Motor Vehicle Enggg L2 by Tom Denton

Motor Vehicle
Engineering
Level 2
Second Edition
Tom Denton, BA, MIRTE, SAE, Cert. Ed.
Australia x Brazil x Japan x Korea x Mexico x Singapore x Spain x United Kingdom x United States
Motor Vehicle Engineering, 2nd Edition ©Tom Denton 2002
Tom Denton ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the
Publishing Director: John Yates copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored
or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic,
Publisher: Melody Dawes
or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying,
Manufacturing Manager: Helen Mason recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution,
Senior Production Controller: Maeve Healy information networks, or information storage and retrieval
Marketing Manager: Jason Bennett systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the
1976 United States Copyright Act, or applicable copyright
law of another jurisdiction, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
While the publisher has taken all reasonable care in
the preparation of this book, the publisher makes no
representation, express or implied, with regard to the
accuracy of the information contained in this book and
cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any
errors or omissions from the book or the consequences
thereof.
Products and services that are referred to in this book may
be either trademarks and/or registered trademarks of their
respective owners. The publishers and author/s make no
claim to these trademarks.
For product information and technology assistance,

contact [email protected].
For permission to use material from this text or product,
and for permission queries,
email [email protected]
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the
British Library.
ISBN: 978-1-86152-892-6
Cengage Learning EMEA

High Holborn House, 50-51 Bedford Row
London WC1R 4LR
Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

Nelson Education Ltd.
For your lifelong learning solutions, visit

www.cengage.co.uk
Printed by TJ International Ltd, Padstow,

Cornwall
6 7 8 9 10 – 10 09
Contents
Preface iv
Acknowledgements v
NVQ essential knowledge vi
1 Introduction and welcome! 1

2 Your good health and safety 11
3 Nuts and bolts – tools and equipment 26
4 Vehicle layouts 38
5 Engines 47
6 Fuel system 66
7 Cooling system 82
8 Air supply and exhaust systems 94
9 Ignition systems 102
10 Lubrication 117
11 Transmission 128
12 Suspension 141
13 Brakes 155
14 Steering, wheels and tyres 168
15 Electrical and electronic systems 184
16 Body, chassis and fittings 217
17 Preparing vehicles 228
18 Servicing 235
19 The business 243
20 Background studies 261
21 Revision, the web and what next? 286
Index 289
Preface
I’ve still got the same theory:

‘A car has an engine and some other bits to make the wheels go round. When
it breaks down or needs a service, it will in most cases be taken to a garage
for repairs. The garage will operate normal company systems to fix the car
and make a profit.’
I put the above in my first edition of this book because I know that different
qualifications and courses come and go! However, what you will find in this
book will continue to be relevant for quite some time, no matter what. The
welcomed changes to the NVQ standards are no exception. I have updated
any reference to NVQs but the technical content of the book has not changed
very much.
I still enjoy learning new things about vehicles and the motor trade in
general. I hope you enjoy your career as much as I have, and still do today.
I continue to welcome comments from lecturers and students via my web
site: http://www.automotive-technology.co.uk and thanks to all who have
already been in touch.
You will find that the web site content changes quite often so check back
from time to time. Information about my other books, technical articles, web
links and simulation software are available online. I hope to see you there.
Good luck with your studies and careers in the motor trade.
Tom Denton 2002
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the following companies who have supplied information
and/or given permission to reproduce photographs and diagrams. Figure
numbers are as listed:
AA Photo Library 3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 4.13, 4.14, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.15,
5.16, 6.4, 6.5, 7.2, 7.3, 7.6, 7.9, 7.11, 7.13, 7.16, 9.3, 10.6, 10.7, 11.3, 11.5, 11.7,
11.8, 11.11, 12.3, 12.4, 12.6, 12.9, 12.10, 12.12, 12.13, 12.14, 12.15, 12.17, 13.1,
13.2, 13.3, 13.6, 13.8, 13.10, 13.11, 13.12, 13.16, 14.2, 14.7, 14.8, 14.9, 14.13,
14.15, 14.16, 20.26
Autodata Ltd. 1.5, 17.3
Citroën UK Ltd. 15.8, 15.10
Draper Tools Ltd. 2.3, 3.6
Ford Motor Company Ltd. 4.6, 4.7, 4.9, 5.14, 6.1, 8.1, 9.12, 10.5, 10.9, 15.33,
16.4, 16.7
GenRad Ltd. 20.35
Glass’s Information Services Ltd. 19.7
Kelvedon Car & Service Centre 19.8, 19.9
Lucas Ltd. 3.14, 6.6, 9.4, 9.6, 9.9, 9.10, 15.11, 15.12, 15.14, 15.15, 15.16, 15.19,
15.23, 15.26, 20.9
Mazda Cars UK Ltd. 14.10, 16.1
Robert Bosch GmbH 1.3, 2.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.9, 9.5, 9.7, 9.15, 15.9, 15.13, 15.21
Robert Bosch Press Photos 6.2, 6.8, 6.9, 6.10, 6.11, 6.12, 15.17, 15.30, 15.37
Rover Cars Ltd. 4.8, 4.11, 4.12, 4.15, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.7, 5.8, 7.5, 7.12, 7.14, 8.8,
9.1, 9.11, 11.4, 11.6, 11.12, 13.4, 13.5, 13.7, 13.9, 13.14, 15.1, 15.7, 15.29, 15.32,
16.3, 16.6, 16.8, 16.9
RS Components Ltd. 3.4
SAF Suspension 12.7
Snap-on Tools Inc. 2.4, 3.15, 4.10, 5.19, 9.14, 10.10
Sun Electric UK Ltd. 6.16
Sykes-Pickavant Ltd. 7.17, 15.38
Unipart Group Ltd. 3.1, 3.9, 7.10, 8.5, 10.2, 13.15, 15.5
Yokohama Ltd. 14.12, 14.14
Thanks again to the listed companies. If I have used any information or

mentioned a company name not listed here, my apologies and
acknowledgements. Thanks to Digital University Press
(http://www.digitalup.co.uk) for permission to use photographs and
diagrams in the second edition
Last, but by no means least, thank you to my family: Vanda, Malcolm

and Beth.
NVQ level 2
Essential knowledge
This section refers you to the most relevant chapters of the level 2 and level 3 books relating to the
essential knowledge statements. The references given here are the important ones but check out the
essential knowledge statements in your portfolio for full details.
The level 2 and 3 light vehicle technician units that you must do are highlighted in bold. These are the
main ones covered by the two books. Other units are included because they are common options – and
you have to choose at least two of them!
Unit no. Unit title Level 2 Level 3

1 Contribute to good housekeeping 2 and 3 2 and 3
2 Ensure your own actions reduce risks to health and safety 2 2
3 Maintain positive working relationships 1, 2 and 19 1, 2 and 15
10 Remove and replace units and components 3 to 16
11 Carry out routine vehicle maintenance 18
12 Diagnose non-complex system faults 5 to 16 (last

part of each
chapter)
13 Diagnose complex system faults 3 and 12
14 Rectify complex system faults 3 to 11
15 Enhance vehicle system features 13
16 Overhaul basic electrical units 15 10
17 Overhaul units 5 to 6 3 to 11
18 Identify and agree customer vehicle needs 19
19 Inspect vehicles 17
20 Valet vehicles 14
21 Remove and replace non-structural body panels and components 16
I Facilitate learning through demonstration and instruction (ENTO) 15

1 Introduction and welcome!
1 Introduction
Start here! Hello! This book will help you learn and understand the essential knowledge
needed for your NVQ in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair. A term often used
to describe this is ‘underpinning knowledge’ or UPK. The NVQ in motor
vehicle engineering is a very practical qualification but this book does not try
to cover the practice in detail. However, in order to carry out practical work
to national standards, good background knowledge is essential – essential
knowledge!
Figure 1.1 You need background knowledge for practical work
You can study the contents of this book in any order you like, but it is not
intended to be a self-study pack. It is best used in conjunction with a course
of instruction. You will also find it useful to refer back to for looking up
information as required.
To obtain your NVQ you will need to show your assessor that you can do the
work and show that you have the necessary knowledge. This knowledge is
why you will need this book. Because our chosen subject is now so wide
ranging you will also need to look at other sources of information. These
other sources of information will be some or all of the following:
■ Your college or training centre teacher or assessor
■ Data books
■ Workshop manuals
■ Other textbooks, magazines and newspapers
■ CD ROM information
■ Videos
■ World Wide Web sites eg. http://www.automotive-technology.co.uk
■ Your workplace supervisor or experienced work mates.
2 Motor Vehicle Engineering
Figure 1.2 Sources of information
KEY WORDS The fine details of the UPK you need to gain will vary depending on your
particular situation at work. However, the basic facts are the same for all
■ All words in the motor vehicle systems and workshop operation methods.
table Good luck with your work and studies, and remember that in order to get
■ Sources of anything out of it you will have to put something in! I hope you enjoy the
information motor trade as much as I still do. As a final incentive, check the newspaper
job adverts and note that the top technicians earn very good money. This
may be several years away yet if you are just starting out, but I promise you
it is worth putting in the effort now.
How to use this One way to learn from a book is to read it all the way through! The trouble
book with this method is that by the time you get to the end you will have
forgotten what was at the beginning. To really learn you need to study each
part slowly and in detail. You will find that most of the chapters do not relate
directly to a particular qualification or unit. This is because an understanding
of the vehicle in particular and the motor trade in general is required for
almost all of the units.
If you flick through the book you will notice that each chapter (including this
one), is generally laid out in the same way.
Each chapter starts with a simple introduction (Start Here!) and then covers
terminology or in other words, the words and abbreviations you will need to
know for the particular section. The next parts deal with the subject in more
depth. Towards the end of each main section the key words are highlighted.
These are then followed by learning tasks related to the same section.
The idea is that after reading each main section and carrying out the learning
tasks, you will have a better understanding of the subject you have just read
about. At the very end of each chapter you will again find key words and
more learning tasks. You will be able to generate some essential knowledge
evidence for your portfolio as you complete the learning tasks. If you do not
understand any areas, you will be able to study the chapter again. It will be
quite normal to study some chapters more than once. Good luck with your
studies!
Introduction and welcome! 3
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Look back at the key words. Explain each one to a friend, and/or write out a short
description to keep as evidence.
➠ Read over any parts again until you have an understanding of what is needed for
you to gain a qualification.
Terminology
QCA Qualifications and Curriculum Authority – Government department that keeps an eye on
the quality of NVQs (amongst other things)
MITC Motor Industry Training Council. The people who set our standards, sometimes called
the National Training Organisation (NTO) and formerly called the Lead Body. MITC have
a good web site at http://www.mitc.co.uk
NVQ National Vocational Qualification
Essential knowledge or Underpinning knowledge – the essential knowledge, most of which you will learn from
UPK this book!
Evidence What you need to prove you can do something
Assessor The person who will assess and advise you in gaining your NVQ
Portfolio The collection of evidence, which is cross-referenced. Usually a ring binder but not always
Standards The units, key words and phrases, evidence specifications, performance objectives and
essential knowledge – set by MITC
Units Main parts required building up to an NVQ. About seven or eight units is normal for a
level 2 or 3
Elements Some older units are split into elements to further explain what is needed. Not now used
by MITC
Performance objectives Each element or unit has many performance objectives, which state exactly what you
(or criteria) must be able to do
Range statements Some NVQs use these to describe the range of subjects or systems you will cover
Key words and phrases Critical terminology, the vehicle areas and systems, equipment and methods used that are
required to achieve a unit
Evidence specifications This lists the type and amount of evidence required, the minimum number of observations
and the amount of evidence that must come from your normal workplace
What is an NVQ National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) were designed to meet the
and why do you modern and ever changing needs of our industry. They are also important in
need one? that a national standard has been set so we are all working towards the same
thing!
The main difference between other qualifications and NVQs is that the most
important requirement of the new qualification is that you can do your job.
This is of course what an employer wants and therefore will help you get a
good job.
Vocational means related to the work you do, but the qualification still
requires a large amount of understanding about motor vehicle technology. A
good example of what I mean is as follows.
Working in one particular garage or dealership specialising in one make of
car you will probably become quite good at fault finding the fuel or ignition
system. This is because you know the systems well, have seen it all before
and have all the information you need. When a different type of car comes in
Figure 1.3 Modern test equipment in use
for you to repair a similar fault, only by understanding the underpinning

principles (having the essential knowledge) will you be able to carry out
your work, and earn the good money you will deserve.
In the motor industry NVQs exist at different levels. These reflect the level of
work you are or will be doing.
■ NVQ 1 Basic tasks mostly under supervision
■ NVQ 2 Diagnose and repair faults to unit level
■ NVQ 3 Diagnose and repair detailed faults plus some degree of
supervision of others
■ NVQ4/5 Management of people and facilities.
An NVQ is made up of a number of units (7 or 8 but this varies). Each unit
will have a number of performance objectives (12 or 13 but again this varies).
These objectives are the heart of your NVQ as they specify what you must be
able to do. Also detailed in each unit is the essential knowledge you need to
know and understand. The range of vehicles and or systems as appropriate
to each unit is also specified.
The qualification is awarded when you have collected enough evidence to
show that you can meet all the requirements of all the units at your level. The
evidence specification is also included with each unit so you know exactly
what you have to be able to do. It is possible to gain credit for individual
units but most trainees aim at the complete qualification. Many trainees find
the language used in the standards confusing, but it is not too bad once you
have spent a little time to understand it. The standards are designed to be
up-to-date with modern practices and different work situations, which is
why they are written in general terms rather than trying to be too specific.
Some of the sections in this chapter mention ‘evidence’. This means evidence
KEY WORDS that you can meet the NVQ standards, by being able to do the work and also
show an understanding of the vehicle technology, and workplace systems.
■ Evidence This book will help with this essential knowledge and understanding. This
■ Assessments knowledge underpins everything you do, which is why it is described as
underpinning knowledge (UPK)!
One final thing to understand about an NVQ is that it is not a course at a
training centre or college; it is a qualification by assessment. This assessment
can occur at anytime, for example, after a significant period of experience in
the workplace. However, assessment in many cases will follow on from a

learning programme.
LEARNING TASK
2 Motor vehicle NVQ units
Introduction In this section I will give you my interpretation of some of the units but you
should check with your assessor who will be able to be more specific about
details as they relate to you. Most of the unit titles are self-explanatory but I
have added notes to some of them. Each unit covers many more situations
than the simple examples, but these will serve as a useful guide. I have only
listed the MITC units that the level 2 or level 3 Light Vehicle Technician
qualification is made up from. Depending on the qualification you are
aiming at you will need to complete about seven or eight of them. The next
section lists which units are required for all relevant qualifications.
Vehicle Table 2 shows my very simplified interpretation of the units and an example
maintenance and to help explain the meaning or requirements of each.
repair units
No. Unit title Interpretation Examples

1 Contribute to good housekeeping Keeping your tools, If you spill some oil, cover it with
equipment and work area granules and then sweep it up!
clean
2 Ensure your own actions reduce risks Deal with toxic materials Clean brakes with proper solvents,
to health and safety in the correct way, follow use axle stands after jacking up a
sensible safety procedures vehicle and lock the customer’s
and look after customers car when parking it outside the
property workshop
3 Maintain positive working Get on well at work with You must be able to accept
relationships your customers, work instructions, work well as part of a
mates, supervisor and boss team and be able to communicate
effectively
7 Repair tyres Inspect tyres, assess Remove a nail from a tyre and
whether they are suitable mend a puncture if it is safe to do
for repair and carry out a so
repair
10 Remove and replace units and This is often the main part Renew a wheel bearing identified
components of our work, together with as being noisy
the previous unit, remove
faulty parts and replace
with new. It means
following repair procedures
such as in a workshop
manual
11 Carry out routine vehicle You must be able to carry Carry out a full service to
maintenance out all types of service as manufacturer’s specifications
specified by the vehicle
manufacturers

12 Diagnose non-complex system faults When a car has a problem The car you are working on makes
you must be able to find a grinding or rumbling noise but
the cause or reason only when going round sharp left
hand bends. It’s probably a wheel
bearing but which one?
13 Diagnose complex system faults To be able to carry out Use diagnostic equipment to
tests and use diagnostic diagnose why the engine misfires
procedures to find out why at high speed or why the ABS
the vehicle is not warning light stays on
performing as it should
14 Rectify complex system faults Once a fault has been Again as above, once the high
diagnosed as above you speed misfire is diagnosed as say,
must be able to fix it! the rotor arm tracking, you must
be able to replace it and then
carry out further tests
15 Enhance vehicle system features Enhance means to do work Fitting alloy wheels and spot
which improves on the lights
original vehicle
16 Overhaul basic electrical units The bench based overhaul To take an old burnt out starter,
of electrical units such as strip it down, test and repair its
starter motors and parts as required and rebuild it to
alternators be as good as new!
17 Overhaul units The bench based overhaul To take an old seized up engine,
of units such as engines strip it down, test and repair its
and gearboxes parts as required and rebuild it to
be as good as new!
18 Identify and agree customer vehicle You must be able to meet Meet a customer at reception,
needs customers, deal with their find out from them the problem,
problems, answer questions quote a price and book the car in
and understand the issues to the workshop
of a contract
19 Inspect vehicles Inspect a vehicle and Carry out a pre-delivery
make sure it is safe, clean inspection (PDI)
and suitable for a customer
to use
20 Valet vehicles To be able to valet a car to A complete wash and wax polish
professional standards and the interior upholstery
cleaned
21 Remove and replace non-structural As well as non-structural Remove and refit a bonnet, boot
body panels and components panels, remove and lid and a windscreen
replace interior trim and
other components
34 Assess and secure the roadside To secure and make an Attend a breakdown on a
situation initial assessment of the motorway, set out warning
site and vehicle in order to triangle and make sure the
decide on the best course passengers are safe. Call the fire
of action service if the situation demands it
35 Remove and transport vehicles from Recover and transport Lift a vehicle and suspend tow it
the roadside upright vehicles from the to the workshop
roadside or other hard
standing
I Process payments for purchases Ensuring payments are Order parts and follow the system
(METO) made for items obtained through to make the payment
I Place goods and materials in storage Operate a parts storage Keep the stores in good order and
(DNTO) system in a secure condition

I Join engineering materials through Welding and brazing Use a MIG welder to repair a
thermal joining operations (EMTA) operations crack in an engine mounting
I D32 (ENTO) Observe and assess the Watch a new trainee removing
performance of a candidate brake pads and assess his/her
performance
I D33 (ENTO) Assess a candidate by Check out a collection of job
working with different sorts cards and assess how a candidate
of evidence is doing
I Facilitate learning through Work with new trainees to Explain to a trainee how to
demonstration and instruction (ENTO) develop their change pads, demonstrate the task
understanding and then get them to have a go
Units required for a This section list all the MITC Units as well as those imported (because they
‘Vehicle are common to many qualifications) from elsewhere. The two main routes
Maintenance & are highlighted in bold.
Repair’ qualification
Key:
Vehicles: LV = Light, HV = Heavy, MC = Motorcycle.
Units: M = Mandatory, O = Optional, I = Imported.
Level 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
Vehicle inspector
Auto electrician
Auto electrician
Auto electrician
Vehicle valeter
MC technician
HV technician
HV technician
LV technician
LV technician
Units/Qualifications
1 Contribute to good housekeeping M M M M M M M M M M

2 Ensure your own actions reduce risks to M M M M M M M M M M
health and safety
3 Maintain positive working relationships M M M M M M M M M M
7 Repair tyres O O O
8 Locate simple electrical/electronic faults O M
9 Remove and replace electrical components M
10 Remove and replace units and components M M M
11 Carry out routine vehicle maintenance O M M M M M M O M
12 Diagnose non-complex system faults M M M M
13 Diagnose complex system faults M M M M
14 Rectify complex system faults M M M M
15 Enhance vehicle system features O O O O O O O O
16 Overhaul basic electrical units O O O O
17 Overhaul units O O M O
18 Identify and agree customer vehicle needs O M O O O O O O O O
19 Inspect vehicles M O O M O M M M M
20 Valet vehicles M O O O O O
21 Remove and replace non-structural body O O O
Panels and components
Level 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
Vehicle inspector
Auto electrician
Auto electrician
Auto electrician
Vehicle valeter
MC technician
HV technician
HV technician
LV technician
LV technician
Units/Qualifications
34 Assess and secure the roadside situation O O O O

35 Remove and transport vehicles from the roadside O O O O
I Process payments for purchases (METO) O O O O O
I Contribute to the security of the workplace O O
(DNTO)
I Place goods and materials in storage (DNTO) O O O O O O
I Join engineering materials through thermal O O O O
joining operations (EMTA)
I D32 (ENTO) O O O O
I D33 (ENTO) O O O O
I Facilitate learning through demonstration and O O O O
instruction (ENTO)
Number of option units that must be completed 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
Collecting evidence To prove that you can ‘do the job’ you have to collect evidence, which shows
for your portfolio you can meet the standards. This will usually be collected in a ring binder or
similar. The evidence has to be cross-referenced to show that it covers all the
requirements of the standards. Some performance objectives may require
more than one piece of evidence. The awarding body (where your certificate
comes from such as City & Guilds or the IMI) will supply lists of the
standards and ‘tick boxes’ to help you. Your assessor will give lots of help
and guidance but you can make a start, by collecting evidence from both
work and your training centre or college.
Evidence can come from many sources. The following list gives some
examples.
■ Direct observations of you working carried out by an assessor
■ Job cards showing work you have done in a garage
■ Tasks you have carried out while your supervisor was observing
■ Results of tests or examinations
■ Answers to verbal questions
■ Written statements made by an expert, for example, your employer
(witness testimony)
■ Previous certificates
■ Photographs
■ Examples of your work
■ Videos.
In most cases the evidence you supply will be from those towards the top of this
list. However, if the evidence is good and can be proved, any type can be used.
We all have different needs and situations. Your assessor will advise you what is
best in your case. It is also important to note that evidence should come from a
task completed after training has taken place, and not the training exercise itself.
Figure 1.4 Collecting evidence for your portfolio
3 A Modern Apprenticeship
What does it mean? The Modern Apprenticeship is a government initiative. It is to formalise

apprentice training in the context of NVQs. In the same way that NVQs try
to take a common approach to different qualifications, so the Modern
Apprenticeships try to make a common approach to apprenticeships.
Because of the technical developments related to vehicles and their systems,
a thorough understanding of principles and concepts is required as well as
practical competences. Key skills are included as part of the overall
qualification. Together this makes the qualification contain skills, which are
more transferable over a range of jobs.
Modern Apprenticeships (mod. apps) are available as foundation (level 2)
and advanced (level 3). A technician version is also available where a greater
content of maths and science is required.
Requirements Modern Apprenticeship Framework (Advanced)

■ NVQ Level 3 in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair
Plus key skills:
■ Level 1 Information Technology
■ Level 2 Communication
■ Level 2 Application of Number
■ Level 2 Problem Solving
■ Level 3 Improve Own Learning and Performance
■ Level 3 Working With Others
Modern Apprenticeship Framework (Foundation)
■ NVQ Level 2 in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair
Plus key skills:
■ Level 1 Information Technology
■ Level 2 Communication
■ Level 2 Application of Number
■ Level 2 Problem Solving
■ Level 2 Improve Own Learning and Performance
■ Level 2 Working With Others
Key skills Key skills are the ‘key skills’ you will need to carry out your job to a good
standard. One of the most important aspects is that these skills are
transferable. In other words they are useful skills to have for life in general as
well as your work in the motor trade. I know it is hard at times to think
ahead, but try and consider the number of further opportunities that will be
available to you as your career and life progresses if you are able to:
■ Use information technology
■ Communicate well
■ Solve problems
■ Apply and use numbers
■ Improve your own learning and performance, and
■ Work with others.
Put in the work now and it will pay off in the future!
Underpinning or
Schemes of underpinning knowledge are available for modern apprenticeships.
essential knowledge
Each of these areas is covered in different parts of the level 2 and 3 books. The
‘Light Vehicle Maintenance and Repair’ qualification has the following contents:
Engine mechanical Driveshafts Vehicle augmentation Fixing/securing devices
Cooling system Wheels, tyres, wheel Vehicle valeting, Friction, lubrication,
Engine lubrication system bearings preparation and bearings
Fuel system Braking system inspection Electrics/electronics
Ignition system Suspension system Customer relations and Science
Clutch/fluid couplings Steering system contracts Fault diagnosis
Manual transmission Body Safety Interpreting information
Automatic transmission Electric/electronic Measurement
Final drive/differential systems Materials
You will be able to cover the above requirements from the level 2 and 3 books.
Please note though that as I have said before, you will have to access information
from a variety of sources to cover all the requirements to the necessary standard.
Figure 1.5 Refer to technical information to ensure the job is done correctly
The The Modern Apprenticeship scheme requires all the NVQ units to be achieved
contract/agreement as well as a number of key skills. It is designed to formalise apprentice training
to NVQ standards and include key skills. A contract or agreement is required
between the local Learning Skills Council (LSC), training centre, employer and
employee (you). This is to ensure each of the parties get what they want. Refer
to chapter 19 of the level 2 book for further details about contracts.
KEY WORDS
LEARNING TASK
■ All words in the
tables ➠ Look back at the key words. Explain each one to a friend, and/or write out a short
■ Modern
Apprenticeship If you enter into a modern apprenticeship agreement you must be aware of
■ Key skills all the details of what you are signing, and then be prepared to carry them
out! If this is the best scheme for you then go for it and work hard.
2 Your good health and safety
1 Introduction
Start here! It is tempting to think that health and safety is a boring subject. Well, it’s not
half as boring as spending months in hospital, the rest of your life in a
KEY WORDS wheelchair or doing time in prison! These three things are all possible if
health and safety rules are not followed. Health and safety plays an
■ All words in the important part in most of the NVQ units. You will have to learn quite a few
table new things in this chapter, but you will also come to realise that most of
■ Fault them are common sense.
■ Blame ‘Health and safety is the responsibility of everyone in the workplace.’
Just think how the following example would affect many people besides
yourself. Working on a customer’s car, you jack up the front, ‘forget’ to use
axle stands. Next you remove the wheels. Whilst sitting on the floor with
Figure 2.1 Stands must be placed under a suitable part of the body, such as a
suspension mounting
your legs under the car, a leaking seal on the jack finally gives in and the car
drops on to your legs. Later in hospital you find out that you have a broken
ankle on one leg and the knee cap on the other is shattered.
■ How could this accident affect you? Apart from suffering severe pain,
you are likely to lose money from being off work. In extreme cases you
may never be able to work again.
■ How could this accident affect your employer? Your employer could be
in serious trouble if he or she contributed in any way to the accident by
not following regulations. At the very least the employer will lose
money while you are off and will be put to a great deal of trouble sorting
out the problems.
■ How could this accident affect your work mates? If the health and safety
inspection which would follow such an accident found other problems,
the workshop may be closed down. Your mates might lose their jobs. At
the very least they would have to work harder to make up for you being
off work.
■ How could this accident affect your family? Depending how serious
your injuries are, your family may have to look after you for a long time
or even for life. The least that will happen is that they will be very upset
and put to a great deal of trouble visiting or looking after you.
■ Whose fault was the accident? Not mine! Somebody else’s! In the end it
can only ever come back to one person. You! The blame could be spread
out a bit, the jack should not have been used if it was leaking. Maybe
your employer should have noticed this. You should have been trained
to use axle stands. Maybe your supervisor should have stopped you. But
there is only one person who could have stopped you getting hurt. You!
‘It’s cool to be smart and safe’
Terminology
HASAW Health and Safety at Work Act. The Act is designed to make us all aware of
workplace dangers
COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health. This is to ensure that an
individual or a company takes responsibility for hazardous substances such as
old engine oil or cleaning fluids
EPA Environmental Protection Act. This Act puts very tight controls on the way a
business is allowed to affect the environment
Health and Safety Inspectorate A government agency who make sure the HASAW is followed
Health and safety audit An inspection carried out in a workshop, for example, to check for anything
which may not comply with regulations
Risk assessment As part of an inspection you may examine, say, a wheel free ramp. The risks
in using this equipment should be assessed and then reduced as much as is
reasonably possible
PPE Personal protective equipment
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch of a workshop and clearly mark possible causes of accidents.
2 Health and safety regulations

What does the The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 places a strict duty on employers to
Health and Safety ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, safe working conditions and the
at Work Act absence of risks to health in connection with the use, handling, storage and
mean? transport of articles and substances.
KEY WORDS The Act places a statutory duty on employers to have a declared safety
policy for a business in which more than five people are employed.
■ Construction and
First a company safety policy must be established and a safety committee
Use Regulations
formed. The committee should consist of members with specialised
■ MOT knowledge of the risks of a particular area, such as the workshop or offices.
■ Risk assessment The chairperson of the committee should be a senior member of the
company.
The Act does not specify what you should do; it merely provides the
framework in which you should operate and establishes the Health and
Your good health and safety 13
Safety Executive and the Health and Safety Commission. The Act regulates
all working methods. Its importance cannot be overemphasised: no working
methods may be used that can be seen to be a health or safety hazard to
employees.
The Act can be split into two areas.
1. Employers have a duty to safeguard the health, safety and welfare of their
employees.
2. Employees have a duty to safeguard themselves and their work mates.
Each of these areas can be briefly summarised as follows; note in each case
how you can apply the ‘common sense’ approach to safety. The employer
must provide the following:
■ safe place of work with safe access and exits
■ safe working environment and appropriate welfare arrangements
■ safe systems of work
■ safe plant, equipment and tools
■ safe methods of storing, handling and moving goods
■ a procedure for reporting accidents and an accident book
■ a safety policy
■ information, instruction, training and supervision where appropriate.
As an employee you must:
■ co-operate with your employer to comply with the HASAW
■ take care of your own health and safety as well as that of your work
mates
■ not interfere with or misuse any health and safety items.
Health and Safety The Health and Safety Inspectorate is a government agency responsible for
Inspectorate ensuring that companies comply with the health and safety laws. It has the
following tasks:
■ to inspect work places to ensure that the HASAW and other safety laws
are being observed
■ to investigate the causes of serious accidents
■ to prosecute anyone found breaking the laws (employer or employee).
The Inspectorate has many powers, including the right to enter your
workshop and inspect it to make sure the law is being followed. If any
problems are found, the Inspectorate can carry out one or all of the
following:
■ Issue an improvement notice – this gives the owner of the premises a set
time to do something, for example to put up warning notices.
■ Issue a prohibition notice – this says that the work being carried out in a
particular place must stop until the problem is put right. For example, a
ramp may have to be repaired and tested before it is used again.
■ Prosecute the person breaking the law – either the employer or the
employee. For example, after a serious accident the Inspectorate can take
the case to court, where very large fines and/or imprisonment can be the
result.
Anybody, including employees, can ask the Inspectorate to look into cases
involving the health and safety laws.
Figure 2.2 A motor vehicle workshop
Other safety acts, The HASAW is the most important Act, but many other rules and
rules and regulations affect the workplace. This shows how important the wellbeing of
regulations workers is considered to be. You do not have to learn this section off by
heart, but you must be aware that a variety of legislation exists. You may see
notices displayed in your workshop which relate to some of the items on the
following list. You should read these notices.
■ The Electricity at Work Regulations
■ The Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations
■ Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928
■ Petroleum (Mixtures) Orders 1929 and 1947
■ Weights and Measures Act 1963
■ Fire Precautions Act 1971
■ Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gases Regulations
1972
■ Abrasive Wheel Regulations 1974
■ Control of Pollution Act 1974
■ Protection of Eyes Regulations 1974
■ Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
■ Fire Precautions (Factories, Offices, Shops and Railway Premises) Order
1976
■ Control of Pollution (Special Wastes) Regulations 1980
■ Classification, Packaging and Labelling of Dangerous Substances
Regulations 1984
■ Road Vehicle Construction and Use Regulations 1986
■ Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 1988
■ Environment Protection Act 1990
■ Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992
■ Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992
Figure 2.3 Personal protective equipment (PPE)
■ Personal Protection Equipment at Work (PPE) Regulations 1992

■ Manual Handling Operation Regulations 1992
■ Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992.
The HASAW is the most important Act, as it places duties on the employer
and employee. However, you can check details of any of the others in your
local library. They do make rather heavy reading though, so if you are in any
doubt, ask your supervisor or teacher.
Personal protective Personal protective equipment, such as safety clothing, is very important.
equipment (PPE) Some people think it clever or tough not to use protection. They are very
likely to die or be injured long before you! Some risks are obvious: you could
burn or cut yourself when holding a hot or sharp exhaust! Other things, such
as breathing in brake dust or working in a noisy area, do not produce
immediately noticeable effects but could affect you later in life.
Fortunately the risks to workers are now quite well understood and we can
protect ourselves before it is too late. In the following table I have listed a
number of items classed as PPE (personal protective equipment) together
with suggested uses. You will see that the use of most items is plain common
sense. Where a hazard has been identified, your employer should by law
supply suitable equipment.
Equipment Notes Example uses
Ear defenders Must meet appropriate standards When working in noisy areas or if using an
air chisel
Face mask For individual personal use only Dusty conditions. When cleaning brakes or
if preparing bodywork
High visibility clothing Fluorescent colours such as yellow Working in traffic, e.g. to attend a
or orange breakdown
Equipment Notes Example uses

Leather apron Should be replaced if it is holed or When welding or working with
worn thin very hot items
Leather gloves Should be replaced when they become When welding or working with very
holed or worn thin hot items and also if handling sharp
metalwork
Life jacket Must meet current standards Use when attending vehicle breakdowns on
ferries!
Overalls Should be kept clean and be flame These should be worn at all times to
proof if used for welding protect your clothes and skin. If you get
too hot, just wear shorts and a T-shirt
underneath
Rubber or plastic apron Replace if holed Use if you do a lot of work with battery
acid or with strong solvents
Rubber or plastic gloves Replace if holed Gloves must always be used when using
degreasing equipment
Safety shoes or boots Strong toe caps are recommended Working in any workshop with heavy
equipment
Safety goggles Keep the lenses clean Always use goggles when grinding or when
any risk of eye contamination. Cheap plastic
goggles are much easier to come by than
new eyes!
Safety helmet Must be to current standards For some types of under vehicle work
Welding goggles or Check the goggles are suitable for You should wear welding goggles or
welding mask the type of welding. Gas welding use a mask even if you are only
goggles are not good enough when assisting by holding something
arc welding
Good working Working in a motor vehicle workshop is a dangerous occupation if you do

practice – not take care. If you’re aware of the hazards, it is easy to avoid the danger.
identifying and The hazards in a workshop are from two particular sources; firstly from you,
reducing hazards such as caused by:
■ carelessness – particularly whilst moving vehicles
■ drinking or taking drugs – these badly affect your ability to react to
dangerous situations
■ tiredness or sickness – these will affect your abilities to think and work
safely
■ messing about – most accidents are caused by people fooling about
■ not using safety equipment – you have a duty to yourself and others to
use safety equipment
■ inexperience – or lack of supervision. If in doubt, ask.
The second source of hazards are the surroundings in which you work. They
may have:
■ bad ventilation
■ poor lighting
■ noise
■ dangerous substances stored incorrectly
■ broken or worn tools and equipment
■ faulty machinery
■ slippery floors
■ untidy benches and floors
■ unguarded machinery
■ unguarded pits.
The following table lists some of the hazards you will come across in a
vehicle workshop. Also listed are the risks of these hazards and ways we can
reduce the risks. This is called risk assessment.
Hazard Risk Action

Power tools Damage to the vehicle or Understand how to use the equipment
personal injury and wear suitable protective clothing, for
example gloves and goggles
Working under a car on the The vehicle could roll or be Ensure you use wheel chocks
ramp driven off the end
You can bang your head on hard Set the ramp at the best working
or sharp objects when working height, wear protection if appropriate
under the car
Working under a car on a The vehicle could fall on top The correct axle stands should be used
jack of you and positioned in a secure place
Compressed air Damage to sensitive organs such Do not fool around with compressed
as ears or eyes. Death, if air is air. A safety nozzle prevents excessive
forced through the skin into air forces
your blood stream
Dirty hands and skin Oil, petrol, diesel and other Use a good quality barrier cream and
contaminants can cause serious wash you hands regularly. Do not allow
health problems. This can range dirt to transfer to other parts of your
from dermatitis to skin cancer body. Good overalls should be worn at all
times and in some cases gloves
Exhaust fumes Poisonous gases such as carbon Only allow running engines in very well
monoxide can kill. The other ventilated areas or use an exhaust
gases can cause cancer or at extraction system
best restrict breathing and cause
sore throats
Engine crane Injury or damage can be caused Ensure the crane is strong enough (do
if the engine swings and falls off not exceed its safe working load, SWL).
Secure the engine with good quality sling
straps and keep the engine near to the
floor when moving across the workshop
Cleaning brakes Brake dust (especially from older Only wash clean with proper brake
types made of asbestos) is cleaner
dangerous to health
Petrol Fire or explosion Keep all petrol away from sources of
ignition. Do not smoke when working on a
vehicle
Degreaser Damage to skin or damage to Wear proper gloves and make sure the
sensitive components solvent will not affect the items you are
washing
Spillage such as oil Easy to slip, fall and be injured Clean up spills as they happen and use
absorbent granules
Battery electrolyte (acid) Dangerous on your skin and in Wear protective clothing and take
particular your eyes. It will also extreme care
rot your clothes
Hazard Risk Action
Welding a vehicle The obvious risk is fire, but Have fire extinguishers handy, remove
electric welders such as a MIG combustible materials such as carpets
welder can damage sensitive and ensure petrol pipes are nowhere
electronic systems near. The battery earth lead must also be
disconnected
Electric hand tools The same risk as power tools Do not use electric tools in damp or
but also the danger of electric wet conditions. Electrical equipment
shocks. particularly in damp or should be inspected regularly by a
wet conditions. This can be fatal competent person
Driving over a pit Driving into the pit The pit should be covered; or get a friend
to guide you and drive very slowly
Broken tools Personal injury or damage to All tools should be kept in good order
the car. For example a file at all times. This will also make the
without a handle can stab into work easier
your wrist. A faulty ratchet
could slip
Moving loads Injuries in a workshop are often due to incorrect lifting or moving of heavy
loads. Heavy and large components (e.g. engines and gearboxes) can cause
injury when being removed and refitted. A few simple precautions will
prevent you from injuring yourself, or others.
■ Never try to lift anything beyond your capability – get a mate to help.
How much you can safely lift will vary, but always get help if lifting
heavy or difficult loads.
■ Whenever possible use an engine hoist, a transmission jack or a trolley.
■ Lift correctly, using your legs, and keep your back straight.
■ When moving heavy loads on a trolley, get help and position yourself so
you will not be run over if you lose control.
■ The best option in all cases is simply to avoid manual handling where
possible.
Figure 2.4 Engine crane and other lifting equipment
Vehicle safety Vehicle safety and the associated regulations can be very complicated.
However, for our purposes we can consider the issue across two main areas,
construction and use of the vehicle.
Construction of the vehicle

Before a vehicle can be constructed a prototype has to be submitted for type
Figure 2.5 Vehicles must be in a safe condition to be used on the road
approval. This means the vehicle has to pass very stringent tests and that it
has to meet all current safety requirements. Different countries have different
systems, so some modifications to a car may be necessary if it is to be
imported or exported. The European Union (EU) has published many
‘directives’ which each member country must incorporate into its own
legislation. This has helped to standardise many aspects. In the UK the Road
Vehicles Construction and Use Regulations 1986 ensure certain standards are
met. If you become involved in modifying a vehicle, e.g. for import, you may
need to refer to the details of these regulations.
Many other laws exist relating to the motor vehicle and the environment.
These are about emissions and pollution. Environmental laws change quite
often, so it is important to keep up to date.
The Department of Transport states that all vehicles over three years old
must undergo an annual safety check to ensure they comply with the current
legislation. First set up by the Ministry of Transport, it continues to be
known as the MOT test. It now includes checks relating to environmental
laws.
Driving and operating the vehicle

To drive a vehicle on the road you must have an appropriate driving licence
and insurance; the vehicle must be taxed (or have trade plates fitted) and
must be in safe working order. The highway code must be observed.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Read the important parts of any notices in your workshop.
➠ Write a short explanation about how to lift and carry an engine weighing 50 kg.
➠ Write a short explanation about the safety aspects of changing brake shoes.
3 Look after yourself, your workshop and your work

mates
Safety procedures In this section you will learn how you can ‘contribute to the limitation of
damage to persons or property in the event of an accident or emergency’.
KEY WORDS When you know the set procedures to be followed, it is easier to look after
yourself, your workshop and your work mates. You need to:
■ Triangle of fire
■ know who does what during an emergency.
■ Accident book
■ know the fire procedure for your workplace, the different types of fire
■ Reporting extinguisher and their uses
■ Emergency ■ know who is responsible for keeping the accident book and the
procedure procedure for reporting an accident.
The rest of this section examines these points in more detail.
When things do go If an accident does occur in your workplace the first bit of advice is ‘Keep
wrong! calm and don’t panic’! The HASAW states that for companies above a certain
size:
■ first aid equipment must be available
■ employers should display simple first aid instructions
■ fully trained first aiders must be employed.
Figure 2.6 Make sure

you know what to do in
case of an accident such as
electric shock
You need to know where first aid equipment is located in your workplace,
familiarise yourself with the first aid instructions and know who to ask for
help. The following table shows how to react if a serious accident occurs.
Action Notes
Assess the situation Stay calm, it’s important to take a few seconds to think
Remove the danger If the person was working with a machine, turn it off. If someone is electrocuted, switch
off the power before you hurt yourself. Even if you are unable to help with the injury, you
can stop it getting worse
Get help If you are not trained in first aid, get someone who is and/or phone for an ambulance
Stay with the casualty If you can do nothing else, the casualty can be helped if you stay with him or her. Also say
that help is on its way and be ready to assist. You may need to guide the ambulance
Report the accident All accidents must be reported. Your company is legally bound to have an accident book,
so that steps can be taken to prevent the accident happening again. Also, if the injured
person claims compensation, a record of the accident exists – no one can deny it
happened!
Learn first aid If you are in a very small company why not get trained now, before the accident?
Fire! Accidents involving fire are very serious. First of all call the fire brigade or
get somebody else to do it; do not assume it has been done. Then:
■ get safe yourself and shout ‘FIRE!’
■ help others to get safe
■ only fight the fire if it does not put you or others at risk.
Heat Oxygen
‘It’s easy to rebuild a car or a workshop – it’s not easy to rebuild you’
Of course it’s far better not to let a fire start in the first place! Three things
start a fire and keep it burning:
■ Fuel – this can range from the obvious such as petrol to piles of rubbish
Fuel or a car interior.
Figure 2.7 The fire ■ Heat – a match or lighter, a spark from a cigarette or heat from a welding
triangle torch. Also electrical sparks or a spark caused by dropping a steel object.
■ Oxygen – the air contains about 20% oxygen.
These are often called the fire triangle. Unless all three are present, a fire will
not start or burn. There are two lessons to be learnt here: how to prevent the
fire (best option) and how to put out a fire. To prevent the fire you must
never allow all three things to come together. Any two – such as a welding
torch held in the air, or petrol spilt on a cold floor – do not cause a problem.
The welding torch next to the spilt petrol, on the other hand, would cause a
fire!
In the event of a fire your workplace should have a set procedure, so that
you know:
1. how the alarm is raised
2. what the alarm sounds like
3. what to do when you hear the alarm
4. your escape route from the building
5. where to assemble
6. who is responsible for calling the fire brigade.
If it is safe to do so, you should try and put out a small fire. Extinguishers
and a fire blanket should be provided. Remember: the object is to remove
one side of the ‘triangle’, and the fire will go out. But this is not quite as
obvious as it first seems. If you put enough water on a fire, it will cool down
and go out. However, spraying water on an electrical circuit could kill you!
POWDER
WATER
FOAM
CO2
BCF
Figure 2.8 Different types of fire extinguishers
Spraying water on a petrol fire could spread it about and make the problem
far worse. This means that a number of different fire extinguishers are
needed. These are colour coded to allow easy recognition and are listed in
the following table.
Colour Type How it works Used on DANGER
Red Water Removes the heat Wood, paper, Do not use on

fabrics etc electrical or flammable
liquid fires
Black Carbon dioxide Removes the oxygen Electrical or
(CO2) flammable liquid fires
Green Vaporising liquid Removes the oxygen Electrical or

(Halon BCF) flammable liquid fires
Blue Dry powder Removes the oxygen All fires, in particular
and some heat flammable liquids and
gases
Cream Foam Removes the oxygen Flammable liquids Do not use on
and some heat electrical fires
Red blanket Fire proof blanket Smothers the fire Smother a fire such
as a person’s clothes
All extinguishers have instructions written on them. Read them now before it
is too late! European regulations are set to make all fire extinguishers green
with coloured bands but the colours will be the same.
Reporting All accidents must be reported, and your company is legally bound to have
requirements an accident book. Accidents do not have to involve injury. If you report that
a leaking jack seal caused a car to fall, even if no harm was done, you could
prevent another, potentially serious, accident. The book allows a record to be
kept so that steps can be taken to prevent the accident happening again. All
accidents, no matter how small, should be reported. Even a scratch can
become infected and become more serious, but you should use your common
sense.
If an injured person claims compensation at some future time, the accident
book provides a record of what happened. The book should be kept by a
responsible person.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine your workshop and look for ways in which fires could start. Where are
the exits, the alarm and the extinguishers? Make a simple sketch of what you find.
➠ Write short notes to explain how to reduce the risk of fire in a workshop.
4 Looking after the workshop and equipment
Keep it clean There are three main reasons for keeping your workshop and equipment
clean and tidy:
KEY WORDS
1. It makes it a safer place to work.
■ Solvents 2. It makes it a better place to work.
■ Detergents 3. It gives a better image to your customers.
■ Granules
Servicing and fixing motor vehicles can be a dirty job. But if you clean up
■ Warning signs after any dirty job, your workshop is a much more pleasant place to work.
■ Disposal The HASAW Act makes the employer provide a safe and clean place of
work. Further requirements are contained in the Factories Act.
■ The workshop and floor should be uncluttered and clean to prevent
accidents and fires as well as maintaining the general appearance.
■ Your workspace reflects your ability as a technician. A tidy workspace
equals a tidy mind, equals a tidy job, equals a tidy wage when you are
qualified.
■ Hand tools should be kept clean as you are working. Your tools are
expensive – look after them and they will look after you.
■ Large equipment should only be cleaned by a trained person or a person
under supervision. Obvious precautions are to ensure equipment cannot
be operated while you are working on it and to use only appropriate
cleaning methods. For example, would you use a bucket of water or a
brush to clean down an electric pillar drill? I hope you answered ‘the
brush’!
Cleaning materials In motor vehicle workshops many different cleaning operations are carried
out. This means a number of different materials are required. I have split the
materials into three different types. The manufacturer’s instructions printed
on the container must be followed at all times.
Solvents often give

off fumes – take care
Absorbent
Granules
Figure 2.9 Cleaning

materials Detergent
Material Purpose Notes
Detergents Mixed with water for washing vehicles Some industrial detergents are very
etc. Also used in steam cleaners for strong and should not be allowed to
engine washing etc come into contact with your skin
Solvents To wash away and dissolve grease Never use solvents such as thinners or
and oil etc. The best example is the petrol because they are highly
liquid in the degreaser or parts washer inflammable. Suitable PPE should be
which all workshops will have used, for example gloves etc
Absorbent granules To mop up oil and other types of Most granules are a chalk or clay type
spills. They soak up the spillage after material which has been dried out
a short time and can then be swept up
Some extra notes about solvents:

