wave function? How it is related to probability of a particle?
(c) Does a photon have a de-Broglie wavelength? Explain.
Q # 6. (a) Derive a relation for the radii of quantized orbits for hydrogen atom and also for quantized energy.
(b) What is the wavelength of series limit for the Balmer series?
Q # 7. (a) What is magnetic moment? Find the relation for Bohr's magnetron and also calculate its numerical value.
(b) An LED is constructed from PN Junction based on certain semiconductor material whose energy gap is 1.97 eV. Find
the wavelength of emitted light.
Q # 8. (a) State the law of radioactive decay and show that it obeys exponential law. What is meant by half-life and mean
life of a radioactive element?
(b) The half-life of a radioactive isotope is 140 days. How many days would it take for the activity of a sample to fall to
one fourth of its initial decay rate?
Q # 9. (a) Describe the principle, construction and working of a nuclear reactor?
(b) A large electric generator station is powered by a pressurized water nuclear reactor. The thermal power in the reactor
core is 34000 MW, and l100 MW of electricity is generated. The fuel consists of 86000 kg of uranium in the form of 110
tons of uranium oxide, distributed among 57000 fuel rods. What is plant efficiency?
Q # 10. Write note on the following:
a) Space quantization.
b) Nuclear fission.
Physics Paper: C
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a) Distinguish between a conductor, an insulator and a semi-conductor using the concept of energy bands.
(b) In common emitter amplifier, calculate collector current IC and β when IE= 12mA, IB=150 µA and α=0.98.
(c) Draw the symbols of NPN transistor and PNP transistor. Also name its regions.
Q # 2. (a) What is junction diode? Describe its application as rectifier.
(b) The current following into the-base of a transistor is l00uA. Find the collector current IC if β = 100.
(c) What is the net charge on N-type and P-type substance?
Q # 3. (a) Describe the two inputs AND gate and OR gate, using their symbol and truth table.
(b) A LED is constructed from PN junction based on a certain semiconductor material whose energy gap is l.97eV. What
is the wavelength of emitted light?
(c) Define biasing and rectification
SECTION-II
Q # 4. (a) State Stefan Boltzmann’s law and Wein’s law. Give Plank’s assumption and Plank’s formula for energy
distribution in black body radiation spectrum
(b) Calculate intensity of the sun with a surface temperature of 5800 K.
Q # 5. (a) What is Compton effect? Explain this effect using quantum theory.
(b) X-rays with λ=100 pm are scattered from a carbon target. The scattered radiation is viewed at 900 to the incident
beam. What is Compton shift?
Q # 6. (a) Define Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Prove that . Also discuss behavior of uncertainty principle
and single slit diffraction.
(b) If de-Broglie wavelength of an electron is . Find the speed of electron.
Q # 7. (a) Define wave function and probability density. Find an expression for time dependent Schrodinger wave
equation.
(b) Calculate Fermi energy for copper, given the number of conduction electrons per unit volume is .
Q # 8. (a) Define excitation energy and excitation potential. Hww Bohr’s theory was verified by Frank Hertz Experiment.
(b) Consider an atom absorbs a photon of frequency Hz. By what amount does the energy of the atoms
increase?
Q # 9. (a) What is meant by the binding energy of a nucleus? Discuss variation of binding energy per nucleon as a
function of mass number.
(b) Calculate the binding energy of Deuteron 1H2 when the mass of 1H2 is 2.014l02 µ and mass of proton = 1.007825 µ,
mass of Neutron = l.008665 µ.
Physics Paper: C
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a). What is transistor? Explain pnp-transistor in common-emitter configuration used as amplifier. Also calculate
its gain.
(b). In common emitter amplifier, calculate collector current and , when and .
(c). What are the differences between hole and positive charge.
Q # 2. (a). What is pn-junction? Define depletion region, barrier potential and describe its forward and reverse biased
characteristics.
(b). What is the speed of a conduction electron in copper with K.E. equal to its Fermi energy 7 eV.
(c). Identify following as p-type or n-type semiconductors:
(i) Al in Ge (ii) In in Ge (iii) Sb in As (iv) P in Si
Q # 3. (a). What are logic gates? Describe:
(i) XNOR gate (ii) NAND gate
(b). A LED is constructed from pn-junction based on GaAsP semiconductor material whose energy gap is 1.97 eV. What
is the wavelength of emitted light and color?
(c). Differentiate among analog and digital quantities.
SECTION-II
Q # 4. (a). What is Plank’s quantum theory? Derive Plank's law of radiation in terms of frequency and wavelength.
(b). Find the maximum wavelength shift for the Compton collision between a photon and free electron.
(c). What arc differences between a photon and a material particle?