■ They may attack your skin.
■ Many are flammable.
■ The vapour given off can be dangerous.
■ They may cause serious problems if splashed into eyes.
■ Take extra care.
■ Read the label.
The COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to Health) Regulations say
that all materials should carry a description of how to use them and that the
dangers should also be spelled out on the packaging. You should not use any
cleaning materials unless trained.
Safety regulations Regulations, in particular the HASAW Act, were covered in some detail
and warning signs earlier. Try to remember the following:
■ identify hazards
■ remove them, or
■ reduce the risk as much as possible and bring the hazard to everyone’s
attention.
This is normally done by using signs or markings. There is a standard system
of signs used to mark hazards. This consists of three types of signs:
Prohibition signs/
instructions
Caution signs/danger
warning
Mandatory
signs/directions
Figure 2.10 Examples of warning signs

Function Notes Background colour Foreground colour
Danger warning E.g. open pit or fire risk Yellow Black

Instructions E.g. use safety goggles when Blue White
operating this machine
Directions Escape routes or location of Green White
safety equipment such as
first aid
Disposing of Protecting the environment is an important aspect of our work that is now
hazardous backed up by regulations. In a workshop these regulations relate mostly to
materials and engine oil and solvents used for cleaning or painting:
environmental
1. Disposal methods must not breach current regulations.
protection
2. Use of solvents should be kept to a minimum.
3. Gaseous emissions should be kept to a minimum.
You and your employer are responsible for your waste. It is no longer
acceptable to just dump things. Only licenced contractors can dispose of
certain materials. Failure to comply can mean heavy fines or even prison.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a workshop and make a note of the different cleaning materials.
➠ Write a short explanation about how to dispose of waste oil.
3 Nuts and bolts – tools and
equipment
1 Introduction
Start here! This chapter is really about joining things together. The correct methods of
joining must be used in the construction and repair of a modern motor
KEY WORDS
vehicle. Joining can cover many aspects, ranging from simple nuts and bolts
to very modern and sophisticated adhesives.
table The choice of a joining method for a repair will depend on the original
method used as well as consideration of the cost and strength required.
Joining method Example Notes
Pins, dowels and keys Clutch pressure plate to the Used for strength and alignment in conjunction with nuts
flywheel or bolts in most cases
Riveting Some brake shoe linings This involves metal pegs which are deformed to make the
joint
Compression fitting Wheel bearings Often also called an interference fit. The part to be fitted
is slightly too large or small as appropriate. Pressure has
to be used to make it fit
Shrinking Flywheel ring gear The ring gear is heated to make it expand and is then
fitted in position. As it cools it contracts and holds firmly
in place
Adhesives Body panels and sound Adhesive, or glue, is now very popular as it is often
deadening cheap, quick, easy and waterproof. Also, when two items
are bonded together, the whole structure becomes
stronger
Nuts, screws, washers Just about everything! Metric sizes are now most common, but many other
and bolts sizes and thread patterns are available. This is a very
convenient and strong fixing method
Welding Exhaust pipes and boxes There are several methods of welding, oxy-acetylene and
MIG being the most common. The parts to be joined are
melted so they mix together and then set in position
Brazing Some body panels Brazing involves using high temperatures to melt brass
which forms the join between two metal components
Soldering Electrical connections Solder is made from lead and tin. It is melted with an
electric iron to make it flow into the joint
Clips, clamps and ties Hoses cables etc Hose clips, for example, are designed to secure a hose to
say the radiator and prevent it from leaking
Nuts and bolts – tools and equipment 27
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and note the use of various joining methods.
➠ Write a short explanation about why the choice of joining method is important.
2 Joining methods
Introduction Methods of joining are described as permanent (e.g. welding) or non-

permanent (e.g. nuts and bolts). The difference is that the permanent
methods would cause some damage if the joint had to be undone.
Nuts, bolts and The nut and bolt is by far the most common method of joining two
locking components together. Figure 3.1 shows examples of screws, bolts and nuts.
devices The head of the bolt is usually a hexagon, Allen socket or a Torx® drive.
Smaller bolts can also have a screwdriver type head, namely a slot, cross or
Pozidrive.
KEY WORDS
■ Interference fit
■ MIG, OA, MAG,
MMA Metric set screw Nylock nuts
■ Wetting
■ Heat sink
■ Metric thread
UNF bolt Nuts
Figure 3.1 Examples of screws, bolts and nuts
The material used to make a nut or bolt depends on the application. For
example, sump bolts will be basic mild steel, whereas the long through bolts
on a Rover K series engine are made from quite sophisticated high tensile
steel.
The size of the nut and bolt will, of course, depend on the size of components
P/4 to be secured. Thread sizes used to be a problem, but now most nuts and
bolts are metric. Figure 3.2 shows a metric thread profile. Metric nuts and
60°
bolts are described as follows:
P/8 M10 1.5
P
The M means metric, the 10 means the bolt diameter and the 1.5 is the pitch
Figure 3.2 Metric thread of the thread. Be careful, though – you can get coarse or fine threads
profile (different pitch) metric bolts, as well as older types such as AF or Whitworth.
Double nuts Nylock Castle nut

nut with split pin
Spring Star
washer washer
Lock tab Locking plate Lock wire
Figure 3.3 Various locking devices
When joining with nuts and bolts, flat washers and in many cases some type
of locking device are commonly used. In fact, metric threads are quite good
at locking in position as they are, but extra devices are often used for safety.
Vibration is the main cause of bolts coming loose. Of course they should
always be tightened to the correct torque in the first place! Figure 3.3 shows a
selection of locking devices.
Another common method of securing threads is to use a locking compound
such as ‘Loctite’. This is in effect an adhesive which sticks the threads
together. When the correct compound is applied with care, it is a very secure
way of preventing important components from working loose.
Adhesives A very wide range of adhesives is used in today’s automotive industry. The
number of applications is increasing constantly, replacing older methods
such as welding. There are too many types of adhesives to cover here, but
most of the basic requirements are the same. Manufacturers’ instructions
must always be followed because:
■ many adhesives give off toxic fumes and must be used with care
■ most types are highly flammable
■ adhesives are often designed for a specific application.
Adhesives also have a number of important terms associated with them:
■ cleanliness – surfaces to be joined must be clean
■ cure – the process of setting often described as ‘going off’
■ wetting – this means that the adhesive spreads evenly and fully over the
surface
■ thermo-setting – meaning that heat is required to cure the adhesive
■ thermo-plastic – melts when heated
■ contact adhesive – makes a strong joint as soon as contact is made
■ ’super glue’ – cyanoacrilate adhesive which bonds suitable materials in
seconds, including skin – take care!
Figure 3.4 Examples of adhesives
Adhesives have many advantages, which is why they are becoming more
widely used:
■ even stress distribution over the whole surface
■ waterproof
■ good for joining delicate materials
■ no distortion when joining
■ a wide variety of materials can be joined
■ neat, clean join can be made with little practice.
Always choose the correct type of adhesive for the job in hand. For example,
an adhesive designed to bond plastic will not work when joining rubber to
metal. And don’t forget: if the surfaces to be joined are not clean, you will
make a very good job of bonding dirt to dirt instead of what you intended!
Soldering Soft soldering is a process used to join materials such as steel, brass, tin or
copper. It involves melting a mixture of lead and tin to act as the bond. A
common example of a soldered joint is the electrical connection between the
stator and diode pack in an alternator. Figure 3.5 shows this process using
the most common heat source, which is an electric soldering iron.
Figure 3.5 Soldering a diode pack in an alternator

The process of soldering is as follows:

1. Prepare the surfaces to be joined by cleaning and using emery cloth or
wire wool as appropriate.
2. Add a flux to prevent the surfaces becoming dirty with oxide when
heated, or use a solder with a flux core.
3. Apply heat to the joint and add solder so it runs into the joint.
4. Complete the process as quickly as possible to prevent heat damage.
5. Use a heat sink if necessary.
Like many other methods, soldering is easy after a bit of practice. Take time
to do this in your workshop. Note that some materials such as aluminium
cannot be soldered by ordinary methods.
Brazing Brazing is a similar process to soldering, but a higher temperature is needed

and a different filler is used. The materials to be joined are heated to red heat
and the filler rod (bronze brass or similar), after being dipped in flux, is
applied to the joint. The heat from the materials is enough to melt the rod,
which flows into the gap and makes a good strong, but slightly flexible joint.
Brazing is only used on a few areas of the vehicle body. Less heat is required
than for fusion welding (see next section). Dissimilar metals such as brass
and steel can also be joined.
Welding Welding is a method of joining metals by applying heat, in some cases

combined with pressure. A filler rod of a similar metal is often used. The
welding process joins metals by melting them, fusing the melted areas and
then solidifying the joined area to form a very strong bond. Welding
technology is widely used in the automotive industry.
The principal processes used today are gas and arc welding, in which the
heat from a gas flame or an electric arc melts the faces to be joined. Figure 3.6
shows a welding process in action.
Several welding processes are used:
■ Gas welding uses a mixture of acetylene and oxygen which burns at a
very high temperature. This is used to melt the host metal with the
addition of a filler rod if required (OA or oxy-acetylene).
Figure 3.6 Welding

process in action
■ Shielded metal-arc welding uses an electric arc between an electrode and

the work to be joined; the electrode has a coating that decomposes to
protect the weld area from contamination and the rod melts to form filler
metal (MMA or manual metal arc).
■ Gas-shielded arc welding produces a welded joint under a protective gas
(MIG or metal inert gas).
■ Arc welding produces a welded joint within an active gas (MAG or
metal active gas).
■ Resistance welding is a method in which the weld is formed by a
combination of pressure and resistance heating from an electric current
(spot welding).
■ Other, specialised types of welding include laser-beam welding, which
makes use of the intensive heat produced by a light beam to melt and
join the metals, and ultrasonic welding; this creates a bond by applying
high-frequency vibration while the parts to be joined are held under
pressure.
Shrinking When parts have to be fitted by shrinking, they first have to be heated so
they expand, or cooled so they contract. In both cases the component to be
fitted must be made to an exact size. If parts fitted in this way are to be
removed, they are usually destroyed in the process. For example, a flywheel
ring gear has to be cut through with a hacksaw to remove it.
For a hot shrink fitting the part will have a smaller internal diameter than the
one on which it is to be fitted. It is important not to overheat the components,
otherwise damage will occur. An oven is best, but a welding torch may be
used with great care. When the component has been heated and has
therefore expanded, it is placed in position at once. It will then cool and
make a good tight joint.
Cold shrinking is very similar, except the component to be fitted is made
Figure 3.7 The hot very slightly larger than the hole in which it is to be fitted. A cylinder head
shrinking process: ring valve insert is one example. The process is the opposite of hot shrinking. The
gear and flywheel component is cooled so it contracts, after which it is placed in position where
it warms back up and expands, making a secure joint. Cold shrinking is
normally a specialist job, but it is possible to buy aerosols of carbon dioxide
under pressure which can be used to make a component very cold (dry ice).
Compression fitting Many parts are fitted by compression or pressure. Bearings are the most
common example. The key to compression fitting is an interference fit. This
means that the component, say a bearing, is very slightly larger than the hole
in which it is to be fitted. Pressure is therefore used to force the bearing onto
place. Suspension bushes are often also fitted in this way.
The secret is to apply the force in a way which does not make the
components go together on an angle. They must be fitted true to each other.
Figure 3.8 on page 30 shows a wheel bearing being fitted.
Riveting Riveting is a method of joining metal plates, fabric to metal or brake linings
to the shoes. A rivet, a metal pin with a head at one end, is inserted into
matching holes in two overlapping parts. The other end is struck and formed
into another head, holding the parts together. This is the basic principle of
riveting, but many variations are possible.
Force
Wheel hub
Bearing
Special tools
to ensure
a square fit
Figure 3.8 Compression fitting a wheel bearing
Figure 3.9 shows two different pop rivets, one of the most common types of
rivets for motor vehicle use. These are hollow rivets which are already
mounted on to a steel pin. The rivet is placed through the holes in the parts
to be joined. Then a special rivet gun grips the pin and pulls it with great
force. This causes the second rivet head to be formed. When the pin reaches a
set tension it breaks off, leaving the rivet securely in place. The great
advantage of this method is that you can work ‘blind’ – you don’t need
Figure 3.9 Different access to the other side of the hole!
types of rivets
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and make a simple sketch to show five different joining
methods. Label the main parts of each.
➠ Make two lists of joining methods, one for permanent and the other for non-
permanent techniques.
3 Preventing leaks
Gaskets Gaskets are used to make a fluid- or pressure-tight seal between two
component faces. The best example of this is the cylinder head gasket, which
KEY WORDS also has to withstand very high pressures and temperatures. Gaskets are
often used to make up for less than perfect surfaces and therefore act as a
■ Gasket seal between the two. Also, as the temperature changes, the gasket can take
■ Instant gasket up the difference in expansion between the two components.
■ Oil seal Gaskets are made from different materials depending on the task they have
to perform.
Thermostat housing
gasket
Head
Gasket
Manifold
gasket
Figure 3.10 Cylinder head and other types of gaskets
Gasket material Examples of where used
Paper or card General purpose such as thermostat housings

Fibre General purpose
Cork Earlier type rocker covers
Rubber – often synthetic Water pump sealing ring
Plastics – various types Fuel pump to engine block
Copper asbestos or similar Exhaust flange: note safety issues of asbestos
Copper and aluminium Head gaskets
Metal and fibre compounds Head gaskets
with metal composites
The general rules for obtaining a good joint, with a gasket or otherwise, are
as follows:
■ cleanliness of the surfaces to be joined
■ removal of burrs from the materials
■ use of the correct materials
■ follow manufacturers’ instructions (such as tighten to the correct torque
in the correct sequence)
■ safe working (as always!).
Sealants Many manufacturers are now specifying the use of sealants in place of
traditional gaskets. The main reason for this is a better quality of joint. Liquid
Sealant sealants, often known as instant gasket, are a type of liquid rubber which
squeezed forms into a perfect gasket as the surfaces are mated together. The three
from
tube major advantages of this technique are:
■ easier to apply
■ a perfect seal is made with very little space being taken up
■ adhesive bonding effect reduces fretting due to vibration and hence is
less likely to leak.
Figure 3.11 shows a sealant being applied. A major advantage for the repair
trade is that a good selection of jointing sealants means you can manufacture
Figure 3.11 Liquid a gasket on the spot at any time! Note the manufacturers’ recommendations,
sealant being applied however, as only the correct material must be used.
Oil seals The most common type of oil seal is the neoprene (synthetic rubber) radial
lip seal. The seal is fitted into a recess and the soft lip rubs against the
rotating component. The lip is held in place by a spring. Figure 3.12 shows
Metal casing this type of seal; note how the lip faces the oil so that any pressure will cause
Seal lip the lip to fit more tightly rather than allow oil to be forced underneath.
Neoprene
Figure 3.13 shows a valve stem oil seal, which prevents oil entering the
Coil spring
combustion chamber past the inlet valves.
Oil
seal
Coil
spring
Clip
Figure 3.12 Radial lip oil Figure 3.13 Valve stem oil seal
seal
LEARNING TASKS
description to keep as evidence
➠ Make a simple sketch to show a radial lip type of oil seal.
➠ Examine a real system and note where different types of gaskets are used. Can you
say why a particular type is employed?
4 Tools and equipment
Equipment Your work largely consists of removing, refitting and adjusting components
to ensure the vehicle system operates within specification. To do this you
KEY WORDS will use a variety of tools and equipment:
■ measuring equipment – such as a micrometer
■ Tools listed in the
table
■ hand instruments – such as a spring balance
■ Calibration
■ electrical meters – such as a multimeter.
■ Instrument The use, care, calibration and storage of this equipment will vary with
different types. Always read the manufacturers’ instructions carefully before
use, or if you have a problem. Here are some general guidelines:
■ Follow manufacturers’ instructions.
■ Handle with care – do not drop; keep the instrument in its box.
■ Ensure regular calibration – check for accuracy.
■ Understand how to interpret results – if in doubt ask!
Hand tools Using hand tools is something you will learn by experience, but an important
first step is to understand the purpose of the common types. This section
therefore starts by listing some of the more popular tools, with examples of
Multimeter
Micrometer
Figure 3.14 Meters and test equipment
Figure 3.15 A selection of hand tools

their use, and ends with some general advice and instructions. Practise until
you understand the use and purpose of the following tools when working on
vehicles:
Hand tool Uses and/or notes

Adjustable spanners An ideal stand-by tool and useful for holding one end of a nut and bolt
Open-ended spanners Use for nuts and bolts where access is limited or a ring spanner can’t be used
Ring spanners The best tool for holding hexagon bolts or nuts. If fitted correctly, it will not slip
and damage either you or the bolt head
Torque wrenches Essential for correct tightening of fixings. Most wrenches can be set to ‘click’ when
the required torque has been reached. Many fitters think it is clever not to use a
torque wrench. Good technicians realise the benefits
Socket wrenches Often contain a ratchet to make operation far easier
Hexagon socket spanners Sockets are ideal for many jobs where a spanner can’t be used. A socket is often
quicker and easier than a spanner. Extensions and swivel joints are also available to
help reach awkward bolts
Air wrenches These are often referred to as wheel guns. Air driven tools are great for speeding
up your work; but they are very powerful, so it is easy to damage components.
Only special, extra strong, high quality sockets should be used
Blade screwdrivers Simple common screw heads. Use the correct size!
Pozidrive and cross-head Better grip, particularly with the Pozidrive. But learn not to confuse the two very
screwdrivers similar types. The wrong type will slip and damage will occur
Torx® Similar to a hexagon tool like an Allen key but with further flutes cut in the side. It
can transmit good torque
Special purpose wrenches Many different types are available. Mole grips, for example, are very useful tools:
they hold like pliers but can lock in position
Pliers These are used for gripping and pulling or bending. They are available in a wide
variety of sizes: from snipe nose for electrical work to engineers’ pliers for larger
jobs such as fitting split pins
Levers Used to apply a very large force to a small area. Incorrectly applied, it is easy to
damage a component
Hammers Everybody’s favourite tool! Anybody can hit with a hammer, but how hard and
exactly where is a great skill to learn!
General advice and instructions for the use of hand tools:

■ Only use a tool for its intended purpose.
■ Always use the correct size tool for the job you are doing.
■ Whenever possible, pull a wrench rather than pushing.
■ Do not use a file or similar without a handle.
■ Keep all tools clean and replace them in a suitable box or cabinet.
■ Do not use a screwdriver as a pry bar.
■ Look after your tools and they will look after you!
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show how a torque wrench should be used.
➠ Read about the different types of tools available in a catalogue. Note the prices and
consider the advantages compared to the cost.
4 Vehicle layouts
1 Introduction
Start here! This chapter is a general introduction to the car as a whole. Over the years
many unusual designs have been tried, some with more success than others.
The most common is, of course, a rectangular vehicle with a wheel at each
corner! ‘Light vehicles’ fall in one of five groups:
1. front engine driving the front wheels
2. front engine driving the rear wheels
3. front engine driving all four wheels
KEY WORDS
4. rear engine driving the rear wheels
■ Light vehicle 5. mid engine driving the rear wheels.
■ Vehicle system The most common layout these days is the front engine, front wheel drive
vehicle. This will be examined in more detail in a later section.
Figure 4.1 Front engine driving the front Figure 4.2 Front engine driving the rear
wheels wheels
Figure 4.3 Front engine driving all four Figure 4.4 Rear engine driving the rear
wheels wheels
Figure 4.5 Mid engine driving the rear

wheels
Vehicle layouts 39
Terminology
FWD Front wheel drive
RWD Rear wheel drive
AWD All wheel drive
4WD Four wheel drive
Light vehicle Normally classified as a car or van of less than three tonnes
Light vehicle types These range from small two seater sports cars to quite large people carriers (such as the Ford
Galaxy). Also included are light commercial vehicles such as vans and pick-up trucks.
Vehicle systems A set of related components on the vehicle. For example, all components used to make the
brakes work are described simply as the ‘braking system’. Most vehicle systems are covered in
some detail in this book as separate chapters
A bit of history! As you learn more about the fascinating world of the motor car, you will
keep meeting ‘new’ technologies. I have included a list of events and dates
for you to see that some new ideas are not as ‘new’ as you first thought! You
don’t need to learn this bit, it is for interest only.
1769 Cugnot built a steam tractor in France.
1801 Trevithick built a steam coach.
1860 Lenoir built an internal combustion gas engine.
1876 Otto improved the gas engine.
1885 Daimler developed a petrol engine and fitted it to a bicycle.
1885 Benz fitted his petrol engine to a three wheeled carriage.
1886 Daimler fitted his engine to a four wheeled carriage to produce a four
wheeled motorcar.
1891 Panhard and Levassor started the present design of cars by putting
the engine in front.
1896 Lanchester introduced epicyclic gearing now used in automatic
transmission.
1899 Jenatzy broke the 100 kph barrier in an electric car.
1901 The first Mercedes took to the roads.
1904 Rigolly broke the 100 mph barrier.
1906 Rolls-Royce introduced the Silver Ghost.
Figure 4.6 A very old vehicle

1908 Ford used an assembly line production to manufacture the Model T.

1911 Cadillac introduced the electric starter and dynamo lighting.
1913 Ford introduced the moving conveyor belt to the assembly line.
1920 Duesenberg began fitting four wheel hydraulic brakes.
1922 Lancia used a unitary (all in one) chassis construction and
independent front suspension.
1927 Segrave broke the 200 mph barrier in a Sunbeam.
1928 Cadillac introduced the synchromesh gearbox.
1934 Citroën pioneered front wheel drive in their 7CV model.
1938 Germany produced the Volkswagen Beetle.
1948 Jaguar launched the XK120 sports car and Michelin introduced a
radial ply tyre.
1950 Dunlop announced the disc brake.
1951 Buick and Chrysler introduced power steering.
1952 Rover’s gas turbine car set a speed record of 243 kph.
1954 Bosch introduced fuel injection for cars.
1955 Citroën introduced a car with hydropneumatic suspension.
1957 Wankel built his first rotary petrol engine.
1959 BMC (now Rover Cars) introduced the Mini.
1966 California brought in legislation regarding air pollution by cars.
1970 Gabelich drove a rocket powered car, ‘Blue Flame’, to a new record
speed of 1 001.473 kph.
1972 Dunlop introduced safety tyres, which seal themselves after a
puncture.
1979 Barrett exceeded the speed of sound in the rocket engined ‘Budweiser
Rocket’ (1 190.377 kph).
1980 The first mass produced car with four wheel drive, the Audi Quattro.
1981 BMW introduced the on-board computer.
1983 Richard Noble set an official speed record in the jet engined ‘Thrust 2’
(1 019.4 kph).
1983 Austin Rover introduced the Maestro, the first car with a talking
dashboard.
1987 The solar powered ‘Sunraycer’ travelled 3 000 km.
1988 California’s emission controls aim for use of zero emission vehicles
(ZEVs) by 1998.
1989 The Mitsubishi Gallant was the first mass produced car with four
wheel steering.
1990 Fiat of Italy and Peugeot of France launched electric cars.
Figure 4.7 A very new vehicle

Vehicle layouts 41
1991 European Parliament voted to adopt stringent control of car

emissions.
1992 Japanese companies developed an imaging system which views the
road through a camera.
1993 A Japanese electric car reached a speed of 176 kph.
1995 Greenpeace designed its own environmentally friendly car capable of
doing 67–78 miles to the gallon (100 km per 3–3.5 litres).
1996/7 to date. The story continues with you!
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Look back at the key words. Explain each one to a friend, and/or write out a
short description to keep as evidence.
➠ Examine real motor vehicles and make a simple sketch to show the system layout
of each type.
2 Vehicle layouts
Front engine A vehicle design with the engine at the front has a number of advantages:
KEY WORDS ■ protection in case of a front end collision
■ easier engine cooling because of the air flow
■ Front engine
■ cornering can be better if the weight is at the front.
■ Rear engine
Front wheel drive adds further advantages, particularly if the engine is
■ Mid engine
mounted sideways on (transversely):
■ more room in the passenger compartment
■ power unit can be made as a complete unit
■ drive acts in the same direction that the steered wheels are pointing.
Rear wheel drive from a front engine was the method used for many years.
Some manufacturers have continued its use, BMW for example. A long
propeller shaft from the gearbox to the final drive, which is part of the rear
axle, is the main feature. The propshaft has universal joints to allow for
suspension movement. This layout has some advantages:
■ weight transfers to the rear driving wheels when accelerating
■ complicated constant velocity joints, such as used by front wheel drive
vehicles, are not needed.
Four wheel drive combines all the good points mentioned above but makes
the vehicle more complicated and therefore expensive. The main difference
with four wheel drive is that an extra gearbox, known as a transfer box, is
needed to link the front and rear wheel drive.
Rear engine, rear The rear engine design has not been very popular, but it was used for the
wheel drive best selling car of all time – the VW beetle. The advantages are that weight is
placed on the rear wheels, giving good grip, and that the power unit and
drive can all be one assembly. One downside is that less room is available for
luggage in the front. The biggest problem is that handling is affected because
there is less weight on the steered wheels. Flat type engines are the most
common choice for this type of vehicle.
Mid engined Mid engine is used to describe any vehicle where the engine is between the
vehicles axles, even if it is not in the middle! Fitting the engine in the mid position of
a car has one major disadvantage: it takes up space inside the vehicle. This
makes it impractical for most ‘normal’ vehicles. However, the weight
distribution is very good. This makes it the choice of high performance
vehicle designers. A good example is the Ferrari Testerosa.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Write a short explanation about the advantages and disadvantages of the ‘key
word’ vehicle types.
3 Vehicle systems (front engine, front wheel drive)
Detailed layout Front engine, front wheel drive is now the most common, so this will be used
for a more detailed explanation. However, all layout designs have similar
KEY WORDS major components which operate in much the same way.
■ Vehicle system The main systems of a front engine, front wheel drive car are as follows:
■ Power train ■ power train consisting of: engine, clutch, gearbox, final drive and drive
■ Braking shafts (engine and transmission system combined)
■ Steering ■ braking system
■ Suspension ■ steering system
■ suspension system.
Figure 4.8 Systems layout of a front engine, front wheel drive car
Vehicle layouts 43
Power train There are various groupings of engine, clutch, gearbox and final drive. The
basic power flow, meaning the way in which energy is passed through the
system, is as follows. The pistons push on connecting rods which are on
cranks, just like a cyclist’s legs driving pedals. This makes the crankshaft
rotate. Power is passed through the clutch and then straight through a
gearbox (in fourth gear). The output of the gearbox is linked to the final
drive. This then applies the power to the front wheels through drive shafts.
These shafts have joints so they can move with the steering and suspension.
The details can now be considered further.
Figure 4.9 Engine and

systems
Engine
A fuel–air mixture enters through an inlet manifold and is fired in each
cylinder in turn. This expands and pushes down on the piston. The spent
gases leave via the exhaust system. The power is applied to the crankshaft.
The pulses of power from each piston are smoothed out by a heavy flywheel.
Power leaves the engine through the flywheel which is fitted on the rear of
the rotating crankshaft and passes to the clutch.
Clutch
The clutch allows the driver to disconnect drive from the engine and move the
vehicle off from rest. It can be thought of as being in two separate sections:
1. The flywheel and clutch cover are bolted together so the cover always
rotates with the engine. A pressure plate and clutch springs are mounted
on the cover.
2. The gearbox shaft is fixed so that it rotates with the driven plate but it can
slide slightly. The clutch, or driven plate has friction linings.
The clutch is engaged when the pedal is up because the clutch springs and
pressure plate hold the driven plate against the flywheel. This makes the
drive pass to the gearbox.
To disengage the clutch, the pedal is pressed down. A release bearing makes
the pressure plate move back away from the flywheel and frees the driven
plate from the flywheel. No drive is now passed to the gearbox.
Fulcrum point Gearbox input shaft
Clutch-operating cable
Master cylinder
Clutch thrust fork
Adjustment
Figure 4.10 Clutch

assembly Operating linkage Slave cylinder
As the car moves off, the clutch is engaged slowly to prevent the car jerking
or to prevent a sudden force being applied to the mechanical components.
Drive from the clutch
Gearbox
Figure 4.11 Gearbox Differential

Final drive gears
and final drive unit
Gearbox
A gearbox is needed because an engine produces power only when turning
quite fast. The gearbox allows the driver to keep the engine at its best speed.
When the gearbox is in neutral, power does not leave it. When the gearbox is
in first gear, power is transferred from a small to a larger gear and then out
to the final drive. Different stages of speed reduction (second and third gear)
are created using different sizes of gear. Less speed out of the gearbox has a
higher turning force (torque) because the engine is running faster. Fourth
gear normally makes the output shaft turn at the same speed as the engine.
Fifth gear makes the output shaft run faster than the engine for economical
higher speed driving.
Final drive
The final drive assembly of a front wheel drive vehicle has two main tasks:
■ Further speed reduction of about 4:1. This is the output gear to pinion
ratio which will vary with different types of vehicles and engines.
Vehicle layouts 45
■ Different speeds to the drive shafts are made possible by a unit called
the differential. This is needed because the road wheels turn at different
speeds when the vehicle is cornering .
Figure 4.12 Drive shaft
Drive shafts
The two drive shafts each have two constant velocity (CV) joints. They are
heavy duty steel shafts and simply pass the drive to the wheels. The joints
are needed because the movement of the steering and suspension changes
the position of the wheels.
Braking system Hydraulic brakes are used to slow down or stop the vehicle. The hand brake
uses a mechanical linkage to operate parking brakes. The main brakes work
on all four wheels, the hand brake usually just on the rear.
The hydraulic principle is that foot pressure on the brake pedal pushes fluid
under pressure to all four wheels. Braking materials (friction linings) are
pressed against rotating surfaces, slowing them down and thereby slowing
down the vehicle.
Discs, normally on the front, are gripped between pads of friction lining.
Drums, normally on the rear, are gripped on their inside surfaces by shoes
Upper swivel
Front brakes Brake Master
(usually discs) lights cylinder Brake pedal
switch Rear brakes Steering
(most cars MacPherson column
have drums)
strut-suspension
unit Steering shaft
Universal joints
Tube
carrying Ball joint
stub axle
Mechanical handbrake Flexible gaiter
Hydraulic pipe Handbrake linkage
Where the
hydraulic
system Lower
must absorb swivel
movement, Track
flexible hoses Transverse Rack-and-pinion rod
Tranverse
are used
link steering
Figure 4.13 Layout of the braking system Figure 4.14 Rack and pinion steering
covered with friction lining. This is the most common arrangement, but some
vehicles have all drums or all discs.
Steering system Both front wheels are linked mechanically and must turn together to provide
steering control. Figure 4.14, on page 43, shows a rack and pinion. The steering
wheel is linked to the pinion; as this is turned, it moves the rack to and fro.
This moves both the wheels. Some vehicles have power assisted steering
which uses a pump driven by the engine to make turning the steering wheel
easier. Some very modern systems use small electric motors for this task.
Suspension system The suspension system has the following main tasks:
■ absorb road surface faults (shocks) to give a comfortable ride
■ keep the tyres in contact with the road surface
■ resist braking and steering forces
■ allow for different loads of passengers and luggage.
Figure 4.15 shows a single trailing arm with coil springs and damper on the
rear, and a strut with a coil spring and built in damper on the front. Many
variations of design are used, but the principle is the same.
Tyres also absorb road shock and play a very important part in road holding.
Most of the remaining shocks and vibrations are absorbed by springs in the
driver’s and passengers’ seats.
Rear
Front
Figure 4.15 Suspension system with front struts and rear trailing arms
Summary In this chapter I have outlined some of the important systems on the vehicle.
You need to understand the basic layouts before moving on to examine
things in more detail. Read and work through this chapter again if necessary.
Keep up the good work!
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine real systems on a vehicle and note the layout and position of the
components.
5 Engines
1 Introduction
Start here! The engine is a device for converting stored energy into useful work or
movement. Vehicles with electric engines are being developed quite quickly,
but most vehicle engines use a fuel as their energy store. The fuel is burnt to
produce heat energy, which is then converted into movement. With internal
combustion the fuel is burnt inside; if it is burnt outside, as with a steam
engine, it is called external combustion. Most car engines work by a
reciprocating action of the pistons (back and forwards in a straight line), but
just a few are rotary, such as a gas turbine or Wankel engine.
Learning about engines and other technology is as much about learning new
words as it is about understanding complicated techniques. Once you know
the words it is easier to understand how an engine works. The following list
explains some of the terms associated with engines.
KEY WORDS
■ Reciprocating
■ Particulates
■ Internal
combustion
■ Spark ignition
■ Compression
Figure 5.1 A modern car engine
ignition
Terminology
Top dead centre (TDC) A piston is at its top or highest position in the cylinder. ATDC means ‘after top dead
centre’ and BTDC means ‘before top dead centre’
Bottom dead centre (BDC) A piston is at its bottom or lowest position in the cylinder. ABDC means ‘after bottom
dead centre’ and BBDC means ‘before bottom dead centre’
Bore The internal diameter of a cylinder
Valve timing The mechanical timing of the inlet and exhaust valves so that they open just at the right
time to allow the operating cycle (e.g. four stroke) to work at its most efficient
Terminology
Stroke The distance a piston moves from BDC to TDC
Swept volume (SV) This means the volume in each cylinder between the piston at TDC and BDC
Capacity The number of cylinders multiplied by the swept volume. For example, a four cylinder
engine with a swept volume of 500 cc has a capacity of 2000 cc or 2 litres
Clearance volume (CV) The space above the piston when it is at TDC. This is mostly the combustion chamber
Compression ratio This is the total volume or the cylinder (SV CV), compared to just the clearance
volume. It can be calculated by (SV CV) CV
SI Spark ignition. This describes all petrol engines – the petrol is ignited by a spark
CI Compression ignition. This describes all diesel engines – the fuel is ignited by heat caused
by high compression
Petrol or diesel The most common source of power for motor vehicles is the petrol engine. It
was introduced by the German engineers Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in
1885. This petrol engine is a complicated machine made up of about 150
moving parts! It is a piston engine, in which one or more pistons move up
and down in cylinders. The fuel is ignited by a spark, hence the term spark
ignition. The motion of the pistons rotates a crankshaft, at the end of which is
a heavy flywheel. From the flywheel the power is transferred to the car’s
driving wheels via the clutch, gearbox and final drive.
Figure 5.2 Petrol engine
The design of the diesel engine was first explained in England by Herbert
Akroyd in 1890; it was applied practically by Rudolf Diesel in Germany
two years later. The diesel engine is similar to the petrol or spark ignition
engine. It burns a lightweight fuel oil normally referred to as ‘diesel’. The
diesel engine operates by compressing air until it becomes sufficiently hot to
ignite the fuel. It is a piston engine, like the petrol engine, but only air is
taken into the cylinder. The fuel is injected into the cylinder, where it burns,
forcing the piston down on its power stroke. This is called compression
ignition because it is the heat caused by the compression which ignites the
fuel.
Diesel engines tend to be considered ‘cleaner’ than petrol engines because
they do not need lead or similar additives; they also produce fewer gaseous
pollutants. However, they do produce high levels of the tiny black carbon
Engines 49
Figure 5.3 Diesel engine
particles called particulates, which are thought to be carcinogenic (cancer

causing) and may aggravate or even cause asthma. You will be able to make
up your own mind about this issue as you learn more about the technology.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real engine to become familiar with the ‘look and feel’ of the engine
components.
2 Engine operation
KEY WORDS Imagine (don’t try this out though!) filling a room with a mixture of petrol
and air – then striking a match! What would happen? Why do the windows
■ Spark ignition four all blow out? Why does the house explode? As the petrol and air mixture
stroke cycle burns or reacts it expands very rapidly, particularly if the mixture is at a
■ Compression ignition good air–fuel ratio. The ideal ratio for use in most engines is about 15:1. This
four stroke cycle means that for each gram of petrol about 15 grams of air are used. This
amount of air takes up quite a lot of space (a large volume). It is this
■ Spark ignition two
expanding effect when petrol and air burn which, when controlled within an
stroke cycle
engine, can produce so much power to move the car. The product of the
■ Compression reaction is the exhaust gas.
■ Mixture
■ Air–fuel ratio
■ Exhaust gas
■ Induction
Spark ignition four The engine components are combined to use the power of expanding gas to
stroke cycle drive the engine. The term ‘stroke’ means the movement of a piston from
TDC to BDC or the other way round. Figure 5.4 shows diagrams to help
explain the SI four stroke cycle.
1. Induction stroke – the fuel–air mixture is forced into the cylinder through
the open inlet valve because, as the piston moves down, it makes a lower
pressure. It is often acceptable to say the mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
2. Compression stroke – as the piston moves back up the cylinder, the
fuel–air mixture is compressed to about an eighth of its original volume
because the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. This is a compression ratio
of 8:1, which is typical for many normal engines.
3. Power stroke – at a suitable time before top dead centre, the compressed
mixture is ignited by a spark at the plug. The mixture now burns very
quickly, and the powerful expansion pushes the piston back down the
cylinder. Both valves are closed.
4. Exhaust stroke – the final stroke occurs as the piston moves back up the
cylinder and pushes the spent gases out of the now open exhaust valve.
Exhaust
valve Inlet
valve
1 Induction 2 Compression 3 Power 4 Exhaust
Figure 5.4 Sl four stroke cycle
Compression The engine components are combined to use the power of expanding gas to
ignition four stroke drive a compression ignition engine. Note that the operation cycle of the four
cycle stroke diesel is very similar to the spark ignition system. Figure 5.5 shows
diagrams to help explain the CI four stroke cycle.
1. Induction stroke – air is forced into the cylinder through the open inlet
valve because, as the piston moves down, it makes a lower pressure. It is
often acceptable to say the air is drawn into the cylinder.
2. Compression stroke – as the piston moves back up the cylinder, the
fuel–air mixture is compressed (in some engines to about a sixteenth of its
original volume) because the inlet and exhaust valves are closed. This is a
compression ratio of 16:1, which causes a large build up of heat.
3. Power stroke – at a suitable time before top dead centre, very high pressure
atomised diesel fuel (at about 180 bar) is injected into the combustion
chamber. The mixture burns very quickly, and the powerful expansion
pushes the piston back down the cylinder. The valves are closed.
4. Exhaust stroke – the final stroke occurs as the piston moves back up the
cylinder and pushes the spent gases out of the now open exhaust valve.
Engines 51
Inlet Exhaust
valve valve
1 Induction 2 Compression Injection 3 Power 4 Exhaust
Figure 5.5 Cl four stoke cycle
Spark ignition two The two stroke cycle operates in a similar way to the four stroke cycles
stroke cycle described above. However, two operations take place during each stroke.
The piston covers or uncovers ports as it moves up and down from TDC
to BDC. This opening and closing of the ports is similar to the opening
and closing of valves. Figure 5.6 shows diagrams to explain the two stroke
cycle.
Transfer
port
Exhaust
port
Inlet
port
1 Induction and 2 Power 3 Transfer

compression and exhaust
Figure 5.6 Sl two stroke cycle
As the piston rises, it closes all the ports to the combustion chamber and
compresses the mixture into the chamber. At the same time this causes a
lower pressure in the crankcase, which ‘draws’ in new mixture underneath
the piston.
The compressed mixture is ignited at a suitable point, and the expansion
pushes the piston back down the bore. This forces fresh fuel–air mixture
from the crankcase to the cylinder when the transfer port opens. With the
help of the incoming mixture, the expanding spent gases leave the cylinder
by the exhaust port.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Look at the key words. Explain each one to a friend and/or write out a short
➠ Make a simple sketch to show what is meant by compression ratio.
52
Motor Vehicle Engineering
Figure 5.7 Internal engine components
Engines 53
3 Engine components
Name and purpose Figure 5.7 shows the internal components of a typical modern engine. Their
of the main parts function and properties are described in the following table.
KEY WORDS No. Name Function Properties
■ Valve clearance 1 Timing belt Ensures the timing belt remains at the Contains a sealed ball
tensioner correct tension. The tension can be bearing as it has to run
■ Followers measured with a gauge. A good guide at high speed
■ Push rods and is if it can be twisted 90° in the
rockers middle of its longest run
■ Ratio of teeth 2 Timing belt Drives the camshaft and in some Flexibility, long lasting
■ Spent gases engines a distributor drive and/or a and oil resistant
water pump. On small diesel engines
■ All parts in the it drives the rotary fuel injection
tables pump
3 Camshaft gear Turns the camshaft. It has double the Has a mark which must
number of teeth of the crank gear, be aligned when fitting a
so it turns the camshaft at half belt
engine speed
4 Camshaft front Prevents oil leaking Radial lip seal is the
oil seal most common type
5 Camshaft Driven by the belt or chain in some Must be well lubricated
engines, opens the exhaust and inlet to prevent wear
valves
6 Camshaft rear Prevents oil leaking Radial lip seal is the
oil seal most common type
7 Tappet Follows the profile (shape) of the cam Many types have a
and pushes the valve open. Most plunger built in which
modern engines have hydraulic automatically takes up
tappets any free play
8 Shim Used to adjust the valve clearance by Different sizes are
fitting different sizes available
9 Collets Fix the cup to the valve stem Easy to lose!
10 Cup Works the valve spring as the valve is
opened
11 Spring Closes the valve Some performance
engines use two
springs
12 Valve stem Prevents oil entering the exhaust or ‘Plastic’ seal often with a
oil seal inlet ports small spring to keep a
tight fit to the valve
stem
13 Seat Fitting for the stem oil seal
14 Deflector Deflects dust, water etc
15 Connecting The heart of the engine. Pressure The ‘con’ rod is often
rod and piston caused by the burning mixture forces made of forged steel
the piston down. This force is
transferred to the connecting rod
which makes the crank rotate
16 Gudgeon pin Connects the ‘little end’ of the The pin has to
connecting rod to the piston withstand ‘shear’ forces
No. Name Function Properties

17 Compression These ensure that the piston makes Piston rings are easy to
rings a gas tight seal in the cylinder bore break when fitting as
they are made of very
hard brittle material
such as cast iron
18 Oil control This special design of piston ring This ring is always the
ring ensures that oil on the walls of the lowest on the piston
cylinder does not pass the piston and
enter the combustion area
19 Piston The engine shown has four pistons. The piston must
Note the slight hollow in the top withstand many forces
which forms part of the combustion and high temperatures.
chamber. The lower part of the It is made of aluminium
piston is called the skirt alloy
20 Exhaust valve Makes a gas tight seal with the It is a very hard material
seat insert exhaust valve. On older engines this to prevent burning
was part of the cylinder head
21 Inlet valve Makes a gas tight seal with the inlet It is a very hard material
seat insert valve. The valve seats can be replaced to prevent burning
if necessary
22 Valve guide A simple tube for the valve to slide The valve guides can be
up and down in when operating replaced if necessary
23 Exhaust valve Opened by the cam and closed by a The head of the valve is
spring, this valve allows spent gases cut at an angle of 45o or
to pass into the exhaust port, then 30o to make a perfect
the manifold and finally into the seal with the valve seat
exhaust pipe
24 Inlet valve Opened by the cam and closed by a When overhauling the
spring, this valve allows the fuel–air ‘top end’ of an engine,
mixture from the carburettor or the valves are often
injection system to pass from the lapped in to the seats
inlet manifold into the cylinder using an abrasive
compound
25 Crankshaft Sometimes called thrust bearings, Often made of steel
thrust they control the end to end position backed with copper and
washers (float) of the crankshaft covered with white
metal such as a mix of
tin and aluminium
26 Main bearing The main shells are the bearings in Often made of copper
shell which the crankshaft rotates covered with white
tin and aluminium
27 Connecting This bolt simply joins the two parts It must be strong in
rod bolt of the con rod tension
28 Connecting Transfers the reciprocating (back Drop forged and
rod and forth in a straight line) machined steel
movement of the piston into
rotation of the crank
29 Big end Made in two halves, hence the name Often made of steel
bearing shell shell; forms the bearings in the big backed with copper and
end of the con rod covered with white
tin and aluminium
30 Pulley bolt Simple bolt to secure the pulley and
gear to the crank
Engines 55

31 Washer Spreads the load of the bolt
32 Pulley and The pulley allows a drive belt to The outer and inner
vibration transfer power to engine ancillaries parts are joined with
damper such as the alternator, power rubber to damp
steering, air conditioning or water vibrations caused by
pump piston movements
33 Gear flange Helps the drive belt sit correctly
34 Crankshaft Drives the cambelt. It has half the Will only fit on in one
gear number of teeth of the camshaft position
gear (item 3)
35 Gear flange Helps the drive belt sit correctly
36 Pulley and Woodruff keys to transfer drive This type of key is used
gear key from the crank to the pulley and gear in numerous places
37 Oil pump key Drives the oil pump
38 Crankshaft The big ends are offset from the Drop forged and
main bearings. The front and rear accurately machined
are aligned, as are the two in the steel alloy
middle. This makes pistons 1 and 4
reach TDC together. The same is
true for pistons 2 and 3 (counting
from the front of the engine)
39 Flywheel A peg to ensure the flywheel is Mild steel
dowel aligned correctly on the rear of the
crankshaft
40 Connecting Secures the cap to the connecting rod
rod nut
41 Connecting The lower half of the con rod which Must be accurately
rod cap is split in two so that it can be machined
assembled round the crankshaft
Figure 5.8 shows an exploded view of a typical engine’s main external parts and
ancillary components. Their function and properties are described in the table.

1 Timing belt Protects the belt and prevents Moulded plastic or thin
cover anyone touching the belt when it steel
is rotating
2 Timing belt To secure the belt cover
cover back
plate
3 Steady rod Holds the inlet manifold steady
at the rear
4 Manifold On this engine an electric heater Switches off when the
heater warms the manifold when the engine engine is warm
is first started. This makes the
engine run more smoothly when cold
5 Inlet manifold Directs fuel–air mixture to the inlet Cast aluminium alloy or
ports in the cylinder head on some very new
engines plastic!
6 Carburettor Support is often needed for many
support components because of vibration
bracket when the engine is running
56
Motor Vehicle Engineering
Figure 5.8 External engine components
Engines 57

7 Thermostat A water connection to the radiator.
outlet Part of the cooling system
8 Fuel pump The pump, which in this case is Injection systems have a
driven from the camshaft, pumps separate electrical fuel
fuel from the tank to the carburettor pump
9 Camshaft Top cover; in this case also contains Often this is just a ‘tin’
cover the cam bearings cover
10 Hot box A pick up for the air intake fitted Engine runs better if the
round the exhaust manifold air is at a set higher
temperature
11 Exhaust Connects the exhaust ports in the Cast iron is used in
manifold cylinder head to the exhaust down most cases. It is very
pipe hot when running!
12 Manifold A good gas tight seal is necessary Gaskets are used in
gasket between the manifold and cylinder many places to ensure
head tight seals for gas, fuel,
oil, air or water
13 Coolant Sends a signal to the temperature
thermistor gauge and also to the engine control
electronics
14 Thermostat Controls the temperature of the
cooling system
15 Thermostat Part of the cooling system
housing
16 Cylinder head The ‘top end’ part of the engine. Its Cast iron or now more
main parts are the combustion often cast aluminium
chambers, inlet and exhaust ports, alloy because of its
camshaft or rockers and valve gear better heat transfer
support and the inlet and exhaust properties
valve assemblies
17 Dowel Ensures correct location of the Dowels are used for
camshaft cover similar purposes in
many parts of the
vehicle
18 Cylinder Secures the head to the main engine Must be strong in
head stud – block tension
long
19 Cylinder head Secures the head to the main engine Studs or bolts often
bolt block have to be replaced
when refitting the
cylinder head because
they are made to
stretch when tightened
20 Cylinder head Secures the head to the main engine Studs with nuts, or head
stud – short block bolts, must be tightened
in the correct sequence
and to the correct
torque
21 Spark plug Ignites the fuel–air mixture in the Has to withstand very
cylinder with a high voltage spark. high temperatures and
pressures
22 Drive belt or On this engine the belt drives a ‘V’ belts or ‘poly V’ belts
alternator belt water pump and an alternator are used

23 Crankshaft Transfers drive from the crank to
pulley the alternator and water pump in this
case
24 Oil seal Prevents oil leaking from the engine Lip type seals are the
most common
25 Oil pressure Operates a light to warn the driver
switch if oil pressure is less than a set limit
which would cause serious engine
damage
26 Oil pump Oil is picked up from the sump and A number of types are
delivered under pressure to many used, see Chapter 10
parts of the engine
27 Oil pump plug Seals a hole in the pump
28 Plug and Seals the pressure relief valve
‘O’ ring
29 Oil pressure Provides a set tension for the valve
relief valve
spring
30 Oil pressure Oil is held at a set pressure within
relief valve the engine by this valve. If pressure
plunger goes above a limit (set by the spring
tension), the plunger moves and
allows oil to return to the sump
31 Oil filter Cleans the oil as it circulates round Should be changed at
cartridge the engine regular intervals
32 Timing belt Keeps the timing belt at a set tension
tensioner
33 Water pump Drives the water pump
pulley
34 Deflector Deflects contamination
35 Water pump Circulates coolant round the engine. Cast aluminium alloy or
The areas which require most even plastic
cooling are the combustion
chambers in the cylinder head
36 Cylinder Largest and heaviest engine Most engine are cast
block component. It contains many iron, but if cylinder liners
machined surfaces to allow other are used other materials
components to be fitted. The main can be utilised
parts are the cylinder bores, the
machined flat surface for the head to
be fitted and the crank bearing
surfaces
37 Cylinder A very high quality seal is required as See Chapter 3 for
head gasket the combustion pressures in the further details
cylinders are very high. Also the oil
and water ways must not leak
38 Knock sensor Sends a signal to the engine control It changes the timing –
electronics if the mixture burns too not used on all engines
quickly and causes combustion
knock or detonation
39 Crankshaft Prevents oil leaking from the rear
rear oil seal of the engine onto the flywheel and
clutch
Engines 59

40 Gearbox Different gearboxes can be fitted to Basically a steel plate
adapter plate one type of engine with holes in it!
41 Crankshaft Tells the engine control electronics
sensor the speed and position of the engine
42 Dipstick For testing oil level in the sump Marked with maximum
and minimum oil levels
43 Dipstick tube Holds the stick in a convenient Must be sealed to
position prevent oil leaks
44 Oil filler tube Access to top up or refill the oil
45 Oil filler cap Acts as a seal but also a breather for Many engines run the
the inside of the engine inside at a pressure
lower than atmospheric
46 Sump plug To drain the oil at services A washer prevents leaks
47 Oil sump Holds the oil, often about four litres
48 Oil sump Seals the sump to the engine block Plastic/rubber are most
gasket common. Cork was and
is still used in some
cases
49 Main bearing Hold the crank and allow it to Often made of steel
to caps, front, rotate at high speed within the backed with copper and
55 intermediate, bearing shells. Caps should only covered with white
centre and be fitted in the original position if metal such as a mix of
rear engine is being rebuilt tin and aluminium
Main shells (50)
53 Thrust Controls crank position
washers
56 Dowel Ensures correct location of bearing
caps
57 Oil separator Prevents oil being drawn into the
engine breather and then into the
intake
58 Oil strainer Prevents large bits of dirt or metal Primary oil filter on the
and ‘O’ ring entering the oil pump end of the pick up pipe
Cylinder layouts Great improvements can be made to the performance and balance of an
engine by using more than one cylinder. There are three possibilities for
cylinder layout:
■ In line or straight (Figure 5.9). The cylinders are in a vertical, inclined or
horizontal straight line.
■ Vee (Figure 5.10). The cylinders are in two rows at a set angle. The actual
angle varies but is often 60° or 90°.
■ Opposed (Figure 5.11). The cylinders are in two opposing, usually
horizontal rows.
Figure 5.10 Vee engine layout
Figure 5.9 In line or straight engine

layout
Figure 5.11 Opposed engine layout
By far the most common arrangement, used by all manufacturers in their

standard family cars, is the straight four. Larger cars make use of the Vee
configuration. The opposed layout, whilst still used, is less popular. Engine
firing order is important. This means the order in which the power strokes
occur. It is important to check in the workshop manual or data book when
working on a particular engine.
Camshaft drives The camshaft is driven by the engine in one of three ways: gear drive, chain
drive or by a drive belt. The last of these is now the most popular as it tends
to be simpler and quieter. Note that in all cases the cam is driven at half the
engine speed. This is done by the ratio of teeth between the crank and cam
cogs: 1:2 or, say, 20 crank teeth and 40 cam teeth.
■ Camshaft drive gears (Figure 5.12). Gears are not used very often on
petrol engines, but are used on larger diesel engines where they ensure a
good positive drive from the crankshaft gear to the camshaft.
■ Camshaft chain drive (Figure 5.13). Chain drive is not as popular now as
it used to be. The problems with it are that a way must be found to
tension the chain and also provide lubrication. A typical chain tensioner
is shown.
■ Camshaft drive belt (Figure 5.14). Camshaft drive belts have become
very popular. The main reasons for this are that they are quieter, do not
need lubrication and are less complicated. They do break now and then,
but this is usually due to lack of servicing. Cam belts should be renewed
at set times, for example on a 48 000 mile service.
Engines 61
Spring
Cam
gear Cam gear
Crank
gear
Tensioner
Figure 5.12 Camshaft drive gears Crank gear

Figure 5.13 Camshaft chain drive and tensioner
1 Cam timing mark

2 Tensioning pulley
3 TDC mark
Figure 5.14 Camshaft drive belt

Valve mechanisms A number of methods are used to operate the valves. Three common types
are shown with a basic explanation of each.
■ Overhead valve with push rods and rockers (Figure 5.15). This method is
now less popular than it used to be, but many vehicles still on the road
are described as overhead valve (OHV). As the cam turns, it moves the
follower, which in turn pushes the push rod. The push rod moves the
rocker, which pivots on the rocker shaft and pushes the valve open. As
the cam moves further, it allows the spring to close the valve.
Rocker arm
Pivot
Valve pushed
open
Push rod
Follower
Camshaft
Figure 5.15 Overhead valve with pushrods and rockers

Cam Cam
Finger
lever
Figure 5.16 Overhead cam with Figure 5.17 Overhead cam, direct
followers acting and with automatic adjusters
■ Overhead cam with followers (Figure 5.16). Using an overhead cam

(OHC) reduces the number of moving parts. In the system shown here
the lobe of the cam acts directly on the follower, which pivots on its
adjuster and pushes the valve open.
■ Overhead cam, direct acting and automatic adjusters (Figure 5.17).
Most new engines now use an OHC with automatic adjustment. This
saves repair and service time and keeps the cost to the customer
lower. Systems vary between manufacturers, some use followers and
some have the cam acting directly on to the valve. In each case,
though, the adjustment is by oil pressure. The valve is operated by a
type of plunger which has a chamber where oil can be pumped under
pressure. This expands the plunger and takes up any unwanted
clearance.
Valve clearance adjustment is very important. If too large, the valves will not
open fully and will be noisy. If the clearance is too small, the valves will not
close and no compression will be possible. When an engine is running, the
valves become very hot and therefore expand. The exhaust valve clearance is
usually larger than the inlet, because it gets hotter. Regular servicing is vital
for all components, but the valve operating mechanism in particular needs a
good supply of clean oil at all times.
Valve and ignition Valve timing is important. Figure 5.18 shows the degrees of rotation of the
timing crankshaft during the four stroke cycle, from when the valves open to when
they close. The actual position in the cycle of operation when valves open
and close depends on many factors and will vary slightly with different
designs of engine. Some cars now control valve timing electronically. The
diagram is marked to show what is meant by valve lead, lag and overlap.
Ignition timing is marked on the diagram. Note how this changes as engine
speed changes. This is discussed further in Chapter 9.
The valve timing diagram (Figure 5.18) shows that the valves of a four
stroke engine open just before and close just after the particular stroke.
Looking at the timing diagram, the piston is nearly at the top of the exhaust
stroke when the inlet valve opens (IVO). The piston reaches the top and then
moves down on the intake stroke. Just after starting the compression stroke
the inlet valve closes (IVC). The piston continues upwards and, at a point
several degrees before top dead centre, the spark occurs and starts the
mixture burning.
Engines 63
Ignition (spark) will Remember that, starting from

occur during this TDC, the engine revolves twice
time. As engine to complete the four stroke
speed increases cycle. Also note that only one
the spark occurs valve at a time is open except
further away from for the small amount of overlap
top dead centre
Top
dead
centre
Low Inlet valve opens
speed Exhaust valve closes
High Direction
speed of engine
rotation
Valve
overlap
Represents (both open) Represents
engine engine
rotation rotation
when the when the
exhaust inlet
valve is valve is
open open
Inlet Exhaust
valve valve
closes Bottom opens
dead
centre
Figure 5.18 Valve timing diagram with ignition timing
The maximum expansion is ‘timed’ to occur after top dead centre, therefore
the piston is pushed down on its power stroke. Before the end of this stroke,
the exhaust valve opens (EVO). Most of the exhaust gases now leave because
of their very high pressure. As it moves back up the cylinder, the piston
pushes the rest of the spent gases out. Just after the end of this stroke the
exhaust valve closes (EVC) and the inlet has already opened, ready to start
the cycle once again.
The valves open and close like this to make the engine more efficient by
giving more time for the mixture to enter and the spent gases to leave. The
outgoing exhaust gases help to draw in the fuel–air mixture from the inlet.
Overall, this gives the engine a better ‘volumetric efficiency’.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show two types of valve operating mechanisms.
➠ Look up in a workshop manual how to adjust valve clearances.
4 Diagnostics
Systematic testing Working through a logical and planned systematic procedure for testing a
system is the only reliable way to diagnose a problem. I suggest you always
try to use these six stages of fault finding:
1. Verify the fault.
2. Collect further information.
3. Evaluate the evidence.
4. Carry out further tests in a logical sequence.
5. Rectify the problem.
6. Check all systems.
For example, if the reported fault is excessive use of engine oil, you could
proceed as follows:
1. Question the customer to find out how much oil is being used.
2. Examine the vehicle for oil leaks and blue smoke from the exhaust.
3. For example, oil may be leaking from a gasket or seal; if no leaks are
found, the engine may be burning the oil.
4. A compression test, if the results were acceptable, would indicate a leak to
be the most likely fault. Clean down the engine and run for a while; the
leak might show up.
5. For example, change the gasket or seals.
6. Run through an inspection of vehicle systems, particularly those
associated with the engine. Double check the fault has been rectified and
that you have not caused any other problems.
Test equipment Always refer to the manufacturers’ instructions appropriate to the

equipment you are using.
Compression tester
With this device the spark plugs are removed and the tester screwed or
held in to each spark plug hole in turn. The engine is cranked over by
the starter and the gauge will read the compression or pressure of each
cylinder.
Figure 5.19 Compression tester and adaptor kit

Engines 65
Cylinder leakage tester

A leakage tester uses compressed air to pressurise each cylinder in turn by a
fitting screwed into the spark plug hole. The cylinder under test is set to TDC
compression. The percentage of air leaking out and where it is leaking from
helps you determine the engine condition. For example, if air is leaking
through the exhaust pipe, then the exhaust valves are not sealing. If air leaks
into the cooling system, then a leak from the cylinder to the water jacket may
be the problem (blown head gasket is possible).
Test results The following table shows some of the information you may have to get from
other sources such as data books or a workshop manual.
Test carried out Information required

Compression test Expected readings for the particular engine under test. For
example, the pressure reach for each cylinder may be
expected to read 800 kPa ± 15%
Cylinder leakage test The percentage leak allowed for the tester you are using;
some allow about 15% leakage as the limit.
Fault diagnosis Symptom Possible causes of faults Suggested action

Oil consumption Worn piston rings and/or Engine overhaul
cylinders
Worn valve stems, guides or Replace valves (guides if
stem oil seals possible) and oil seals
Oil on engine or Leaking gaskets or seals Replace appropriate gasket or
floor seal
Build up of pressure in the Check engine breather system
crankcase
Mechanical knocking Worn engine bearings (big Replace bearings or overhaul
noises ends or mains for example) engine; also check the oil
pressure
Incorrect valve clearances or Adjust clearances to correct
defective automatic adjuster settings or replace defective
adjuster
Piston slap on side of cylinder Engine overhaul required now
or quite soon
Vibration Engine mountings loose or Secure or renew
worn
Misfiring Check engine ancillary systems
such as fuel and ignition
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Practise fault finding on real vehicles.

➠ Make a list of steps you would take to find some of the faults causing the
symptoms listed in the table.
6 Fuel system
1 Introduction
Start here! All vehicle fuel systems consist of the carburettor or fuel injectors, the fuel
tank, the fuel pump and the fuel filter, together with connecting pipes.
Working with these components requires care and skill, just like on any other
system, with one major difference!
‘Safety first’
With petrol and diesel there is a serious risk of explosion – take extra care. In
particular, injection systems pressurise the fuel, so you must always follow
manufacturers’ instructions before removing any parts.
As we have discussed in other chapters, an engine works by the massive
KEY WORDS
expansion of an ignited fuel–air mixture, acting on a piston. The job of the
■ All words in the fuel system is to produce this mixture at just the right ratio to run the engine
table under all operating conditions. There are three main ways this is achieved:
■ Hydrocarbon fuel ■ Petrol is mixed with air in a carburettor.
■ Petrol is injected into the manifold or throttle body to mix with the air.
Mechanical fuel pump
Carburettor Automatic
choke
Inlet manifold
Figure 6.1 Carburettor system
Fuel system 67
■ Diesel is injected under very high pressure directly into the air already in
the engine combustion chamber.
Each of these techniques is looked at in more detail later in this chapter.
Figure 6.2 Petrol fuel injection system
Fuel-injection system with distributor-type pump

1 Fuel tank
2 Fuel line
3 Fuel filter
4 Distributor-type fuel-injection pump
5 Pressure line
6 Injection nozzle
7 Fuel-return line
Figure 6.3 Diesel injection system

Terminology
Fuel The source of energy. Petrol and diesel are known as hydrocarbon (HC) fuels, as they
contain hydrogen and carbon
Fuel tank Simply a supply tank to allow a suitable quantity to be carried. Normally made of mild
steel or plastic
Fuel filter Most fuel is quite clean, but very small particles of dirt can damage fuel injectors or
carburettor jets. Paper is used to filter the fuel
Fuel lift pump On most vehicles the fuel tank is lower than the engine and carburettor. The lift pump
(carburation engines) lifts the fuel to where it is needed. The lift pump is usually driven by the engine camshaft,
but a few are electric
Fuel pressure pump Fuel is sprayed out of injectors into the manifold or throttle body in fuel injection engines.
(injection engines) The fuel needs to be under pressure to do this
Fuel lines These are simple plastic or metal pipes joining the tank to the pump, to a filter and then
the carburettor
Air filter Large amounts of dust or dirt taken into the engine would cause wear and damage. The
filter prevents this by trapping the contamination. Most filters are made from paper
Venturi This is defined as a narrowing of a passage such as in a carburettor. When air is forced
through a smaller area, it speeds up. This causes the air pressure to become lower
Throttle Some form of control is needed over the amount of air entering an engine. More air
means more petrol, which means greater engine speeds. The throttle is a simple disc
which, by rotating, opens or closes the way in to the inlet manifold for the air
Carburettor – The carburettor is a device for mixing air and fuel. The fixed venturi type has a fixed size
fixed venturi of venturi! This means that, as more air flows through, its speed is greater and its
pressure less. This means it will take in more fuel through a fixed size jet
Carburettor – The carburettor is a device for mixing air and fuel. The variable venturi type has a
variable venturi variable size of venturi! This means that, as more air flows through, the venturi increases
in size, the speed of air is constant and so is its pressure. However, the petrol jet is made
to increase in size to allow in more fuel
Choke More fuel is needed in order to start a cold engine. This is mainly because fuel condenses
on the inside of the manifold, much like when you breathe on a cold window. Carburation
engines use a choke to restrict the air intake, which causes more fuel to be picked up.
This makes a richer mixture. The choke is often just a simple valve like the throttle
Jet A very small orifice (hole) which controls the amount of fuel to be mixed with the air
Fuel injection The system now used by most modern vehicles. The amount of fuel can be controlled
very accurately by the engine’s electronic control unit (ECU), so ensuring the most
efficient mixture at all times
Multipoint injectors Electrically controlled valves which, when activated, spray petrol into each inlet manifold
tube
Throttle body A single injector which is fitted in the throttle body and sprays fuel onto the throttle
injector disc
Fuel pressure To ensure the amount of fuel injected is controlled only by the time the injectors are
regulator open for; the fuel pressure has to be kept constant
Diesel fuel injection Used by compression ignition engines, diesel injection is a mechanical system which sprays
diesel under very high pressure directly into the engine cylinder or pre-combustion
chamber
Diesel injection pump Driven by the engine, the injection pump is either a plunger type or a rotary type. It
provides a metered quantity of fuel under very high pressure
Diesel injectors Components which open under pressure to spray very fine droplets of fuel into the
engine’s cylinder or pre-combustion chamber
Fuel system 69
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine various real systems and note the layout of different types of fuel
systems.
➠ Write a short explanation about important safety aspects of working on fuel
systems.
2 Carburettor system
Basic principle The carburettor atomises a fuel such as petrol and mixes it with air in the
proper ratio for combustion in an engine. Under normal conditions the ratio
of air to petrol should be about 15:1 by mass (15 parts air to 1 part petrol). A
higher proportion of petrol (e.g. 10:1) is called a richer mixture, and a lower
proportion (e.g. 22:1) is called leaner or weaker.
A simple carburettor consists of a float chamber, a jet nozzle and an air
chamber that is narrowed at one point. Such a narrowing in a chamber or
tube is called a venturi.
A float valve keeps the petrol in the float chamber at a constant level. When
the engine is running, the downward movement of the pistons creates a low
pressure, drawing air through the carburettor. The air is accelerated by the
venturi, which creates a low pressure region; the jet nozzle, which is attached
in this area, draws a fine spray of petrol from the float chamber into the
venturi.
The fuel in the venturi mixes with the air, much like paint is mixed in a spray
gun. The mixture of petrol vapour and air is then fed to the engine cylinders,
where it is ignited. A throttle valve, which is moved by the accelerator pedal,
controls engine speed by regulating the amount of fuel–air mixture that
enters the engine.
Float valve regulates Venturi The throttle valve controls the Inlet valve
fuel flow flow of petrol/air mixture allows mixture
into cylinder
Spark plug
Air
intake
Petrol outlet Air flow through

When the fuel in the float the venturi sucks
chamber rises, the float petrol from the
contacts the needle and outlet which
seals off the supply mixes with the
airstream
Air sucked in by the engine

passes through the narrow
venturi which creates a
The float chamber maintains fuel Atmospheric pressure forces fuel partial vacumn and draws in
at the correct level in the venturi into the venturi petrol. A throttle valve
controls the flow of petrol/air
Figure 6.4 Simple carburation principle

KEY WORDS A choke valve at the inlet side of the carburettor is used to restrict the
amount of air entering the chamber when the engine is cold. Less air means a
■ All words in the richer mixture, which can be more easily ignited by the spark. As the engine
tables warms up, the choke valve gradually opens, reducing the richness of the
■ Air–fuel ratio mixture. The choke can be operated manually or automatically.
■ Stages of Carburettors use various means, often called correction systems, to ensure an
carburation ideal mixture of petrol and air under different operating conditions. These
conditions are often considered as the six stages of carburation:
Stage Operating condition
Choke The warm up stage when extra fuel is required to make the engine
perform correctly. Ratio can be between 8:1 and 10:1
Idle When the engine is ticking over or idling, usually at about 700–800
rev/min. Ratio is about 14:1
Progression Just as the engine speed moves from idle, a little extra fuel is
needed to prevent a flat spot
Acceleration For harder acceleration a fixed amount of extra fuel is mixed in to
the air stream. The ratio drops to about 12:1
Cruising or main The normal operating condition, most fuel is from the main jet. A
weaker mixture is used for reasons of economy. Ratio is about
16:1, but can be much higher for modern leaner burn engines – say
20:1
Full load Under full load a small amount of extra fuel is admitted to provide
extra power. Ratio is about 14:1
Fixed venturi Component Purpose

carburettor
Float chamber Contains a small amount of fuel held at a fixed level
Float Moves down if the fuel level moves down, allowing the needle
valve to open
Needle valve Opens to allow in more fuel to keep the float chamber at a set level
Venturi A narrowing of the air inlet passage
Main jet The small jet to control the fuel under normal operating
conditions
Idle jet Controls the fuel under idle conditions
Progression holes Prevent flat spots by allowing just a little more fuel as the throttle
is moved from idle jets to the main jet system
Throttle pump Sprays in extra fuel during acceleration
Emulsion tube Pre-mixes fuel from the main jet with a small amount of air before
it is mixed into the main air flow
Choke valve An air restriction to force in more fuel when the engine is cold
Throttle valve The means of controlling the air drawn into the engine as a way of
controlling its speed
Variable venturi There are two main types of carburettor: the fixed venturi, as described
carburettor above, and the variable venturi or variable choke type. A typical example of
this type is the HIF (horizontal integral float) carburettor used on many
existing Rover cars (Figure 6.6). Ford produced a version called the VV
(variable venturi) carburettor.
Fuel system 71
Idling jet Air-correction jet

Choke flap
Air vent
Throttle
valve
nearly
closed
Progression drilling Emulsion tube
High vacuum in this area High vacuum moves to main outlet

On idling, high vacuum below the throttle Fuel is drawn from the main outlet as the
valve draws fuel through a separate circuit vacuum around it increases
Choke flap
Choke flap
Pump outlet
Accelerator
pump
Throttle valve
Throttle
valve
Accelerator linkage
A flap is used to partially block the barrel for cold The accelerator pump squirts an enrichening shot of fuel
starts. It increases vacuum around the fuel outlet down the barrel to provide rapid response when the
and draws more fuel to provide a rich mixture throttle is opened quickly, when extra power is needed
Figure 6.5 Fixed venturi carburettor showing all the main components
The variable type uses a single jet with a tapered needle in it. As the engine
draws in more air, a component lifts or moves to increase the size of the
venturi. This means that the air pressure stays the same. More fuel is taken in
because the tapered needle is withdrawn from the jet to make a larger hole.
This principle is quite simple in practice and can make for a very efficient
carburettor without adding complicated correction systems.
Main body
Mixture
adjusting
screw
Piston
Jet
Figure 6.6 HIF variable

Needle
venturi carburettor with
electronic control
components
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show the basic operation of a carburettor.
➠ Examine a real carburettor and note the purpose of the main parts.
3 Petrol fuel injection
Basic principle Fuel injection is now the most popular method of supplying a precise
mixture of fuel and air to the cylinders of an internal combustion engine. The
fuel–air mixture is electronically calculated and controlled by the engine’s
electronic control unit (ECU). With fuel injection, petrol mixtures burn more
efficiently. This ensures that fuel consumption is cut and the pollutants in the
engine exhaust are reduced to a minimum. The small amount of poisonous
emissions can then be reduced to almost zero by a catalytic converter.
Idle mixture Idle speed

control control
Air Air flow

Throttle Engine
supply sensor
Fuel
injectors
ECU
Other
Fuel supply
sensors
Figure 6.7 Fuel injection principle
Sensors are used to monitor engine speed and load as well as other engine
operating conditions, such as temperature. The injection system for a petrol
engine also uses sensors to read the amount of oxygen in the exhaust. This is
an indication of how efficiently and cleanly fuel is being burned. All sensor
signals are fed into a small electronic control unit or computer, usually
located inside the vehicle or under the bonnet.
KEY WORDS
The injector itself is a small valve operated by a winding (solenoid). Petrol is
sent under pressure from the fuel pump into the fuel rail. A signal from the
ECU actuates the injector, and fuel sprays out of the valve nozzle into the
table
inlet manifold close to the inlet valves, where it mixes with the incoming air.
■ Single point The ECU only controls the length of the injector pulse. Conditions such as
■ Multi point cold starting, a warm running engine, or high altitude oxygen compensation
are adjusted for by changing the length of time the injector is open.
Fuel system 73
Figure 6.8 Fuel injection components
The following table describes the main components of the fuel injection
system.
Component Purpose
ECU Electronic control unit. This contains a computer which takes

information from sensors and controls the amount of fuel
injected by operating the injectors for just the right amount of
time
Air flow meter A sensor used to tell the ECU how much air is being drawn
into the engine
MAP sensor Manifold absolute pressure sensor. This senses the pressure in
the engine’s inlet manifold as an indication of the load the
engine is working under
Speed sensor Engine speed is often sensed by a sensor on the front pulley or
the engine flywheel
Temperature sensor Coolant temperature is used to determine if more fuel is
needed when cold. Much like the operation of the choke on
carburation engines
Lambda sensor A sensor which can tell how much oxygen is in the exhaust.
This is an indication of the fuel mixture strength which can then
be kept exactly right by the ECU (14.7:1)
Fuel pump A simple device to supply fuel under pressure to the injectors.
It is electrically operated and in some cases fitted inside the fuel
tank
Component Purpose
Filter Keeps the fuel very clean to prevent injectors becoming
damaged or even restricted
Fuel rail A common connection to multi point injectors
Pressure regulator Fuel pressure must be constant so that the amount of fuel
injected is only controlled by the time the injectors are
switched on
Injector Small component containing a winding or solenoid. When
energised by the ECU, the injector opens a valve. Fuel is
sprayed into the inlet manifold in tiny droplets
Idle actuator A valve operated by the ECU to control an air bypass around
the throttle to set idle speed
Types of fuel There are two main types of automobile petrol fuel injection:
injection system
■ Single point, or throttle body injection. This system has one injector that
operates from a central point (Figures 6.9 and 6.10).
■ Multi point injection. This system uses a separate injector for each
cylinder (Figures 6.11 and 6.12).
Separation of air- and fuel- metering
Air Air-flow meter
Injector
Manifold
pressure
sensor
Fuel
Fuel metering
Engine
Figure 6.9 Single point fuel injection principle
Figure 6.10 Single point fuel injection system

Fuel system 75
Separation of air- and fuel- metering
Air Air-flow meter
Manifold
pressure
sensor
Fuel
Fuel metering
Injector
Engine
Figure 6.11 Multipoint fuel injection principle
Electric fuel pump Fuel filter Pressure

reguator
Ingition coil High-tension

distributor
Injector
Air flow meter
-sensor
Temp.
sensor
Throttle Idle speed
position actuator
switch
Sensor wheel Inductive sensor
Electronic
control unit
Figure 6.12 Multipoint fuel injection system
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and make a simple sketch to show the layout of the fuel
injection components.
➠ Write a short explanation about how to replace a fuel injection filter.
4 Diesel systems
Introduction The basic principle of the four stroke diesel engine is very similar to the
petrol system. The main difference is that, as only air is drawn into the
engine’s cylinder, the mixture formation takes place in the cylinder’s
combustion chamber as the fuel is injected under very high pressure. The
timing and quantity of the fuel injected is important.
Fuel is metered into the combustion chamber by way of a high pressure

pump connected to injectors via heavy duty pipes. When the fuel is injected,
it mixes with the air in the cylinder and will self ignite at about 800°C. This
high temperature is caused by the high compression of the air and the high
speed at which the fuel is made to move as it is injected.
Diesel engines do not in general use a throttle butterfly as the throttle acts
directly on the injection pump to control fuel quantity. At low speeds in
particular, a very high excess air factor ensures complete burning and very
low emissions. Where possible, diesel engines operate with an excess air
factor even at high speeds. Figure 6.13 shows a typical diesel fuel injection
system. Overall, the emissions from diesel combustion are far lower than
emissions from petrol combustion. The main problem area is that of
particulate emissions (a type of soot).
Figure 6.13 Diesel fuel injection system
Diesel system Figure 6.13 shows the layout of a diesel fuel injection system. The following
components table explains the main components.
KEY WORDS Component Purpose
■ All words in the Fuel tank A simple supply tank usually mounted low down at the rear of
tables the vehicle
■ EDC Fuel lift pump This pump lifts fuel from the tank to make it available to the
■ Particulates injection pump. Some injection pumps have the lift pump built
in. A mechanical pump forming part of the main injection pump
or driven by the engine camshaft
Water and sediment Mostly now incorporated as part of the fuel filter, a collection
trap point for water which may be contaminating the fuel
Fuel filter Fuel must be kept very clean, so that the injection pump and
injectors are not damaged. The filters must be changed at
regular intervals
Injection pump Can be a plunger or rotary type, the latter being the most
common. It supplies a high pressure metered quantity of fuel
timed to the engine cycle
Injectors High quality, high strength units which spray fuel into the
combustion chambers
Leak off pipes Excess fuel is returned to the tank by the leak off pipes
Fuel system 77
Governor
Fuel shut
off valve
Transfer
pump
Advance
unit
Pumping
element
Figure 6.14 Diesel injection – rotary pump
Rotary or distributor Figure 6.14 shows a typical diesel fuel injection pump. The following table
type pump explains the main components.
Component Purpose
Fuel shut off valve A solenoid valve controlled by the ignition switch simply shuts
off the fuel supply to stop the engine
Governor Keeps the fuel quantity at constant levels at set speeds; this
controls the engine’s maximum and minimum speeds
Transfer pump Produces pressurised fuel inside the injection pump
Pumping element Contains a plunger which is rotated and moved back and forth.
This distributes the fuel to each pipe in turn (one for each
cylinder injector) and also provides the metered quantity of fuel
under very high pressure
Advance unit To change the time when the fuel is injected, the increase in
transfer pump pressure forces the advance unit to move as
engine speed increases
Electronic control of Whilst high pressure and injection are still produced mechanically in all
diesel injection current systems, electronic control over the diesel injection pump has
(EDC) allowed many advances:
■ more precise control of fuel quantity injected
■ better control of start of injection
■ idle speed control
■ drive by wire system (potentiometer on throttle pedal)
■ temperature compensation
■ cruise control.
Figure 6.15 shows a distributor type injection pump used with electronic
control. Ideal values for fuel quantity and timing are stored in memory maps
in the electronic control unit. The injected fuel quantity is calculated from the
accelerator position and the engine speed.
ECU
Fuel tank Injectors
Rotary
pump
Battery
Figure 6.15 Electronic control of diesel injection with distributor pump
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and make a simple sketch of diesel fuel system components
layout.
➠ Write a short explanation of the advantages and disadvantages of diesel injection.
Fuel system 79
5 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is excessive fuel consumption, you could
proceed as follows:
FAULT FINDING
1. Check that the consumption is excessive for the particular vehicle. Test it
1. Verify the fault yourself if necessary.
2. Collect further 2. Are there any other problems with the vehicle – misfiring, for example, or
information difficult starting?
3. Evaluate the 3. If the vehicle is misfiring as well, an ignition fault may be the cause of the
evidence problem.
4. Carry out further 4. Remove and examine spark plugs, check HT lead resistance and ignition
tests in a logical timing. Check CO emissions.
sequence 5. Renew plugs and set fuel mixture.
5. Rectify the 6. Road test vehicle for correct engine operation.
problem
6. Check all systems

Figure 6.16 Exhaust gas analyser

Exhaust gas analyser

This is a very expensive and sophisticated piece of test equipment used to
measure the make up of the vehicle’s exhaust gas. The most common
requirement is to measure carbon monoxide (CO). A sample probe is placed
in the exhaust tail pipe or a special position before the catalytic converter (if
fitted); the machine reads out the percentage of certain gases produced. A
digital readout is most common. The fuel mixture can then be adjusted until
the required readings are obtained.
Fuel pressure gauge

The output pressure of the fuel pump can be tested to ensure adequate
delivery. The device is a simple pressure gauge, but note the added
precautions necessary when dealing with petrol.
Exhaust gas analysis CO setting. Most modern vehicles will have settings of
about 1% or less. If a ‘cat’ is fitted, then the readings will be
even lower when measured at the tail pipe
Fuel pressure The expected pressure readings will vary depending on the
type of fuel system. Fuel injection pressure will be about 2.5
bar, whereas fuel pressure for a carburettor will be about
0.3 bar
Fuel delivery How much fuel the pump should move in a set time. This
will again vary with the type of fuel system, but 1 litre in 30
seconds is typical for some injection fuel pumps
No fuel at carburettor Empty tank! Fill it!

or injection fuel rail Blocked filter or line Replace filter, renew/repair
line
Defective fuel pump Renew/check it is being
driven
No electrical supply to pump Check fuses/trace fault
Engine will not, or is Choke or enrichment device Check linkages or
difficult to, start not working automatic actuator
Engine stalls or will not Idle speed incorrectly set Look up correct settings
idle smoothly and adjust
Mixture setting wrong Look up correct settings
and adjust
Ignition problem Check ignition system
Poor acceleration Blockage in carburettor Strip down and clean out
accelerator pump or try a carburettor
cleaner first
Partially blocked filter Renew
Injection electrical fault Refer to specialist
information
Excessive fuel Incorrect mixture settings Look up correct settings
consumption and adjust
Driving technique! Explain to the customer –
but be diplomatic!
Fuel system 81
Symptom Possible causes of faults Suggested action
Black smoke from Excessively rich mixture Look up correct settings

exhaust and adjust
Flooding Check and adjust
carburettor float settings
and operation
LEARNING TASKS

7 Cooling system
1 Introduction
Start here! When an internal combustion engine is operating, a very large amount of
heat is produced. Some of this heat is converted to mechanical energy in the
engine, but a large proportion is wasted. In fact, about 50% of the heat is lost
down the exhaust, and about 25% is converted in the engine. The other 25%
causes heat to build up around the engine. If this heat build up is not
controlled, then the engine components would get so hot that they would
melt or at least cause the engine to seize up due to expansion. This is where
the cooling system comes in.
Engine
Exhaust
Surroundings
Cooling
Figure 7.1 Heat distribution from burning fuel
KEY WORDS

Cooling is done either by air or by water. Water cooling is the best and
table
therefore most popular method, but a number of vehicles do rely on air
■ Radiation cooling. The basic principle of a cooling system is that excess or unwanted
■ Convection heat is passed to the surrounding air by either cooling fins (air cooling) or by
a radiator (water cooling).
Terminology
Coolant The liquid used to take heat from different parts of the engine, particularly the cylinder
head around the combustion area. The coolant used for most motor vehicles is a mixture
of water and antifreeze
Radiator Fitted in the air stream, the radiator allows excess heat to pass to the atmosphere. This is
not as the name suggests by radiation but mostly by convection. See Chapter 20 for more
details
Thermostat A temperature controlled valve or tap to allow coolant to heat up more quickly and then
be kept at a constant temperature by opening and closing automatically
Cooling system 83
Terminology
Antifreeze An additive to a water cooling system to prevent the water freezing. The most common
type is made from ethylene-glycol. Some antifreeze also helps to inhibit corrosion
Core plugs When engine blocks are cast, holes are needed to construct water ways. Metal plugs are
then used to seal these off. If the coolant freezes, the core plugs should be forced out
rather than the block cracking
Air cooling The most common car example is the VW beetle. Fins are used to dissipate the heat from
the engine. A large fan is also needed to force air over the fins
Pressure cap Fitted to the radiator or a header tank, the cap allows the coolant pressure to build up to
a set level. This increases the boiling point of the coolant and reduces the risk of boiling
over
Water pump A belt driven pump used to circulate the coolant
Cooling fan A fan driven by an electric motor or the engine. It is used to increase air flow over the
engine and/or the radiator
Viscous coupling A thermally controlled coupling between the engine drive and a cooling fan. This only
allows the fan to be coupled when it is required, so reducing drag
Drive belt Many engines now drive the water pump from the camshaft belt. Some use what became
known as the fan belt, as traditionally it was used to drive the fan from the engine front
pulley
Heater Some of the excess heat is used to work the car interior heater. Water systems use a
separate small radiator inside the car, together with a blower motor
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real cooling system to see the layout and be able to name and state the
purpose of all the parts.
2 Air cooling
Air cooled system Air cooled engines with multi cylinders, especially under a bonnet, must
have some form of fan cooling and ducting. This is to make sure all cylinders
are cooled evenly. The cylinders and cylinder heads are finned. Hotter areas,
such as near the exhaust ports on the cylinders, have bigger fins.
Fan blown air is directed by a metal cowling so it stays close to the finned
areas. Air flow is controlled by a thermostatically controlled flap. When the
KEY WORDS engine is warming up, the flap is closed to restrict the movement of air.
When the engine reaches its operating temperature, the flap opens and
■ Thermostatically
allows the air to flow over the engine. The large cooling fan is driven from
■ Fins the engine by a belt. This belt must not be allowed to slip or break, because
serious damage will occur. Regular servicing is important.
Cooling fan
Flaps control
airflow
to speed
warming-up
Figure 7.2 Air cooled system
Longer
fins
improve
Air cooling
flow
Piston
Fins
Figure 7.3 Air cooled cylinder showing cooling fins

The following table shows the advantages and disadvantages of air cooled
systems.
Advantages Disadvantages
Lighter in weight because of fewer Not suitable for in-line engines due to heat
parts build up
No leaks or freeze ups of the water Noisier because water reduces vibrations
Operates in all climates Fan absorbs a significant amount of power
from the engine
Simpler and fewer wearing parts
Heating With an air cooled engine car heating is not easy to arrange. Some vehicles
use a heat exchanger around the exhaust pipe. Air is passed through this
device, where it is warmed. With the aid of an electric motor and fan it can
then be used for de-misting and heating.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show the layout of an air cooled system.
➠ Examine a real system and note its operation.
Cooling system 85
Blower
motor
To vehicle
cabin Pick up
pipe
Hot box
Engine Exhaust
exhaust outlet
Figure 7.4 Air cooled system heat exchanger for the car heater
3 Water cooling
Full system The main parts of a water cooling system are as follows:
1. water jacket
KEY WORDS
2. water pump
■ Antifreeze 3. thermostat
percentage 4. radiator
■ Cooling system 5. cooling fan.
pressure
Water cooled engines work by surrounding the hot areas inside the engine
■ Heat exchanger
with a water jacket. The water takes on heat from the engine and, as it
■ Sealed and semi- circulates through the radiator, gives it off to the atmosphere. The heat
sealed systems concentrates around the top of the engine, so a water pump is needed to
ensure proper circulation.
1 = Coolant expansion tank

2 = Radiator fan shroud
3 = Radiator
4 = Radiator fan
5 = Water pump connection
6 = Heater outlet
7 = By-pass hose
8 = Intake manifold
9 = To choke housing
10 = Thermostat
Figure 7.5 Water cooling system layout

When the thermostat is open, the water pump circulates water through the
radiator and around the engine. When the thermostat is closed, water
circulates only round the engine and not through the radiator. Forcing water
around the engine prevents vapour pockets forming in very hot areas. Water
circulation is assisted by the thermo-siphon action: as the water is heated, it
rises and moves to the top of the radiator. This pushes down on the colder
water underneath, which moves into the engine. This water is heated, rises
and so on.
Inlet Exhaust
40–65°C 750–800°C Fins
2 000°C+ Combustion
chamber
1 250°C Cylinder
Thin ‘pipes’
Fitting for
Figure 7.6 Temperature a fan switch
distribution in an engine
Outlet
Figure 7.7 Details of radiator construction
Radiator A better name for a radiator would be a convector because it warms the air
passing over it. Have a look in Chapter 20 if you need more information on
this subject. Coolant from the engine water jacket passes through a hose to
the radiator at the top. It then passes through thin pipes, called the radiator
matrix, to the lower tank and then back to the lower part of the engine.
Many passages are used between the top and bottom tanks of the radiator, to
increase the surface area. Fins further increase the surface area to make the
radiator even more efficient. A cooling fan assists air flow. The heat from the
coolant passes to the pipes and fins and then to the air as it is blown over the
fins by a fan.
Many modern radiators are made from aluminium pipes and fins with
plastic tanks top and bottom (down flow), or at each end (cross flow). The
cross flow radiators with tanks at each end are becoming the most popular.
The more traditional method was to use copper and brass.
Thermostat A thermostat is a temperature controlled valve. Its purpose is to allow

coolant to heat up more quickly and then be kept at a constant temperature.
The total coolant volume in an engine takes time to heat up. Modern engines
run more efficiently when at the correct operating temperature. The
thermostat prevents coolant circulation from the engine to the radiator until
a set temperature is reached. When the valve opens, the coolant can circulate
fully, and a good cooling action occurs because of full flow through the
radiator. The constant action of the thermostat ensures that the engine
temperature remains at a constant level.
Cooling system 87
Almost all modern engine use a wax capsule type thermostat, Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.9 shows how this type works. If the thermostat is faulty, ensure the
correct type for the engine is fitted as some work at different temperatures.
Figure 7.8 Thermostat
in the cooling system
Figure 7.9 Thermostat Spring Pin Valve

operation
Wax pellet Rubber

diaphragm
Wax thermostat shut: With the Wax thermostat open: When hot,
engine cold, a heavy coil spring the wax expands, and in trying to
closes the valve expel the pin it opens the valve
Water pump and The water pump is driven by a V-belt or multi-V-belt from the crankshaft
cooling fan pulley or by the cam belt. The pump is a simple impeller type and is usually
fitted at the front of the engine (where the pulleys are). It assists with the
thermo-siphon action of the cooling system, forcing water around the engine
block and radiator.
Heated
water
Cooled
water
Figure 7.11 Thermo-

siphon effect of a cooling
Figure 7.10 Water pumps and other cooling system parts system
Figure 7.12 Electric cooling fan
The engine fan, which maintains the flow of air through the radiator, is
mounted on the water pump pulley on older systems. Most cooling fans are
now electric. These are more efficient because they only work when needed.
The forward motion of the car also helps the air movement through the
radiator.
Sealed systems Cooling systems on most vehicles today are sealed or semi-sealed. This
allows them to operate at pressures as much as 140 kN/m2 (140 kPa) over
atmospheric pressure, raising the boiling point of the coolant to as much as
126.6°C (remember that water boils at 100°C at atmospheric pressure (100
kN/m2 (100 kPa)). The system can therefore operate at a higher temperature
and with greater efficiency.
Vacuum-release
valve spring
Pressure-release Diaphragm-
valve spring locking spring
Main seal
Pressure-release Vacuum-release
valve valve
Figure 7.13 Radiator pressure cap
The pressure build up is made possible by the radiator pressure cap (Figure
7.13). The cap contains a pressure valve, which opens at a set pressure, and a
vacuum valve, which opens at a set vacuum. On a semi-sealed system, air is
pushed out to the atmosphere through the pressure valve as the coolant
expands. Air is then drawn back into the radiator through the vacuum valve
as the coolant cools and contracts. A sealed system has an expansion tank
into which coolant is forced as it expands, and when the engine cools,
Cooling system 89
8
2
1 Bottom hose 10
2 Heater matrix 4
3 Header tank 5
4 Thermostat housing
5 Top hose
6 Radiator (cross flow)
7 Drain tap
8 Pressure cap 6
9 Thermostatic switch
10 Water pump
Hot
7 Cold
1
Figure 7.14 Semi-sealed cooling system
Filler cap
Pressure cap
(fill to top)
Vent
Radiator Expansion tank
Figure 7.15 Sealed cooling system
coolant can flow from the tank back into the cooling system. Figure 7.14
shows a semi-sealed type cooling system and Figure 7.15 a sealed type.
Correct levels in the expansion tank or in an unsealed radiator are very
important. If too much coolant is used, it will be expelled on to the floor
when the engine gets hot. If not enough is used, then the level could become
low and overheating take place.
If a pressure cap is removed from a hot system, hot water under pressure
will boil the instant pressure is released. This can be very dangerous.
Heating Heat from the engine can be used to increase the temperature of the car
interior. This is achieved by use of a heat exchanger, often called the heater
matrix. Due to the action of the thermostat in the engine cooling system, the
coolant temperature remains nearly constant. The air being passed over the
heater matrix is therefore heated to a set level.
A source of hot air is now available for heating the vehicle interior. On most
modern vehicles the amount of heat reaching the inside of the car is
controlled by blending. A control flap determines how much of the air being
passed into the vehicle is directed over the heater matrix. Some systems use a
valve to control the hot coolant flowing to the heater matrix.
Air intake from Water Water To Flap control To demisters

car interior in out demisters
Booster
fan
Interior
heat
Fan Radiator Radiator Interior heat
Recirculatory heater Air-blending heater
Figure 7.16 Heater system
By a suitable arrangement of flaps it is possible to direct air of the chosen

temperature to selected areas of the vehicle interior. In general, basic systems
allow the warm air to be adjusted between the inside of the windscreen and
the driver and passenger footwells. Fresh cool air outlets with directional
nozzles are also fitted.
One final facility which is available on many vehicles is the choice between
fresh or recirculated air. The primary reason for this is to decrease the time
taken to demist or defrost the vehicle windows and simply to heat the car
interior more quickly and to a higher temperature. The other reason is that in
heavy congested traffic, for example, the outside air may not be very clean.
Cooling system 91
Antifreeze The term ‘antifreeze’ gives a rather good clue to what it does! If the coolant
in an engine was allowed to freeze, serious damage could be done to the
engine due to the expansion of ice. Corrosion and scale build up can also be a
problem in a cooling system, but good antifreeze will have inhibitors to
prevent this. It is therefore a good idea to use antifreeze all year round.
Different percentage solutions are used for different conditions. A mixture
with about 33% of antifreeze is often acceptable, but more may be required in
very cold conditions. The higher the percentage, the greater the protection
from freezing. Always check manufacturers’ instructions. Manufacturers
often recommend 50% to ensure protection continues even in the worst
possible conditions. Also note that if the cooling system is topped up with
water, the solution will become weaker. Most antifreeze solutions require
changing or at the very least checking on a regular basis. A hydrometer
measures the relative density of the liquid, which changes depending on the
amount of antifreeze.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show the layout of a water cooling system.
➠ Examine a number of different real systems and note the layout of components.
➠ Write a short explanation about how to check antifreeze content.
4 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is loss of coolant, you could proceed as
follows:
FAULT FINDING
1. Check coolant level and discuss with customer how much is being lost.
1. Verify the fault 2. Run the engine to see if it is overheating.
2. Collect further 3. If the engine is not overheating, a leak would seem to be most likely.
information 4. Pressure test the cooling system and check for leaks from hoses, gaskets
3. Evaluate the and the radiator.
evidence 5. Renew a gasket or the radiator, clips or hoses as required. Top up the
4. Carry out further coolant and check antifreeze content.
tests in a logical 6. Road test the vehicle to confirm the fault is cured and that no other
sequence problems have occurred.
5. Rectify the
problem