Q # 5. (a). Describe the phenomenon of photoelectric effect and give its quantitative analysis.
(b). Find the maximum K.E (eV) of photoelectrons if the work function of material is 2.33 eV and frequency of radiation
is .
(c). In both photoelectric and Compton effect there is an incident photon and ejected electron. What is the difference
between these two effects?
Q # 6. (a). What is de-Broglie hypothesis? Explain Davisson and Germer experiment for its verification.
(b). Calculate de-Broglie wavelength of an electron with energy 120 eV.
(c). lf the particle listed below all have same energy, which has shortest wave length: electron, proton, neutron and α-
particle.
Q # 7. (a). Find the radii and energy of different Bohr‘s orbits of a hydrogen atom.
(b). An atom absorbs a photon of frequency . By what amount does the energy of the atom increase?
(c). Why does the concept of Bohr’s orbits violate the uncertainty principle?
Q # 8. (a). Define mass defect and describe nuclear binding energy in detail.
(b). Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of carbon atom if mp=1.007660 µ, mn= 1.008665 µ and experimental
value of mass of carbon is 12.011 µ.
(c). Why is the binding energy per nucleon is low at low mass number and at high mass number?
Q # 9. (a). What is radioactivity? Show that the mean life of a radioactive element is greater than the half-life of that
element.
(b). The half-life of a radioactive element is 140 days. How many days should it take for activity of this isotope to fall one
fourth of its initial decay rate?
(c). Define critical mass.
i. Full wave Rectification
ii. Schrodinger Wave Equation
Physics Paper: C
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a). Distinguish between a conductor, an insulator and semiconductor using concept of energy bands.
(b). Calculate maximum wavelength that will produce photoconduction in diamond which have band gap of 5.5 eV.
(c). Define rectification. Give its types.
Q # 2. (a). What is load line? Define operating point and why it is selected at midway of the load line in case of
amplification?
(b). Explain the action of transistor as an amplifier.
(c). Does pure semiconductor obeys Ohm’s Law?
Q # 3. (a). Discuss the two inputs NAND logic gate giving their symbolic form and truth table.
(b). Derive the relation and , and .
(c). Name the minority charge carriers in an N-type and P-type semiconductors.
SECTION-II
Q # 4. (a). State Compton effect and derive an expression for the Compton shit in wavelength.
(b) A particular x-ray photon has a wavelength of 41.6 pm. Calculate the photon’s (i) Energy (ii) Frequency.
(c) Why a threshold frequency is necessary for the photoelectric effect?
Q # 5. (a). What is de Broglie‘s hypothesis? Describe the experimental evidence in support of de Broglie’s hypothesis.
(b) Consider an electron confined by electrical force to an infinitely deep potential well, whose length L is l00 pm. What is
the energy of its lowest allowed state‘?
(c) Why the wave nature of large size object is not apparent in our daily life‘?
Q # 6. (a). Explain Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom and derive an expression for the energies of its stationary states.
(b) What is the wavelength of the least energetic photon in the Balmer’s Spectrum?
(c) Can a hydrogen atom absorb a photon whose energy is greater than l3.6 eV.
Q # 7. (a). What is meant by laser? Discuss the working of He-Ne laser?
(b) A He-Ne laser emits light of 632.8 nm and has an output power of 2.3 mW. How many photons are emitted each
minute by this laser when operating?
(c) Write down four uses of x-rays.
Q # 8. (a). What is meant by radioactive decay? Derive relation between the half-life and disintegration constant.
(b). In a sample of rock. The ratio 206Pb to 238U nuclei is found to be 0.65. What is the age of the rock if half-life of 238U is
.
(c). Does the temperature affect the rate of decay of radioactive nuclides? If so, how?
Q # 9. (a). Explain the basic process in nuclear fusion.
236 235
(b). How much energy is required to remove a neutron from U nucleus in its ground state, leaving a U nucleus
behind? The needed atomic masses are 236U=236.045563 µ, .
(c). What do you mean by critical mass?
i. Moseley’s Law
ii. Half wave Rectification
Physics Paper: C
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a). What is pn-junction? Define depletion region and potential barrier. Describe forward and reverse
characteristics of pn-junction diode.
(b). A LED is constructed from pn-junction based on certain semiconductor whose energy gap is 1.9 eV. What is the
wavelength of its emitted light?
(c). Distinguish between drift and Fermi speed of conduction electrons in metal.
Q # 2. (a). What is transistor? Describe the characteristics for common-emitter configuration.
(b). The current flowing into the base of transistor is , find its collector current and emitter current and the
ration ⁄ if .
(c). How does motion of electron in N-type substance differ from the motion of hole in P-type substance?