Cooling system pressure tester

This is a pump with a pressure gauge built in, together with suitable
adapters for fitting to the header tank or radiator filler. The system can then
be pressurised to check for leaks. The pressure can be looked up, or it is often
Figure 7.17 Cooling system pressure tester
stamped on the filler cap. A good way of doing this test is to pressurise the
system when cold and then start the engine and allow it to warm up. You
can be looking for leaks, but beware of rotating components.
Antifreeze tester
This piece of equipment is a hydrometer. It measures the relative density of
the coolant (see Chapter 20). The relative density of coolant varies with the
amount of antifreeze. A table can be used to determine how much more
antifreeze should be added to give the required protection.
Temperature meter/thermometer
Sometimes an apparent overheating problem can be caused by the
dashboard temperature gauge reading too high. A suitable meter or
thermometer can be used to check the temperature. Note though that normal
operating temperature is often above 90°C (hot enough to burn badly).
Leakage test System pressure. Printed on the cap or from data books.
About 1 bar is normal (100 kN/m2)
Antifreeze content Cooling system capacity and required percentage of
antifreeze. If the system holds 6 litres, then for a 50%
antifreeze content you will need to add 3 litres of antifreeze.
Of course you will have to drain out enough water to make
room for the antifreeze!
Operating temperature This is about the same as the thermostat opening
temperature. 88 to 92oC is a typical range
Cooling system 93
Overheating Lack of coolant Top up but then check for

leaks
Thermostat stuck closed Renew
Electric cooling fan not operating Check operation of thermal
switch
Blocked radiator Renew
Water pump/fan belt slipping Check, adjust/renew
Loss of coolant Leaks Pressure test when cold
and hot, look for leaks and
repair as required
Engine does not Thermostat stuck in the open Renew
reach normal position
temperature or it
takes a long time
LEARNING TASKS

8 Air supply and exhaust
systems
1 Introduction
Start here! Keep it quiet! That’s the main purpose of the exhaust system. You will
KEY WORDS remember that the operation of the internal combustion engine is caused by
fuel–air mixture burning very rapidly. This very quick movement and
■ All words in the table burning of the gases makes them very noisy as well as hot. So we need an
exhaust system with silencing built in. The exhaust system also directs the
■ Tuned manifolds
exhaust away from the vehicle, most often to the rear.
The air supplied for mixing with the fuel must be cleaned to prevent damage
to delicate components; larger particles such as stones or grit must not enter
the engine, otherwise serious damage would occur. Even dust would work
its way into the oil and cause rapid wear to the pistons and bearings.
4
2
1 = 3-way catalytic converter

2 = Front exhaust pipe
3 = Exhaust pipe to rear muffler 1
4 = Exhaust pipe flange joint
5 = Heat shield
6 = HEGO-sensor 5
Figure 8.1 Exhaust system

Air supply and exhaust systems 95
Terminology
Exhaust The spent gases and byproducts of the fuel–air mixture being burnt in an engine
Silencer (muffler) Noise is reduced by passing the exhaust through silencers. The two main types are called
‘capacity’ and ‘absorption’
Exhaust manifold Joins together the exhaust ports or outlets from the engine cylinder head. This is then
connected to a ‘down pipe’
Exhaust emissions All the gases and particles which make up the engine exhaust. The ones of most interest
are the toxic emissions
Catalytic converter A device which looks like an exhaust box but is used to considerably reduce toxic
emissions from the vehicle
Air filter Either a paper element or an oil bath to remove dust and dirt from the air
Inlet manifold Used to channel the air or fuel–air mixture into the cylinder head
Hot box An air pick up point around the exhaust manifold to allow warm air to be collected and
directed to the inlet
Manifold heater The inlet manifold can be heated either from the exhaust or in many cases by an electrical
heater. This prevents fuel condensing when it is cold
High efficiency manifolds Performance vehicles use manifolds which are tuned by being ‘gas flowed’. A good
example is a four branch manifold
What goes in and Figure 8.2 is a representation of what happens when air and fuel are burnt in
out of an engine? an engine. Points to note are that air consists of oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N),
and that petrol is made of hydrocarbons (HC), which consists of hydrogen
(H) and carbon (C). You will see that the combustion byproducts (or exhaust)
largely consist of carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen. All of these are
harmless to us, but the small amount of poisonous emissions produced can
be dangerous.
Air Carbon
(oxygen dioxide
and CO2
nitrogen)
Engine Water
H 2O
Fuel
(hydrogen
and Nitrogen
carbon) N
Carbon monoxide CO
A very small
( percentage but)
still dangerous
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
HC
NOx
Particulates (eg soot)
Figure 8.2 Exhaust emission byproducts
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and make a simple sketch to show the layout of the air
supply and exhaust systems.
➠ Write a short explanation about why the exhaust system is so important.
2 Exhaust system
Complete system A vehicle exhaust system directs combustion products away from the
passenger compartment, reduces combustion noise and, on most modern
KEY WORDS
vehicles, reduces harmful pollutants in the exhaust stream. The main parts of
the system are the engine’s exhaust manifold, the silencer or muffler, the
■ Absorption silencer
pipes connecting them and possibly a catalytic converter.
■ Capacity silencer
Most exhaust systems are made from mild steel, but some are made from
■ TWC
stainless steel which lasts much longer. The system is suspended under the
■ CO, HC and NOx vehicle on rubber mountings. These allow movement because the engine is
also rubber mounted, and they also reduce vibration noise.
Manifolds An exhaust manifold links the engine exhaust ports to the down pipe and
main system. It also reduces combustion noise and transfers heat
downstream to allow the continued burning of hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide. The manifold is connected to the down pipe, which in turn can be
connected to the catalytic converter. Most exhaust manifolds are made from
cast iron, as this has the necessary strength and heat transfer properties.
Figure 8.3 Exhaust manifold
Silencers The silencer’s main function is to reduce engine noise to an acceptable level.
Engine noise is made up of its firing frequencies (the number of times per
second each cylinder fires). These range from about 100 to 400 Hz
(cycles/sec). A silencer reduces noise in two main ways:
Turbulence Baffles
Sound absorbing material Pipe has lots of holes
From engine
From engine
Capacity type exhaust silencer Absorption type exhaust silencer
Figure 8.4 Two types of exhaust silencer

Figure 8.5 Exhaust system components
■ Interior chambers using baffles are tuned to set up cancelling vibrations.

■ Absorptive surfaces function like sound deadening wall and ceiling
panels to absorb noise.
When the exhaust gases finally leave the exhaust system, their temperature,
pressure and noise have been reduced considerably. The overall length of an
exhaust system, including the silencers, can affect the smooth flow of gases.
For this reason the length or the layout of an exhaust system must not be
altered.
Catalytic Stringent regulations in many parts of the world have made the use of a
converters catalytic converter necessary. The three way catalyst (TWC) is used to great
effect by most manufacturers. It is in effect a very simple device, which looks
similar to a standard exhaust silencer box. Note that in order for the ‘cat’ to
operate correctly, the engine must always be well tuned. This is to ensure
that the right ‘ingredients’ are available for the catalyst to perform its
function. A catalytic converter works by converting the dangerous exhaust
gases into gases which are non toxic.
Coating of
platinum and rhodium
Substrate
ceramic or metal O2
O+N
+C
HC
Chemical reaction
2 CO + O2 2 CO2
2 C2 H6 + 7 O2 4 CO2+ 6 H2O
2 NO + 2 CO N2 + 2 CO2
Figure 8.6 Catalytic converter and the chemical process

Figure 8.6 shows a magnified view of the inside of a catalytic converter,

known as a ceramic monolith. This ceramic is a magnesium aluminium
silicate and, due to the several thousand very small channels, provides a
large surface area. It is coated with a wash coat of aluminium oxide, which
again increases its effective surface area several thousand times. ‘Noble’
metals are used for catalysts. Platinum helps to burn off the hydrocarbons
(HC) and carbon monoxide (CO), rhodium helps the reduction of nitrogen
oxides (NOx). The whole three way catalytic converter only contains about
three to four grams of these precious metals.
a) Pellet-type catalytic
converter
Catalyst Insulation
b) Catalytic converter with

ceramic monoliths
Figure 8.7 Inside a catalytic converter
Catalytic converters can be damaged by the engine in two ways. Firstly by

the use of leaded fuel which can cause lead compounds to be deposited on
the active surfaces. Secondly by engine misfire which can cause the catalytic
converter to overheat due to burning fuel inside the unit. Some
manufacturers, BMW for example, use a system on some vehicles where a
sensor checks the output of the ignition HT system; if the spark is not
present, it will not allow fuel to be injected.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show the main components of an exhaust system. Label
each part.
➠ Write a short explanation about the advantages of using a ‘cat’.
3 Air supply system
Complete system There are three purposes of the complete air supply system:
KEY WORDS ■ clean the air
■ control air temperature
■ Filter
■ reduce noise.
■ Resonance
■ Hot air pick up The air cleaning is done by a filter. Air temperature is controlled by drawing
air from around the exhaust manifold. When large quantities of air are
Idle control
motor
Throttle
Filter
Inlet
Injector
Engine
Figure 8.8 Air supply system
drawn into the engine, the air begins to vibrate and this makes it noisy. As
with the exhaust system, baffles are used to stop resonance (when vibrations
reach a natural level, they tend to increase and keep going). You can hear for
yourself how much noise is reduced by the air intake system if you compare
the noise of an engine run with the air filter in place and with it removed.
Air filters Two types of air filter are in use, the first of these being by far the most
popular:
■ paper element
■ oil bath and mesh.
The paper element is made of resin impregnated paper. Air filters using this
type of replaceable element are used both for cars and commercial vehicles.
They provide a very high filtering efficiency and reasonable service life. They
can be mounted in any position available under the bonnet. Service intervals
vary, so check recommendations; between 12 000 and 24 000 miles is typical.
The oil bath and mesh type of air cleaner was widely used on non turbo
charged commercial vehicles. However, it is not very practical for modern
low styled bonnets. Because it can be cleaned and fresh oil added, an oil bath
air cleaner may still be used for vehicles operating in dusty conditions.
Figure 8.9 Paper air filters and other types of filters
Air temperature Air temperature control is used to help the vehicle conform to emission
control control regulations and for good driveability when the engine is cold. Good
vaporisation of the fuel is the key. An automatic control is often fitted to
Diaphragm Connection to
inlet manifold
To engine
Cool inlet Valve
air Flap manifold
Hot
air
Exhaust manifold
Figure 8.10 Air temperature control system
make sure that the air intake temperature is always correct. The air cleaner
has two intake pipes, one for cold air and the other for hot air from the
exhaust manifold or hot box. The proportion of hot and cold air is controlled
by a flap which is moved by a diaphragm acted on by low pressure from the
inlet manifold. The flap rests in the hot air pick up position.
A thermo-valve in the air stream senses the temperature of the air going into
the engine. When a temperature of about 25°C is reached, the valve opens. This
removes the connection to the manifold, which in turn increases the pressure
acting on the diaphragm. The flap is now caused to move, and the pick up is
now from the cool air position. The flap is constantly moving and ensures the
temperature of air entering the engine remains constant. Picking up hot air
when the engine is still cold can also help to prevent icing in a carburettor.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and make a simple sketch to show all the parts of an air
supply system.
4 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is a noisy exhaust, you could proceed as
follows:
FAULT FINDING
1. Check if the noise is due to the exhaust knocking or blowing.
1. Verify the fault
2. Examine the vehicle on the lift.
2. Collect further
3. Are further tests required or is it obvious?
information
4. Cover the end of the exhaust pipe with a rag for a second or two to
3. Evaluate the
highlight where the exhaust may be blowing.
evidence
5. Renew the exhaust section or complete system as appropriate.
4. Carry out further
tests in a logical 6. Run and test for leaks and knocking.
sequence
5. Rectify the problem
Fault diagnosis
Exhaust noise Hole in pipe, box or at joints Renew as appropriate

Knocking noise Exhaust incorrectly positioned Reposition
Broken mountings Renew
Rich mixture/smoke Blocked air filter Replace
Noisy air intake Intake trunking or filter box Repair or secure as
leaking or loose required
Poor cold driveability Hot air pick up not operating Check pipe connections to
inlet manifold for leaks.
Renew temperature valve
or actuator
LEARNING TASKS

9 Ignition systems
1 Introduction
Start here! The purpose of the ignition system is to make a spark inside the cylinder,
near the end of the compression stroke. This will ignite the compressed
KEY WORDS fuel–air mixture. Fundamentally all ignition systems operate in the same
way.
■ Timing
To make a spark of electricity jump across an air gap of 0.6 mm under
■ Dwell normal atmospheric conditions requires 2 000 to 3 000 V. To make a spark to
■ Induction jump across a similar gap in an engine cylinder requires over 8 000 V. For
■ All words in the higher compression engines and weaker mixtures, a voltage up to 20 000 V
table may be needed!
These high voltages are dangerous. Take care and follow manufacturers’
instructions.
Vacuum or
load sensitive
advance unit
High tension
distributor
cap
Plug leads
Distributor
Ignition
amplifier
HT lead
Coil
Figure 9.1 Engine showing ignition system components

Ignition systems 103
The ignition system has to change the normal battery voltage of 12 V into
many thousands of volts. This high voltage then has to be sent to the right
cylinder, and at the right time. Most ignition systems are now electronically
controlled.
Terminology
Ignition The source which makes something start and continue burning on its own. Like putting a
match to a bonfire, or of course lighting the fuel–air mixture in an engine cylinder
Electric spark Electricity will jump through the air or other gas if the voltage pressure is large enough.
Many kV are required for a spark plug in an engine. Lightning in a thunderstorm is a
somewhat larger example
Low tension (LT) An old fashioned phrase meaning low voltage
High tension (HT) An old fashioned phrase meaning high voltage
Primary The low voltage (battery voltage) part of an ignition system. This includes the battery,
ignition switch, one winding of the coil and a triggering or switching device
Secondary The high voltage part of the ignition system. In some cases this includes one of the coil
windings, plug leads, rotor arm, distributor cap and spark plugs
Dwell angle The angle of rotation of the engine camshaft during which time the ignition coil is
switched on
Dwell percentage The angle of rotation of the engine camshaft during which time the ignition coil is
switched on as a percentage of the angle available. For example, on a four cylinder engine,
four sparks are needed each time the cam rotates once. This means 90° for each, so if the
dwell angle is 45° the dwell percentage will be 50% (45/90100%)
Breakerless A way of describing electronic ignition. The word ‘breaker’ refers to the older type
systems which use moving contacts
Electronic ignition The ignition coil is switched on and off by an electronic device such as a transistor
Conventional ignition A term to be cautious with! Conventional means something like ‘normal and in common
use’. Therefore in this case it should mean electronic ignition, but it is usually used to
refer to the older contact breaker type!
One rotation of a distributor

Spark cyl 2 (four cylinder engine)
Spark cyl 1
il off Coi
l on
Co
Dwell angle,
l on
eg 50°
Co
Coi
il off
50°
50°
il off
Coi
Nine
Co
50°
l on
ty
deg
ree
l on Co
Coi il off
sf
re
o
ac
hc
Spark cyl 4 ylin
der
Spark cyl 3
50° dwell angle out

of a possible 90°
convert to a percentage
x 100% = 55.6%
Figure 9.2 Dwell angle and percentage
Secondary Spark
winding
High-tension High-tension
cable terminal
Primary
winding
Casing
The coil works on the Secondary

principle that a magnetic winding Secondary
field is created around a winding
core by the primary The coil's primary
winding, and when winding (low voltage) Primary
switched off, it induces has only 200 to 300 winding
a voltage in the secondary turns of wire: the
winding sufficient to secondary winding
produce the necessary consists of thousands Insulator
Low-voltage spark of turns
primary The coil in section
winding
Figure 9.3 Transformer action of an ignition coil
How to make a The most important part of the ignition system is the coil. It acts as a
high voltage transformer. The coil consists of two windings around an iron core. The
primary winding is connected to the battery and has only a few hundred
turns of wire. The secondary winding, which is the output, has thousands of
turns of thinner wire. The coil charges up from the 12 volt battery and
transforms it to a high voltage (up to 20 000 volts) to ignite the fuel–air
mixture in the engine. To ensure the coil is charged before the ignition point,
a dwell period is required.
When the engine is running, the battery current to the coil is switched on and
off by means of a transistor (or contact breakers in the distributor on older
cars). As it is switched off, the collapsing current in the primary winding
makes a voltage in the secondary winding. This is known as electromagnetic
induction. The induced voltage in the secondary winding is typically about
15 000 to 20 000 volts. This passes to the spark plugs to create sparks. The
actual spark occurs at the instant the coil is switched off.
Ignition timing To allow the engine to work at its most efficient, the ignition should be timed
to cause the maximum combustion pressure to occur about 10° after TDC.
The ideal ignition timing depends on two main factors: engine speed and
engine load. An increase in engine speed requires the ignition to be earlier in
the cycle (timing advanced). This is because the piston moves more quickly,
but the cylinder full of air–fuel mixture still requires a certain time to burn.
The fuel burning rate remains almost constant.
Speed
advance
Load
advance
Figure 9.4 Distributor showing speed and load advance mechanism
A change in timing due to engine load (how hard the engine is working) is
required because a weaker mixture is used on low load conditions, and this
burns at a slower rate than a richer mixture.
Spark timing change is achieved in a number of ways. The simplest of these
is a mechanical system comprising of a centrifugal advance mechanism and a
vacuum or pressure control unit (Figure 9.4). The pressure in the inlet
manifold is proportional to the engine load. Most modern ignition systems
adjust the timing electronically.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Write a short explanation about why ignition timing is so important.
2 Ignition components
KEY WORDS The following table describes the main components of the ignition system.
■ All words in the Component Purpose

table
Spark plug Seals electrodes for the spark to jump across inside the
■ Spark plug engine combustion chamber. Must be able to withstand very
temperatures high voltages, pressures and temperatures
Ignition coil Stores energy in the form of magnetism and delivers it to
the distributor via the HT lead. Consists of primary and
secondary windings
Ignition switch Provides driver control of the ignition system and other
electrical systems. It is usually also used to cause the starter
to crank the engine
Ballast resistor Fitted in series with the coil primary winding, it is shorted
out during starting to cause a more powerful spark. Also
contributes towards improving the spark at higher speeds
Pulse generator A device fitted on the engine crank, flywheel or in the
ignition distributor. It produces a signal relative to the
engine speed and position. This is used to tell the electronic
module when to operate the ignition coil
Ignition module An electronic device, the most important part of which is a
(electronic control transistor to switch the ignition coil on and off at the right
unit or amplifier) time. Many are now made as part of the unit which controls
the fuel system as well
Contact breakers Fitted in the distributor, the contacts are operated by a cam
(points) and switch the primary ignition circuit on and off to charge
and discharge the coil
Capacitor (condenser) Stops most of the arcing as the contact breakers open. This
allows for a more rapid break of primary current and hence
a more rapid collapse of coil magnetism which produces a
higher voltage output
HT distributor Sends the spark from the coil to each cylinder in the engine
firing order
Rotor arm Rotates in time with the engine to point at a contact in the
distributor cap. It is supplied from the coil
Distributor cap Contains the same number of connections as engine
cylinders. The rotor arm revolves inside it. Each connection
to a spark plug is made by a plug lead
Plug leads Highly insulated wires to keep the high voltage inside. They
connect the distributor cap to the plugs and in many cases
the coil to the cap. They are made to have a high resistance
to reduce radio interference
Centrifugal advance Changes the ignition timing with engine speed. As speed
increases, the timing is advanced (made to occur earlier in
the cycle). Speed sensitive advance
Vacuum advance Changes timing depending on engine load. Load sensitive
advance
1 = High-tension connection on the outside

2 = Winding layers with insulating paper
3 = Insulating cap
4 = High-tension connection on the inside via spring contact
5 = Case
6 = Mounting bracket
7 = Metal plate jacketing (magnetic)
8 = Primary winding
9 = Secondary winding
10 = Sealing compound
11 = Insulator
12 = Iron core
Figure 9.5 Section through an ignition coil
Electronic
ignition
amplifier
Capacitor
Inductive
pick up and
rotor
Contact
Distributor cap
breakers
rotor arm
flash shield
Figure 9.6 Electronic and contact breaker ignition components
Spark plugs A spark plug must allow a spark to form in the combustion chamber. In
order to do this the plug has to withstand a number of severe conditions:
■ very high pressures
■ severe vibration
■ harsh chemical environment
■ voltages up to 40 kV.
Figure 9.7 shows a typical spark plug. The centre electrode is connected to
the top terminal by a stud. The electrode is constructed of a nickel based
alloy. Silver and platinum are also used for some applications. If a copper
core is used in the electrode, it conducts heat better. The insulating material
is ceramic and of a very high quality. Flash over or sparks tracking down the
outside of the plug insulation is prevented by ribs which increase the surface
distance from the terminal to the metal fixing.
The range of temperatures a spark plug is exposed to can vary significantly
in different engines. The operating temperature of the centre electrode of a
spark plug is very important. If the temperature becomes too high and it
becomes red hot, ignition may occur too early. On the other hand, if the
electrode temperature is too low, then carbon and oil fouling can occur as
deposits are not burnt off. The ideal operating temperature of the plug
electrode is between 400 and 900°C. Figure 9.8 shows how the temperature of
the electrode changes with engine power output. It is for this reason that
only the plugs recommended by the vehicle manufacturer must be used.
They are designed to work at the ideal temperature.
1 = Terminal nut
2 = Connection thread
3 = Leakage-current barrier
4 = Insulator (A12O3)
5 = Special conductive seal
6 = Terminal stud
7 = Swaged and heat-shrunk fitting
8 = Captive outer gasket (in case of flat seat)
9 = Insulator tip
10 = Centre electrode
11 = Ground electrode
Figure 9.7 Spark plug

1000°C
Temperature °C
0 Engine power 100%
Figure 9.8 Spark plug temperature during operation
Over the years, as the power of the ignition systems driving the spark has
increased, spark plug electrode gap settings have increased. The plug gap
must be large enough to allow easy access for the mixture to prevent
misfires, but not too large so the spark can’t jump. It must therefore be set
only as recommended in technical data.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Write a short explanation about how to change a set of spark plugs.
3 Types of ignition systems
Introduction The basic types of ignition systems can be classified as shown in the table.
The techniques are explained further in the following sections.
KEY WORDS
Contact Electronic Programmed Distributorless Direct
■ Contact breaker breaker
ignition
Trigger Mechanical Electronic Electronic Electronic Electronic
■ Electronic ignition
■ Programmed Advance Mechanical Mechanical Electronic Electronic Electronic
ignition Volt source Inductive Inductive Inductive Inductive Inductive
■ Distributorless Distribution Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Electronic Electronic
ignition
■ Direct ignition
Contact breaker The distributor is the heart of the contact breaker ignition system. Its job is to
ignition trigger the ignition coil at the appropriate time and to distribute the high
voltages the coil creates. The distributor has a shaft that runs through its
middle. The shaft is driven by the engine, usually with a set of gears. In a
four stroke engine, ignition occurs on every other engine revolution. The
distributor therefore rotates at half the engine speed.
The distributor cam operates the contact breaker points. These are electrical
contacts held together by a spring and are forced apart as the cam rotates.
The contacts connect the battery to the ignition coil. This electrical circuit is
known as the primary ignition circuit. Each time the contacts open, the
primary circuit is interrupted and a high voltage is created in the ignition
coil. This travels to the central terminal of the distributor cap. The distributor
cap has one output terminal for each of the engine’s cylinders.
Battery
Spark plugs
Ignition switch
Condenser
Ignition coil Distributor
Figure 9.9 Contact breaker ignition system
The rotor arm mounted on top of the shaft is always in contact with the cap’s
central terminal. As the rotor spins, its arm comes into close contact with
each of the outer terminals in sequence. The rotor creates a connection
between the centre terminal and each outer terminal. This in turn is
connected to its spark plug with well insulated wire.
At the same time as the rotor lines up with one of the outer terminals, the
primary ignition circuit is opened by the contacts. The high voltage pulse
travels from the coil to the distributor’s central terminal, then through the
rotor and an outer terminal, and finally through the plug lead to the spark
plug.
Ignition occurs just before the piston reaches the top of its stroke, so the
fuel–air mixture in the combustion chamber is completely burned at the top
of the piston’s stroke. The heat and expanding gases generated by
combustion then push the piston downward. At higher engine speeds the
piston travels faster and ignition must occur earlier (advanced ignition).
To provide this earlier spark, the distributor incorporates an advance
mechanism. The mechanism consists of spring loaded weights that are
pulled outward by centrifugal force as the engine speed increases. This alters
the position of the distributor rotor and cam on the shaft and causes earlier,
or advanced ignition. The vacuum (lower pressure) created in the inlet
manifold also adjusts the amount of spark advance. As engine load increases,
manifold pressure increases, and the distributor rotor and cam are moved to
alter the timing to suit the engine load. Most distributors use both load and
centrifugal advance mechanisms to adjust ignition timing. The advance
mechanism described here is used for some electronic systems as well as the
older contact breaker types.
Electronic ignition Electronic ignition is now fitted almost universally to petrol driven vehicles.
This is because the mechanical contacts system has three major
disadvantages:
■ mechanical problems with the contact breakers, not least of which is
their limited lifetime
■ current flow in the primary circuit is limited to about 4 A, otherwise

damage to the contacts will occur or at least their lifetime will be
seriously reduced
■ legislation requires stringent emission limits, so the ignition timing must
stay in tune for a long period of time.
These problems have been overcome by using a transistor to carry out the
switching and a pulse generator to provide the timing signal. In electronic
ignition systems a toothed wheel (usually one tooth per engine cylinder)
takes the place of the distributor cam. In place of the contacts, a stationary
sensor inside the distributor electromagnetically senses the passing of each
tooth. With fewer moving parts to wear out, electronic ignition requires less
maintenance and is more reliable than the older systems.
Battery
Spark plugs
Ignition switch
Amplifier
Pulse
generator
Ignition coil Distributor
Figure 9.10 Electronic ignition system
Ignition and fuel injection are now often controlled by a single electronic
control unit (ECU), providing better engine performance and efficiency.
Some ignition systems may not even have distributors, but use instead a
double ended coil or even a small ignition coil for each spark plug. The
ignition ECU triggers the coils individually, using engine sensors to time the
pulses correctly. These systems are examined briefly in the next sections.
Programmed Programmed ignition is the term used by Rover and some other
ignition manufacturers. Ford, Bosch and others call it electronic spark advance or
ESA. Programmed ignition systems have a major difference compared to
earlier systems, in that they operate digitally (by a computer). The best
operating requirements (timing settings under different conditions) of a
particular engine can be programmed in to memory inside the electronic
control unit. Programmed ignition has several advantages:
■ The ignition timing can be accurately matched to the individual vehicle.
■ Other control input can be used, such as coolant temperature and air
temperature.
■ Starting is improved, fuel consumption and emissions are reduced.
■ Other inputs can be taken into account, such as engine knock (incorrect
ignition).
■ The number of wearing components in the ignition system is
considerably reduced.
1 = Programmed ignition electronic

control unit (ECU)
2 = Coolant temperature sensor 6
3 = Knock sensor
4 = Crankshaft sensor and reluctor
5 = Ignition coil
8
6 = Ignition switch 7
7 = High tension distributor
8 = Fuel injection ECU 1 5
2 Pin 2
Pin 1
3 Pin 3
Pin 4
Pin 6
Pin 10
Pin 9
Pin 12
2 4 6 8 10 12
4
1 3 5 7 9 11
Figure 9.11 Programmed ignition system
Figure 9.11 shows the layout of the Rover programmed ignition system. In
order for the ECU to work out suitable timing, certain input information is
required:
■ engine speed and position – crankshaft sensor
■ engine load – manifold absolute pressure sensor
■ engine temperature – coolant sensor
■ detonation – knock sensor.
The high tension distribution is similar to a more conventional system. The
rotor arm, however, is mounted on the end of the camshaft with the
distributor cap positioned over the top. The distributor cap is mounted on a
base plate which prevents any oil from the camshaft seal fouling the cap and
rotor arm.
Distributorless Distributorless ignition, used extensively by Ford and other manufacturers,

ignition has all the features of electronic spark advance systems (programmed
ignition), but by using a special type of ignition coil it outputs to the spark
plugs without the need for an HT distributor.
The system is generally only used on four cylinder engines. The basic
principle is that of the ‘lost spark’. The distribution of the spark is achieved
by using two double ended coils which are fired alternately by the ECU. The
timing is determined from a crankshaft speed and position sensor as well as
load and other corrections. When one of the coils is fired, a spark is delivered
to two engine cylinders, either 1 and 4 or 2 and 3. The spark delivered to the
cylinder on the compression stroke will ignite the mixture as normal. The
spark produced in the other cylinder will have no effect as this cylinder will
be just completing its exhaust stroke.
Because of the low compression and the exhaust gases in the ‘lost spark’
cylinder, the voltage used for the spark to jump the gap is only about 3 kV.
The spark produced in the compression cylinder is therefore not affected.
1 = Electronic spark control module

2 = Pipe to inlet manifold
3 = Crank speed and position sensor
4 = Coolant temperature sensor
5 = DIS coil
4 1
5 3
Figure 9.12 Distributorless ignition
Direct ignition In a way direct ignition is the follow on from distributorless ignition. This
system uses a coil for each cylinder. These coils are mounted directly on the
spark plugs. The use of an individual coil for each plug ensures that a very
high voltage, high energy spark is produced. This voltage, which can be in
excess of 40 kV, provides very good ignition.
Figure 9.13 Direct ignition system

LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and make a simple sketch to show the layout of ignition
components.
➠ Write a short explanation about the advantages of programmed ignition.
4 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is an engine misfire, you could proceed as
follows:
FAULT FINDING
1. Road test or run the vehicle.
1. Verify the fault 2. Check when the fault occurs: when hot, cold or all the time?
2. Collect further 3. For example, if the fault occurs only when cold, it may be the cold start
information fuel system.
3. Evaluate the 4. Remove and examine the spark plugs, check HT components etc.
evidence
5. Renew plug leads, for example.
6. Road test to ensure the problem has been rectified.
tests in a logical
sequence
5. Rectify the
problem

Multimeter
This essential tool has many uses. In the case of ignition systems, the
ohmmeter function will allow you to measure the resistance of HT leads.
Timing light
A stroboscopic timing light is used to set dynamic timing. This means setting
ignition timing when the engine is running. A connection is made to the
battery as a power supply and a clip fits over number one plug lead. The
light will now flash each time number one plug fires. The light is directed at
the engine timing marks and the distributor can be moved until the
appropriate marks line up when the engine is at a set speed. Timing is now
set and adjusted electronically on many engines, but many cars with
distributors are still in use.
Rev counter/dwell meter

This handheld tool may be part of a multimeter or a separate device. A
connection is made to the ignition coil LT terminal with one wire, the other is
connected to earth. The speed of the engine in rev/min and the dwell, as an
angle or a percentage, can be read off and compared to data.
Figure 9.14 Ignition timing light
Engine analyser
This very expensive and complex piece of equipment is almost essential for
complex fault finding of ignition as well as other electrical systems. This will
be covered in detail in the level 3 book.
Ignition timing Ignition timing is given as a number of degrees BTDC and at

a certain speed. For example, 12° BTDC at 700 rev/min
(often written as 12°/700)
Lead resistance The resistance of anything varies with length. This figure will
be given as, for example, 40 kΩ/m maximum (in other
words, a lead 25 cm long should be no more than 10 kΩ).
Some manufacturers specify a maximum resistance for any
lead of 30 kΩ
Engine speed Simply measured in rev/min
Plug gaps Simply measured in mm. For example 0.8 or 1 mm are
common settings
Dwell This can be as an angle, e.g. 30°, or a percentage, e.g. 50%.
For a six cylinder engine these two readings would mean the
same, but on a four cylinder engine they are different. Make
sure you compare like with like
Fault diagnosis
Misfire One or more plugs worn to The plugs should be

excess or incorrectly gapped renewed and/or correctly
gapped
Open circuit HT lead Renew
Water contamination Clean and dry all parts. Use
a water repellent
Pinking Ignition timing too far advanced Timing should be checked

(too early in the cycle) and reset to the
manufacturer’s
specifications
Incorrect grade of fuel Check and use the correct
grade specified for the
engine
Overheating Timing too far retarded (too Timing should be checked
late in the cycle) and reset to the
manufacturer’s
specifications
Cooling system fault Check cooling system
Poor performance Timing incorrect Correctly set timing
Plugs worn Renew
HT lead open circuit or shorting Renew
to the engine
LEARNING TASKS

10 Lubrication
1 Introduction
Start here! Lubrication is the introduction of a substance, called a lubricant (oil, for
example, to create an oil film), between two moving contact surfaces in order
to reduce friction. This reduction of friction greatly reduces the wear of the
surfaces and thus lengthens their service life. It also reduces the energy
required for the movement. Lubrication is important in all moving parts of
the vehicle, but the engine has the greatest need.
Under a microscope even the smoothest engine components have a surface
that looks very rough. If these surfaces made contact, they would rub
together, overheat and destroy themselves. To prevent this happening,
engines have a lubrication system that pumps or drips a constant supply of
oil on all the moving metal components.
Contact Oil
causes molecules
friction and prevent
damage contact
KEY WORDS
Figure 10.1 How oil prevents surface contact
■ Oil wedge
■ Boundary
lubrication
Although the basic function of a lubricant is to reduce friction and wear, a
■ Splash feed
lubricant may also perform a number of other tasks. It carries off generated
■ All words in the heat, and it also helps to form a gas tight seal between piston rings and
terminology table cylinders. It also carries away harmful combustion waste products.
■ Crankcase Lubrication helps to control corrosion by coating parts with a protective film.
A detergent added to the lubricant helps to removes sludge deposits.
Terminology
Oil The lubricant! It can be vegetable, mineral or, for high performance engines, synthetic
Filter Usually a paper element to keep the oil clean
Strainer The primary oil filter fitted on the oil pump pickup pipe in most engines. It is simply a
wire mesh
Main gallery A drilling or casting in the engine block from where oil is distributed round the engine
Oil pressure switch A switch to operate the oil pressure warning light. It gives a warning if oil pressure drops
as this could wreck the engine very quickly
Oil pump A device to produce oil pressure to distribute oil around the engine and force oil in
between some bearing surfaces
Terminology
Pressure relief valve A valve to limit the oil pressure by returning oil to the sump when the set pressure is
reached
Crankcase ventilation/ System to prevent buildup of pressure in, and emissions from, the engine interior or
engine breathing crankcase
Viscosity A measure of the resistance to flow of a liquid like oil (in a way the thickness of the oil).
Greater viscosity means more resistance or, to be exact, a greater internal friction. This
means better lubrication, as it prevents oil being squeezed out of contact surfaces.
However, it is more difficult to pump and move
Viscosity index The viscosity of oil changes with temperature. The index gives an indication of this
change. A higher number means temperature has less effect on the viscosity
SAE – Multigrade oils The higher the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) number, the higher the viscosity.
For example, SAE 20 has a lower viscosity than SAE 40. Multigrade oils have different
viscosities at different temperatures. SAE 20/40, for example, means that the oil will act
like 20 or 40 depending on the temperature. Thinner oil when cold makes the engine
easier to crank over, but without the special additives it would become too thin at higher
temperatures. Multigrade contains an additive known as a viscosity extender to get the
best of both worlds
Oiliness The ability of an oil to cling to a surface. Important for boundary lubrication
Additives Chemicals added to oil to improve its properties. These range from detergents for
cleaning to viscosity extenders to make ‘multigrade oils’
Types of oil Lubricants made from animal and vegetable products (such as whale oil or
linseed oil) have been used for a very long time. Fortunately they have now
been superseded by more effective mineral products, particularly by
lubricants refined from petroleum. Polymer films and silicones are synthetic
lubricants that have been developed to meet the demanding requirements of
modern automobile systems.
The wide range of oil types now available makes it impossible to give
recommendations other than the usual advice:
‘Always follow manufacturers’ instructions and use the correct oil.’
Figure 10.2 Examples from the range of products available

Lubrication 119
Types of lubrication If a film of lubricant is used between the surfaces, the process is called
boundary lubrication. This type of lubrication is introduced between the
moving surfaces by splash feed or an oil mist. The best example is on the side
of the pistons, but all sliding components use this method.
Oil drilling
Oil under
Clearance Clearance pressure
Shaft Shaft
Pressure Oil
area wedge
A stationary crankshaft journal Once rotating, the shaft drags oil

rests on a thin oil film in the into the pressure area which lifts
bottom of the shell bearing the shaft off the bearing
Figure 10.3 An oil wedge in a big end bearing
Boundary lubrication also commonly occurs on some bearings during

starting of the engine. Once the engine is moving, pressure is generated as a
result of the shape and motion of the surfaces. This is known as
hydrodynamic lubrication. For example, the rotation of the crankshaft in a
bearing forces lubricant into the wedge shaped space between the shaft and
the bearing. The clearance between the bearing and the shaft, the load on the
shaft, the speed of rotation and the viscosity of the lubricant have a marked
effect on this process.
Methods of Bath lubrication or splash lubrication (used in gearboxes and rear axles) may
lubrication be used for gears, chains, bearings and other moving parts that can be partly
submerged in an oil reservoir. In the bath system the gear simply picks up oil
as it dips into the reservoir and sprays or carries it to other parts along its
path. The splash system increases the efficiency by attaching a special splash
ring to a moving part so that the oil is splashed against other parts that need
to be lubricated. This is similar to oil mist lubrication, created by the oil
escaping from the engine’s rotating crankshaft, where it is atomised in a
stream of air.
Casing Gears
Oil spray
Oil is picked up
Oil level and carried round
with the gears
Figure 10.4 Splash feed lubrication

Force feed lubrication uses an oil pump to force the oil under pressure to the
parts to be lubricated, normally the engine crankshaft and camshaft. On
some high performance vehicles the mainshaft in the gearbox is pressure fed.
Some parts are self lubricating and require no external lubrication; the
lubricant may be sealed in against loss, as in sealed ball bearings,
alternatively a porous material such as porous bronze can be used so that oil
impregnated in the material can penetrate through pores to the point of
contact of the moving parts. In small two stroke engines the oil is mixed in
with the fuel to bring it to the moving parts inside the engine.
Although lubricating oil is used elsewhere in a car, the lubrication of the
engine is of greatest importance because it reduces the friction and wear
between moving metal parts and also removes heat from the engine. A
supply of oil is kept in the engine crankcase. An oil pump, which is powered
by the engine, forces oil from the crankcase under pressure to the cylinder
block main oil gallery. Passages in the engine block channel the oil to various
moving parts, such as the crankshaft and camshaft, and the oil eventually
drains back down in the crankcase. An oil filter is fitted in the oil circuit to
filter out metal shavings, carbon deposits and dirt. Because the filter is not
completely effective, and because of prolonged exposure to high
temperatures, the oil eventually becomes contaminated, decomposes, and
loses its lubricating qualities. That is why routine maintenance calls for
changing the oil and oil filter at regular intervals (between 6 000 and 12 000
miles is typical).
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show what is meant by surface contact and how oil
reduces it.
➠ Read about manufacturers’ recommendations on service intervals in a workshop
manual.
2 System layout
Lubrication system From the sump reservoir under the crankshaft, oil is drawn through a
strainer into the pump. Oil pumps have an output of tens of litres per minute
and operating pressures of over 5 bar at high speeds. A pressure relief valve
limits the pressure of the lubrication system to between 2.5 and 4 bar. This
control is needed because the pump would produce excessive pressure at
high speeds. After leaving the pump, oil passes into a filter and then into a
main oil gallery in the engine block or crankcase.
Drillings connect the gallery to the crankshaft bearing housings. When the
engine is running, oil is forced under pressure between the rotating crank
journals and the main bearings. The crankshaft is drilled so that the oil
supply from the main bearings also reaches the big end bearings of the
connecting rods.
The con rods are often drilled near the base so that a jet of oil sprays the
cylinder walls and the underside of the pistons. In some cases the con rod
Lubrication 121
KEY WORDS
■ Open ventilation
system
■ Closed ventilation
system
■ PCV
■ Rotor type oil
pump
■ Filters
■ Pressure relief
valve
1 = Oil feed to rocker arms

2 = Roller type hydraulic valve
tappets
3 = Camshaft
4 = Oil filter
5 = Oil feed to oil pressure switch
6 = Crankshaft main bearings
7 = Connecting rod bearings
8 = Crankshaft driven “Georotor”
type oil pump
Figure 10.5 Engine lubrication system
may be drilled along its entire length so that oil from the big end bearing is
taken directly to the gudgeon pin (small end). The surplus then splashes out
to cool the underside of the piston and cylinder.
The camshaft operates at half crankshaft speed, but it still needs good
lubrication because of the high pressure loads on the cams. It is usual to
supply pressurised oil to the camshaft bearings and splash or spray oil on the
cam lobes. On overhead camshaft engines, two systems are used. In the
simplest system the rotating cam lobes dip into a trough of oil. Another
method is to spray the cam lobes with oil. This is usually done by an oil pipe
with small holes in it alongside the camshaft. The small holes in the side of
the pipe aim a jet of oil at each rotating cam lobe. The surplus splashes over
the valve assembly and then falls back into the sump.
On cars where a chain drives the cam, a small tapping from the main oil
gallery sprays oil on the chain as it moves past, or the chain may simply dip
in the sump oil.
Filters Even new engines can contain very small particles of metal left over from the
manufacturing process, or grains of sand which have not been removed from
the crankcase after casting. Old engines continually deposit tiny bits of metal
worn from highly loaded components such as the piston rings. To prevent
any of these lodging in bearings or blocking oil ways, the oil is filtered.
Filter
Figure 10.6 Full flow filter system
The primary filter is a wire mesh strainer that stops particles of dirt or swarf
from entering the oil pump. This is normally on the end of the oil pickup
pipe. An extra filter is also used to stop very fine particles. The most common
type has a folded, resin impregnated paper element. Pumping oil through it
removes all but the smallest solids from the oil.
Most engines use a full flow system to filter all of the oil after it leaves the
pump. The most popular method is to pump the oil into a canister containing
a cylindrical filter. From the inner walls of the canister the oil flows through
the filter and out from the centre to the main oil gallery. Full flow filtration
works well, provided the filter is renewed at regular intervals. If it is left in
service too long, it may become blocked. When this happens the buildup of
pressure inside the filter forces open a spring loaded relief valve in the
housing, and the oil bypasses the filter. This valve prevents engine failure,
but the engine will be lubricated with dirty oil until the filter is renewed.
This is better than no oil!
A bypass filtration system was used on older vehicles. This system only
filters a proportion of the oil pump output. The remainder is fed directly to
the oil gallery. At first view this seems a strange idea, but all of the oil does
eventually get filtered. The smaller amount through the filter allows a higher
degree of filtration.
Lubrication 123
Drive shaft
Drive shaft
Sealing ring
Outer rotor
Inner rotor
Cover
Driving gear IN
Oil
Outer rotor
Inner rotor
Driven gear
OUT
Figure 10.7 Gear type and rotary type oil pumps
Oil pumps In its simplest form an oil pump consists of two gear wheels meshed together
in a tight space so that oil cannot escape past the sides. One wheel is driven
by the engine. As the gears rotate in opposite directions, the gap between
each tooth in each wheel traps a small quantity of oil from an inlet port. The
trapped oil is carried round by each wheel towards an outlet port on the
opposite side. It is now forced out by the meshing teeth.
The principle of squeezing oil from an ever decreasing space is also used in
the rotor type pump. An inner and outer rotor are mounted on different axes
in the same cylinder. The inner rotor, which commonly has four lobes, is
driven by the engine. It meshes with an outer rotor which has five lobes. As
they rotate, the spaces between them change size. The inlet port is at a point
where the space between the rotor lobes is increasing. This draws the oil in to
the pump. The oil is then carried round the pump. As rotation continues, the
space between the lobes gets smaller. This compresses the oil out of the
outlet port.
Pressure relief Oil pumps can produce more pressure than is required. A valve is used to
valve limit this pressure to a set value. The pressure relief valve is a simple device
which in most cases works on the ball and spring principle. This means that
when the pressure on the ball is greater than on the spring, the ball moves.
The pressure relief valve is placed in the main gallery so that excess pressure
is prevented. When the ball moves, oil is simply returned to the sump.
Oil Valve Oil Valve

from closed from open to
pump pump relieve
excess
pressure
Figure 10.8 Oil pressure relief valve

Crankcase If we were unable to breathe, we would die! It is almost as important for an

ventilation – engine engine breathing system to work correctly. There are two main reasons for
breather systems engine breathers:
1. Prevent pressure build up inside the engine crankcase due to combustion
gases blowing past the pistons. The buildup of pressure will blow gaskets
and seals, but there is also a high risk of explosion.
2. Prevent toxic emissions from the engine. Emission limits are now very
strict, and for good reason; our health!
Crankcase breathing or ventilation of the engine was first achieved by what
is known as an open system, but this has now been completely replaced by
the closed system.
Open system
Air at atmospheric pressure entered at the top of the engine, in most cases
through a combined oil filler and breather cap. The air was caused to
circulate through the inside of the engine by a breather pipe. The lower end
of this pipe was placed in the air stream under the car. Removal of the
crankcase gases therefore depended upon the movement of the vehicle. The
air circulation in the crankcase was assisted by the rotation of the crankshaft.
A basic problem with this simple system was that ventilation was poor at
low speeds and during idling – when it was most needed.
Closed system
The gases escaping from an engine with open crankcase ventilation as
described above are very toxic. Legislation now demands a positive closed
system of ventilation. This makes the pollution from cylinder blowby gases
negligible. Positive crankcase ventilation is the solution to this problem.
In early types of closed system crankcase ventilation, the lower pressure at
the carburettor air cleaner was used to cause an air flow through the inside of
the engine. The breather outlet was simply connected by a pipe to the air
cleaner. This caused the crankcase gases to be circulated and then burned in
the engine cylinders. A flame trap was included in the system, to prevent a
crankcase explosion if the engine backfired.
Figure 10.9 Crankcase ventilation – closed system

Lubrication 125
In modern closed systems the much lower pressure within the inlet manifold
is used to extract crankcase gases. This has to be controlled in most cases by a
variable regulator valve or pressure conscious valve (PCV). The valve is
fitted between the breather outlet and the inlet manifold. It consists of a
spring loaded plunger, which opens as the inlet manifold pressure reduces.
When the engine is stationary the valve is closed. Under normal running
conditions the valve opens to allow crankcase gases to enter the inlet
manifold with minimum restriction. At low manifold pressures during idling
and overrun (pressure is less than atmospheric), further travel of the valve
plunger against its spring closes it in the opposite direction. This reduces gas
flow to the inlet manifold. This feature makes sure that the fuel control
process is not interfered with under these conditions. The valve also acts as a
safety device in case of a backfire. Any high pressure created in the inlet
manifold will close the valve completely. This will isolate the crankcase and
prevent the risk of explosion.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine real lubrication system components. How would you decide if they were
still serviceable?
➠ Examine a real system and make a simple sketch to show the breather system.
➠ Write a short explanation about why crankcase ventilation is important.
3 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is that the oil pressure light comes on at
low speed, you could proceed as follows:
FAULT FINDING
1. Run the engine and see when the light goes off or comes on.
1. Verify the fault 2. Is the problem worse when the engine is hot? Check the oil level! When
2. Collect further was the vehicle last serviced?
information 3. If the oil level is correct, then you must investigate further.
3. Evaluate the 4. Carry out an oil pressure test to measure the actual pressure.
evidence
5. If the pressure is correct, then renew the oil pressure switch. If this does
4. Carry out further not solve the problem, engine strip down is likely.
tests in a logical
6. Run and test for leaks.
sequence
5. Rectify the
problem

Figure 10.10 Oil pressure gauge
Oil pressure test gauge

This is a simple pressure gauge that can be fitted with suitable adapters into
the oil pressure switch hole. The engine is then run and the pressure
readings compared to data.
Vacuum gauge or absolute pressure gauge

A simple ‘U’ tube full of water is often used. This is connected to the oil dip
stick tube and the engine is run. The gauge should show a pressure less than
atmospheric (a partial vacuum). This checks the operation of the crankcase
ventilation system.
Oil pressure Oil pressure is measured in bars. A typical reading would be

about 3 bar
Crankcase pressure By tradition pressures less than atmosphere are given in
strange ways, such as inches of mercury or inches of water!
This is why I like to stick to absolute pressure and the bar!
0 bar is no pressure, 1 bar is atmospheric pressure and so
on. 2 to 3 bar is more than atmospheric pressure, like in a
tyre. Standards vary, so make sure you compare like with
like! Crankcase pressure should be less than atmospheric –
check data
Low oil pressure Lack of oil Top up

Blocked filter Renew oil and filter
Defective oil pump Renew after further tests
Defective oil pressure relief valve Adjust if possible or renew
High crankcase Blocked crankcase breather Clean or replace
pressure Blocked hose Clean or renew hose
Pressure blowing by pistons Engine overhaul may be
required
Lubrication 127
Loss of oil Worn piston rings Engine overhaul may be

required
Leaks Renew seals or gaskets
LEARNING TASKS

11 Transmission
1 Introduction
Start here! Transmission is a general term used to describe all the components required
to transmit power from the engine to the wheels. The power needs to be
converted from the relatively high velocity and low torque of the engine
crankshaft to the variable, usually lower speed and higher torque needed at
the wheels.
The two basic types of transmission use either a manual gearbox, in which
the gears are selected by the driver, or an automatic gearbox, in which the
gears are changed automatically.
Figure 11.1 Layout of the front wheel drive transmission system
Figure 11.2 Layout of a rear wheel drive transmission system
The main components of a typical front wheel drive transmission system

(working from the engine to the wheels) are as follows:
KEY WORDS ■ clutch
■ gearbox
■ final drive
table
■ differential
■ Ratio
■ drive shafts (then to the wheels).
■ Torque and speed
Each of these main areas will be examined in more detail in this chapter.
Transmission 129
Terminology
Clutch Fitted between engine and gearbox, the clutch allows the drive to be disconnected when
the pedal is pushed down. It allows a smooth takeup of drive and allows gears to be
changed
Manual gearbox A box full of gears of varying ratios! The ratio most suitable for the current driving
conditions can be selected by the gear stick. Most boxes contain about thirteen gear cogs
which allow five forward gears and one reverse
Torque converter This is sometimes called a fluid flywheel and is used in conjunction with an automatic
gearbox. It is in two main parts: as the input section rotates, fluid pressure begins to act
on the output section to make it rotate. As speed increases, a better drive is made. The
drive therefore takes up automatically and smoothly
Automatic gearbox As the name suggests, this is a gearbox which operates automatically. Most types contain
special gear arrangements, known as epicyclic gear trains. Some now use very complicated
electronic control, but the basic principle is that fluid pressure from a pump is used to
change the gears. The fluid pressure changes with road speed
Final drive To produce the required torque at the road wheels, a fixed gear reduction from the high
engine speed is required. The final drive consists of just two gears with a ratio of about
4:1
Differential A special combination of gears which allow the driven wheels of a vehicle to rotate at
different speeds. Think of a car going round a roundabout: the outer wheel has to travel a
greater distance, and hence must rotate at a faster speed than the inner wheel. If this was
not allowed for, the drive would ‘wind up’ and something would break
Driveshafts Two driveshafts are used to pass the drive from the outputs of the final drive to each
wheel. Each driveshaft contains two CV joints
Propshaft On rear wheel drive vehicles, the drive has to be passed from the gearbox output to the
final drive and differential unit in the rear axle. The propshaft (short for propeller shaft) is
a hollow tube with a universal joint (UJ) at each end. If removed, the UJs must be aligned
correctly
UJ Universal joint. The UJ is like a cross with a bearing on each leg. It allows drive to be
transmitted through an angle. This is to allow for suspension movement
CV joint Constant velocity joint. The CV joint is a bit like a UJ, but it is used on front wheel drive
driveshafts. It allows smooth drive to be passed through, even when the suspension
moves it up and down, and the steering moves it side to side
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show the layout of a transmission system.
➠ Examine a real system and note how the main components are placed and make
sure you can name and state the purpose of each main part.
➠ Write a short explanation about why a vehicle needs a gearbox of some kind.
2 Clutch and gearbox
Clutch A clutch is a device for disconnecting and connecting rotating shafts. In a

vehicle with a manual gearbox, the driver pushes down the clutch when
KEY WORDS changing gear, thus disconnecting the engine from the gearbox. It allows a
temporary neutral position for gear changes and also a gradual way of
■ All words in the taking up drive from rest.
tables
The clutch is made of two main parts, a pressure plate and a driven plate.
■ Synchromesh The driven plate, often termed the clutch disc, is fitted on the shaft which
■ Direct drive takes the drive into the gearbox. When the clutch is engaged, the pressure
plate presses the driven plate against the engine flywheel. This allows drive
to be passed to the gearbox. Pushing down the clutch springs the pressure
plate away, which frees the driven plate.
Cars with automatic transmission do not have a clutch as described here.
Pressure Studs secure cover Cover fixed Thrust

plate and diaphragm to flywheel fork
Flywheel Driven plate Thrust

Diaphragm Fulcrum rings
bearing
Figure 11.3 Diaphragm type clutch
Drive is transmitted from the flywheel to the automatic gearbox by a torque

converter, sometimes called a fluid clutch.
The following table describes the main clutch and flywheel components.
Component Purpose
Flywheel Keeps the engine running smoothly between power strokes,
but also acts as a surface for the driven plate to press
against
Driven plate Friction material plate which is clamped between the
pressure plate and the flywheel. It is splined on to the
gearbox input shaft. The small coil springs are to prevent
the clutch snatching as drive is taken up
Pressure plate The cover of the pressure plate is fixed to the flywheel with
a ring of bolts. The fingers in the centre act as springs and
levers to release the pressure. Drive is transmitted unless
the fingers are pressed in towards the flywheel
Thrust bearing This bearing pushes against the clutch fingers when the
pedal is pushed down to release the drive
Transmission 131
Component Purpose
Thrust fork Connects to the bearing

Release spring A return spring so that when the clutch pedal is not pushed
down, the bearing allows the fingers to return outwards
Clutch cable Makes a secure connection to the clutch pedal. Strong steel
wire is used. A few vehicles use hydraulics to operate the
clutch
Bell housing A general cover for the clutch assembly, but also to secure
the clutch and gearbox to the engine
Manual gearbox For most light vehicles a gearbox has five forward gears and one reverse
gear. It is used to allow operation of the vehicle through a suitable range of
speeds and torque. A manual gearbox needs a clutch to disconnect the
engine crankshaft from the gearbox while changing gears. The driver
changes gears by moving a gear lever, which is connected to the box by a
mechanical linkage.
The gearbox converts the engine power by a system of gears, providing
different ratios between the engine and the wheels. When the vehicle is
moving off from rest, the gearbox is placed in first, or low gear. This
produces a high torque at low wheel speed. As the car speeds up, the next
higher gear is selected. With each higher gear, the output turns faster but
with less torque.
Lets look at this idea of ratios in a little more detail. When the vehicle starts
from rest in first gear, the gear ratio might be 3:1. This means that the
crankshaft turns three times to turn the output shaft once. As the vehicle
gains some speed, the gearbox is moved into second gear, with a gear ratio
of, say, 2:1. After a further increase in wheel speed, a move is made into the
next higher gear, and so on. Fourth gear on most rear wheel drive light
vehicles is called direct drive, because there is no gear reduction in the
gearbox. In other words, the gear ratio is 1:1 (the output of the gearbox turns
at the same speed as the crankshaft). For front wheel drive vehicles, the ratio
can be 1:1 or slightly different. Most modern light vehicles now have a fifth
gear. This can be thought of as a kind of overdrive because the output turns
faster than the engine crankshaft.
Older vehicles used sliding mesh gearboxes where the cogs moved in and
out of contact with each other, but these have now been replaced by
synchromesh. This means that the gear teeth are in constant mesh and can
turn freely on the shaft. To make a gear selection, the required combination
of gears is first synchronised (which means the teeth on the two dog clutches
are brought to the same speed) and then locked together so that power is
transmitted. Special mechanisms are used to prevent more than one gear
being selected at any one time (interlocks).
Spring-loaded ball
positions ring
centrally on
Gear cone
synchromesh hub
mates with
internal cone
Internal cone
Synchromesh
hub
Toothed ring engages Dogs

gear when dogs are aligned
Figure 11.4 Synchromesh assembly
Figure 11.5 A typical manual gearbox showing all the main components
Transmission 133
The following table describes the main components of a manual gearbox.
No. Component Purpose
1 Oil guide plate Ensures suitable lubrication

2 Mainshaft assembly This shaft carries all the main forward gears, and the
selectors and clutches
3 Gear case The box to hold it all together and act as a seal and
reservoir for the lubrication oil
4 Reverse shaft bolt A simple fixing for the reverse gear shaft
5 Reverse idler gear An extra gear has to be engaged to reverse the direction
of the drive. A low ratio is used for reverse, in many
cases even lower than first gear
6 Breather pipe and A pipe to prevent pressure buildup, and a bracket to
bracket hold it!
7 Bell housing For fixing to the engine and as a cover for the clutch
8 Access plug For access to, say, a bearing circlip during repairs.
Different gearboxes will vary quite a lot
9 Countershaft Sometimes called a layshaft, this is usually a solid shaft
assembly containing four or more gears. Drive is passed from here
to the output shaft
10 Selector interlock The interlock is to prevent more than one gear being
selected at any one time. Otherwise the gearbox would
lock as the gears would be trying to turn the output at
two different speeds at the same time
11 Selective spacer Just a spacer used on this type of box, selected to set up
the correct thrust on the final drive assembly
12 Final drive assembly Contains the final drive gears and also the differential
13 Speedometer drive A connection for the speedometer cable or electronic
sensor
14 Gearshift rod This rod is connected to the selectors to allow gears to
be engaged. A connection is also made to the gear stick
with suitable linkages
Automatic Automatic transmissions use a torque converter to couple the engine and the
transmission gearbox. The torque converter is a fluid coupling, in which one rotating part
causes the transmission fluid to rotate. This in turn imparts a rotation to
another part, which is connected to the gearbox. The coupling of the torque
converter allows slippage for when the car is starting from rest. As the car
Figure 11.6 Automatic

gearbox and torque converter
gains speed, the slippage is reduced; at cruising speeds the driven member
turns almost as fast as the driving member. Some modern systems can
actually lock the two together to eliminate slip completely. The gearbox
contains epicyclic or planetary gears, with clutches and brake bands for
engaging the desired gears.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple list to outline the purposes of the clutch and gearbox. What are
they for?
3 Driveshafts and wheel bearings
Introduction Light vehicle driveshafts now fall into one of two main categories, the first
being by far the most popular:
KEY WORDS ■ Driveshafts with constant velocity joints (FWD) – transmit drive from
the output of the final drive to each front wheel. They must also allow
■ CV joint gaiter for suspension and steering movements.
■ Sliding joint ■ Propshaft with universal joints (RWD) – transmits drive from the
■ Bearings gearbox output to the final drive in the rear axle. Drive then continues
through the final drive and differential, via two half shafts to each rear
wheel. The propshaft must also allow for suspension movements.
Wheel bearings allow smooth rotation of the wheel but must also be able to
withstand high stresses such as from load in the vehicle and when cornering.
The following table describes the main propshaft components.
Component Purpose
Main shaft A hollow steel tube. This is quite light weight, but will still
transfer considerable turning forces
Universal joints Sometimes called ‘Hooke’ joints, the UJs are to allow a small
movement of the rear axle with the suspension, while the
gearbox remains fixed. Two joints are used on most
systems and must always be aligned correctly
Sliding joint As the suspension moves up and down, the length of the
propshaft has to be able to change slightly. The splined
sliding joint allows for this to happen
Gearbox Splined shaft Internally-

output shaft splined yoke
assembly
Gearbox
casing
Half-shaft
Sliding spline connection
Rear-axle
casing Hooke joint Propeller shaft Hooke joint Gearbox Clutch
Figure 11.7 Propshaft

Transmission 135
The next table explains the main driveshaft components.
Component Purpose
Main shaft Solid steel shaft to transmit the drive
Constant velocity joint Allows constant speed rotation even as the suspension and
steering move the joint
CV joint – cage Positions the steel balls within the sockets. The cage is fixed
to the main shaft
CV joint – steel balls Carried in grooves to link the cage and the outer socket.
The balls transmit the drive, but are also free to slide in the
grooves to take up the suspension and steering movement
CV joint – outer socket Fixed to the output shaft going into the wheel hub
Gaiter or rubber boot Keeps out the dirt and water and keeps in the lubricant such
as grease
Figure 11.8 Driveshaft

constant velocity joint
The following table describes the main components of the front wheel
bearings (the components are shown in the diagram from left to right).
Component Purpose
Seal Keeps out dirt and water and keeps in the grease lubrication
Spacer Ensures the correct positioning of the seal
Inner bearing Supports the weight of the vehicle at the front, when still or
moving. Ball bearings are used for most vehicles, with
specially shaped tracks for the balls. This is so that the
bearings can stand side loads when cornering
Swivel hub Attachment for the suspension and steering as well as
supporting the bearings
Outer bearing As for inner bearing
Drive flange Runs inside the centre race of the bearings. The wheel is
bolted to this flange
Figure 11.9 Front wheel

bearing assembly
The next table describes the main components of the rear wheel bearings.
The components are shown in the diagram from left to right.
Component Purpose
Stub axle Solid mounted to the suspension arm, the stub axle fits in
the centre of the two bearings
Seal Keeps out dirt and water and keeps in the grease lubrication
Inner bearing Supports the weight of the vehicle at the rear, when still or
moving. Ball bearings are used for most vehicles, with
specially shaped tracks for the balls. This is so that the
bearings can stand side loads when cornering
Spacer To ensure the correct spacing and pressure between the
two bearings
Drum For the brakes and attachment of the wheel
Outer bearing As for inner bearing
Washer The heavy washer acts as a face for the nut to screw against.
Castle nut and split pin Holds all parts in position securely. With this type of
bearing, no adjustment is made because both bearings are
clamped on to the spacer. Some older cars use tapered
bearings, and adjustment is very important
Grease retainer cap Retains grease, but should not be overpacked. Also keeps
out the dirt and water
Figure 11.10 Rear wheel bearing assembly
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and note the layout of driveshafts and bearings.
Transmission 137
4 Final drive and differential
Introduction Because of the speed at which an engine runs, and in order to produce
enough torque at the road wheels, a fixed gear reduction is required. This is
KEY WORDS known as the final drive and consists of just two gears. On front wheel drive
vehicles these are fitted after the output of the gearbox; on rear wheel drive
■ Sun gear vehicles they are in the rear axle after the propshaft. The gears also turn the
■ Planet gear drive through 90° on rear wheel drive vehicles. The ratio is normally about
■ Fixed gear 4:1; in other words: when the gearbox output is turning at 4 000 rev/min, the
reduction wheels will turn at 1 000 rev/min.
Bevel gear
When both drive shafts

are travelling at the same
speed, the bevel pinions
orbit with the bevel gears,
but do not rotate on their
axes
Bevel pinion
If one shaft is stopped,

the bevel gears turn on
their axes, orbiting round
the stationary gear and
driving the other half-shaft
Crown wheel Bevel pinions Differential

cage assembly
In the final drive the

differential is in a cage
driven by thecrown
wheel.When the car is
travelling in a straight line
the bevel pinions orbit,
but do not spin on their
axes, and the unit drives
both half-shafts equally
Half- shaft
Inner shaft Turning Outer shaft
rotating bevel pinion rotating
slowly quickly
When taking a bend, the

bevel gear on the inner
half-shaft turns more
slowly than the
crownwheel, and the outer
half shaft, driven by the
bevel pinions turns
correspondingly faster.
Faster The crownwheel turns at
Figure 11.11 Action of turning the average of the
the differential bevel gear half-shaft speeds
The differential is an arrangement of gears within the final drive of a

vehicle’s transmission system. Its purpose is to allow the driving wheels to
turn at different speeds when cornering. The differential consists of sets of
bevel gears and pinions within a cage attached to the large final drive gear.
When cornering, the bevel pinions rotate on their shaft; this allows the outer
wheel to turn faster than the inner.
The following table describes the main components of the final drive and
differential.
No. Component Purpose

1 Final drive pinion Brings the drive from the gearbox to the final
drive gear
2&6 Bearing Supports the differential casing, which in turn is
bolted to the final drive gear
3 Final drive gear Sets a fixed gear reduction in conjunction with the
final drive pinion
4 Pin For secure and correct location of the casing

5 Differential casing Transmits the drive from the final drive gear to
the planet gear pinion shaft
7 Circlip Secures the whole gear train in position
8 Sun gear pinions Splined to the drive shafts, the sun gears take their
drive from the planet gears
9 Thrust washer Sets basic clearances
10 Planet gear pinions These gears are pushed round by their shaft
11 Planet gear pinion shaft This shaft is secured in the differential casing so
that it pushes the planet gears. If the sun gears
(which are attached to the road wheels via the
drive shafts) are moving at the same speed, the
planet gears do not spin on their shaft. If the sun
gears need to move at different speeds when the
vehicle is cornering, then the planet gears spin on
their shaft to make up for the difference
Figure 11.12 Final drive and differential assembly
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and note how the components are interconnected.
➠ Write a short explanation, using diagrams, to explain why a differential is needed.
What would happen if the differential was locked?
Transmission 139
5 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is a slipping clutch, you could proceed as
follows:
FAULT FINDING
1. Road test to confirm when the fault occurs.
1. Verify the fault 2. Look for oil leaking from the bell housing or general area of the clutch.
2. Collect further Check adjustment if possible.
information 3. If adjustment is correct, then the clutch must be examined.
3. Evaluate the 4. In this example the clutch assembly must be removed for visual
evidence examination.
4. Carry out further 5. Replace parts as necessary; this is often done as a kit comprising the clutch
tests in a logical plate and cover and in some cases a bearing.
sequence
6. Road test and check operation of the transmission.
5. Rectify the
problem
Clutch slipping Clutch worn out Renew

Adjustment incorrect Adjust or check auto-
adjuster
Oil contamination Rectify oil leak – clutch may
also need to be renewed
Jumps out of gear Gearbox detent fault Gearbox may require
overhaul
Noisy when changing Synchromesh worn Gearbox may require
gear overhaul
Rapid knocking noise Driveshaft CV joints worn or Renew or lubricate joint.
when cornering without lubrication Ensure gaiter is in place and
in good condition
Whining noise Wheel bearing worn Renew
Other bearings Investigate and renew if
possible
Difficult to change Clutch out of adjustment Adjust or check auto-
gear adjuster
Clutch hydraulic fault Check system for air
and/or leaks
Gearbox selectors worn Gearbox may require
overhaul
LEARNING TASKS

symptoms listed in the table
12 Suspension
1 Introduction
Start here! The suspension system has the following main tasks:
■ Cushion the car, passengers and load from road surface irregularities.
■ Resist the effects of steering, braking and acceleration, even on hills and
when loads are carried.
■ Tyres must be kept in contact with the road at all times.
■ Work in conjunction with the tyres and seat springs to give an acceptable
ride at all speeds.
Pitch
Roll
Yaw
KEY WORDS
Figure 12.1 A car riding over rough ground
table
■ Road shocks
The above list is difficult to achieve completely, so some sort of compromise
■ Unsprung mass has to be reached. Because of this many different methods have been tried,
■ Sprung mass and many are still in use. Keeping these four main requirements in mind will
help you to understand why some systems are constructed in different ways.
Terminology
Spring The part of the suspension system that takes up the movement or shock from the road
or vehicle movement. The energy of the movement is stored in the spring. There are
many different forms of spring, ranging from a steel coil to a pressurised chamber of
nitrogen
Damper The energy stored in the spring after a bump has to be got rid of, otherwise the spring
would oscillate (bounce up and down). The damper reduces these oscillations by
converting the energy from the spring into heat. If working correctly, the spring should
stop moving after just one bounce and rebound
Shock absorber This term describes the action of a spring. It is often used incorrectly to describe a
damper
Strut Often the combination of a coil spring with a damper inside it, between the wheel stub
axle and the inner wing. This is a very popular type of suspension
Wishbone A triangular shaped component with two corners hinged in a straight line on the vehicle
body and the third corner hinged to the moving part of the suspension
Bump stop When a vehicle hits a particularly large bump, or if it is carrying a heavy load, the
suspension system may bottom out (reach the end of its travel). The bump stop, usually
made of rubber, prevents metal to metal contact which would cause damage
IFS Independent front suspension
IRS Independent rear suspension
Independent suspension This allows a wheel of the vehicle to move without affecting the one at the other side
Link A very general term to describe a bar or similar component that holds or controls the
position of another component. Other terms may be used such as tie bar
Beam axle A solid axle from one wheel to the other. Not now used on the majority of light vehicles,
but still common on heavy vehicles as it makes a very strong construction
Gas/fluid suspension The most common types of spring are made from spring steel. However some vehicles
use pressurised gas as the spring (think of a balloon or a football). On some vehicles a
connection between wheels is made using fluid running through pipes from one
suspension unit to another
Keeping you further A vehicle needs a suspension system to cushion and damp out road shocks,
in suspension so providing comfort to the passengers and preventing damage to the load
and vehicle components. A spring between the wheel and the vehicle body
allows the wheel to follow the road surface. The tyre plays an important role
in absorbing small road shocks. It is often described as the primary form of
suspension.
The vehicle body is supported by springs located between the body and the
wheel axles. Together with the damper, these components are referred to as
the suspension system.
Now remember that the main function of a suspension system is to stop road
shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle body. The weight of the vehicle,
including its load, acts on the springs. The springs and other components
compress and expand as the wheels hit bumps or holes in the road. The
function of the suspension components is to allow the wheels to move up
and down without moving the vehicle body.
As a wheel hits a bump in the road, it is moved upwards with quite some
force. An unsprung wheel is affected only by gravity, which will try to return
the wheel to the road surface, but most of the energy will be transferred to
the body. When a spring is used between the wheel and the vehicle body,
most of the energy in the bouncing wheel is stored in the spring and not
passed to the vehicle body. The vehicle body will now only move upwards
through a very small distance compared to the movement of the wheel.
Suspension 143
Figure 12.2 Vehicle showing main suspension components
Consideration must be given to the difference between ‘sprung’ and

‘unsprung’ mass of a suspension system. Sprung mass is that which is
supported by the vehicle springs. Unsprung mass is that of the components
between the springs and the road. For most vehicles, unsprung mass
includes wheels, tyres, brake, steering and suspension components, as well
as part of the drive shafts. But some of the suspension and drive components
are sprung at one end and unsprung at the other! The less mass the road
wheel and the other units attached to it have, the smaller is the total energy
involved when they are moved. Vehicles are made with as little unsprung
mass as possible as this reduces the effect of road shock on the vehicle body.
Soft springs provide the best comfort, but stiff springs can be better for high
performance. Vehicle springs and suspension therefore are made to provide
a compromise between good handling and comfort.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and make a simple sketch of how the suspension
components are connected.
➠ Write a short explanation about what a suspension system must be able to do.
2 Types of spring
Coil springs Although modern vehicles use a number of different types of spring medium,
the most popular is the coil (or helical) spring. Coil or helical springs used in
KEY WORDS vehicle suspension systems are made from round spring steel bars. The
heated bar is wound on a special former and then heat treated to obtain the
■ Coil springs correct elasticity (springiness). The spring can withstand any compression
load, but not side thrust. It is also difficult for a coil spring to resist braking or
■ Leaf springs
driving thrust. Suspension arms are used to resist these loads.
■ Interleaf friction
Coil springs are used with independent suspension systems; the springs are
■ Swinging shackle
usually fitted on each side of the vehicle, between the stub axle assembly and
■ Torsion bar the body. The spring remains in the correct position because recesses are
■ Hydragas made in both the stub axle assembly and body. Due to the weight of the
suspension vehicle the spring is always under compression and hence holds itself in
place.
Leaf springs The leaf spring can provide all the control for the wheels during acceleration,
braking, cornering and general movement caused by the road surface. They
are used with fixed axles. There are two main types of leaf spring:
■ laminated or multi leaf springs
■ single leaf or mono leaf springs
A third type, known as the tapered leaf spring, is a combination of these two.
The multi leaf spring was widely used at the rear of cars and light vehicles
and is still used in commercial vehicle suspension systems. It consists of a
number of steel strips or leaves placed on top of each other and then
clamped together. The length, cross section and number of leaves is
determined by the loads carried.
The top leaf is called the main leaf, and each end of this leaf is rolled to form
an eye. This is for attachment to the vehicle chassis or body. The leaves of the
spring are clamped together by a bolt or pin known as the centre bolt. The
spring eye allows movement about a shackle and pin at the rear, allowing
the spring to flex. The vehicle is pushed along by the rear axle through the
front section of the spring which is anchored firmly to the fixed shackle on
the vehicle chassis or body. The curve of a leaf spring straightens out when a
load is applied to it, and its length changes.
Because of this change in length, the rear end of the spring is fixed by a
shackle bolt to a swinging shackle. As the road wheel passes over a bump,
the spring is compressed and the leaves slide over each other. As it returns to
its original shape, the spring forces the wheel back in contact with the road.
The leaf spring is usually secured to the axle by means of U bolts. As the
leaves of the spring move, they rub together. This is known as interleaf
friction, which also has a damping effect.
Clips hold Leaves for extra

Fixing eye leaves together stiffening
Spring under
Unladen light load
Shackle link
Heavy load
on leaf spring
Full load
Shackle pivots
to allow spring
to lengthen
under load
Figure 12.3 Coil spring Figure 12.4 Laminated leaf spring

Suspension 145
Spring eyes
Thinner Thinner
section
Thick
Figure 12.5 Single leaf spring
A single leaf spring, as the name implies, consists of one uniformly stressed
leaf. The spring varies in thickness from a maximum at the centre to a
minimum at the spring eyes. This type of leaf spring is made to work in the
Fixed end same way as a multi leaf spring. Advantages of this type of spring are as
follows:
■ simplified construction
Suspension loads
twist bar ■ constant performance over a period of time because interleaf friction is
along its eliminated
length
■ reduction in unsprung mass.
Figure 12.6 Torsion bar
spring Leaf springs are now rarely found on light vehicles, but never say never!
Torsion bars This type of suspension uses a metal bar which provides the springing effect
as it is twisted. It has the advantage that the components do not take up too
much room. Some vehicles that use torsion bars do not have dampers. This is
because some layouts have a self damping effect.
Pneumatic Steel springs must be stiff enough to carry a vehicle’s maximum load. This
suspension can result in the springs being too stiff to provide consistent ride control and
comfort when the vehicle is empty. Pneumatic suspension can be made self
compensating. It is fitted to many heavy goods vehicles and buses, but is also
becoming more popular on some off road light vehicles.
The air spring is a reinforced rubber bellow fitted between the axle and the
chassis, or vehicle body. An air compressor is used to increase or decrease
the pressure depending on the load in the vehicle. This is done
automatically, but some manual control can be retained for adjusting the
height of the vehicle or stiffness of the suspension.
Figure 12.7 Air suspension (heavy vehicle)

Rubber springs This is now a very old system, but often old ideas come back! The suspension
medium, or spring, is simply a specially shaped piece of rubber. This
technique was used on early Minis, for example. In most cases the rubber did
not require damping.
Figure 12.8 Rubber spring suspension
Hydrolastic The suspension unit is supported by a rubber spring. Under the spring a
suspension chamber of fluid is connected by a pipe to the corresponding front or rear
unit. This system was the forerunner to the hydragas system.
Flexible hose Connecting pipes Hydrolastic unit
Hydrolastic unit
Rear suspension arm
Figure 12.9 Hydrolastic suspension
Hydragas In the hydragas suspension system, each wheel has a sealed displacer unit
suspension with nitrogen gas under very high pressure. This works in much the same
way as the steel spring in a conventional system. A damper is also
incorporated within the displacer unit. The lower part of the displacer units
is filled with a suspension fluid (usually a type of wood alcohol). The units
can be joined by pipes or used individually.
Suspension 147
Connecting suspension units by fluid in pipes is designed to improve the

ride quality. Linking front to rear makes the rear unit rise as the front unit is
compressed by a bump. This tends to keep the vehicle level.
Figure 12.10 Hydragas suspension
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple list of advantages and disadvantages of each suspension spring type.
➠ Write a short explanation about why leaf springs have been replaced by coil
springs on most light vehicles.
3 Dampers
Introduction As a spring is deflected, energy is stored in it. If the spring is free to move, the
energy is released in the form of oscillations for a short time, before coming to
KEY WORDS rest. This principle can be demonstrated by flicking the end of a ruler placed
on the edge of a desk. The function of the damper is to absorb the stored
■ Bump energy which reduces the rebound oscillation. A spring without a damper
■ Rebound would build up dangerous and uncomfortable bouncing of the vehicle.
■ Valve orifice Hydraulic dampers are the most common type used on modern vehicles.
They work by forcing fluid through small holes. The energy in the spring is
converted into heat as the fluid (a type of oil) is forced rapidly through the
small holes (orifices). The oil temperature in a damper can reach over 150°C
during normal operation. As an example think of using a hand oil pump and
how hard it is to make the oil flow quickly.
The main type of hydraulic damper is known as the telescopic type. A lever
arm type used on earlier vehicles works on the same principle. Hydrolastic and
hydrogas suspension systems have the damper built in to the displacer units.
Telescopic dampers This is the most common type of hydraulic damper used on modern vehicles.
The damper is mounted between the body and the axle or wishbone. A
piston, connected to a rod fixed via a rubber bush to the vehicle body, moves
oil in a circuit around the damper through valves from one chamber to
another. On some types oil passes through valves in the piston. The units are
filled with a thin oil and are usually sealed for life. Most dampers contain
rubber bushes in mounting eyes. A double acting damping action works on
both the bump and rebound (up and down) strokes.
Rubber insert
reduces noise
Fixing eye
connected to
body
Piston rod
Working cylinder
Control valves
Fluid is forced
through small
drillings in piston
Recuperating chamber
Rubber bush
Fixing eye for

attachment to
suspension
Figure 12.11 Telescopic damper
A typical double acting telescopic damper is made with a central pressure

tube surrounded by a reservoir tube. Two valves are fitted in the base of the
pressure tube to control the movement of fluid between the two tubes. The
pressure and reservoir tubes are filled with fluid and are sealed. The
pressure tube contains a sliding piston and valve assembly at the lower end
of the piston rod. There is usually another tube over the rod and cylinder –
this is simply a dirt shield.
On the compression stroke (bump stroke), the axle pushes the piston into the
cylinder and oil pressure opens the piston compression valve. Oil passes via
the port in the piston from the lower to the upper chamber. The oil also
passes through the compression valve to the reservoir. On the rebound
stroke, the piston and the base valves close and oil passes through the
rebound valves to the lower chamber.
Suspension 149
Resistance to movement is determined mostly by the size of the valve orifice

(small hole). A difference between bump and rebound can be obtained
simply with different sized valves. The damper can be designed to give a soft
Without damping downwards movement when the vehicle first hits a bump, with a harder
rebound movement on the return stroke. This type of damper is called a
single acting. The only difference in operation is that larger orifices are used
in the bump valves.
LEARNING TASKS
With a damper ➠ Look back at the key words. Explain each one to a friend, and/or write out a
Figure 12.12 Action of a
spring with and without a ➠ Make a simple sketch to show a single acting damper.
damper
4 Suspension system layouts
Introduction On most older types of vehicle a beam axle was used to support two stub
axles. Beam axles are now rarely used in car suspension systems, although
KEY WORDS many commercial vehicles use beam axles because of their greater strength
and constant ground clearance.
■ Strut
The need for a better suspension system came from the demand for
■ Wishbone
improved ride quality and improved handling. Independent front
■ Swivel joint suspension (IFS) was developed to meet this need. The main advantages of
independent front suspension are as follows:
■ When one wheel is lifted or drops, it does not affect the opposite wheel.
■ The unsprung mass is lower, therefore the road wheel stays in better
contact with the road.
■ Problems with changing steering geometry are reduced.
■ More space for the engine at the front.
■ Softer springing with larger wheel movement is possible.
A number of basic suspension systems are in common use.
Separate telescopic
rear dampers
Leaf springs
which support
the rear body
Strut with
coil spring
and damper
Independent front Anti-roll bar

suspension
Figure 12.13 Rear beam axle suspension with front struts

Wishbone Twin unequal length wishbone suspension is widely used on light vehicles.
suspension A coil spring is used between two suspension arms. The suspension arms are
‘wishbone’ shaped, and the bottom end of the spring fits in a plate in the
lower wishbone assembly. The top end of the spring is located in a section of
the body. The top and bottom wishbones are attached to the chassis by
rubber bushes. A damper is fitted inside the spring and, as the spring, is
attached at the top to the body and at the bottom to the lower wishbone. The
stub axle and swivel pins are connected to the outer ends of the upper and
lower wishbones by ball or swivel joints.
Upper Upper Coil Bump

steering wishbone spring stops
swivel
ball
joint
Stub
Parallel wishbones axle
Lower
steering Telescopic
swivel damper
ball Drag link resists
Unequal length wishbones joint braking forces
Figure 12.14 Wishbone suspension layout
Strut type This type of suspension system has been used for many years. It is often
suspension referred to as the MacPherson Strut system. With this system, the stub axle is
combined with the bottom section of a telescopic tube which incorporates a
damper. The bottom end of the strut is connected to the outer part of a
Flexible upper
mounting
Coil spring
Stub axle Viewed from above
Track control arms
Damper Anti-roll bar

inside tube
Lower
swivel
Transverse link
Figure 12.15 Strut type suspension

Suspension 151
transverse link (like a wishbone again) by means of a ball joint. The inner
part of the link is secured to the body by rubber bushes. The top of the strut
is fixed to the vehicle body by a bearing which allows the complete strut to
swivel. A coil spring is located between the upper and lower sections of the
strut. This suspension system is quite simple in construction and is very
effective in operation. However, when the suspension is moved, the steering
angles do change a little.
Rear wheel The systems used for the rear suspension of light vehicles vary, depending
suspensions on the requirements of the vehicle and whether the vehicle is front or rear
wheel drive. Old vehicles using leaf type springs were described briefly
earlier. This leaves two main types using IRS:
■ strut type (front wheel drive)
■ trailing and semi-trailing arm with coil springs (rear wheel drive).
The strut type is very much the same as used at the front of the vehicle. The
damper can be mounted separately or inside the coil spring. Note that
suitable links are used to allow up and down movement but to prevent the
wheel moving in any other direction. Some change in the wheel geometry is
designed in to improve handling on corners.
Trailing arm suspension and semi-trailing arm suspension both use two
wishbone shaped arms hinged on the body. Trailing arms are at right angles
to the vehicle centre line and semi-trailing arms are at an angle. This changes
the geometry of the wheels as the suspension moves. The final drive and
differential unit is fixed with rubber mountings to the vehicle body. Drive
shafts must therefore be used to allow drive to be passed from the fixed final
drive to the moveable wheels. The coil springs and dampers are mounted
between the trailing arms and the vehicle body. Because of the shape of the
arms, the wheels are fixed so that they will only move up and down with the
suspension.
Figure 12.16 Rear wheel suspension – strut type

Differential
mounted on
Universal body
Telescopic joint
damper Universal
joint
Coil spring
Arm pivots are at right

angles to the car centre
line
Trailing arms
Universal joints
Semi-trailing arms Arm pivots

angled
Figure 12.17 Rear wheel suspension – trailing arm method
Active suspension Electronic control of suspension or active suspension, like many other
innovations, was born in the Grand Prix world. It is now slowly becoming
more popular on production vehicles. It is interesting to note that just as it
was perfected by some Formula 1 teams, the rules changed (1993/4) to
prevent its use! Conventional suspension systems are always a compromise
between soft springs for comfort and harder springing for better cornering
ability.
Active suspension allows the best of both worlds. This is achieved by
replacing the conventional springs with double acting hydraulic units. These
are controlled by an ECU which receives signals from various sensors. Oil
Figure 12.18 Active suspension block diagram

Suspension 153
pressure in excess of 150 bar (that’s 150 times atmospheric pressure) is

supplied to the hydraulic units from a pump. The main benefits of active
suspension are:
■ improvements in ride comfort, handling and safety
■ predictable control of the vehicle under different conditions
■ no change in handling between laden and unladen.
The benefits are considerable, and as component prices fall the system will
become available on more vehicles. Lotus Engineering have been one of the
main companies involved in developing active suspension and deserve
credit for advancing the system. It is expected that even off road vehicles
may be fitted with active suspension in the near future.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and make simple sketches to show three different
suspension layouts.
5 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is poor handling, you could proceed as
follows:
KEY WORDS
1. Road test to confirm the fault.
1. Verify the fault 2. With the vehicle on a lift, inspect obvious items like tyres and dampers.
2. Collect further 3. Consider if the problem is suspension related, for example, or in the
information steering. You may have decided this from road testing.
3. Evaluate the 4. Inspect all the components of the system you suspect. For example, check
evidence dampers for correct operation and suspension bushes for condition and
4. Carry out further security. Let’s assume the fault was one front damper not operating to the
tests in a logical required standard.
sequence 5. Renew both of the dampers at the front to ensure balanced performance.
5. Rectify the 6. Road test again and check for correct operation of the suspension and
problem other systems.

Damper operation The vehicle body should move down as you press on it,
bounce back just past the start point and then return to the
rest position
Suspension bush Simple levering, if appropriate, should not show up excessive
condition movement, cracks or separation of rubber bushes
Trim height This is available from data books as a measurement from,
say, the wheel centre to a point on the car wing above

Excessive pitch or Dampers worn Replace in pairs
roll when driving
Car sits lopsided Broken spring Replace in pairs
Leak if hydraulic suspension Rectify by replacing unit or
fitting new pipes
Knocking noises Excessive free play in a Renew
suspension joint
Excessive tyre wear Steering/suspension geometry Check and adjust or
incorrect (may be due to accident replace any ‘bent’ or out of
damage) true components
LEARNING TASKS

13 Brakes
1 Introduction
Start here! The main purpose of the braking system is simple: to slow down or stop a
vehicle. To do this, the energy in the vehicle movement must be taken away
KEY WORDS (or converted). Friction is used to do this. It is worth remembering that the
brakes on a bicycle work by the same principle. In this case hard rubber
■ All words in the blocks are pressed against the wheel rim. This friction causes heat, which
table takes energy away from the movement.
■ Energy
The main braking system of a car works by hydraulics. This means that
■ Friction when the driver presses the brake pedal, liquid pressure forces pistons to
apply brakes on each wheel.
Front brakes Brake Master

(usually discs) lights cylinder Brake pedal
switch Rear brakes
(most cars
have drums)
Mechanical handbrake
Hydraulic pipe Handbrake linkage
Where the
hydraulic
system
must absorb
movement,
flexible hoses
are used
Figure 13.1 Braking system layout
Two types of light vehicle brakes are used. Disc brakes are used on the front
wheels of some cars and on all wheels of sports and performance cars.
Braking pressure forces brake pads against both sides of a steel disc. Drum
brakes are fitted on the rear wheels of some cars and on all wheels of older
vehicles. Braking pressure forces brake shoes to expand outwards into
contact with a drum. The important part of brake pads and shoes is a friction
lining that grips well and withstands wear.
Terminology
Foot brake The brake control pedal which operates the main braking system
Hand brake Lever operates a mechanical linkage to lock the wheels for parking but can also act as an
emergency brake
Brake pads Steel backed blocks of friction material which are pressed to both sides of the disc. Older
types were asbestos based, so you must not inhale the dust. Follow manufacturers’
recommended procedures
Terminology
Brake shoes Steel crescent shaped shoes with a friction material lining which is pressed inside the
drum. Note the same precautions as above
Disc Circular steel disc which rotates with the wheel. Some are solid, but some have
ventilation holes
Drum Steel drum shape which rotates with the wheel. The brake shoes work inside the drum
Brake fluid A special fluid used in all hydraulic systems to transmit force or pressure through the
pipes
Master cylinder The master cylinder piston is moved by the brake pedal. It is basically like a syringe which
forces brake fluid through the pipes
Wheel or slave cylinders Pressure in the pipes causes a small movement to either operate brake shoes or pads.
The cylinder works like the syringe above, only in reverse
Brake servo This increases the force applied by the driver on the pedal. It makes the brakes
more effective. Low air pressure from the engine inlet manifold is used to work many
servos
Multi circuit systems As a safety precaution (because brakes are quite important!), brake systems are split into
two parts. If one fails (for example if a pipe breaks), the other part will operate at least
some of the brakes
Metal pipes Strong, high quality pipes which connect the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders
Flexible pipes Fluid connection from the vehicle body to the wheels has to be through flexible pipes to
allow suspension and steering movement
ABS Antilock brake system. If brakes lock the wheels and makes them skid, steering is lost and
the brakes do not stop the car as quickly. ABS uses electronic control to prevent this
happening
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and note the layout of the braking system
components.
2 Hydraulic braking systems
Principle of Figure 13.2 shows the principle of hydraulic brakes. Note in particular how
hydraulic braking the force is increased. The lever action of the pedal gives about a 2:1
reduction in distance, so a 1:3 increase in force. The distance moved by the
KEY WORDS
master cylinder piston is about three times the distance moved by the slave
cylinder pistons. The overall increase in force is therefore about nine. This
■ Flexible pipes
can be called a liquid lever.
■ Hydraulics
A complete system includes a master cylinder operating several wheel
■ Force ratio
cylinders. The system is designed to give the power amplification needed for
■ Tandem master braking the vehicle. When braking, a lot of the weight is transferred to the
cylinder front wheels. Most braking effort is therefore designed to work on the front
■ Wheel cylinders brakes. Some cars have special hydraulic valves to limit rear wheel braking.
This reduces the chance of the rear wheels locking and skidding.
Brakes 157
900 N
in small 1 350 N
cylinder in large
cylinder
750 N
in master
cylinder
Foot applies 250 N
Figure 13.2 Hydraulic braking principle
Notes on hydraulic The main merits of hydraulic brakes are as follows:

brakes
■ almost immediate reaction to pedal pressure (no free play as with
mechanical linkages)
■ automatic even pressure distribution (fluid pressure effectively remains
the same in all parts of the system)
■ increase in force (liquid lever).
Push-rod Intake from Compensating Hydraulic

reservoir port seals
Piston Hydraulic Check

seal valve
Brake Cup seal Master Wheel

pedal prevents leaks cylinder cylinder
Figure 13.3 Master cylinder and slave cylinders

Caution and regular servicing is required to ensure the following:

■ No air must be allowed in the hydraulic circuits (air compresses and
would not transfer the force).
■ Correct adjustment must be maintained between shoe linings and
drums, and between pads and discs (otherwise the pedal movement
would be too large).
■ Lining materials must be free from contamination (such as oil, grease or
brake fluid).
Layouts of brake Figure 13.4 shows the layout of a typical modern braking system. A separate
circuits mechanical system (not shown here) is a good safety feature. Most vehicles
have the mechanical hand brake working on the rear wheels, but a few have
it working on the front – take care.
Note the importance of flexible connections to allow for suspension and
steering movement. These flexible pipes are made of high quality rubber and
are covered in layers of strong mesh to prevent expansion when under
pressure.
1 5
2 6
iper
brake cylinder
3 7
Secondary circuit liper

1. Master cylinder to tee-piece
2. Tee-piece to L.H. front hose and brake rake cylinder
calliper
3. Tee-piece to load sensing valve
4. Load sensing valve to R.H. rear hose and
brake cylinder
Primary circuit
5. Master cylinder to tee-piece
6. Tee-piece to R.H. front hose and brake
calliper
7. Tee-piece to load sensing valve
8. Load sensing valve to L.H. rear hose and 9 8 4 9
brake cylinder
9. Flexible pipes (both circuits)
Figure 13.4 Full modern braking system
Multi circuit Extra safety is built into braking systems by using a double acting master
systems cylinder (Figure 13.5). This is often described as ‘tandem’ and can be
thought of as two cylinders in one housing. The pressure from the pedal
acts on both cylinders, but fluid can’t pass from one to the other. Each
cylinder is then connected to a complete circuit by one of a number of
methods, shown in Figure 13.6 (in each case, if a leak develops, half the
brakes will still work):
Brakes 159
■ front and rear split