Q # 3. (a). What is an oscillator? Explain RL phase shift oscillator?
(b). What is load line? Define quiescent point.
(c). Define positive and negative feedback.
SECTION-II
Q # 4 (a). Define photoelectric effect. Explain photoelectric effect on the basis of Plank's quantum theory.
(b) Find maximum kinetic energy in eV of photoelectrons if work function of material is 2.33 eV and frequency of
radiation is .
(c) Why are photoelectric measurements so sensitive to the nature of photoelectric surface?
Q # 5 (a). Using Schrodinger wave equation, discuss the motion of free electron (particle).
(b) What do you mean by wave function? How it is related to probability of a particle?
(c) Does a photon have a de Broglie wavelength?
Q # 6 (a). Define Stern-Gerlach experiment and discuss its theory and result.
(b) A hydrogen atom state is known to have a quantum number . What are possible and quantum
numbers?
(c) Why does the concept of Bohr orbits violate the uncertainty principle?
Q # 7 (a). Define x-rays. Discuss continuous and characteristics x-rays spectrum.
(b) What is minimum p.d. across the x-ray tube that will produce X-rays with the wavelength of 0.126 nm.
(c) Write down four uses of x-rays.
Q # 8 (a). Define mass defect and describe binding energy of a nuclide.
(b) The mass no. of an atom is I20 and charge no. is 50. Find the binding energy per nucleon for its nucleus, if the mass of
nucleus is 119.902199 µ, mass of proton = l.007825 µ and mass of neutron = l.008665 µ.
(c) Define endothermic and exothermic reactions.
Q # 9 (a). What is alpha decay. Discuss the theory of alpha decay.
(b) Calculate the distance of closest approach for head-on-collision between a 5.30 MeV α-particle and nucleus of copper
atom.
(c) What do you mean by critical mass?
i. Full wave Rectification
ii. Half-life of a Radioactive Element
Physics Paper: C
SECTION-I
Q # 1. (a). Describe qualitatively the formation of energy bands in solids and their classification into metal,
semiconductors and insulators.
(b). Calculate the maximum wavelength that will produce photoconduction in diamond which has a band gap of 5.5 eV.
(c). Do pure semiconductors obey Ohm’s Law?
Q # 2. (a). Explain the circuit of Common Emitter Amplifier.
(b). How does positive Feedback to an amplifier leads to sustain oscillations?
(c). Name the minority carries in N-type and P-type semiconductors.
Q # 3. (a). Discuss the two input AND logic gate giving their symbolic form and truth table.
(b). Describe the basic circuit for a bistable multivibrator.
(c). Does a slab of N-type material carry a net negative charge?
SECTION-II
Q # 4: (a) What are cavity radiation and the factors on which they depend? Also describe three interrelated properties of
cavity radiations which can be verified in any laboratory and can be explained by the theory of cavity radiation.
(b) Calculate the wavelength of maximum spectral radiancy and identify the region of electromagnetic spectrum to which
it belongs for your body assuming a skin temperature of .
(c) Is energy quantized in classical physics?
Q # 5: (a) What is de Broglie's hypothesis? Describe the experimental evidence in support of de Broglie’s hypothesis.
(b) Calculate the de Broglie's wavelength of virus particle of mass moving at a speed of 2.0 mm/s and an
electron whose kinetic energy is I20 eV.
(c) Why is the wave nature of matter not more apparent in our daily observations?
Q # 6: (a) Stale the Bohr postulates as applied to hydrogen atom. Also derive expression for the radius of permitted orbits.
(b) What is the wavelength of the least energetic photon in the Balmer spectrum? What is the wavelength of the series
limit for the Balmer series?
(c) Compare Bohr's Theory and wave mechanics.
Q # 7: (a) What are X-rays? How Kα and Kβ lines are produced?
(b) What is the minimum potential difference across an x-ray tube that will produce x-rays with a wavelength of 0.l26
nm?
(c) Can atomic hydrogen be caused to emit it-rays? If so, describe how? If not, why not?
Q # 8: (a) What is natural radioactivity? Define half-life of a radioactive material and determine an expression for the half
life?
(b) The radioactive isotope 40K decays at an absolute rate of I600 counts per second. The radioactive isotope constitutes
1.13% of l.00g sample of KCI. The molar mass of KCI is 74.9 g/mol. Avogadro's number = per mole. What
is the half-life in years for this decay‘?
(c) Explain why, in alpha decay, short half-lives correspond to large disintegration energies and conversely.
Q # 9: (a) Discuss the theory of nuclear fission due to Neil Bohr and John Wheeler.
236 235
(b) How much energy is required to remove a neutron from a U nucleus in its ground state, leaving a U nucleus
behind? The needed atomic masses are 236U: 236.045563µ.
(c) If it’s so much harder to get a nucleon out of a nucleus than to get an electron out of an atom why try?
Q # 10: Write the explanatory notes on the following:
i. He-Ne Gas Laser
ii. Radioactive Dating

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What are cavity radiations and what factors do they depend on?

What are cavity radiations and what factors do they depend on?

What is De Broglie's hypothesis and what is the experimental evidence that supports it?

What is De Broglie's hypothesis and what is the experimental evidence that supports it?

B.Sc.

B.Sc. Physics MODERN PHYSICS in Past Papers of University of

B.Sc. Physics, Paper C, Annual 2017

LIGHT AND QUANTUM PHYSICS

where is a universal constant, called Stephen-Boltzmann constant. Its value is .

49.1.5 The Wien Displacement Law

The constant has the value of

Total Radiated Power (L)

The total radiated power of Betelgeuse is about 38000 times larger

Where k is the Boltzmann constant.

49.1.10 Max-Plank’s Quantum theory of Radiation

Where h is the plank’s constant having the numerical value of .

For a very long wavelengths i.e.,

Back substituting the value of , we have

This is the Rayleigh-Jeans formula.

For very short wavelengths, i.e.,

This is the Wien’s formula for spectral radiancy.

49.2 Photo Electric Effect

where is the stopping potential and is the charge of an electron.

 The energy of photo electrons

 The number of photo electrons emitted per second is directly

49.2.4 Threshold Frequency

where is the frequency of light and is the planks constant .

From equation (1), it is clear that the stopping potential and

Energy of incident photon

As , so no photoelectric effect will take place.

The cut off wavelength corresponds to green color.

49.3 The Compton Effect

Dividing equation by ‘ ’, we get:

Squaring both sides of the equation,

Squaring both sides, we get:

Squaring both sides, we get:

Adding equation (2) and (3)

Subtracting equation (4) from equation (1), we get:

(b) K.E imparted to electron

THE WAVE NATURE OF MATTER

Where h is Plank’s constant, m is mass and v is velocity of moving object.

Here for the first order diffraction peak

The kinetic energy of the electron is:

According to de Broglie hypothesis

(b) For photon

(c) For neutron

(b) Electric Potential

Problem 15: A neutron crystal spectrometer utilizes crystal planes of spacing in a

50.6 Waves and Particles

It means that the product is of the order of unity.

The spread of wavenumber will be:

Putting value of in equation (1), we get:

According to these relationships:

Consider the angle is very small, then

In case of location of the first minimum of diffraction, we have:

Here m=1 and if is very small, then

Comparing equation (1) and (2), we have:

According to the de Broglie hypothesis:

where is frequency of photon.