■ diagonal split
■ duplicated front.
1. Reservoir
2. Cylinder body
3. Sealing washers
4. Secondary piston stop pin
5. Roll pin
6. Primary piston and spring
assembly
7. Secondary piston spring
8. Seal retainer
9. Secondary piston seal and
washer
10. Secondary piston
11. Secondary piston seal
Figure 13.5 Double acting master cylinder
Figure 13.6 Multi circuit brake systems
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show the operation of a wheel cylinder.
➠ Write a short explanation about why air must not be allowed in to a hydraulic
system.
3 Disc and drum brake systems
Disc brakes Figure 13.7 shows typical disc brake calliper pads and disc. The type shown
is known as single acting sliding calliper. This is because only one cylinder is
KEY WORDS used, but the sliding action ensures that pads are still pressed equally on
both sides of the disc. Disc brakes keep cooler because they are in the air
■ Servo assistance stream and only part of the disc is heated as the brakes are applied. They also
■ MOT requirements throw off water better than drum brakes. In most cases servicing is minimal.
Disc brakes are self adjusting, and replacing pads is usually a simple task. In
■ Second line brakes
the type shown just one bolt has to be removed to hinge the calliper
upwards. Figure 13.8 shows a slightly older disc brake calliper which uses
two cylinders, but the principle is the same.
Disc brakes provide for good braking and are less prone to brake fade that
drum brakes. This is because they are more exposed and can get rid of heat
more easily. Brake fade occurs when the brakes become so hot they cannot
transfer energy any more and stop working! This type of problem can
happen, say, after keeping the car brakes on for a long time when travelling
down a long steep hill. This is why a lower gear should be used to employ
the engine as a brake. It is clearly important to use good quality pads and
linings because inferior materials can fail if overheated.
Disc brakes make it difficult to fit a parking brake, which is one reason why
many cars still use shoes and drums on the rear.
Cylinder
Calliper
Ventilated disc
Flexible pipe
Pads
Figure 13.7 Disc brake, calliper and brake pads

Brakes 161
Anti-squeal shim
Cast-iron disc
Bleed screw
Shim
Pad
Disc
Pad
Pad backing
plate
Calliper Shield protects

inside of disc
from water splash
Figure 13.8 Earlier type of disc brake
Drum brakes Drum brakes operate by shoes being forced onto the inside of the drum. A
common type with a ratchet for automatic adjustment is shown in Figure
13.9. Shoes can be moved by double or single acting cylinders. These two
types together with a disc brake cylinder are shown in Figure 13.10. The most
common layout is to use one double acting cylinder and brake shoes on each
rear wheel of the vehicle and disc brakes on the front wheels. A double
Adjuster
Double acting cylinder
Shoe
retaining clip
Shoes
Return spring
Figure 13.9 Drum brakes with ratchet adjustment

Hydraulic
Dust-seal seal
Piston
Brake shoe
Spring holds
pistons
Shoe return- against
spring brake shoes
Dirt-seal
Piston Piston
Return-
Dust-seal spring
Hydraulic seal Hydraulic seal
Figure 13.10 Single and double acting wheel cylinder and disc brake cylinder
acting cylinder simply means that, as fluid pressure acts through a centre
inlet, pistons are forced out of both ends. Figure 13.11 shows a further drum
brake layout.
Backing plate Lining Brake drum
Wheel
cylinder
Bleed
screw
Shoe Spring assemblies
Shoe return fit on steady pins
springs and hold shoes
against backing
Hydraulic plate
pipe
Shoe steady Brake

pins adjuster
Figure 13.11 Earlier drum brake system
Drum brakes more affected by wet and heat than disc brakes because both
water and heat are trapped inside the drum. However, they are easier to fit
with a mechanical hand brake linkage.
Brake adjustments Brakes must be adjusted so that minimum movement of the pedal starts to
apply the brakes. The adjustment in question is the gap between the pads
and disc and/or the shoes and drum.
Brakes 163
Brake shoe
Snail cam
lining
Min Max
Figure 13.12 Old method of brake shoe adjustment
Leading shoe Wheel cylinder
Trailing shoe
Toothed Lever
Adjuster nut
assembly
Female rod
Male rod
Toothed nut on threads of male rod
Figure 13.13 Drum brake adjuster – threaded rod
Disc brakes are self adjusting because, as pressure is released, it moves the
pads just away from the disc. Drum brakes are different because the shoes
are moved away from the drum to a set position by a pull-off spring. The set
position is adjustable, and this can be done in a number of ways.
Self adjusting drum brakes are almost universal now on light vehicles. A
common type uses an offset ratchet which clicks to a wider position if the
shoes move beyond a certain amount when operated (see Figure 13.9).
Modern cars frequently have a self adjusting hand brake.
Screwdriver adjustment through a hole in the wheel is also used. This is
often a type of nut on a threaded bar which pushes the shoes out as it is
screwed along the thread. This method can also have an automatic adjuster
fitted.
An adjustment screw on the back plate is now quite an old method: a screw
or square head protruding from the back plate moves the shoes by a snail
cam.
The adjustment procedure stated by the manufacturer must be followed. As
a guide, though, most recommend tightening the adjuster until the wheels
lock and then moving it back until the wheel is just released. You must
ensure that the brakes are not rubbing, as this would build up heat and wear
the friction material very quickly.
The effects of incorrect adjustment are as follows:
■ reduced braking efficiency
■ unbalanced braking
■ excessive pedal travel.
Hand brake At the drum the hand brake linkage is usually a simple lever mechanism as
linkages shown in Figure 13.14. This lever pushes the shoes against the drum and
locks the wheel. The hand brake lever pulls on one or more cables and has a
ratchet to allow it to be locked in the ‘on’ position. Figure 13.15 shows four
ways in which the hand brake linkage can be laid out:
■ splitter linkage connects main cable to two at the rear
■ two cables, one to each rear wheel
■ single cable to small linkage on the rear axle
■ equaliser on a single cable pulls a ‘U’ section to balance effort through
the rear cable.
Figure 13.14 Hand brake lever
Servo assisted Brake servos are used to improve braking and make driving the vehicle
braking easier. If the servo fails, normal braking is retained, albeit with heavier pedal
pressure. Servo systems are designed to give little assistance for light braking
but increase the assistance as pedal pressure is increased.
A common servo system uses low pressure from the manifold on one side
and the higher atmospheric pressure on the other side of a diaphragm. The
low pressure is taken via a non return safety valve from the engine inlet
manifold. This pressure difference causes a force which is made to act on the
master cylinder.
Brake fluid Always use new and approved brake fluid when topping up or renewing the
system. Manufacturers’ recommendations must always be followed. Brake
fluid is hygroscopic, which means that over a period of time it absorbs water.
Brakes 165
Figure 13.15 Hand brake linkages
Brake pedal arm
Servo housing
Dust cover
Air filter
Breather hole
Breather hole
in resevoir
in reservoircap
cap
Clevis pin
Pushrod to pedal
Brake fluid
Brake fluid
reservoir
resevoir
Non-return
valve
Vacuum hose
to manifold
Brake lines tandem master cylinder serving a
A tandem
dual-circuitbraking
dual-cicuit brakingsystem
system and
and fitted
fitted
to aa vacuum
vacuum servo unit.
Figure 13.16 Brake servo
This increases the risk of the fluid boiling due to the heat from the brakes.
Pockets of steam in the system would not allow full braking pressure to be
applied. Many manufacturers recommend that the fluid is changed at
regular intervals. In some cases once per year, or every 18 000 miles. Make
sure the correct grade of fluid is used. Most are now given a DOT
(Department of Transport) number. Note that brake fluid is toxic.
MOT test As with most other vehicle systems, all components of the braking system
requirements must be in good working order for the vehicle to pass an MOT test.
However, the test includes additional requirements relating to braking
efficiency, the braking force compared to the weight of the vehicle. For
example, the brakes on a vehicle with a weight of 10 kN (1 000 kg 10 [g])
could provide a braking force of 7 kN. This is said to be a 70% efficiency.
During an MOT test this is measured on brake rollers. The current efficiency
requirements are as follows:
■ service brake efficiency – 50%
■ second line brake efficiency – 25%
■ parking brake efficiency – 16%.
On vehicles with split line brakes, the second line or emergency brake is half
of the main system, that is two out of four brakes still working. If the vehicle
has a single line system the hand brake is also the second line, and it must
therefore work at 25%.
‘Always check the latest MOT requirements.’
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and note the name and purpose of all the braking
components.
➠ Look up in a data book or workshop manual the manufacturer’s
recommendations for brake fluid changes.
4 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is the hand brake not holding, you could
proceed as follows:
FAULT FINDING
1. Confirm the fault by trying to pull away with the hand brake on.
1. Verify the fault 2. Check the foot brake operation. If correct, this suggests the brake shoes
2. Collect further and drums (or pads and discs) are likely to be in good order.
information 3. Do you need to remove the wheels and drums or could it be a cable fault?
3. Evaluate the 4. Check cable operation by using an assistant in the car while you observe.
evidence 5. Renew the cable if seized.
4. Carry out further 6. Check hand brake operation and all associated systems.
tests in a logical
sequence
5. Rectify the
problem

Brake fluid tester

Because brake fluid can absorb a small amount of water, it must be renewed
or tested regularly. It becomes dangerous if the water turns into steam inside
the cylinders or pipes, causing the brakes to become ineffective. The tester
measures the moisture content of the fluid.
Brakes 167
Brake roller test

This is carried out as part of the complete MOT test. The front or rear wheels
are driven into a pair of two rollers. The rollers drive each wheel of the car
and, as the brakes are applied, the braking force affects the rotation. A
measure of braking efficiency can then be worked out.

Brake roller test Required braking efficiency: 50% for first line brakes, 25%
for second line brakes and 16% for the parking brake. On
modern vehicles half of the main system is the second line
(dual line brakes). Old vehicles had to use the parking brake
as the second line, therefore this had to work at 25%
Brake fluid condition Manufacturers specify maximum moisture content

Excessive pedal travel Incorrect adjustment Adjust it! But check
condition as well
Poor performance Pad and/or shoe linings worn Renew (both sides)
when stopping Seized calliper or wheel cylinders Renew or free off if
possible and safe
Contaminated linings Renew (both sides)
Car pulls to one side Seized calliper or wheel cylinder Overhaul or renew if
when braking on one side piston or cylinder is worn
Contaminated linings on one side Renew (both sides)
Spongy pedal Air in the hydraulic system Bleed system and then
check for leaks
Master cylinder seals failing Overhaul or renew
Pedal travels to the Fluid reservoir empty Refill, bleed system and
floor when pressed check for leaks
Failed seals in master cylinder Overhaul or renew
Leak from a pipe or union Replace or repair as
required
Brakes overheating Shoe return springs broken Renew (both sides)
Callipers or wheel cylinders Free off or renew if in any
sticking doubt
Brake judder Linings worn Renew
Drums out of round Renew
Discs have excessive runout Renew
Squeaking Badly worn linings Renew
Dirt in brake drums Clean out with proper
cleaner
Antisqueal shims missing at Replace and smear with
rear of pads copper grease
LEARNING TASKS

14 Steering, wheels and tyres
1 Introduction
Start here! The three areas covered in this chapter are linked, but each has a particular
purpose.
KEY WORDS ■ Steering – controls the direction of the vehicle under a variety of
operating conditions.
■ Steering ■ Wheels – support the vehicle as well as transferring braking and driving
■ Wheels force through the tyres to the road.
■ Tyres ■ Tyres – allow transfer of braking and driving force but also allow the
vehicle to be controlled by the steering system. The tyres also provide
the primary suspension.
Some very complex design and development work has gone into the way
modern vehicles perform. The steering, wheels and tyre systems are no
exception. Our job as technicians is to understand the main issues to help
diagnose faults and make repairs.
LEARNING TASK
➠ Examine a real system or pictures to become familiar with the main components.
2 Steering
Introduction When the driver turns the steering wheel, the front wheels move and the car
turns the corner! From the driver’s point of view it is that simple, but many
more things have to be taken into consideration. For example:
■ the effect of road surface irregularities
■ tyre behaviour under cornering stresses
■ an efficient mechanical system to give easy turning of the steering wheel
■ driver feel must be maintained
■ no (or very little) difference between empty and fully loaded
■ the effect of accelerating or braking when the wheels are turned
■ the front wheels should have a natural tendency to return to the straight
ahead position.
Imagine a car driving round a roundabout, as in Figure 14.1: the outer
wheels have to travel a greater distance than the inner wheels. This is why a
differential, as described in Chapter 11, is needed in the transmission system.
Also notice that the inner steered wheel has to travel round a sharper corner
than the outer one.
Steering, wheels and tyres 169
Inner front wheel

has to turn a sharper
corner than the outer
Figure 14.1 Car going round a roundabout – note wheel position
Upper swivel
Steering
MacPherson column
strut-suspension
unit Steering shaft
Universal joints
Tube
carrying Ball joint
stub axle
Flexible gaiter
Lower
swivel Track
Transverse Rack-and-pinion rod
link steering
Figure 14.2 Steering system
KEY WORDS This requirement has to be met by a car steering system. A special linkage
between the two front wheels is made so that each is turned a slightly
■ All words in the different amount to keep them rolling ‘true’, however sharp or gentle the
table corner is. Running or rolling true means that the wheels must always be
■ Steering geometry turning exactly end over end, much like a coin rolling across a desk. If
this was not the case, there would be a ‘scrubbing’ action. This would
■ Progressive power
result in considerable tyre wear. The linkage set up to allow this slight
assistance
difference in turning of each front wheel is known as the ‘Ackerman
■ Driver feel Linkage’, named after the person who invented the technique. The slight
change in angle between the wheels as they are steered is often known as
toe out on turns.
Terminology
Steering wheel The bit that the driver holds on to!
Steering column The shaft connecting the steering wheel to the steering rack or steering box
Steering rack A combination of a small gear and a toothed rack. This changes the rotation of the
steering wheel into a back and forth movement of the rack which in turn moves the road
wheels
Steering box This does a similar job to the rack but needs extra linkages and rods to connect it to the
road wheels. Mostly used on old cars, but still in use on larger vehicles
Terminology
Track rod A rod to connect the left and right steered wheels. The steering rack is also the track
rod
Track rod end A ball joint to allow steering and suspension movement
Swivel joint Part of the suspension system, but these are the joints which allow the steered wheels to
turn left and right
PAS Power assisted steering. An engine driven pump or an electric motor (on very new
systems) provides extra force to help move the steering. The driver has to apply less
effort
Steering geometry A term used to describe the different angles which are used to set up the steering and
suspension systems
Tracking Often known as toe in or toe out, the tracking is set so the front wheels, when looked at
from above, point in or out very slightly
Camber This is the angle between the centre line of the wheel and a vertical line, when viewed
from the front or rear of the vehicle
Castor When looked at from the side, this is the angle between the vertical and a line through
the swivel joints
Swivel axis or king pin When looked at from the front or rear, this is the angle between the vertical and a line
inclination through the swivel joints
Rear wheel steering Some sophisticated cars have complex linkages or electronics to allow the rear wheels to
steer slightly to improve handling
Positioning the Tracking

wheels – steering As a front wheel drive car moves, the tyres pull on the road surface,
geometry taking up the small amount of free play in the mountings and joints. For
this reason the tracking is often set toe out, so that the wheels point
straight ahead when the vehicle is moving. Rear wheel drive tends to
make the opposite happen because it pushes against the front wheels. The
front wheels are therefore set toe in. When the car moves, the front wheels
are pushed out, taking up the slack in the joints; the wheels again end up
straight ahead. The amount of toe in or toe out is very small, normally not
exceeding 5 mm (the difference in the distance between the front and rear
of the front wheels). Correctly set tracking ensures true rolling of the
wheels.
Front
F F
R R
Plan view
(ie from above)
Toe-in Toe-out
‘F’ is less than ‘R’ ‘F’ is greater than ‘R’
(F < R) (F > R)
Note: the difference is usually only a few millimetres
Figure 14.3 Tracking

Castor
angle
Lower swivel
joint Upper swivel
joint
Front
(side view)
Road surface
Swivel axis
(eg a line through Vertical
the strut) line
Figure 14.4 Castor angle
Castor angle
The front wheels tend to straighten themselves out after cornering. This is
due to a castor action. Supermarket trolley wheels automatically run straight
when pushed; this is because the axle on which they rotate is behind the
swivel mounting. Vehicle wheels get the same result by leaning the swivel
mounting back, so that the wheel axle is moved slightly behind the line of
the swivel. The further the axle is behind the swivel, the stronger will be the
straightening effect. The main reason for the castor angle is the self centering
action it produces.
Camber angle
On many cars the front wheels are not mounted vertical to the road surface.
Often they are further apart at the top than at the bottom. This is called
positive camber and is done for many reasons, such as:
■ easier steering, less turning effort required
■ less wear on the steering linkages
■ less stress on main components.
Some cars have rear wheels with negative camber. With independent
suspension systems, wheels can change their camber from positive to neutral
to negative. This varies, though, with the design and position of the
suspension hinge points.
Camber Camber
angle angle
Viewed from
the front
Road
surface
Positive camber Negative camber
(Note: the angles are exaggerated to help you see more clearly)
Figure 14.5 Camber angle

Swivel axis Vertical

(eg line through line
the strut) Swivel axis
inclination
Upper
swivel
Viewed from
the front
Lower
swivel Road surface
Figure 14.6 Swivel axis inclination
Swivel axis inclination

The final setting that affects the angle of the steered wheels is the swivel axis
inclination: the angle compared to vertical made by the two swivel joints
when viewed from the front or rear. On a strut type suspension system the
angle is that made by the strut. This angle always leans in towards the
middle of the vehicle. The swivel axis inclination (also called king pin
inclination) is mainly for:
■ producing a self centre action
■ improved steering control on corners
■ lighter steering action.
Steering box Steering boxes contain a spiral gear, known as a worm gear, which rotates
with the steering column. One form of design has a nut wrapped round the
spiral and is therefore known as a worm and nut steering box. The grooves
can be filled with recirculating ball bearings which reduce backlash or slack
in the system; they also reduce friction, making steering lighter. On vehicles
with independent front suspension, an idler unit is needed, together with a
number of links and several joints.
The basic weakness of the steering box system is in the number of swivelling
joints and connections. If there is just slight wear at a number of points, the
steering will not feel or be positive.
Steel ball Steering

bearings shaft
NUT has
grooves
for bearings
Figure 14.7
Recirculating ball steering
box Worm
Steering
arm
Track Pinion Track

rod rod
Ball joints Rack Ball joints
Figure 14.8 Rack and pinion steering
Rack and pinion The steering rack is now used almost without exception on light vehicles.
steering This is because it is simple in design and very long lasting. The wheels turn
on two large swivel joints. Another ball joint (often called a track rod end) is
fitted on each swivel arm. The track rods are connected by a further ball joint
to the ends of the rack. The rack is inside a lubricated tube, and gaiters
protect the inner ball joints. The pinion meshes with the teeth of the rack; as
it is turned by the steering wheel, the rack is made to move back and forth,
swivelling the front wheels on their swivel joints.
Power assisted Rack and pinion steering requires more turning effort than a steering box,
steering although this is not too noticeable with smaller vehicles. However, heavier
cars with larger engines or with wider tyres (which scrub more) often benefit
from power steering.
Most vehicles use a belt driven hydraulic pump to supply fluid under
pressure for use in the system. Inside the rack and pinion housing is a
hydraulic valve which is operated as the pinion is turned for steering. The
valve controls the flow of oil into a cylinder which has a piston connected to
the rack. This assists with the steering effort quite considerably.
A well designed system will retain the ‘feel’ of road conditions for the driver
to control the car. Steering a slow moving heavier vehicle when there is little
room can be tiring, even impossible for some drivers. This is where power
steering comes into its own. Many modern systems are able to make the
power steering progressive. This means that, as the speed of the vehicle
increases, the assistance provided by the power steering reduces. This
maintains better driver feel.
Very modern systems are starting to use electric power steering. This
employs a very powerful electric motor as part of the steering linkage.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make simple sketches to illustrate castor angle, camber angle, track and swivel
axis inclination.
➠ Examine a real system and note the layout of the steering components.
➠ Write a short explanation about how to check the tracking of a vehicle using only
a good tape measure.
Fluid under pressure

Steering column is provided by the
Cylinder hydraulic pump
anchored
to rack body
Fluid reservoir
Low pressure
fluid Piston rod
Rod fixed
connected
to piston
to rack
Control valve
Rack Pinion High pressure Piston

fluid
Figure 14.9 Power assisted steering
3 Wheels
Introduction Together with the tyre, a road wheel must support the weight of the vehicle
and be capable of withstanding a number of side thrusts when cornering and
KEY WORDS
torsional forces when driving. Road wheels must be strong, but light in
weight. They must be cheap to produce, easy to clean, and simple to remove
and refit.
table
■ Torque
■ Rim
Figure 14.10 Modern road wheels

Terminology
Steel wheels A very popular design of wheel. Usually covered with plastic wheel trims. Very strong and
cheap to produce
Alloy wheels Good, attractive looking wheels generally fitted to higher specification vehicles. Many
designs are used; they are lightweight but can be difficult to keep clean
Spoked wheels Attractive wheels, but only used on older type sports cars. A smaller diameter but
stronger version of a cycle wheel
Split rims Many commercial vehicles use split rims, either of a two or three piece construction. The
tyre is held in place by what could be thought of as a very large circlip. Do not remove or
fit tyres on this type of wheel unless you have received proper instruction
Divided rims On a very few specialist vehicles, the rims are made in two halves which are bolted
together. The nuts and bolts holding them together should be specially marked because
undoing them when the tyre is inflated would be very dangerous
Temporary or ‘space saver’ In order to save space in the boot and to save on costs, some cars with large and
wheels expensive alloy wheels use a small, thin steel wheel as the spare. The speed of the vehicle
is restricted when this type of wheel is used. It is only intended for emergency use
Types of road Two main types of road wheels are in service on modern light vehicles:
wheels
■ pressed steel
■ cast alloy.
The centre of pressed steel wheels is made by pressing a disc into a dish
shape to give it greater strength. The rim is a rolled section which is circled
and welded. The rim is normally welded to the flange of the centre disc. The
centre disc has a number of slots under the rim. This is for ventilation to the
brakes as well as the wheel itself. This type of wheel is cheap to produce and
strong.
The bead of a tyre is made from wire, which cannot be stretched for fitting
or removal. The wheel rim must therefore be designed to hold the tyre in
place, but also to allow for easy removal. This is done by using a ‘well
base’ in the rim. For tyre removal one bead must be forced into the well. The
other bead can then be levered over the edge of the rim. The bead seats are
made with a taper so that, as the tyre is inflated, the bead is forced up the
taper by the air pressure. This locks the tyre on to the rim, making a good
seal.
Slots for
air flow
Well
base
Figure 14.11 Features of a
pressed steel wheel Figure 14.12 Alloy wheel
A large number of vehicles are fitted with wheels made from light alloy.
Wheels of this type are generally produced from aluminium alloy castings,
which are then machine finished. The main advantage of cast alloy road
wheels is their light weight, and of course they look good. The disadvantages
are their lower resistance to corrosion, and that they are more prone to
accidental damage. The general shape of the wheel, as far as tyre fitting is
concerned, is much the same as the pressed steel type.
Fixing the road Light vehicle road wheels are usually held in place by four or five nuts or
wheels on to the car bolts. The fixing holes in the wheels are stamped or machined to form a cone
shaped seat. The wheel nut, or bolt head, fits into this seat. This ensures that
the wheel fits in exactly the right position. In the case of steel pressed wheels
it also strengthens the wheel centre round the stud holes.
When fitting a wheel, the nuts or bolts must be tightened evenly in a
diagonal sequence. It is also vital that they are set to the correct torque.
Threaded Wheel nut

stud
Hub flange
Conical seating
on wheel centre
Hub
Conical section
Figure 14.13 Road wheel fixings
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show how a wheel is correctly positioned and secured
to a hub using bolts.
4 Tyres
Introduction The tyre performs two basic functions:

■ It acts as the primary suspension, cushioning the vehicle from the effects
of a rough surface.
■ It provides frictional contact with the road surface. This allows the
driving wheels to move the vehicle. The tyres also allow the front wheels
to steer and the brakes to slow or stop the vehicle.
The tyre is a flexible casing which contains air. Tyres are manufactured from
reinforced synthetic rubber. The tyre is made of an inner layer of fabric plies
Figure 14.14 High performance tyres

KEY WORDS

table which are wrapped around bead wires at the inner edges. The bead wires
■ Tyre pressure
hold the tyre in position on the wheel rim. The fabric plies are coated with
rubber, which is moulded to form the side walls and the tread of the tyre.
■ Valve core
Behind the tread is a reinforcing band, usually made of steel, rayon, or glass
■ Tyre markings fibre. Modern tyres are mostly tubeless, so they have a thin layer of rubber
coating the inside to act as a seal.
Terminology
Radial The modern construction technique for tyres. It simply means that the main plies of the
tyre are constructed radially
Cross ply An earlier form of tyre construction. The plies are made in a type of crisscross pattern
around the circumference of the tyre
Bead This is a continuous loop of thin steel wire which is an anchorage for the plies. For a
tubeless tyre the bead must also provide an air tight seal with the wheel rim
Tread This provides the traction or grip with the road surface. Grooves in the tyre tread
pattern assist in clearing away any water to prevent aquaplaning
Plies Layers of strong fabric cords, to build up the shape and strength of the tyre
Valve A simple one way valve to allow the tyre to be inflated and the pressure to be checked
Side walls This is the part of the tyre between the tread and the beads. However, the air supports
the tread, not the side wall. The main function of the side walls is to allow the tyre to flex
Inner tube The inner tube is a soft rubber tube fitted inside the tyre. Its purpose is to maintain the
air pressure. Tubed tyres are now generally used only for special rims, like the older
spoked type
Construction of a The wheel is made with a leak proof rim, and the valve is rubber mounted
tubeless radial tyre into a hole formed in the well of the rim. The tyre is made with an accurate
bead which fits tightly on to the rim. A thin rubber layer in the interior of the
tyre makes an air tight seal.
The plies of a radial tyre pass from bead to bead at 90° to the circumference,
or radially. A rigid belt band, consisting of several layers of textile or metallic
threads, runs round the tyre under the tread. Steel wire is often used in the
construction of radial tyres. The radial tyre is flexible but retains high
strength. It has good road holding and cornering power. In addition, radial
tyres are economical due to their low ‘rolling resistance’.
Breaker cords
Sidewall cords
are at right angles
to tyre crown
Figure 14.15 Radial tyre construction
A major advantage of a radial tyre is its greatly improved grip even on wet
roads. This is because the rigid belt band holds the tread flat on the road
surface when cornering. The rigid belt band also helps with the escape of
water from under the tyre.
The legal bit about It is dangerous to mix cross ply and radial ply tyres on a vehicle. Only very
tyres old vehicle use cross ply tyres, so this is not a problem you are likely to come
across. The safest and best method is often to fit radial tyres all round.
However, you must refer to manufacturers’ recommendations if in any
doubt.
It is an offence to use a light vehicle on the road if any of its tyres have any of
the following faults:
■ A tread pattern depth of less than 1.5 mm throughout at least 75% of the
tread width and no visible tread on the rest.
■ A cut deep enough to reach the fabric and measuring in excess of 25 mm
or 10% of the section width of the tyre, whichever is the greater.
■ A lump or bulge caused by separation or other structural fault.
■ Any portion of the ply or cord body is exposed.
■ It has been re-cut or re-grooved.
■ It is not suitable for the use to which the vehicle is being put, or to the
type of tyres fitted to its other wheels.
■ It is incorrectly inflated.
■ Tyres of different types of construction are fitted to the same axle.
Tyre sizes and Markings on the sides of tyres are quite considerable and can be a little
markings confusing. The following is a list of the information given on modern tyres. I
will just examine the size, speed and load headings in a little more detail.
■ size (e.g. 195/55–15)
■ speed rating (eg. H, V, Z)
■ load index (e.g. 84, 89, 92)
■ UTQG ratings (Temperature, Traction, Tread wear)
■ M&S designation
■ max. load
■ max. press
■ type of construction
■ EU approval mark
■ US approval mark
■ manufacture date.
A tyre’s size is expressed in the format WWW/AA–DD (Eg. 195/55–15):
■ WWW is the tyre’s sidewall to sidewall width in millimetres (195).
■ AA is the aspect ratio or profile. This gives the tyre’s height as a

percentage of its width (55% of 195 107 mm).
■ DD is the diameter of the wheel in inches (15 inches). Some tyres now
also give this in millimetres.
If the size is shown as P205/60R15, the ‘P’ stands for ‘Passenger’ and the ‘R’
is for ‘Radial ply’ construction.
For an older tyre without an aspect ratio (e.g. 175R13), it is assumed to be

about an 80 series tyre (e.g. 175/80R13). The practice of listing the aspect
ratio is becoming more common.
The speed rating was traditionally shown as a part of the tyre’s size (e.g.
195/55VR15). Since the inclusion of load ratings, many manufacturers now
show the speed rating after the size, in combination with the load rating (e.g.
195/55R15 84V).
Commonly used speed ratings include:
Rating Certified Maximum Speed Certified Maximum Speed

(km/h) (mph)
N 140 88
Q 160 100
S 180 112
T 190 118
U 200 124
H 210 130
V 240 150*
Z over 240 over 150
W 270 169
Y 300 188
* (Originally, V was ‘over 130 mph’. As W and Y ratings are quite new, Z is redundant
and will probably be dropped at some time in the future.)
The load index indicates the maximum weight the tyre can carry at the
maximum speed indicated by its speed rating. Some ‘load rating indices’ are
listed in the following table.
Rating Capacity (kg) Capacity (lb)
75 387 853
82 475 1 047
84 500 1 102
85 515 1 135
87 545 1 201
88 560 1 235
91 615 1 356
92 630 1 389
93 650 1 433
105 925 2 039
Tyre valves The valve is to allow the tyre to be inflated with air under pressure, prevent
air from escaping after inflation and to allow the release of air for adjustment
of pressure. The valve assembly is contained in a brass tube which is bonded
into a rubber sleeve and mounting section.
Valve
cap
Pin
Valve
Tubed tyre core
Rim
seal
Tubeless valve
Tubeless tyre
Figure 14.16 Tubed and tubeless tyre with a typical tubeless valve
The valve core consists of a centre pin with metal and rubber disc valves.
When the tyre is inflated, the centre pin is depressed, the disc valve moves
away from the bottom of the seal tube and allows air to enter the tyre. To
release air or for pressure checking, the centre pin is depressed. During
normal operation, the disc valve is held in place by its spring and by the
pressure of air. If all the air needs to be released, the valve core assembly can
be removed. The upper part of the valve tube is threaded to accept a valve
cap. This prevents dirt and grit from entering the valve and acts as a
secondary seal.
Tyre inflation The pressure at which the tyres should be set is determined by a number of
pressures factors such as:
■ load to be carried
■ number of plies
■ operating conditions
■ section of the tyre.
Tyre pressures must be set at the manufacturer’s recommended values.

Pressure will vary according to the temperature of the tyre – this is affected
by operating conditions. Tyre pressure should always be adjusted when the
tyre is cold and be checked at regular intervals.
Tyre faults The following table lists some of the faults which can occur if tyres and/or
the vehicle are not maintained correctly.
Fault Possible cause
Wear on both outer edges of the tread Underinflation

Wear in the centre of the tread all round the tyre Overinflation
Wear just on one side of the tread Incorrect camber
Feathering Tracking not set correctly
Bald patches Unbalanced wheels or unusual
driving technique!
Bald patches Feathering Wear only on Wear in centre Wear on both sides
one side
– wheels out of – incorrect – incorrect – overinflation – underinflation
balance tracking camber
– drum or disc
distorted
– dampers u/s
– excessive braking
Figure 14.17 Tyre faults
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch by copying a tyre, showing the information given on the
side.
➠ Write a short explanation about how various tyre faults could be caused, in
addition to the above list.
5 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is heavy steering, you could proceed as
follows:
FAULT FINDING
1. Ask if the problem has just developed. Road test to confirm.
1. Verify the fault 2. Check the obvious, such as tyre pressures. Is the vehicle loaded to excess?
2. Collect further Check geometry.
information 3. Assuming tyre pressure and condition is as it should be, move on to
3. Evaluate the further tests.
evidence 4. For example, jack up and support the front of the car. Operate the steering
4. Carry out further lock to lock. Disconnect one track rod end and move the wheel on that
tests in a logical side, and so on.
sequence 5. If the fault is in the steering rack, then this should be replaced and the
5. Rectify the racking should be set.
problem 6. Test the operation with a road test and inspect all other related
6. Check all systems components for security and safety.

Tyre pressure gauge and tread depth gauge

These pieces of test equipment are often underated. Correctly inflated tyres
make the vehicle handle better, stop better and use less fuel. The correct
depth of tread means the vehicle will be significantly safer to drive,
particularly in wet conditions.
Tracking gauges
The toe in and toe out of a vehicle’s front wheels is very important. Many
types of tracking gauges are available. One of the most common kind uses a
frame placed against each wheel, with a mirror on one side and a moveable
viewer on the other. The viewer is moved until marks are lined up and the
tracking can then be measured.
Figure 14.18 Tracking gauges

Wheel balancer
This is usually a large fixed piece of equipment. The wheel is removed from
the car, fixed on to the machine and spun at high speed. Sensors in the tester
measure the balance of the wheel. The tester then indicates the amount of
weight which should be added to a certain position. The weight is added by
fitting small lead weights.
Tracking The data for tracking will be given as either an angle or a

distance measurement. Ensure you use the appropriate data for
your type of test equipment. The distance will be a figure, such
as 3 mm toe in, an angle could be 50 toe in: 50 means 50
minutes – one degree is split into 60 minutes, so in this case the
angle is 50/60, or 5/6 of a degree
Pressures A simple measurement, which should be in bar. Many places
still use psi, or pounds per square inch! As in all other cases,
only compare like with like
Tread depth A measurement of a few millimetres. Remember the legal
requirements

Excessive free play at Play between the rack and pinion Renew in most cases but
steering wheel or in the steering box adjustment may be possible
Ball joints or tie rod joints worn Renew
Column coupling loose or bushes
worn Secure or renew
Vehicle wanders, As above As above
hard to keep in a Alignment incorrect Adjust to recommended
straight line setting
Incorrect tyre pressure or mix of Adjust pressures or replace
tyre types is not suitable tyres as required
Worn wheel bearings Renew
Stiff steering Wheel alignment incorrect Adjust to recommended
setting
Tyre pressures too low Adjust pressures
Ball joints or rack seizing Renew
Wheel wobble Wheels out of balance Balance or renew
Wear in suspension linkages Renew
Alignment incorrect Adjust to recommended
setting
Understeer or Tyre pressures incorrect Adjust pressures
oversteer Dangerous mix of tyre types Replace tyres as required
Excessive free play in suspension Renew components as
or steering system required
LEARNING TASKS

15 Electrical and electronic
systems
1 Introduction
Start here! Electrical and electronic systems are becoming increasingly important in
motor vehicle engineering. Often electronics form the main part of systems
like fuel injection, traction control or turbo chargers. The idea of this book, as
you will realise by now, is to introduce you to the main things you need to
know about motor vehicles and the industry. This chapter will give you a
good grounding in the subject of electrics and electronics.
KEY WORDS

table
ROVER 200 SERIES ELECTRICAL HARNESS LAYOUT Anti-lock

braking
(ALB) ECU
In-car
fuse box
Engine bay
fuse box
Multi-function
unit (MFU)
Programmed fuel
injection
(PGM-FI) ECU
In-car
fuse box
Multi-function ROVER 216 GSi - FUSE BOX AND ECU LOCATION
unit (MFU)
Anti-lock braking (ABS) ECU
Single Point Fuse and relay box

Injection ECU
ROVER 214 MODELS - FUSE BOX AND ECU LOCATION
Figure 15.1 Car shown with just some of its electrics

Electrical and electronic systems 185
Terminology
Battery Stores electricity in a chemical form, for the vehicle to use when the engine is not running
Starter motor A very powerful electric motor which uses electricity from the battery to crank the
engine which should then run on its own
Alternator The alternator generates electricity when the engine is running: to charge the battery and
to run all the electrical things on the vehicle
Lighting Lights controlled by switches so the driver can see, be seen or signal that he or she is
going to turn or stop
Auxiliaries This heading covers most other standard electrical systems on the car, such as wipers,
heater blower and heated rear window
Instruments The instruments provide information for the driver about the operation of the vehicle.
The most common are the speedometer, rev counter, fuel and temperature gauges
Wires Made from strands of copper insulated with PVC, the wires simply carry electricity from
one point to another – but only if a complete circuit is made
Terminals Connections to join wires to components. They are often made waterproof and also latch
together so they don’t fall off
Wiring harness Many modern cars have well over one thousand separate wiring circuits! A wiring harness
is made by bundling different wires together for neatness and safety
Voltage The pressure which pushes electricity through a circuit
Current The flow rate of electricity through a circuit
Resistance Opposition to flow of electricity. Resistance is often supplied by a bulb or motor, but a
dirty connection can cause resistance which will prevent the circuit working properly
Power or wattage A measure of how much energy is being converted, in this case electrical energy to, say,
heat energy. Consider the difference between a headlight bulb and a panel light bulb
Chassis or negative earth To save wires and simplify the circuits, the body and chassis of most vehicles are used as a
return common connection; this is usually described as ‘earth’. All modern vehicles have the
chassis, or earth, connected to battery negative
Insulated earth A very few vehicles use earth wires instead of the chassis. This is often for safety reasons,
for example to reduce the risk of a spark on a petrol tanker!
Open circuit A broken wire or connection
Short circuit Part of a circuit, such as a wire or terminal, is touching something it shouldn’t – e.g. a live
wire touching to earth
High resistance A dirty or loose connection can cause a high resistance in the circuit. This restricts the
flow of electricity and could, for example, cause a dim headlight
Bad earth or bad ‘Bad’ is often used to describe one of the last three terms! The problem is that ‘bad’ could
connection mean open circuit, short circuit or high resistance. It is good to learn the correct way of
describing a fault
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and note the extensive use of electrical components. Make
a note of the main systems.
2 Basic electrical things
Bulbs A bulb is a thin strand of metal in a glass envelope used to make light. The
number, shape and size of bulbs used on vehicles is increasing all the time.
KEY WORDS The bulbs for vehicle lighting are generally either normal tungsten filament
bulbs or tungsten halogen. In the glass bulb, the tungsten filament is heated
■ Colour codes by the electric current until it is white hot. The filament is usually wound
■ Cable sizes into a ‘spiralled spiral’ to allow a length of thin wire in a small space. The
glass bulb is filled with a gas such as argon. This allows the filament to work
■ Terminal numbers
at a high temperature without burning, and it produces a whiter light. A few
■ Fuses common bulbs are described below.
■ Halogen bulb
■ Wiring diagrams Tungsten halogen headlight bulb
Almost all vehicles now use tungsten halogen bulbs for the headlights. This
bulb has a long life and, unlike other bulbs, will not blacken over a period of
time. The glass envelope used for the tungsten halogen bulb is made from
quartz. The bulb has two filaments and three terminals, one for main beam,
one for dip beam and the other for an earth connection. Figure 15.2 shows a
typical tungsten halogen headlight bulb, together with some examples of
bulbs in common use (briefly described below).
Figure 15.2 Halogen headlight bulb and other types used on light vehicles
Miniature centre contact

This bulb has a bayonet cap consisting of two pins projecting from either side
of the cylindrical cap. It has a single central contact, with the metal cap body
forming the second or earth connection. It is made with various power
ratings, ranging from 1 to 5 watts. It is typically used for panel lights or side
lights.
Double contact, small bayonet cap
These bulbs have a bayonet cap with a glass envelope enclosing two
filaments. One end of each filament is connected to an end contact; both of
the other ends are joined to the body, which is the earth. These caps have
offset bayonet pins, so that the two filaments (which have different wattages)
cannot be fitted the wrong way round. One filament is used for the stop
light, the other for the tail light. They are rated at 21 and 5 watts (21/5W).
Single contact, small bayonet cap

These bulbs have a bayonet cap with a glass envelope enclosing a single
filament. The filament is connected to a single central contact and uses the
metal cap body to form the second contact. The size or wattage of the bulb is
normally 5 W or 21 W.
The larger 21 W bulb is used for indicators, reversing and rear fog lights, the
small 5 W bulb for number plate lights or side tail lamps.
Two other types of bulbs, not shown in the diagram, are the festoon and the
capless type.
Festoon
The glass envelope has a tubular shape, with the filament stretched between
brass caps cemented to the tube ends. It is often used for interior lighting.
Capless bulb
These bulbs have a tubular glass envelope with a flattened end which
provides the support for the terminal wires; these wires are bent over to form
the two contacts. Capless bulbs have power ratings up to 5 W and are used
for panel lights, side lights and parking lights. They are now very popular
due to the low cost of manufacture.
Fuses Some form of circuit protection is required for the electrical wiring of a
vehicle and also for the electrical and electronic components. It is now
common practice to protect almost all electrical circuits with a fuse. A fuse is
the weak link in a circuit. If an overload of current occurs, the fuse will melt
and disconnect the circuit before any serious damage is caused. Automobile
fuses are available in three types: glass cartridge, ceramic and blade type.
The blade type is now the most popular choice due to its simple construction
and reliability. Figure 15.3 shows these three types of fuses.
Fuses are available in a number of rated values, as listed in the following
table together with their colour code. Only the fuse recommended by the
manufacturer should be used.
Glass fuses
Blade type Ceramic

(now the most
common)
Figure 15.3 A selection of vehicle fuses

Type Current rating Colour code
Blade type 3 Violet

4 Pink
5 Clear/Beige
7.5 Brown
10 Red
15 Blue
20 Yellow
25 Neutral/White
30 Green
Ceramic type 5 Yellow
8 White
16 Red
25 Blue
A fuse protects the device as well as the wiring, so the fuse rating needs to be
considered. If you used a fuse with a much higher than stated rating in a
wiper motor circuit, the fuse would probably still protect against a severe
short circuit. However, if the wiper blades froze to the screen, a large value
fuse might not protect the motor from overheating.
Fusible links in the main output feeds from the battery protect against major
short circuits in the event of an accident or error in wiring connections. These
links are simply heavy duty fuses and are rated in values such as 50, 100 or
150 A.
Occasionally circuit breakers are used in place of fuses, this being more
common on heavy vehicles. A circuit breaker has the same rating and
function as a fuse, but with the advantage that it can be reset.
Terminals and Many types of terminals are available and have developed from early bullet
connectors type connectors into the high quality waterproof systems now in use. A
popular choice for many years was the spade or ‘Lucar’ type terminal. This is
still a standard choice for connection to relays, for example, but is now losing
ground to the smaller blade terminals. A selection of terminals is shown in
Figure 15.4. Circular multipin connectors are used in many cases; the pins
vary in size from 1 mm to 5 mm. With any type of multipin connector, an
offset slot or similar is used to prevent incorrect connection.
Protection against corrosion of the connector is provided in a number of
ways. Earlier methods included applying a suitable grease to the pins to
repel water. It is now more usual to use rubber seals to protect the terminals,
although a small amount of contact lubricant can still be used. Many
multiway connectors use some kind of latch to prevent individual pins
working loose; they also ensure that the complete plug and socket is held
securely. Figure 15.4 shows several types of connector.
Wires Cables used for motor vehicle applications are now almost always copper
strands insulated with PVC. Copper, beside its very low resistance, has ideal
properties such as ductility and malleability (see Chapter 20 for more
details). This makes it the natural choice for most electrical conductors. PVC
Ring Push-on
Butt
adaptor
Spade
Female
push-on
Bullet
Pin
Male
push-on
Flat blade
Female fully
insulated
Hook blade
Cranked blade
Figure 15.4 Wiring terminals and connector blocks
Normal usage
Trailer sockets
Twin core
(speaker)
Starter motor
Figure 15.5 Wires
is an ideal insulator: it has very high electrical resistance, but is also very
resistant to petrol, oil, water and other contaminants.
The choice of cable size depends on the current it will have to carry. The
larger the cable used, the better it will be able to carry the current and supply
all of the available voltage. But if it is too large, the wiring becomes
cumbersome and heavy! In general, the voltage supply to a component must
not be less than 90% of the system supply. Cable is available in stock sizes,
and the next table lists some typical sizes and uses. A good ‘rule of thumb’ is
that one strand of 0.3 mm diameter wire will carry 0.5 amps safely.
Cable size Cross sectional area Rating Example uses

Strands/diameter (mm) (mm2) (amps)
9/0.30 0.6 5.75 Side lights etc
14/0.25 0.7 6 Clock, radio
14/0.30 1.0 8.75 Ignition
28/0.30 2.0 17.5 Headlights, heated
rear window
65/0.30 4.6 35.0 Main supply
97/0.30 6.9 50.0 Charging wires
120/0.30 8.5 60.0 Main supply
37/0.90 23.5 350.0 Starter supply
to to to
61/0.90 39.0 700.0
Terminal numbers Three main methods are mentioned here to help with tracing circuits: British
and colour codes colour code system, European system and DIN terminal numbers. Please
note that some manufacturers will not use colours or numbers exactly as
listed here!
The British Standard system uses twelve colours to determine the main
purpose of the cable, and tracer colours to further define its use. The main
colour uses and some other examples are given in the following table.
Colour Symbol Destination
Brown N Main battery feed

Blue U Headlight switch to dip switch
Blue/White UW Headlight main beam
Blue/Red UR Headlight dip beam
Red R Side light main feed
Red/Black RB Left side lights and number plate
Red/White RW Right side and panel lights
Purple P Constant but fused supply
Green G Ignition controlled fused supply
Green/Red GR Left side indicators
Green/White GW Right side indicators
Light Green LG Instruments
White W Ignition to ballast resistor
White/Black WB Coil negative
Yellow Y Overdrive and fuel injection
Black B All earth connections
Slate S Electric windows
Pink/White KW Ballast resistor wire

Green/Brown GN Reverse
Green/Purple GP Stop lights
Blue/Yellow UY Rear fog light
A European system used by Ford, VAG, BMW and other manufacturers is

based broadly on the following table. Please note that there is no connection
between the European system and the British standard colour codes. In
particular, note the use of the colour brown in each system!
Red Rt Main battery feed

White/Black Ws/Sw Headlight switch to dip switch
White Ws Headlight main beam
Yellow Ge Headlight dip beam
Grey Gr Side light main feed
Grey/Black Gr/Sw Left side lights
Grey/Red Gr/Rt Right side lights
Black/Green Sw/Gn Ignition controlled supply
Black/White/Green Sw/Ws/Gn Indicator switch
Black/White Sw/Ws Left side indicators
Black/Green Sw/Gn Right side indicators
Light Green LGn Coil negative
Brown Br Earth connections
Pink/White KW Ballast resistor wire
Black Sw Reverse
Black/Red Sw/Rt Stop lights
Green/Black Gn/Sw Rear fog light
Once you’ve practised and familiarised yourself with these colour code
systems, you will find fault finding an electrical circuit a little easier!
A popular system is the terminal designation. This helps to ensure correct

connections are made on the vehicle, particularly in after sales repairs.
Note that the designations do not identify individual wires but define
the terminals of a device. Listed below are some of the most popular
numbers.
No. Designation
1 Ignition coil negative

4 Ignition coil high tension
15 Switched positive (ignition switch output)
30 Input from battery positive
31 Earth connection
No. Designation
49 Input to flasher unit

49a Output from flasher unit
50 Starter control (solenoid terminal)
53 Wiper motor input
54 Stop lamps
55 Fog lamps
56 Headlamps
56a Main beam
56b Dip beam
58L Left side lights
58R Right side lights
61 Charge warning light
85 Relay winding output
86 Relay winding input
87 Relay contact input (change over relay)
87a Relay contact output (break)
87b Relay contact output (make)
L Left side indicators
R Right side indicators
C Indicator warning light (vehicle)
Symbols and circuit Figure 15.6 is a guide to some commonly used symbols, but note that some
diagrams manufacturers use their own variation. The idea of a symbol is to represent a
component in a very simple, but easily recognisable form.
A conventional wiring diagram shows the electrical connections of a circuit
but makes no attempt to show the various parts in any particular order or
position. Figure 15.7 shows an example of this type of diagram.
A layout circuit diagram makes an attempt to show the main electrical
components in a position similar to those on the actual vehicle. Due to the
complex circuits and the number of individual wires, some manufacturers
now use two diagrams: one to show electrical connections and the other to
show the actual layout of the wiring harness and components, see Figure
15.8.
A terminal diagram shows only the connections of the devices, not any of
the wiring. The terminal of each device, which can be represented
pictorially, is marked with a code. This code indicates the device terminal
designation, the destination device code and its terminal designation and in
some cases the wire colour code. Figure 15.9 shows an example of this
technique.
A current flow system, see Figure 15.10, is laid out to show current flow from
the top of the page to the bottom. These diagrams often have two supply
lines at the top of the page, marked 30 (main battery positive supply) and 15
(ignition controlled supply). At the bottom of the page is a line marked 31
(earth or chassis connection).
Figure 15.6 Electrical and electronic symbols
Figure 15.7 Conventional wiring diagram

Figure 15.8 Layout wiring diagram
Figure 15.9 Terminal diagram

Figure 15.10 Current flow diagram
Relays A relay is a very simple device. It can be thought of as a remote controlled

switch. A very small electric current is used to magnetise a small winding.
The magnetism then causes some contacts to close, which in turn can control
a much heavier current. This allows small, delicate switches to be used to
control large current users such as the headlights or the heated rear window.
Figure 15.11 shows a typical relay.
LEARNING TASKS
Figure 15.11 Common
type of relay ➠ Look at some wiring diagrams relating to vehicles in your workshop. Can you
follow any simple circuits?
3 Electrical systems
Battery A lead acid cell is made of lead electrodes in a dilute solution of sulphuric
acid. It is a means of converting chemical energy to electrical energy; when
the electrical energy has been partly used, the cell can be re-energised or
recharged. The voltage of a single lead acid cell is about 2 V. Cells are
connected in series to form a battery of a set voltage, generally 12 V for
KEY WORDS
■ Battery
■ Alternator
■ Charger
■ Hydrometer
■ Discharge tester
■ Regulator
■ Inertia starter
■ Pre-engaged starter
■ Lights
■ Auxiliaries
■ Instruments Figure 15.12 Modern vehicle battery
■ Driver information
■ Alarms
vehicle use. We say 12 V for convenience, but if you measure a good battery
with a good voltmeter, you will find it is about 12.6 V!
Vehicle batteries are made up in plastic containers; these are acid resistant
and strong, but still liable to damage if mishandled. A chemical action takes
place when the cell gives out electrical energy, changing the chemicals of the
plates and the electrolyte. To recharge the cell, the chemical action is
reversed by passing a current through the cell in the opposite direction to the
discharge current.
The chemical action during recharging releases hydrogen and oxygen. This is
mainly absorbed by the electrolyte, but as the battery nears full charge, the
gases are given off at the vents. The hydrogen gas is highly inflammable –
take care!
The capacity of a battery is the amount of electrical energy which can be
obtained from it. It is usually given in ampere/hours (Ah), reserve capacity
(RC) and cold cranking amps (CCA).
Figure 15.13 Battery construction

Figure 15.14 Hydrometer test of a battery
■ A 40 Ah battery should give 2 amps for 20 hours.

■ The reserve capacity indicates the time in minutes for which the battery
will supply 25 A at 25°C.
■ Cold cranking current indicates the maximum battery current at 18°C
for a set time, but standards vary:
Standard Time
BS 60 seconds
DIN 30 seconds
SAE 30 seconds
A battery for normal light vehicle use may be rated at 40 Ah/65 minutes
reserve capacity/160A cold cranking (BS).
For testing the state of charge of a non sealed type of battery, a hydrometer
can be used. This is a syringe which draws electrolyte from a cell, and a float
which will float at a particular depth in the electrolyte according to its
density. The density or specific gravity is then read from the graduated scale
on the float. A fully charged cell should show 1.280, when half charged 1.200
and if discharged 1.150.
Most vehicles are now fitted with maintenance free batteries and a
hydrometer cannot be used to find the state of charge. This can only be
determined by the voltage of the battery as given in the following table. An
accurate voltmeter is required for this test.
Battery volts at 20°C State of charge
12.2 V and under Discharged

12.4 V Half charged
12.6 V and over Charged
A heavy duty discharge tester consists of a low value resistor and a

voltmeter connected to a pair of heavy test prods. The test prods are firmly
pressed on to the battery terminals. The voltmeter reads the voltage of the
battery under a heavy discharge of 200–300 A.
A fully charged serviceable battery should read about 10 volts for a period of
about 10 seconds. A sharply falling battery voltage to below 3 V indicates an
unserviceable cell. Note also if any cells are gassing, as this indicates a short
circuit. This will be indicated by a zero or extremely low reading. When
using the HD tester the following precautions must be observed:
Figure 15.15 Heavy duty discharge test
■ Blow gently across the top of the battery to remove flammable gases.
■ The test prods must be positively and firmly pressed into the lead
terminals of the battery to minimise sparking.
■ It should not be used while a battery is on charge.
Charging a battery is sometimes necessary. The charge rate (the amount of
current to put back in a battery) is calculated from the Ah capacity, the
reserve capacity or the cold cranking amps of the battery.
For example, the ideal rate for a 40 Ah battery is 4 A:
■ 1/10 of the ampere hour capacity, or
■ 1/16 of the reserve capacity, or
■ 1/40 of the cold cranking amps.
Normal charging – charge for 10 hours at the rate (as above). Boost charging
– this may be carried out at five times the above rate and should bring the
battery to about 80% of its full charge state in about one hour. It is best only
to boost charge in an emergency as it can damage the battery.
Figure 15.16 Battery
charger The following points must be observed when working with batteries:
■ good ventilation
■ protective clothing
■ supply of water available (running water preferable)
■ first aid equipment available and to include eyewash
■ no smoking or naked lights permitted.
In use a battery requires very little attention other than the following:
■ Clean corrosion from terminals using hot water. Terminals should be
smeared with petroleum jelly or Vaseline not ordinary grease.
■ Battery tops should be clean and dry.
■ If not sealed, cells should be topped up with distilled water 3 mm above
the plates.
■ Battery should be securely clamped in position.
Alternator and The electrical requirements of modern vehicles are very high. The charging
charging system system must be able to meet these demands. In simple terms the vehicle
charging system must, under all operating conditions, be able to supply all
the consumers on the vehicle and still charge the battery.
Figure 15.17 shows a typical modern alternator; the name and purpose of
each main component is as follows:
Figure 15.17 Alternator
Component Purpose
Brushes Made from soft carbon, the brushes allow a small electric
current to pass through the slip rings to the field windings
Slip rings Copper rings which, in conjunction with carbon brushes, allow
electricity to pass through to a rotating component
Rotor and windings The cast iron rotor contains the windings and is made magnetic
Pulley The pulley transfers drive and hence energy from the engine. It
is usually via a vee or poly vee belt and rotates the rotor
Stator The stator has electricity induced in to it by the rotating
magnetism of the rotor. It produces a three phase ac output
Rectifier The three phase ac is rectified (converted) to dc by the action
of diodes (one way valves for electricity)
Output terminals The main positive output from the rectifier is connected here
Regulator A small output from the rectifier is sent back to the field
windings via the brushes. The regulator controls this output,
thereby controlling the output voltage of the alternator
Warning light The same small output as for the field windings is also used to
terminal put out the warning light via this terminal
Bearings As the alternator runs at a very high speed, good ball bearings
are used at each end of the rotor to reduce friction
Cooling fan The fan prevents the whole machine becoming too hot
Figure 15.18 shows the most basic principles of a single and three phase
alternator and their outputs. Basic electromagnetic induction is caused by a
rotating magnet inside a stationary loop or loops of wire. In a practical
alternator the rotating magnet is an electromagnet which is supplied via two
slip rings. Figure 15.19 shows the most common design, known as a claw
pole rotor. Each end of the rotor will become a north or a south pole and
hence each claw will be alternately north and south.
The stationary loops of wire are known as the stator and consist of three
separate phases, each with a number of windings. The windings are
mechanically spaced on a laminated iron core. Figure 15.19 shows a typical
example. The three phase windings of the stator can be connected in two
ways, known as star or delta.
Stator
Rotor
N N
S S
Single Three
phase phase
Output
Figure 15.18 Alternator principle
Figure 15.19 Alternator shown with its main components
In order for the output of the alternator to be used to charge the battery and
run other vehicle components it must be rectified, that is converted from
alternating current (ac) to direct current (dc). The components most suitable
for this task are diodes.
Six diodes are needed to rectify the output of a three phase machine. An
extra three positive diodes are often included in a rectifier pack. These are
usually smaller than the main diodes and are only used to supply a small
current back to the field windings in the rotor. They are known as the field or
excitation diodes. Due to the large currents flowing through the main diodes,
a heat sink (which removes the heat from the diodes) is required to prevent
damage.
To prevent the vehicle battery from being overcharged, the voltage should be
kept at a set level. A figure of 14 V is typical of many, if not all, 12 V charging
systems. Voltage regulation is a difficult task on a vehicle alternator because
of the constantly changing engine speed. The output of an alternator without
regulation would rise with engine speed. Alternator output is controlled by
magnetic field strength of the rotor. It is the task of the regulator to control
this field strength in response to alternator output voltage. Regulators can be
mechanical or electronic.
In many cases the charging circuit is one of the simplest on the vehicle. The
main output is connected directly to the battery via suitable size cable. The
warning light is connected to an ignition supply on one side, to the alternator
terminal at the other.
Figure 15.20 shows the meter connections required for testing an alternator
charging system. Two common tests can be carried out:
■ maximum output current
■ regulated voltage.
Charge
warning Ignition switch
light
V
Alternator
Figure 15.20 Testing an alternator
Starter An internal combustion engine needs to be turned over at about 100 rev/min
to then fire and run on its own. This is where the electric starter comes in.
Assuming average mileage, the starter system is used about two thousand
times a year in city traffic!
Figure 15.21 shows a typical starter motor, the name and purpose of each
main component is as follows:
Component Purpose
Solenoid A winding which is magnetised when electricity is supplied

Engaging mechanism The magnetism attracts the plunger, which levers the pinion
into mesh with the ring gear on the engine flywheel. When the
solenoid is switched off, a spring moves the pinion out of mesh
Component Purpose
Main contacts When the pinion is fully in mesh, these strong copper contacts
close to make a good electrical connection from the battery to
the main starter terminal and the brushes
Brushes The copper carbon mix brushes pass the electricity to the
commutator
Commutator The many segments of the copper commutator pass electricity
through the appropriate windings on the armature
Armature The armature windings become magnetic and cause the motor
to turn because the magnetism of the armature is repelled by
the main field magnetism
Fields The main magnetic field is caused by permanent magnets on
this motor, but many use heavy duty windings instead
Pinion The pinion is simply a small gear with a ratio of about 10:1
compared to the ring gear. A one way clutch behind the pinion
prevents the motor being driven by the engine when it starts
Solenoid
Main contacts
Fields
Brushes
Pinion
Armature Commutator
Engaging
mechanism
Figure 15.21 Permanent magnet starter motor
In comparison with most other circuits on the modern vehicle, the starter
circuit is very simple. The problem to overcome, however, is that of voltage
drop or loss in the main supply wires. The starter is usually operated by a
spring loaded key switch, which also controls the ignition and accessories.
The supply from the key switch, in many cases via a relay, causes the starter
solenoid to operate and this in turn, by a set of heavy contacts, controls the
heavy current. Figure 15.22 shows a basic starting circuit.
Put simply, a motor is a machine to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The starter motor is no exception. A current flowing
through a conductor placed in a magnetic field creates a force which acts on
the conductor. The main field is created by windings or permanent magnets.
In any dc motor the conductor is shaped into a loop or many loops to form
the armature. A commutator allows contact via brushes to the supply
current.
Solenoid
Key switch
Main
contacts
12 V Battery
Motor
Figure 15.22 Basic starter circuit
In most cases four brushes are used to carry the heavy current. The brushes
are made of a mixture of copper and carbon, like most motor or generator
brushes. The armature consists of a segmented copper commutator and
heavy duty copper windings.
A starter must also have some method of engaging with, and releasing from,
the vehicle’s flywheel ring gear on the back of the engine. In light vehicle
starters this is by either the inertia type engagement or pre-engagement. In
all standard motor vehicle applications the starter must be connected to the
engine ring gear only during starting. If the connection remained permanent,
the excessive speed at which the starter would be driven by the engine
would destroy the motor almost immediately.
Figure 15.23 Lucas inertia starter motor
The inertia type of starter motor has been used for over eighty years, but it is
now becoming redundant. The starter shown in Figure 15.23 is the Lucas
M35J type. It was used on small to medium petrol engined vehicles. The
starter engages a small pinion with the flywheel ring gear. The toothed
pinion and a sleeve splined on to the armature shaft are threaded so that,
when the starter is operated, the spinning armature will cause the sleeve to
rotate inside the pinion. The pinion remains still due to its inertia and,
because of the screwed sleeve rotating inside it, is moved into mesh with the
ring gear.
When the engine fires and runs under its own power, the pinion is driven
faster than the armature shaft. This causes the pinion to be screwed back
along the sleeve and out of engagement with the flywheel. The main spring
acts as a buffer when the pinion first takes up the driving torque; it also acts
as a buffer when the engine throws the pinion back out of mesh.
One of the main problems with this type of starter was the aggressive nature
of the engagement. This tended to cause the pinion and ring gear to wear.
The pinion was also prone to seizure, often due to contamination by dust
from the clutch. This was often made worse by application of oil to the
pinion mechanism, which tended to attract even more dust. These problems
have largely been overcome by the pre-engaged starter motor.
Pre-engaged starters are fitted to the majority of vehicles in use today. As full
power is not applied until the pinion is fully in mesh, or pre-engaged, this
type of starter provides a positive engagement with the ring gear. It prevents
premature ejection as the pinion is held into mesh by the action of a solenoid.
A one way clutch is incorporated into the pinion to prevent the starter motor
being driven by the engine. Some starters now have a small gearbox built in
to increase the torque. On vehicles with automatic transmission this starter
circuit is interrupted by an inhibitor switch to prevent the engine being
started in gear.
Diesel engined vehicles may have a connection between the starter circuit
and a circuit to control the glow plugs. This may also use a timer relay.
Lighting All main exterior lights on the vehicle use a simple bulb, a reflector and a
lens. The object of the reflector is to direct the random light rays produced by
the light bulb into a beam or pattern. A reflector is basically a layer of silver,
chrome or aluminium deposited on a smooth surface such as glass or plastic.
The beam is improved by passing the reflected light rays through a
transparent block of lenses. The lenses partially redistribute the reflected
light beam and stray rays so that a better overall result is achieved. The
lenses are coloured red, amber or white as appropriate. The headlights use
the same technique on a larger scale.
A good headlight has a powerful far reaching main beam, around which the
light is distributed to illuminate a good area of the road surface. The dip
beam still provides good lighting, but it must not dazzle drivers coming in
the opposite direction. Figure 15.24 shows how this is done by using a
double filament bulb. The adjustment of headlight beams is done using a
beam setter. Figure 15.25 shows a simplified vehicle lighting circuit.
Reflector
Main
beam
Main beam
filament
Dip beam
filament and Dip beam
shield (exaggerated)
Figure 15.24 Creating a dip beam with a twin filament bulb

Fog lights
Light switch
Side lights
Battery
Dip beam
Dip switch
Main beam
Main beam
warning light
Spot lights
Figure 15.25 Simplified lighting circuit
Auxiliaries The requirements of the wiper system are simple. The windscreen must be
clean enough to provide suitable visibility at all times. The wiper blades are
made of a rubber compound and are held on to the screen by a spring in the
wiper arm. In modern vehicle design, as different air currents flow on and
around the screen area, the aerodynamic properties of the wiper blades have
become increasingly important.
Most wiper motors are permanent magnet. Drive is by a worm gear to
increase torque and reduce speed. Three brushes allow two speed operation:
because the third brush is closer to the common connection, more current
will flow. Figure 15.26 shows a typical wiper motor.
The windscreen washer system consists of a permanent magnet motor
driving a water pump. The water, preferably with a cleaning additive, is
directed onto part of the screen by two or more jets. A non return valve is
fitted in the line to the jets to prevent water running back to the reservoir.
This also allows ‘instant’ operation when the washer button is pressed. The
washer circuit is normally linked in to the wiper circuit so that, when the
washers are operated, the wipers start automatically and will continue for
several more sweeps after the washers have stopped.
Direction indicators have a number of statutory requirements. The colour
must be amber, but they may be grouped with other lamps. The flashing rate
must be between one and two per second. If a fault develops, this must be
apparent to the driver by a pilot light on the dashboard. Figure 15.27 shows
Figure 15.27 Electronic

Figure 15.26 Typical wiper motors flasher unit
an electronic flasher unit. The type shown can operate up to four 21 W bulbs
and two 5 W side repeaters when operating in hazard mode. This will
continue for several hours if required. Flasher units capable of operating
more bulbs (e.g. when towing a trailer or caravan) are available. In simple
terms a flasher unit makes the supply to the bulbs switch on and off!
EU regulations state that the horn (or audible warning device) should
produce a uniform sound. This makes sirens and melody or fanfare horns
illegal! Most horns draw a large current, so are generally switched by a
suitable relay. The standard horn operates by electromagnetism. As current
flows, an armature attached a tone disc is attracted to a stop. A set of contacts
opens, disconnecting the current and allowing the armature and disc to
return under spring tension. The whole process repeats rapidly when the
horn switch is on. This vibration produces the sound.
Figure 15.28 Vehicle Engine cooling fan motors (radiator cooling) are permanent magnet types.
horn Figure 15.29 shows an example. The fans often used to have the blades
placed asymmetrically (balanced, but not regular) to reduce operating noise.
Headlight cleaning is a good contribution to road safety. There are two ways
in which headlights are cleaned (other than by a damp cloth!): by high
pressure jets or by small wiper blades with low pressure water supply. The
second method is the same as windscreen cleaning but on a smaller scale.
The high pressure system is popular, but can suffer in very cold conditions
due to the fluid freezing. Headlight cleaners are often made so that they
operate when the windscreen washers are activated if the headlights are also
switched on.
Motor
connections
Motor
Figure 15.29 Cooling fan and motor
Figure 15.30 Headlight washers in action
Instruments Driver information is essential to ensure safe and trouble free operation of a
modern vehicle. Most instruments are located in or around the vehicle
dashboard. Instrumentation is not always associated with a gauge or a
readout type display. In many cases the whole system can be used just to
operate a warning light. The system must still work to certain standards: for
example, if a low outside temperature warning light did not illuminate at the
correct time, a dangerous situation could develop.
Thermal (or bi-metal) gauges are often used for fuel and engine temperature
indication. The gauge works by using the heating effect of electricity. As a
current flows through a simple heating coil wound on a bimetal strip, the
heat causes the strip to bend. The bimetal strip is connected to a pointer on a
scale. The amount of bend is proportional to the heat, which in turn is
proportional to the current flowing. Providing the sensor can vary its
resistance in proportion to the thing being measured (e.g. fuel level), the
gauge will indicate a suitable representation.
Figure 15.31 Fuel and temperature gauge circuit
Thermal type gauges are used with a variable resistor and float in a fuel tank
or with a thermistor in the engine water jacket. Figure 15.31 shows the circuit
of these two together. Note that a constant voltage supply is required to
prevent changes in the vehicle system voltage affecting the reading. If system
voltage increased, the current flowing would increase and the gauges would
read higher.
Figure 15.32 VCM and vehicle map display unit
VCM or vehicle condition monitoring is a form of instrumentation. Figure

15.32 shows a typical display unit used by Rover, which also incorporates the
vehicle map. Systems which can be monitored:
■ high engine temperature
Figure 15.33 Modern dashboard layout
■ low fuel
■ low brake fluid
■ worn brake pads
■ low coolant level
■ low oil level
■ low screen washer fluid
■ low outside temperature
■ bulb failure
■ doors, bonnet or boot open warning.
The oil level can be monitored by measuring the resistance of a heated wire
on the end of the dip stick. A small current is passed through the wire to heat
it. How much of the wire is covered by oil will determine its temperature
and therefore its resistance.
The display is often a collection of light emitting diodes (LEDs), or a backlit
liquid crystal display (LCD). These are arranged into suitable patterns and
shapes to represent the circuit or system being monitored. An open door will
illuminate a symbol which looks like the door on the vehicle map (plan view
of the car) is open. Low outside temperature or ice warning is often a large
snowflake!
Alarm systems Stolen cars and theft from cars account for about a quarter of all reported
crime. Up to 500 000 cars are reported missing each year in the UK, and
about 100 000 are never recovered! Even when returned, many are found to
be damaged. Most car thieves are opportunists, so even a basic alarm system
serves as a deterrent.
Car and alarm manufacturers are constantly trying to improve security. The
alarm system is now often a part of the vehicle electronic system as a whole.
Even so, ‘retro’ fit systems can still be very effective. Three main types of
intruder alarm are used, together with a number of ways to disable the
vehicle:
■ switch operated on all entry points

■ battery voltage sensed
■ volumetric sensing (movement in the vehicle)
■ ignition and/or starter circuit cut off
■ engine ECU code lock.
Alarms can be set by a separate switch or an infrared (IR) transmitter. More
common now, they are set automatically when the doors are locked.
The following is an overview of the good alarm systems now available either
as a ‘retro’ fit or factory fitted. They have electronic sirens and give an
audible signal when arming and disarming. They are all triggered when the
car door opens and will automatically reset after a period of time, often 1 or 2
minutes. The alarms are triggered instantly when any entry point is
breached. Most systems are two piece, with separate control unit and siren,
and most will have the control unit in the passenger compartment and the
siren under the bonnet (out of reach).
Most systems now come with two infrared remote ‘keys’ that use small
button type batteries and have a light emitting diode (LED) that shows when
the signal is being sent. They operate with one vehicle only. The sirens
produce a sound level of about 95 dB, when measured 2 m in front of the
vehicle (95 decibels is very loud!). Figure 15.34 shows a block diagram of a
complex alarm system.
Some factory fitted alarms are combined with the central door locking
system. This allows the facility known as lazy lock. One press of the remote
unit sets the alarm, closes the windows and sunroof and locks the doors.
Door
switches
Siren
Bonnet
switch
Door and
window closing
Ultrasonic
sensor
System
LED
Trembler
switch
Hazard
ECU
lights
Control
switch
Ignition
cut off
IR key
Injection
cut off
Ignition
Loop for
radio etc.
Crank
signal
Figure 15.34 Vehicle alarm system

One of the latest ideas is to put a Infrared receiver
security code in the engine

electronic control unit. A
coded signal is needed to
‘unlock’ the code and allow
the engine to start. Ford are
using a special ignition key
which is programmed with
the required information.
Even the correct ‘cut’ key will
not start the engine. Citroën
use a similar idea in their top
range models, but the code has
to be entered via a numerical
keypad. Of course nothing will
stop the car being lifted on to a
lorry and driven away, but then a
new engine control ECU will be
needed. The cost will be high and also
Transmitter
questions may be asked as to why a new
ECU is required.
Professional car thieves will always find
ways round the latest alarm systems, but the vehicle
manufacturers are working to stay one step ahead.
Legislation is being considered so that tracking devices can
be built into an unknown part of the vehicle’s chassis. This
can be activated in the event of the car being stolen, allowing
the police to trace the vehicle.
Figure 15.35 Alarm system operation
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real system and note all the electrical components you can see! Name
and state the purpose of the main parts.
➠ Write a short explanation about how to check a battery.
4 Electronics
Basic electronic Figure 15.36 shows the symbols for some common electronic components. A
components brief description follows for several of the components shown. There is no
particular symbol for integrated circuits.
Resistors are probably the most widely used component in electronic circuits.
KEY WORDS They are used to limit current flow and provide fixed voltage drops. Two
factors must be considered when choosing a suitable resistor: ohms value
■ Electronic (resistance) and power rating. Most resistors used in electronic circuits are
components made from small carbon rods; the size of the rod determines the resistance.
■ Electronic systems Capacitors consist of two plates separated by an insulator. The value is
determined mostly by the area of the plates and the distance between them.
Resistor Capacitor Inductor with PNP transistor NPN transistor

magnetic core
Semiconductor Light emitting Breakdown diode

diode diode
Figure 15.36 Electrical and electronic component symbols
Capacitors are often constructed by metal foil sheets insulated by a type of

paper and rolled up together inside a tin can.
Diodes are often described as one way valves, and for most uses this is a
good description. They are usually constructed from two types of silicon.
Zenner diodes are very similar in operation, except that they are designed to
conduct in the reverse direction at a pre-set voltage. They can be thought of
as a type of pressure relief valve.
Transistors are the device which has allowed the development of today’s
complex and small electronic systems. The transistor is used as either a solid
state switch or as an amplifier. They are constructed from the same materials
as diodes.
Inductors are most often used as part of an oscillator or amplifier circuit. In
these applications it is essential for the inductor to be stable and of
reasonable size. An inductor is basically a coil of wire wound on a former.
The magnetic effect of the changes in current flow gives this device the
properties of inductance.
Integrated circuits, or ICs, are constructed on a single slice of silicon.
Combinations of some of the components mentioned previously can be
combined to carry out various tasks. These tasks can range from simple
switching to the microprocessor of a computer. The components required for
these circuits can be made directly on to one slice of silicon. The great
advantage of this is not just the size of the ICs (which can be very small) but
the speed at which they can be made to work.
Electronic systems With most electronic systems on the car we don’t need to know what the
electronics do in great detail. You can think of electronic systems as having
inputs and outputs. The ‘brain’ of the system will be the electronic control
unit or ECU for short. Figure 15.37 shows, as an example, an antilock brake
system. The inputs supply information to the ECU about how the car is
operating. The ECU ‘decides’ what to do and then controls the output of the
system – in this case the brakes.
When fault finding on a system of this type, we can consider just one part at
a time until the fault is found. This type of work is very interesting, but you
will need to understand the operation of all the basic principles first!
Figure 15.37 Antilock brake system electronics
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Name and state a typical use of the electronic components in Figure 15.36.
➠ Examine a real vehicle. Note which systems are electrical and which are
electronic.
➠ Write a short explanation about why electronic systems are becoming more
popular on modern vehicles.
5 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is that the engine will not crank over on the
starter, you could proceed as follows:
FAULT FINDING 1. Try the operation to confirm the fault.
2. Does it crank at all, or slowly? Do the lights on the vehicle seem to work at
1. Verify the fault full brightness. Can you turn the engine by hand?
2. Collect further 3. If it cranks slowly, this could be because the battery is discharged or
information unserviceable, the starter is worn out or a high resistance connection exists
3. Evaluate the in the starter circuit.
evidence 4. For example, check the battery condition. Let’s assume it is discharged.
4. Carry out further Now check the charging system to make sure the alternator is working.
tests in a logical Recharge the battery and start the engine. Measure the battery volts. Has
sequence it increased to 14 V? If not, the alternator may be defective.
5. Rectify the 5. Replace or repair the alternator.
problem 6. Check all electrical systems for correct operation.
With this example fault the problem seemed at first related to the starter, but
in fact was to do with the alternator. Watch out for this type of problem –
the customer would not have been happy buying a battery, starter and
an alternator, if you had guessed instead of following a logical test
sequence.

Multimeter
This is an essential tool for fault finding electrical circuits and systems. A
good meter will have many functions, voltage, current and resistance
measurement being the most common. Always read the instructions and
ensure the meter is set to the correct range for what you are measuring.
Oscilloscope
This is a device which displays voltages in the form of patterns on a screen. It
allows us to examine output signals from all types of electrical components.
More details will be covered at NVQ level 3.
Dedicated test equipment

Many manufacturers provide this type of test equipment. It is often designed
to work only with one range of vehicles. In some cases the instrument is
plugged in to the vehicle in place of an electronic control unit and a series of
automatic tests are carried out. You should take particular care to refer to the
manufacturers’ instructions with this type of equipment.
Alternator charging voltage A good voltmeter connected across the battery. For
a 12 V vehicle the alternator should produce 14 V
when running at a mid range speed
Component resistance test When measuring the resistance of a component such
as a temperature sensor, it must be disconnected
from the vehicle wiring. Resistance figures are given in
ohms (Ω); values vary too much to give an example
Battery electrolyte density This data is often available on the side of the
hydrometer. A reading of 1.28 means the electrolyte
is 1.28 times heavier than water, it also means the
battery is fully charged if all cells read this value
Component voltage supply In most cases all the major electrical devices (lights
for example) should be supplied with battery voltage
– when switched on. A small loss in the wires is
acceptable (5 to 10%)
Figure 15.38 Multimeters

Starter will not Battery discharged Recharge and test

crank engine or Starter has worn brushes or other Renew or repair
cranks slowly fault
High resistance connection Repair
Battery is discharged Battery has internal fault Renew
Alternator not charging Replace or repair
Current drain on the vehicle Check with ammeter; boot
light may be staying on
Light or lights do Open circuit Trace the fault in a logical
not work manner. For example, a
voltage one side of a
connector but not the
other means the connector
is open circuit
Fuse keeps blowing Short circuit Check for wire rubbing to
earth. This causes too
much current to flow,
which blows the fuse. Do
not fit a larger fuse; a fuse is
a weak link to prevent
damage to other
components and wires
Lights are too bright Alternator is overcharging Renew or replace regulator
if possible
Wipers do not work Open circuit Trace the fault in a logical
manner
Motor fault If you have voltage supplies
to the motor but it does
not operate, then the fault
must be internal
LEARNING TASKS

16 Body, chassis and fittings
1 Introduction
Start here! Light vehicle bodies are usually made of pressed steel or, in a few cases,
fibreglass. Body styles include two door, four door, hatchback, convertible
and car derived vans. Designers try to produce models that are appealing to
the eye, are similar to other products from the same manufacturer and are
KEY WORDS aerodynamic. Low wind resistance makes for good fuel economy and
reduces turbulence, making it quieter inside for passengers. Ergonomics also
■ All words in the plays a part in the design. This relates to the comfort and ease of operation
table for the driver and passengers.
■ Aerodynamics
As vehicle mechanical technicians we do not need to be expert in body
■ Ergonomics repair. We must, however, be able to remove and refit major components as
well as carry out work on security systems such as the door locks.
Figure 16.1 Modern vehicle body styles are very attractive
Terminology
Chassis The basic frame for a motor vehicle
A post The post on which normal opening front doors hinge
Body mounting Fittings for mounting the body to the chassis for older type cars or heavier vehicles
Composite construction The chassis and body of the vehicle are built as two separate units
Integral construction Most modern light vehicles use this method, also called mono or unity construction. The
body and chassis are combined
Car derived van A van which is based on a similar car, for example the Ford Escort van or Rover Maestro
van
Body panels Wings, bonnet and door for example
BC post The centre post: the ‘B’ has the front door striker plate and the ‘C’ has the hinges for the
rear doors. Only appropriate to four/five door vehicles
D post The rear post on which the rear door striker is fitted. Front door striker if a two/three
door vehicle
Terminology
Off side In the UK – the right hand side when in the driver’s seat
Near side In the UK – the left hand side when in the driver’s seat
Track The width of a vehicle between its wheels (think of railway track)
Wheelbase The distance from the front to the rear axles
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show the wheel base, track, length and height of a
vehicle.
➠ Examine a real system and note the position or construction of the terms in the
table.
2 Body construction
Vehicle types The development of the vehicle since the end of the nineteenth century has
been quite fascinating and is worth further reading if you, too, find it
KEY WORDS interesting.
■ Chassis
■ Active safety
■ Passive safety
■ Security systems
■ VIN Convertible Limousine
Coupé Saloon
Estate Sports
Hatchback Light van
Figure 16.2 Different light vehicle types

Body, chassis and fittings 219
Modern light vehicle types, referred to as light passenger cars and

derivatives, mostly fall into the following categories:
■ saloon
■ hatchback
■ estate
■ coupé
■ convertible
■ sports
■ limousine
■ light van.
Body parts The detailed design and construction of the vehicle body is beyond the scope
of this book. But a basic understanding of at least the name and purpose of
the major parts is important. Figure 16.3 shows the main external
components with the following parts:
1. bonnet panel 8. radiator grill
2. boot lid 9. rear bumper
3. centre pillar 10. rear door
4. front bumper 11. rear quarter panel
5. front door 12. roof panel
6. front wing 13. sidelights
7. headlights 14. sill panel.
12
2
5
9
6
3
11
4
10
14 13 7
Figure 16.3 External body components

Figure 16.4 shows some of the main body shell components. The complete
list is as follows:
1. back window upper rail
2. body side frame
3. bulkhead
4. centre pillar (BC post)
5. dash panel
6. D post
7. floor assembly
8. front body hinge pillar (A post)
9. front side member
10. front valance
11. radiator panel
12. rear quarter
13. rear wheel arch
14. roof bow
15. roof panel
16. sill panel
17. underbody
18. windscreen upper rail.
18 1
6
3
12
13
10
16
7
11
8
Figure 16.4 Body shell components

Chassis Earlier cars had full, ladder type frames on which the body was mounted in
separate pieces. Modern cars are made from a steel body that combines the
function of the frame with the central cabin of the body. The subframe, front
or rear, is a small steel brace that supports the engine or suspension and is
welded to the car’s body structure. The body forms the centre and
connecting supports. A vehicle chassis includes and supports the car’s frame,
power train, suspension, wheels, steering and brake systems. Figure 16.5
shows an early type chassis. Some vehicles have a bolt on subframe which is
used to support the front and/or rear running gear. In some cases this also
supports the engine. It is in effect a small chassis.
Support for body Box section
Ladder
Front frame
Engine support
Figure 16.5 Early vehicle chassis
Safety features Safety features on a vehicle can be thought of as active or passive. ‘Active’
means they are acting all the time, ‘passive’ that they wait until an accident
occurs! The following two tables list some of the features incorporated into
modern vehicles.
Passive systems Notes
Air bags In the event of an accident these bags ‘explode’ into position to
cushion the driver and passenger
Antiburst door locks It is better to be inside a car in the event of an accident than to
be thrown out. These door locks prevent the doors from flying
open
Collapsible steering To try and prevent chest injuries to the driver, the steering
column column collapses and is pulled down away from the driver in
the event of a front end collision
Crumple zones When an impact occurs, the movement energy has to be
dispersed. If this is through the passengers, then serious injury
will result. Crumple zones absorb as much of the impact energy
as possible, reducing the risk to the occupants
Head restraints These help to prevent whiplash injuries to the neck
Padded steering Helps to prevent injury to the driver’s chest
wheels
Rollover cage In the event of the vehicle rolling over, a cage prevents the
cabin from collapsing
Seat belt tensioners At the instant of impact the seat belts are pulled tighter to hold
the passengers more securely
Side impact bars Bars in the door strengthen the side of the vehicle to protect
the occupants
1 2
3 4
Figure 16.6 Air bag in action
Active systems Notes
Antilock brakes Electronically controlled system to prevent the wheels from

locking and skidding when the brakes are applied. This helps the
driver maintain control when braking
Aerodynamic stability A stable car is less likely to go out of control
Dual circuit brakes Standard on all modern cars; even if one brake pipe bursts, the
brakes will still work on at least two wheels
Comfortable driving The driver is more likely to be able to react to potential
position trouble and therefore stay out of it!
Good ventilation Helps to keep the driver awake and alert
Efficient bad weather Good lights and good windscreen wipers, to name just two
equipment parts, ensure the driver can see and be seen
Paintwork The subject of vehicle painting is beyond the scope of this book. But you
need to know how to protect the paintwork. Follow the guidelines listed
below and use your common sense.
■ Always use covers when working on a vehicle. Wing covers are the most
important.
■ Do not allow any fluids, particularly solvents or brake fluid, to come into
contact with the paintwork.
■ Protect body panels when removing and storing; cloth and masking tape
are often all that is required.
■ Tools and parts should not be placed on the vehicle body.
Figure 16.7 The high quality finish of a modern vehicle
Security – door Two main types of job are likely on a vehicle’s door locks. The first of these is
locks and alarms adjustments of the striker and/or the hinges to make the door close properly.
The second will involve replacing parts or all of the door lock components.
Figure 16.8 shows the components of a boot lock.
Key lock
Remote operating
cable
Latch
Figure 16.8 Boot lock components
3
1
6
7
Figure 16.9 Front door lock components
Figure 16.9 shows an example of front door lock components from an earlier
type of vehicle, but many of the methods are still current. The main parts
shown are:
1. key locking assembly
2. exterior release lever
3. locking button
4. lock assembly
5. interior release lever
6. striker pin
7. latch.
Here is an example of how door lock adjustment is carried out:
■ Ensure that the latch is in the open position.
■ Slacken the striker pin or plate and adjust it until the door can be closed
easily without rattling, lifting or dropping.
■ Tighten the plate or pin, close the door and check by pressing on the
door. You should feel slight movement as the door seals compress.
The following levels of vehicle security may be fitted to modern vehicles:
■ central locking only
■ central locking with double locking
■ central locking with perimeter alarm
■ central locking with double locking and perimeter alarm.
The following description, based on a Ford system, is typical of many
modern security systems.
Some models have the option of an infrared remote control in conjunction
with central locking, double locking and perimeter alarm. The central
locking system enables the driver to lock or unlock all the doors
simultaneously. The doors are automatically locked or unlocked when one of
the front doors is locked or unlocked using the key or the interior door
handle.
When double locking is fitted, a crash sensor in the control module unlocks
central locking in case of an accident. On vehicles without double locking or
Tail gate Remote Warning

key switch sensor LED
Tail gate
lock motor
Alarm horn
or siren
Bonnet
switch
Door lock Electronic

motor control unit
Figure 16.10 Location of components in a security system
an alarm, a separate control module causes the lock control motors to operate
a mechanical overload clutch. This makes it possible to unlock the doors
mechanically in the event of a defect or accident. The tailgate/luggage
compartment can be operated by a lock control motor with a separate button
on the central console or externally, using the key.
When the double locking theft protection feature is fitted, the doors cannot
be opened by use of the interior or exterior door handles, nor can the luggage
compartment be opened with the remote electrical push button release. The
feature is activated by turning the key in the driver’s or front passenger’s
door to the unlock position and then to the lock position within three
seconds. It is deactivated when one of the front doors is opened with the key.
It can also be activated and deactivated using the remote control, when
fitted.
A fuel shutoff crash sensor is utilised to deactivate the double and central
locking in the event of an accident if the vehicle is being driven with the
doors locked at the time. When the alarm system is fitted in conjunction with
central and double locking, it will be automatically activated as the vehicle is
central or double locked.
The alarm system is triggered when someone breaks into the vehicle via the
doors, bonnet or luggage compartment door. This anti-theft alarm system
can be activated only by locking the driver’s or front passenger’s door with
the key, or with the remote control. It cannot be activated from the interior
door handles or luggage compartment lock.
The alarm system is activated after a 20 second delay time, which is
indicated by an LED flashing at a high frequency. The delay time starts when
all doors, including the bonnet and luggage compartment door, are fully
closed and the set switches are activated. The 20 second delay time is
interrupted if a door is opened; it starts from the beginning when the door is
closed again. After the 20 second delay, the system is armed.
Once the activation time delay has elapsed, the alarm is triggered if any of
the doors, the bonnet or the luggage compartment are opened. The alarm is
also activated if the ignition is turned on or the radio is disconnected. The
alarm can be switched off only by unlocking the driver’s or front passenger’s
door with the key or the remote control.
When the alarm is triggered (operating), its horn emits a intermittent signal
for a maximum of 30 seconds (in order to comply with certain legislation).
The hazard flashers may also operate for 5 minutes. The ignition circuit is
also immobilised to prevent the car being driven when the alarm is
operating.
Vehicle The VIN number contains detailed information about the vehicle. You
Identification should always use it when ordering parts or making enquiries. On older
Number (VIN) vehicles the number was referred to as the chassis number. The VIN number
should usually be recorded on the job card. It is normally located under the
bonnet, in easy view. As an example, the VIN number
S A X XE Y L U 7 B M 531290 contains the following information:
S geographic area
A country
X manufacturer
XE model
Y class
L body
U engine
7 transmission and steering
B model change
M assembly plant
531290 serial number.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch of a car and label the main body parts.
➠ Examine a real system and make notes about all its safety and security features.
➠ Write a short explanation of precautions you must take when working on the
vehicle body.
3 Diagnostics
Systematic testing For example, if the reported fault is the driver’s door not closing correctly,
you could proceed as follows:
FAULT FINDING 1. Try it and see what happens!
2. Does the lock work? Does the door close if pushed harder or lifted?
1. Verify the fault
3. Is the problem the striker plate position or internal to the door?
2. Collect further
4. Check to see if the door is hitting the striker correctly.
information
5. Adjust the striker position or repair/renew lock components.
3. Evaluate the
evidence 6. Check operation again, check other doors for correct operation.
tests in a logical
sequence
5. Rectify the
problem
Door will not close Striker adjustment Adjust

Worn lock components Renew
Door hinge worn Adjust or replace as
required
Lock will not operate Key worn Try the spare!
Lock components need lubrication A spray lubricant is good
for locks
Lock components worn to excess Renew
Central locking does Electrical fault Trace fault with voltmeter
not work IR transmitter battery flat Replace
LEARNING TASKS

17 Preparing vehicles
1 Introduction
Start here! Much of the required underpinning knowledge about the subject of vehicle
preparation is covered in other sections about specific vehicle systems. For
KEY WORDS this reason I have not covered too much technology in this chapter. Also note
that a large part of this chapter is related to servicing vehicles. More details
■ All words in the about the service tasks are given in the next chapter.
table So what does ‘Prepare new, used or repaired vehicles for customer use’
■ Vehicle systems really mean? When a car is handed over to a customer, it must be safe, clean
and in good working order. In some cases you will make recommendations
about work required to bring the car up to standard. This means you must
understand and be able to carry out two main tasks:
■ Operate the full range of vehicle systems to make sure they work
correctly.
■ Examine the vehicle and make a report containing your findings and
recommendations.
Inspecting a vehicle is a very practical task. It is also a very responsible task.
If you say the brakes work, then they should work! In this chapter you will
learn important background information about inspecting and testing
vehicles.
Figure 17.1 A vehicle undergoing inspection

Preparing vehicles 229
Terminology
Pre-delivery inspection This normally relates to a new vehicle which must be checked and prepared before
or PDI handing over to the customer. The inspection is to ensure the vehicle is fully operational
Used vehicle inspection Similar to a PDI but relating to second hand (pre-owned!) vehicles. The inspection is as
or UVI above but also will include checks for wear and tear as well as damage
Road test After checking over a vehicle in the workshop, a road test helps to identify further
problems, for example steering wobble. If you have not passed your driving test, you can
still road test, a vehicle by telling a qualified driver what to do
Roller test Some garages have rollers set into the workshop floor on which the wheels of the car can
be run. A particular type of rollers is used to test brakes as part of an MOT test. Note
the problems of four wheel drive vehicles if only one pair of rollers is available!
Recording system Records must always be kept for both the customer and for use by the garage. When
carrying out an inspection, you must record faults as they are found to ensure none are
forgotten
Inspection procedure A logical sequence in which to carry out an inspection to ensure all areas are covered
Vehicle specifications Information from the vehicle manufacturers setting out the exact way in which a vehicle
should operate. Also contain all the data such as tyre pressures, filling capacities and
adjustment information
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Write a short explanation about why recording systems are important.
2 Inspections
Operation of When a vehicle is presented to you for inspection, you must be able to
vehicle systems operate all of its systems. So you need a working knowledge about the layout
and operation of the following.
KEY WORDS
Controls or driver What you need to know
■ Records information
displays
■ Job card
■ Road test Steering wheel The wheel should be secure and in good condition. It operates
the steered wheels with little or no free play. Check workshop
manuals; often 2 to 3 cm is the maximum free movement
Pedals The security and ‘feel’ of the pedals. This means the accelerator
pedal should move against a constant spring tension; the clutch
pedal (if fitted) should fully disengage the clutch; the brake
pedal must be firm after a small travel – it should not creep,
feel spongy or ‘pump up’
Hand brake lever It must pull the brakes tight and still have reserve movement.
The number of ratchet clicks can be used as a guide but will not
be the same on all vehicles. The warning light must work
Gear lever All gears must engage easily. You should feel for the ‘gate’
which prevents accidental movement into reverse gear
Lighting switches All light switches should work in a positive manner. Include, in
particular, dipping of the main headlights. Switches should be
secure

information
displays
Washers and wipers These must clean the screen to allow the driver a clear view.
Both or all washer jets must be clear and the wiper blades in
good condition. Remember that wipers often operate at slow
speed, fast speed, intermittent and when the washers are
operated. The blades should also park at the bottom of the
screen when switched off
Bonnet and boot Simple pull levers: one should open the bonnet to its first
release position; the other, if fitted, should allow the boot to be
opened
Heating, ventilation The engine will need to be warm to test all options. Check all
and air conditioning possible modes of operation, such as: hot/cold, up/down/vent,
controls fresh/recirculate and various speeds of booster fan. To check
the air conditioning, the engine needs to be running. All the
previous tests are the same, but to a better level of control.
Many cars have automatic temperature control (ATC)
Speedometer and These instruments should be smooth in operation; on road
tachometer test the speedo mileage indicator should work correctly.
Fuel and Readings on these gauges should be as you would expect
temperature gauges depending on the current vehicle condition. For example, the
temperature gauge should go up as the engine temperature
increases; the fuel gauge should show a stable reading of fuel
quantity
Warning lights Almost too many to mention! The most common are oil
pressure, indicators, main beam and the charge warning light.
You should refer to manufacturers’ data if necessary. Figure 17.2
shows some of the common symbols you should know. Note
that a warning light tells of a problem by working in a different
way to normal, not just by lighting up to warn of a fault. For
example, the charge warning light comes on with ignition and
goes out when the engine starts and the alternator is charging
the battery. A fault in the alternator can stop the light working,
but you would not know that when the engine is running
ABS
– +
! P
Figure 17.2 Warning light symbols


information
displays
Interior lights Most interior lights have their own switches but should also
work when doors are opened. Check for delay operation – this
means they can stay lit for a few seconds after the door is
closed
Electric seats, Operation should be smooth and quiet. Many electric windows
windows and have ‘one shot’ operation: they open or close fully at one press
sunroof of the switch. If appropriate, a switch near the driver should
stop rear electric windows from being operated from the rear
switches. This is for child safety
Alarm system Too many different types are used to be specific. So the alarm
system should operate as stated in the handbook. Check
remote operation if appropriate
Vehicle Vehicle specifications give us the information we need to carry out all types
specifications of work. The specifications or information can be given in a number of ways:
■ workshop manuals
■ data books or sheets
■ charts and tables
Figure 17.3 Vehicle specification

■ drawings
■ wiring diagrams
■ computers
■ microfiche.
Once you have found the correct information, you need to compare it to the
vehicle. Tyre pressure is one example. The learning tasks at the end of this
section will give you some practice in finding information.
Test and inspection A logical routine is very important when carrying out inspections. This is for
procedures two reasons:
■ to ensure nothing is missed
■ to keep time to a minimum.
Manufacturers often recommend a set procedure, which is in line with their
record sheets. The MOT test even has a set routine to be followed. If there is
no recommended routine for the test or inspection you are carrying out,
follow this simplified guide:
1. Set the vehicle in the workshop on a vehicle hoist or ramp.
2. Sit in the driver’s seat and operate all the controls (see above), noting
correct operation. An assistant or a mirror may be needed for some tests,
lights for example. (An assistant must be used for an MOT test.)
3. Check seats and seat belts.
No. Defect corrected Check

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Figure 17.4 Inspection sheet example for just some of the required tests
4. Starting from the driver’s door, work round the outside of the car
checking door security, glass and body condition. Include the boot and
bonnet as well as security of body components such as bumpers, trim
and mirrors. And don’t forget the dampers and spare wheel!
5. Raise the car to about waist height (wheels chocked and bonnet open).
Work round each wheel, checking the tyres in particular.
6. With an assistant inside so you can ask for brakes, steering etc. to be
operated, raise the car to head height.
7. Check all appropriate under car systems, first round under the engine
and then round the rear of the car.
8. Lower the car to the floor and check all the under bonnet systems such as
levels, drive belts and hoses. Run the engine and listen for noises.
9. Road test the vehicle under all normal operating conditions.
10. On return to the workshop, test exhaust gases.
Please remember that this list is a guide to the method of inspection, not a
full check list. Throughout the inspection use the appropriate inspection
sheets to make notes and tick off items as they are completed. This will
ensure you do not forget anything. As well as helping you to cover all
aspects of the vehicle, the sheets form part of the overall recording system.
Recording systems The inspection sheets as used in the previous section form part of a recording
system. This is for a number of reasons:
■ a check that all the required work has been done
■ a standard way of reporting your findings
■ a record of the time spent and materials used, allowing an invoice to be
prepared if necessary
■ a record for the garage or workshop in case further queries arise at a
later time
■ the sales department, for example, may need to know when the vehicle
is ready
■ the customer can be given a copy of the inspection sheet so they know
what has been checked.
Different workshops will use different systems, but all will be based on some
or all of the following types of records:
Record Details
Manufacturers’ Records relating to specific vehicles, provided by the

records manufacturers. Particularly PDI check sheets
Fleet records When operating a large fleet, the fleet manager needs to know
details of all servicing and repairs carried out on the vehicles.
This may be kept on computer and allows common problems
to be identified
Company records The company can have its own system so that when a vehicle
returns to the workshop, details of previous work is available.
Computer systems are being used more and more as they can,
for example, automatically issue a reminder to a customer
when an MOT test is due
Customer records These can be interpreted in two ways: The customer’s record
may be a simple service book which is stamped by the garage. It
provides ‘service history’ and is a good selling point for a used
vehicle. The customer records held by the company are the
personal and vehicle details: name, address, type of vehicle etc
Record Details
Job cards The job card is very important in a workshop. It allows a
record to be kept of all work done and, in particular, the time
spent and parts used. An invoice can then be generated, which
in the end pays your wages!
Road safety Road safety is covered by the highway code and therefore the driving test,
but some further precautions are necessary when road testing vehicles. For
example, when testing brakes you may have to stop very quickly; extra care
should be taken to ensure it is safe. It may be necessary to drive at a set
speed to check for vibration or wheel wobble. You must ensure a suitable
road is used. In many cases it is better and safer for two people to carry out
the road test. One can then sit in the back to listen for a rattle or noise, for
example.
Many workshops have a specified road tester who is also an experienced
technician. In this case you must explain clearly the work you have done, or
what in particular you would like him or her to test. The key points follow:
■ Under no circumstances must the highway code be broken when road
testing.
■ Consideration should be give to other road users at all times.
■ Respect the customer’s vehicle – no wheel spins out of the workshop, for
example!
Figure 17.5 Vehicle on road test
Final notes The best source of information about preparing a particular vehicle is the
vehicle manufacturer. The MOT testers’ manual provides useful information,
and motoring organisations provide test sheets. Testing and preparing
vehicles is a very responsible job, so:
‘If you have any doubts or do not understand anything, you must ask your
supervisor for help.’
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Choose five different cars and find the correct data for ignition timing, CO
content, oil quantity and type of spark plug.
➠ Write a short explanation about why regular inspections are important.
18 Servicing
1 Introduction
Start here! This chapter has many things in common with the previous chapter about
preparing vehicles. This is because a major part of servicing is to inspect the
vehicle.
So, why is it important to carry out regular servicing and inspections of
vehicles? I suggest there are several answers, most of which are quite
obvious when you think about it:
■ Ensure the vehicle stays in a safe condition.
■ Keep the vehicle operating within tolerances specified by the
manufacturer and by regulations.
■ Ensure the vehicle is reliable and reduce down time.
■ Maintain efficiency.
■ Extend the life of individual components and the vehicle as a whole.
■ Reduce running costs.
■ Keep the vehicle looking good and limit damage from corrosion.
In order to carry out servicing and inspections, you need to understand how
KEY WORDS the vehicle systems operate. These are covered in other chapters in this book,
and you can always refer back if you need to refresh your memory.
It is also important to keep suitable records, often known as the vehicle’s
tables
service history. Vehicle service and inspection procedures vary a little from
■ Road Vehicle one manufacturer to another. As well as the original manufacturer’s
Construction and information, servicing data and servicing requirement books are also
Use Regulations available. Always refer to whatever documentation is available to ensure that
all the required tasks are completed.
Figure 18.1 When a vehicle is being serviced it may be necessary to use dedicated
test equipment
Terminology
First service This service is becoming less common, but some manufacturers like new vehicles to be
returned to the dealers after about a thousand miles or so. Certain parts are checked for
safe operation, and in some cases oil is changed
Distance based services Six thousand mile intervals are common, but manufacturers’ recommendations vary.
Most have different requirements at set distances. This is covered further later in this
chapter
Time based services For most light vehicles, distance based services are best. But some vehicles run for long
periods of time and do not cover great distances. In this case the servicing is carried out
at set time intervals. This could be every six months, six weeks or after a set number of
hours run
Inspection The MOT test, which must be carried out each year after a light vehicle is older than
three years, is a good example of an inspection. However, an inspection can be carried
out at any time and should form part of most services
Records A vital part of a service. To ensure all aspects are covered and to keep information
available for future use
Customer contracts When you make an offer to do a service and the customer accepts the terms and agrees
to pay, you have made a contract. This contract is legally enforceable by both parties
Rules and The Road Vehicle Construction and Use Regulations 1986 specify acceptable
regulations conditions for a vehicle. They are in effect summarised by the MOT test. This
is the standard to which you should work at all times. Some of the main
vehicle systems relating to safety are listed in the following table, together
with examples of the requirements. Note that these are just examples; always
refer to specific data relating to specific vehicles. The MOT testers’ manual,
for example, gives many more details.
Figure 18.2 MOT test station symbol
System Requirements
Brakes The foot brake must produce 50% of the vehicle weight braking
force and the parking brake 16% (this assumes a modern dual
line braking system). The brakes must work evenly and show
no signs of leaks
Exhaust Should not leak, which could allow fumes into the vehicle, and
it should not be noisy!
Horn It should be noisy!
Lights All lights should work, and the headlights must be correctly
adjusted
Number plates Only the correct style and size must be fitted. The numbers
and letters should also be correctly spaced and not altered
(DAN 15H is right, DANISH is wrong)!
Servicing 237
System Requirements
Seat belts All belts must be in good condition and work correctly
Speedometer Should be accurate and illuminate when dark
Steering All components must be secure and serviceable
Tyres Correct tread depth is just one example
Windscreens and You should be able to see right through this one! No cracks
other glass allowed in the screen within the driver’s vision
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Without just looking back and copying, see if you can list why regular servicing is
important.
➠ Look at a copy of the MOT testers’ manual and make notes about some of the
important areas for inspection.
2 Servicing requirements
Service sheets and Service sheets are used and records must be kept because they:
service records
■ define the work to be carried out
KEY WORDS ■ record the work carried out
■ record the time spent
■ All words in the ■ record materials consumed
table
■ allow invoices to be prepared
■ Road test
■ record stock which may need replacing
■ Service sheets
■ form evidence in the event of accident or customer complaint.
The following table is an example of a service sheet showing tasks carried out
and at what service intervals (mileage). Please note once again that, whilst
quite comprehensive, this list is not appropriate for all vehicles, and that
manufacturers’ recommendations must be followed. Some of the tasks are
only appropriate to certain types of vehicle. The table here also lists the work
in a recommended order, including the use of a lift.
Operation 1 000 6 000 12 000 24 000 48 000
Fit car protection kit ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Check condition and security of seats and
seat belts ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Drive on lift: stop engine ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check operation of all lamps ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check operation of horns ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check operation of warning indicators ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/adjust operation of screen/headlamp
washers ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Operation 1 000 6 000 12 000 24 000 48 000

Check operation of screen wipers and
condition of blades ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check security/operation of foot and hand
brake; release fully after checking ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Open bonnet: fit wing covers ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Raise lift to convenient working height with
wheels free to rotate ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Remove hub/wheel nut caps ✓ ✓ ✓
Remove road wheels and inspect for damage ✓ ✓ ✓
Check tread on all tyres ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check tyres for uneven wear ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check tyres for cuts, exposure of ply or
cord structure, lumps or bulges ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/adjust tyre pressures ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check brake pads for wear. Renew if
necessary ✓ ✓ ✓
Check discs for condition if pads are
renewed ✓ ✓ ✓
Inspect rear brake linings for wear ✓ ✓ ✓
Remove brake drums, wash out dust,
inspect shoes and drums for condition ✓ ✓ ✓
Renew shoes if necessary ✓ ✓ ✓
Adjust hand brake cable ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Grease road wheel mounting spigots if
wheels have been removed ✓ ✓ ✓
Refit road wheels ✓ ✓ ✓
Check tightness of road wheel fastenings ✓ ✓ ✓
Refit hub/wheel nut caps ✓ ✓ ✓
Raise lift to convenient working height ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Drain engine oil ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Drain automatic transmission oil and
remove sump ✓
Check brake hoses, pipes and unions for
chafing, cracks, leaks or corrosion ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check visually fuel pipes and unions for
chafing, cracks, leaks or corrosion ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check pipes are correctly clipped ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check security and condition of
suspension joints and fixings ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check condition of drive shaft gaiters ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check security and condition of steering
joints and gaiters ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Visually check underbody sealer for
damage ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check for fluid leaks from dampers ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Servicing 239
Operation 1 000 6 000 12 000 24 000 48 000

Renew oil filter element ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check alternator drive belt and adjust or
renew ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Clean and refit engine drain plug ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Clean automatic transmission filter and
refit sump ✓
Lower lift ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Fit exhaust extractor pipe ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/adjust torque of cylinder head nuts ✓
Check/adjust valve clearances ✓ ✓ ✓
Fill engine with oil ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/fill automatic transmission with fluid ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/top up oil/fluid level in transmission ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Top up carburettor piston damper ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/top up power steering reservoir ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Renew camshaft driving belt ✓
Check all drive belts, adjust or renew ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Renew spark plugs ✓ ✓ ✓
Check battery condition ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/top up cooling system ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Drain/refill antifreeze ✓ ✓
Renew air cleaner element ✓ ✓ ✓
Replace in-line fuel filter ✓ ✓
Renew engine oil filler cap ✓ ✓ ✓
Clean distributor cap and coil tower ✓ ✓ ✓
Lubricate distributor advance mechanism ✓ ✓ ✓
Check operation of throttle ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Start engine and leave running ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check sealing of oil filter ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check function of brake pad wear warning
indicator ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check function of brake fluid level warning
indicator ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/top up brake fluid level reservoir ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check brake servo hose for security and
condition ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/top up washer reservoir ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Inspect exterior paintwork for damage,
body panels for corrosion ✓ ✓ ✓
Remove spare wheel ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Inspect wheel for damage ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check tyre tread depth ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Operation 1 000 6 000 12 000 24 000 48 000

Check tyre for cuts in fabric, exposure of
ply or cord structure lumps or bulges ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check tyre for uneven wear ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check/adjust tyre pressure ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Refit spare wheel ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check ignition system, using electronic
equipment ✓ ✓ ✓
Check and adjust fuel system – idle, fast
idle speed and mixture ✓ ✓ ✓
Check automatic transmission oil level
and top up ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Stop engine: disconnect instruments ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Remove wing covers ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Fill in details and affix appropriate stickers ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Close bonnet ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Remove exhaust extractor pipe ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Drive off lift ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Check front wheel alignment ✓ ✓ ✓
Report additional work required ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Carry out road/roller test ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Assuming you are a qualified driver or you are able to tell a driver what you
want, then a road test is an excellent way of checking the operation of a
vehicle. A check list is again a useful reminder of what should be done.
A typical road test following a service or inspection would be much as
follows:
■ Fit trade plates to vehicle if necessary.
■ Check operation of starter and inhibitor switch (automatic).
■ Check operation of lights, horn(s), indicators, wipers and washers.
■ Check indicators self cancel.
■ Check operation of all warning indicators.
■ Check foot and hand brakes.
■ Check engine noise levels, performance and throttle operation.
■ Check clutch for free play, slipping and judder.
■ Check gear selection and noise levels in all gears.
■ Check steering for noise, effort required, free play, wander and self
centring.
■ Check suspension for noise, irregularity in ride and wheel imbalance.
■ Check foot brake pedal effort, travel, braking efficiency, pulling and
binding.
■ Check speedometer for steady operation, noise and operation of mileage
recorder.
■ Check operation of all instruments.
■ Check for abnormal body noises.
■ Check operation of seat belts, including operation of inertia reels.
Servicing 241
■ Check hand brake ratchet and hold.

■ Position car on lift.
■ Re-check tension if drive belts have been renewed.
■ Raise lift.
■ Inspect engine and transmission for oil leaks.
■ Check exhaust system for condition, leakage, and security.
■ Lower lift: drive vehicle off lift.
■ Report on road test findings.
■ Remove car protection kit.
■ Ensure cleanliness of controls, door handles, etc.
■ Remove trade plates if fitted.
Effects of incorrect As a professional you are expected to make the correct adjustments for the
adjustments vehicle to operate as smoothly as possible. Anyone can mess with a vehicle
and get it wrong, but you’ll get it right – keeping the customer and your
company happy.
The following table lists a selection of possible incorrect adjustments,
together with their effects on the operation of the vehicle. This is intended to
be an exercise to help you see why correct adjustments are so important, not
so you know how to do it wrong! If you are unable to make the correct
adjustments, perhaps due to some parts being worn, you must also be able to
tell a customer what effects this could have on vehicle operation.
Incorrect Possible
adjustment effects
Brake Excessive Reduced Unbalanced Over

pedal and braking braking heating
lever travel efficiency
Drive belts Over- Battery Power

heating recharging steering
rate slow problems
Fuel system Poor Lack of Uneven Popping Running Heavy fuel Fuel leaks
starting or power or running and back or on or usage and smells
non-start hesitation stalling backfire detonation
Ignition Poor Lack of Hesitation Exhaust Running

starting or power emission on
non-start
Plug gaps Poor Lack of Hesitation Uneven Misfire Exhaust

starting or power running emissions
non-start
Steering Abnormal Heavy Pulling to Poor self Wandering Steering Excessive

system or uneven steering one side centring wheel free play
tyre wear alignment
Tyre Abnormal Heavy Uneven Heavy fuel Tyre life

pressure tyre wear steering braking usage time is
reduced
Valve Lack of Uneven Misfire Excessive Exhaust Noise from

clearance power running fuel usage emissions valves or
camshaft
Do a good service Sometimes customers expect certain tasks to be carried out during servicing
which are not actually due to be done. For example, on the 6 000 or interim
service, no work is carried out on the ignition system. This will not therefore
rectify a misfire. It is important that the customer is aware of what will be
done, as well as what was done to their vehicle. This is one good service.
Figure 18.3 A happy customer in reception!
The other good service is simply to do the job well, keep the customer
satisfied.
Type of service
Due distance
Actual distance
Company stamp
and signature
as proof
of service
Next service
due at 18000
miles – not
yet caried out
Figure 18.4 Example of a service record
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real vehicle and see if you can add or take away tasks from the service
list in this chapter.
➠ Check service requirements for a number of vehicles in other books or
manufacturers’ data sheets.
19 The business
1 Introduction
Start here! Why should you worry about ‘the business’? Isn’t it somebody else’s
problem to make sure ‘the business’ is running all right?
KEY WORDS We all need to take an interest in the whole business in which we are
working. This does not mean interfering in areas we do not understand. It
■ All words in the means we should understand that all parts of the business are important. For
table example, even if you are a really top class technician and your work is
always first class, you will soon be without work if you are rude to the
■ Company
customers! When you complete a job and you do not enter all the parts used,
■ Team or time spent on a job card, how will the person who writes the invoice know
what to charge?
‘The business does matter.’
Terminology
Customers The individuals or companies that spend their money at your place of work. Ultimately,
your wages come from the customer
Job card A printed document for recording (amongst other things) work required, work done,
parts used and the time taken
Invoice A description of the parts and services supplied with a demand for payment from the
customer
Company system A set way in which things work in one particular company. Most motor vehicle company
systems follow similar rules, but will all be a little different
Contract An offer which is accepted; payment is agreed. For example, I offer to change your engine
oil for £15. You decide this is a good offer and accept the deal. We have made a contract
Image This is the impression given by the company to existing and potential customers. Not all
companies will want to project the same image
Warranty If within an agreed time a problem occurs with the supplied goods or service, it will be
rectified free of charge by the supplier
Recording system An agreed system within a company so that all details of what is requested and/or carried
out are recorded. The job card is one of the main parts of this system
Why ‘the business’ ‘The business’ is a shorthand way of describing everything that happens at
is important your place of work. Team work is the key issue. We must all play a part in
the team. The team is like a chain, each person being an important link. If one
link breaks, the chain is no good. For example, let’s assume your company
has an excellent system for attracting new customers and booking them in to
the workshop. If you do not do the work properly, or someone else ordered
the wrong parts, the customer will not be happy. More than likely he or she
will go elsewhere next time.
Figure 19.1 Two different images projected by a motor vehicle company
The key is that, while you must work to become an expert at your particular
job, you must also have some understanding of what others in the team are
doing. Besides which, as time goes by you may wish to move into a different
type of job in a motor vehicle company. So you will need to know how the
team works and what is involved in other areas.
Sky hook
Each link is
important
DON'T let this

be your contribution
s
ge
wa
Satisfied customers
do
Go
Security
Figure 19.2 Every person in the team makes an important contribution

The business 245
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Write a short explanation about what your company system seems like to you.
2 The company
Introduction This section is about different types of motor vehicle companies and the
systems they use to keep the business going. You may be interested in
KEY WORDS
studying some of the issues in more detail as your career in the motor trade
progresses. There are lots of opportunities for those who are willing to work
■ Standard times
hard and move forwards. There are many different types of job, and with a
■ Warranty little patience and study you will find one to suit you.
■ Invoice
■ Reception
■ Job card
Types of companies Motor vehicle companies can range from very small one person businesses to
very large main dealers. The systems used by each will be different, but the
requirements are the same. A system should be in place to ensure the level of
service meets the needs of the customer. The following list shows how
diverse our trade is, ranging from the ‘smallest’ to the ‘largest’ type of
business.
Business Activity
Mobile mechanics Servicing and repairs at the owner’s home or business

Recovery Some companies just concentrate on recovering vehicles after
breakdowns or accidents
Bodywork repairers Specialists in body repair and paintwork
Petrol stations These may be owned by an oil company or be independent.
Some also do vehicle repair work
Specialised repairers Business which works only on specific vehicle systems, for
example auto-electrical, air conditioning, automatic
transmission and ICE
General repair Servicing and repairs of most types of vehicles
workshop
Parts supply Many companies now supply a wide range of parts. Many will
deliver to your workshop.
Fast fit Supplying and fitting of exhausts, tyres, radiators, batteries,
clutches, brakes and windscreens
Non-franchised Main activity is the servicing and repair of a wide range of
dealer vehicles, with some sales
Franchised dealers Similar to main dealers (as below) but sales, stock and facilities
are smaller
Main dealers Usually franchised to one manufacturer and hold a stock of
vehicles and parts. The main dealer will be able to carry out all
repairs to their own type of vehicle as they hold all of the parts
and special tools. They also have access to the latest
information specific to their marque
Company structure A larger motor vehicle company will probably be made up of at least the
following departments:
■ reception
■ workshop
■ parts department
■ new and second user car sales
■ office support
■ management
■ cleaning and general duties.
Each area will employ one or a number of people. If you work in a very small
garage, you may have to be all of these people at once! Figure 19.3 shows a
typical way in which a company could be structured.
General manager
or
dealer principal
Service Sales Parts

manager manager manager
Admin Admin Admin

staff staff staff
Service Workshop Sales Sales Parts Parts

receptionist foreman staff staff staff staff
Workshop Workshop Workshop Workshop Workshop

staff staff staff staff staff
Figure 19.3 Typical structure of a large company
Reception and The reception, whether in a large or small company, is often the point of first
booking systems contact with new customers. Therefore it is very important to get this bit
right. The reception should be staffed by pleasant and qualified persons. The
purpose of a reception and booking system within a company can be best
explained by following through a typical enquiry:
■ The customer enters reception area and is greeted in an appropriate way.
■ Attention is given to the customer to find out what is required. (Let’s
assume the car is difficult to start, in this case.)
■ Further questions can be used to determine the particular problem,
depending on the customer’s knowledge of vehicles. (For example, is the
problem worse when the weather is cold?)
■ Details about the customer, the vehicle and the nature of the problem are
recorded on a job card. If the customer is new, a record card can be
started; continue an existing card for an existing customer.
The business 247
Figure 19.4 Customer in reception
Customer arrives A contract is

and his or her started – so
requirements both parties
discussed must be agreed
Job card is
Parts department
started and/or
may need
a booking is
details
agreed
Job card is Information

passed to the may be
workshop required
Work is
Work should
allocated to a
be to a
technician and
high standard
completed
A happy customer We should all sell a

who will service of jobs that
return don't come back to
customers who do
Figure 19.5 A typical reception and booking system
■ Explanation of expected costs is given as appropriate. A common and

sensible approach is to agree to work up to a set amount, after which the
customer will be contacted.
■ Date and time when the work will be carried out can now be agreed.
This depends on workshop time availability and when is convenient for
the customer. It is often better to say you cannot do the job until a certain
time, rather than make a promise you can’t keep.
■ The customer is thanked for visiting.

■ Details are now entered in the workshop diary or loading chart, the job
card passed to the workshop controller.
■ If the vehicle is to be left at that time, the keys should be labelled and
stored securely.
Your company may have a slightly different system, but this example will
give you an idea of a typical approach.
Parts department Parts are kept and/or ordered in the parts department! This varies quite a lot
between different companies. Large main dealers will have a very large stock
of parts for their range of vehicles. They will have a parts manager and in
some cases several other staff. In some very small garages the ‘parts
department’ may be a few shelves, where popular items such as filters and
brake pads are kept.
Whatever the scale of the department, the basic principles are the same:
■ A set level of parts or stock is decided upon.
■ Parts are stored so they can be easily found.
■ A reordering system is used to maintain the stock.
Figure 19.6 Parts department in a very small garage

The business 249
Security is important, as most parts cost a lot of money. Parts from the parts
department or area are
■ for direct sale to a customer
■ to be used as part of a job
■ for use on company vehicles.
In the first case an invoice or a bill will be produced. In the second case the
parts will be entered on the customer’s job card. In the third case there may
also be a job card, if not, some other record must be kept. In all three cases,
keeping a record of parts used allows them to be reordered when necessary.
If parts are ordered from and delivered by an external supplier, they must
again be recorded on the customer’s job card.
If you forget to record parts used, who will pay for them? Be warned – it
might be you!
Estimating costs When a customer brings his or her car to a garage for work to be carried out,
and times he or she will want to know two things: how much it will cost and when it
will be ready. In some cases, such as for a full service, the company will have
a set charge and by experience will know it takes a set time. For other types
of job this is more difficult.
Most major manufacturers supply information to their dealers about
standard times for jobs. These assume a skilled technician with all the
necessary tools. For independent garages a publication known as the ICME
manual is available. This gives agreed standard times for all the most
common tasks on all popular makes of vehicle.
To work out the cost of a job, you look up the required time and multiply it
by the company’s hourly rate. Don’t forget: the cost of parts will also need to
be included.
Job cards and The job card is a vital part of the workshop system in a motor vehicle
systems company. Notice the information which is recorded. This is all part of
ensuring good communication within the company. Some larger companies
now dispense with the ‘paper’ altogether and use computer systems. These
are more expensive to install but allow very fast, easy and accurate
communication. Whether job cards or IT systems are used, the principle is
the same and consists of a number of important stages.
■ Reception – customer’s details and requirements are entered on the job
card or computer screen.
■ Workshop control – jobs are allocated to the appropriate technician
using a loading sheet or again via the computer.
■ Technician – information is passed directly to the person who will do the
work, on screen or on card.
■ Parts department – parts used are added to the computer or job card.
■ Accounts – invoices are prepared from the information on the job card.
Computerised systems may automatically produce the invoice when the
job is completed.
When a computer system is used, each terminal will pass information to all
the others. With job cards, either the same card must be carried to each stage
or copies are kept in each area. The different copies are collected and
combined to produce the invoice.
Vehicle model
Vehicle type
System
Action
Time
(1 hour
30 minutes)
Figure 19.7 Example page from the ICME manual

The business 251
Figure 19.8 A typical job card
Invoicing As part of the contract made with a customer, an invoice for the work carried
out is issued. The main parts of an invoice are as follows:
■ Labour charges – the cost of doing the work. Usually the time spent
multiplied by the hourly rate.
■ Parts – the retail price of the parts or as agreed.
■ Sundries – some companies add a small sundry charge to cover
consumable items like nuts and bolts or cable ties etc.
■ MOT test – if appropriate. This is separated because VAT is not charged
on MOTs.
■ VAT – Value Added Tax at the current rate, if the company is registered
(all but the very small are).
Hourly rates vary quite a lot between different garages. Perhaps the hourly
rate your company charges seems rather a lot compared to the rate they pay
you. But remember that the hourly rate charged by the company has to pay
for a lot more than your wages. Just take a look round in any good
workshop: some of the equipment can cost tens of thousands of pounds!
Then there are the premises to be paid for, insurance, all your colleagues’
wages etc. The money has to come from somewhere.
Company details
Vehicle details
Customer contact details
List and price of parts used
Description of work done
Further observations or
recommendations
Total of parts and materials

Labour costs
VAT at the current rate

The MOT does not
have VAT added
The total amount to pay
Figure 19.9 Example invoice

The business 253
Warranties When a vehicle is sold, a warranty is given meaning that it is fit for the
purpose for which it was sold. Further to this, the manufacturer will repair
the vehicle at no cost to the customer if a problem develops within a set time.
For most new vehicles this is 12 months, but some are now longer. The term
generally used for this is ‘guarantee’. Quite often manufacturers advertise
their guarantee as a selling point.
It is also possible to have a warranty on a used vehicle, or an extended
warranty on a new vehicle. These often involve a separate payment to an
insurance company. This type of warranty can be quite good, but as with the
manufacturer’s warranty a number of exclusions and requirements apply,
for example:
■ Regular servicing at an approved dealer.
■ Only recommended parts must be used.
■ Wear and tear is not included.
■ Any work done must be authorised.
■ Only recognised repairers may be used in some cases.
The question of authorisation before work is carried out is very important for
the garage to understand. Work carried out without proper authorisation
will not be paid for. If a customer returns a car within the warranty period,
then a set procedure must be followed.
■ Confirm that the work is within the terms of the warranty.
■ Get authorisation if over an agreed limit (main dealers have agreements
with manufacturers).
■ Retain all parts replaced for inspection.
■ Produce an invoice which relates to standard or agreed times.
In larger garages one person is often responsible for making warranty claims.
You as the mechanic or technician can help by ensuring the job card is
correctly completed and that parts removed are returned to the stores for
safe keeping. Often these are returned for inspection, both to agree the claim
and so the manufacturer can make design changes if necessary.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show how each part of your company works together.
➠ Compare your company systems with the systems used at a friend’s company.
Are they different? How? Can you work out why?
3 Personnel relationships!
Introduction Personnel and personal relationships are very important for the smooth
running of any organisation. The motor trade is no exception. But you will
KEY WORDS see in this section that dealing with other people in a working situation is
mostly common sense. Some further information is given in the next section.
■ Limit of authority
■ Responsibility
■ Communication
Communication What is communication all about? Effective communication is

communication that is fully understood by the other person. If you use terms
the other person can’t fully understand, or if you show any kind of
impatience, you are not communicating effectively. Do you like it when
people tell you things you don’t (or can’t) understand? What is it like trying
to communicate with someone who is impatient with you? Remember that
communication is a two way process.
Who do you need to communicate with as part of your normal daily work?
The people you work with

It is vital that you understand what is required of you, and it is also vital that
you can make others understand. Here are two ways of asking for the same
thing in the parts department:
1. ‘Give me the round plastic thing with a spring in it that is at the top of the engine
at the front.’
2. ‘A camshaft front oil seal for the XYZ engine, 1995 model please.’
Need I say more! Practise using the right words and remember: being polite
will get you what you want and leave a good impression.
Figure 19.10 Two technicians discussing a problem
The customers
In most cases the secret is to listen carefully, respect what the person has to
say and ask questions until you do understand what the customer needs. In
other cases you may have to tell the customer about some problem with the
car. When talking to customers, try to use language they understand: don’t
use too many long technical words and try to simplify the subject – but this
does mean you will have to understand it well yourself! At the same time
don’t ‘talk down’ to the customer. They may not know much about cars, but
they won’t want to be patronised either!
Your company is also likely to communicate with the customers by letter. A
personalised letter from the company will create a good impression. For
example, set up a computer to produce a letter, say one month before an
MOT test is due.
Getting on with How do you maintain working relationships with your colleagues (people
people you work with)? Here are some basic recommendations:
The business 255
■ Treat others in a way which you would like to be treated.

■ Respond promptly to requests from others.
■ Offer help to others if required.
■ Help new people settle in by offering assistance when needed.
■ If problems develop, then speak to your supervisor or manager.
In a company all staff depend on each other and all play an important part in
the smooth running of the business. Part of this work will be to present a
good image for the company.
Workshop
foreman
Technical Parts
etc. discussion department
Re part
for
qu s
est
Workshop
technician
req the
Ke your
ed
to
ep ski
uir
rk of
add lls
wo tails
ing
De
College Personnel Reception
or training administration or
centre (pay and conditions!) customer
Service
manager
Figure 19.11 Lines of communication
Who is in charge? Who is in charge? I am in charge! Not me! The boss is! And so it could go on.
The main issue here is in relation to the limits of authority and responsibility.
We are all in charge and responsible for our own area as it has been
delegated to us. The key is to understand the lines of communication and
where the limits are. These are often unwritten, but may be stated in your
work contract. Common sense is the answer.
The table below shows a few situations and who is responsible or has the
authority to deal with them.
Situation Person with authority
Booking in work Reception/service manager

Parts ordering Parts manager
Warranty claims Reception/service manager
Checking safety Safety officer
Job card completion Technician
Authorising FOC work Service manager
Preparing estimates Technician/service manager
As a technician or mechanic working in a garage you may be responsible for:

■ drawing parts from the stores
■ taking care of customers’ property
■ reporting faults to your supervisor
■ safety of equipment
■ quality of work
■ anything delegated to you!
‘If in doubt, ask your supervisor.’
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Write a short explanation about why dealing with other people in the correct
way is so important.
➠ Practise how you would order particular parts from stores.
4 The customer
The customer is The customer is always right. Sometimes rude, sometimes ignorant and
always right sometimes downright awkward, but always right! The key thing to
remember is that we are here to serve the customer, not the other way round.
KEY WORDS
We should also remember that it is the customers who pay our wages.
■ Customer
■ Profile
■ Contract
■ Complaints
■ Vehicle security
Dealing with Each customer is a potential user of our services. In other words, we must
customers make them want to have their car repaired at our workshop rather than
another. Your garage may have advantages, such as being in a convenient
location or holding a franchise, but the customers will not come if they do
not like the service and attitude.
The competition in our market today means that dealing with customers is a
very important part of our work. If we get it wrong, either by poor work or
poor customer contact, we will lose them. Always aim to ‘make a sale’, that
is: secure the job for the company. The process can be divided into four
stages:
■ A potential customer should be attracted to the service you have to offer.
■ Further interest should be encouraged by offering informed assistance.
■ A wish to have the services should be created.
■ A contract is made (more details later).
This sales technique is more often the work of the reception staff, but you
may need to explain some technical issue or answer further questions.
Be polite and know your subject – if you do not know the answer to a
The business 257
customer question, don’t bluff or overstep your authority. Find someone

who does know the answer.
Finding the When dealing with customers, it can sometimes be difficult to find out
problem what’s actually wrong with the vehicle. Misunderstanding can arise because
the customer may not understand technical terms. This is our problem, not
the customer’s.
A customer may simply say ‘My car won’t start’. Your job is to find out in a
little more detail what may be wrong by asking further questions. This will
give you a better idea of what you’re dealing with; in other words, whether
the job will take ten minutes or ten hours. Some questions you could use are
as follows:
■ What is the make and model?
■ When did the problem start?
■ Has it happened before?
■ Does the engine move when you turn the key (they may not understand
the words ‘crank over’)?
■ Have you had any other work done on the car?
■ Has it got an alarm fitted?
Ask whatever questions you feel are appropriate to the situation. Remember,
it is not an inquisition, just a way of politely finding out the problem.
Making a contract Making a contract to do something or supply a service is an area you must be
aware of. In simple terms a contract means you have reached agreement with
another party that something will happen. You agree to change the oil. They
agree to pay for it. Once a contract is made, it then is backed by the strength
of the law. This is the important thing for you to remember. A contract does
not have to be in writing – a verbal agreement is still legally enforceable.
The main parts of a contract are as follows:
Offer and acceptance

This can be verbal or written and is the most important part of a contract.
You and the customer agree the deal, possibly after negotiation. You offer to
change the oil, the customer accepts and offers to pay £20, which you accept.
A contract is made.
Valuable consideration
Valuable or good consideration means ‘payment’ for the services or goods.
The exchange of something of value is the key. Changing the oil has a value,
and this passes to the customer. The payment of money, which has a value,
in return passes to you.
A contract can be cancelled for the following reasons:
Capacity to contract
Minors (children under 18) cannot make contracts. Further, if somebody is
drunk or certified insane, they cannot legally be held to a contract! If an
insane sixteen year old drunk wants work done – say no thanks!
Genuineness of consent
This applies if a mistake or a misrepresentation is made, either fraudulently
or innocently. If you said the oil would cost £5 but then realise you should
have said £50, the contract can be cancelled.
Intention to create legal relations

If duress and undue influence are applied, then a contract becomes invalid.
So you can’t say to a customer that they must have the oil changed, or their
car might get scratched! This does not form a contract!
Legal and possible

If the intention is for illegal purposes or it is impossible to perform, the
contract is invalid.
Types of customers Customers can be divided into six groups, sometimes known as the customer
profile.
Profile Notes
Business A company car driver who is likely to be more interested in

how soon the repairs will be completed than the cost or details
about the work to be done
Private Cost and good service will be particularly important to this
customer. Private customers have lots of friends and relatives
who could use your garage if recommended
Informed This person is likely to want to know exactly what will be or
has been done to their vehicle. They have a right to know and
will also appreciate your technical knowledge
Non-informed A non-informed person is not stupid or gullible! It means that
their skills are not associated with motor vehicles like ours.
They will demand and should get respect and a patient
description or explanation about the work
New May be interested in seeing the facilities. Remember that first
impressions are long lasting
Regular Don’t become complacent or take regular customers for
granted. If customers show loyalty to you, then it should be
returned
A customer can fall into several of these groups at the same time: for
example, somebody can be a new, business, non-informed customer. The
different types of customers will expect and deserve to be treated in different
ways. The descriptions in the table are quite general, but the message is still
clear: treat all customers politely and with respect. Adapt the way you deal
with them to suit their requirements.
Complaints and how The best way to deal with customer complaints is to prevent them! Some
to deal with them understanding as to how complaints arise will help you achieve this
objective. Some possible reasons for complaints (not in any order):
■ bad attitude of staff
■ inaccurate diagnosis of faults
■ inaccurate recording of parts used
■ incorrect communication of instructions to the workshop
The business 259
■ poor booking in procedure

■ unfair charges, slow invoicing, overcharging
■ vehicle in unclean condition
■ vehicle not collected at agreed time
■ warranty work not identified
■ work done without permission.
Most complaints are caused by lack of understanding by both parties. A set
procedure is therefore a good idea:
■ Find out the customer’s idea of the problem and acknowledge it; do not
admit fault, but do not attack either.
■ Gather the relevant information to help you both understand the issues.
■ Summarise the problem, using the information you have gathered, so
you both agree on the issue.
Respond in a way that does not cause the customer unnecessary worry or
problems. If an explanation is required, make sure it is well understood. Do
not try to blind the customer with science. If the problem needs further work
(paid for or not), try to arrange this as soon as possible. It also helps if you
can grow some thicker skin!
Looking after the When a customer leaves a vehicle with you for repairs or a service, they are
vehicle and contents trusting you with, in many cases, thousands of pounds worth of their
property. You should respect this:
■ Always use protective mats, seat covers, wing covers and other
protection as appropriate.
■ The vehicle should be returned as clean as, if not cleaner than, when it
was left.
■ The vehicle should be locked and in a secure area.
■ Keys should be labelled and kept safe in the reception area until
required.
■ Contents must not be disturbed. Encourage the customer not to leave
valuables in the car if possible.
■ Try to reset the seats and mirrors to the original positions. Do not re-
tune the radio unless requested.
Figure 19.12 A vehicle with protection covers fitted

Remember: if you do not take reasonable care of the vehicle you can be held
responsible.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ The different types of customers will expect and deserve to be treated in
different ways. Make notes to say how you would expect to be treated as a
customer of a garage.
➠ Write a short explanation about how to treat people belonging to the six
different customer profiles.
➠ Practise dealing with a customer complaint.
20 Background studies
1 Introduction
Start here! Well done for even looking at this section! It is often quite hard to see why,
when you want to work on motor vehicles, you should study maths, science
and drawing. Don’t worry, the maths or science in this chapter is at a very
simple level to help you learn and understand the basic principles. The
drawing section will help you understand information given by technical
drawings. And don’t worry about remembering formulas; just look them up
in this book if you need to.
It may be a good idea to study this chapter in smaller parts, picking out the
information you need for the other main chapters. However, please make
sure you work through it all!
Don’t forget that, to get on well in any job, you need to know your subject to
a high standard. For example, if a customer asks why his tyre pressures were
higher after a long journey, you could answer in two ways:
1. I dunno.
2. It is because the friction between the tyre and the road, and the materials of the
tyre, produce heat. The heat causes the air pressure in the tyre to increase because
it can’t expand.
Which answer will make the customer think ‘this technician knows his job, I
KEY WORDS will come here again’? Obvious isn’t it!
Finally, properly understanding the basic principles of how something
■ All words in the works will allow you to adapt and change when you meet new technologies.
table Good luck with your studies – it won’t be as hard as you think.
■ SI Unit
Often the words used to describe scientific principles can be confusing. The
■ Multiplier
following table picks out and explains the most important ones. Some of
these terms are described in more detail in later sections.
Terminology
SI units A set of standard units, so we all talk the same language. ‘SI’ stands for ‘Système
International’. This is French for ‘International System’!
Ratio The amount of one thing compared to another. E.g. two to one is written as 2:1
Area (m2) Amount of surface of anything. E.g. if you know the surface area of a car bonnet, you can
work out how much paint would be needed to cover it
Volume (m3) Capacity of an object. E.g. 1 000 cc (cubic centimetres), or one litre, of paint to do the job
above
Mass (kg) The quantity of matter in a body. Volume does not matter. E.g. which has the greater
mass, a kilogram of lead or a kilogram of feathers? They are both the same, of course, but
have different volumes
Density (kg/m3) A full paint tin has a greater mass than an empty tin, but the volumes are the same
Terminology
Energy (J) The ability to do work or the amount of work stored in something. Petrol, for example,
contains a lot of energy in chemical form
Force (N) When you push an object, it moves (if you can apply enough force)
Work (J) Work is done when the force applied to an object makes it move. Work can also be said
to be done when energy is converted from one form to another
Power (W) The rate at which work can be done. E.g. energy used per second
Torque (Nm) A turning force, like a spanner turning a nut. A longer spanner needs less force
Velocity (m/s) A scientific name for speed. E.g. the UK national velocity limit is 70 mph (not an SI unit!)
2
Acceleration (m/s ) The rate at which velocity changes. If positive, the car will increase in speed. If negative
(or deceleration), such as when braking, the car speed decreases
Momentum (kg.m/s) The combination of the mass of a body and its velocity. A large goods vehicle has much
greater momentum than a car at the same speed. It must have much better brakes or it
will take a lot longer to stop
Friction (µ) When one surface moves over another, friction tries to stop the movement. It is
interesting to note that, without friction, a moving object such as a car would not stop!
Heat (J) This is a measure of the amount of energy in a body. Heat can only transfer from a higher
to a lower temperature, and this will be by conduction, convection or radiation
Temperature (°C) A measure of how hot something is; this must not be confused with the amount of heat
energy
Pressure (N/m2 or Pa) This is a force per area. E.g. the old tyre pressure measurement for many cars was 28 psi
(pounds per square inch). The current units to get used to are bars: the tyre pressure
would be about 1.8 bar. The SI unit is the pascal, or newtons per metre squared (Pa or
Nm2). The pressure in a room is about 1 bar or 1 atmosphere or 100 000 Pa. It may be
much more if you have been reading about science for a long time!
Centrifugal force (N) If you swing a stone on a string round your head, it tries to move outwards and you can
feel the centrifugal force on the string. The faster you swing it, the greater the force.
When a car wheel is rotating very quickly, a small imbalance in the tyre causes unequal
centrifugal force. This makes the wheel wobble
Weight (N) The mass of an object acted upon by the earth’s gravity gives it a weight. When you next
go into outer space, you will find that your weight is zero or, in other words, you are
weightless. You do still have the same mass, however. The word ‘weight’ is often used
incorrectly but, as gravity is the same all over the earth, it often doesn’t make any
difference
Centre of gravity The point within an object at which it will balance. All the weight of an object such as a car
can be said to act through the centre of gravity. If the force due to gravity and acceleration
acting through this point falls outside the wheels of the car, the car will fall over!
Electricity This is the movement of electrons known as a current flow in a conductor or a wire.
Electricity is a very convenient way of transferring energy
Strength This is hard to define because different materials are strong in different ways. A material
can be strong (provide opposition) to bending, tension, compression or shear force
Corrosion Corrosion of materials is by a chemical process. E.g. if iron is left exposed to the air or
water, it rusts. The chemical process is that the iron is reacting with oxygen in the air and
turning into iron oxide or rust
Machines A machine is something which converts one form of energy into another. An alternator,
for example, converts mechanical energy from the engine into electrical energy
Hydraulics When fluids are used to do ‘work’, this is described as hydraulics. The braking system of a
car is a good example
Oscillation If you bounce a mass on a spring (a car on its suspension), it will move up and down
(oscillate) until all the mechanical energy in the spring has been converted to another
form (mostly heat due to friction). Dampers are used on a car to make this time as short
as possible
Background studies 263
Units When I go into a café or a pub and ask for a pint of beer or half a litre of coke,
I usually get what I want. This is because I ask by using the correct units.
When you blow up the tyres on a car, you check the pressure in a book or on
a chart and then look at the gauge. They will have the same units, and you
can inflate the tyres to the correct pressure.
The best and easiest units to work with are what are known as SI units,
sometimes thought of as the metric system. The basic SI units are as follows:
Unit Abbreviation Quantity Example
metre m length The distance from one point to

another
kilogram kg mass The quantity of matter which
makes an object
second s time About 300 s to boil an egg!
ampere A electric current The flow rate of electricity
Figure 20.1 A pint of through a wire
beer! kelvin K temperature How hot is the radiator of a car
candela cd luminous intensity How bright a headlight shines
mole mol amount of substance A term used mostly in chemistry
Many other units in use are derived from the basic SI units. Many of them
are combined and in some cases given new names, for example:
Unit Abbreviation Quantity
joule J energy
newton N force
watt W power
2
square metres m area
3
cubic metres m volume
newton metres Nm torque
metres per second m/s or ms1 velocity
metres per second per second m/s/s, ms2 or m/s2 acceleration
When dealing with units we need a way of describing very large or very small
quantities. For example, I would not say that I live 24 000 metres away from
where I work. I would say I live 24 kilometres away, normally written as 24 km.
The ‘k’ is known as a multiplier and has the value of 1 000. Likewise, if setting a
spark plug gap, I could set it at 0.001 metres; it might be easier to say 1
millimetre, normally written as 1 mm. The ‘m’ can be thought of as a divider by
1 000, or a multiplier of 0.001. The list of the common multipliers is as follows:
Prefix Symbol Value Long value
mega M 106 1 000 000

3
kilo k 10 1 000
hecto h 102 100
(none) 100 1
2
centi c 10 0.01
3
milli m 10 0.001
micro µ 106 0.000001
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show what is meant by area, volume and centre of
gravity.
➠ Examine a real vehicle and/or look back to other chapters of this book and see if
you can say which of the terms in the above tables are used to describe some of
the vehicle systems.
2 Science
Introduction The following sections explain some scientific terms and principles in a little
more detail. The figures with some sections show the principle as a picture.
KEY WORDS

table
■ All the section
headings
■ Conduction
■ Convection
■ Radiation
Velocity and Velocity is the speed of an object in a given direction. Velocity is a ‘vector
acceleration quantity’; this means its direction is important as well as its speed. The
velocity v of an object travelling in a fixed direction may be calculated by
dividing the distance s it has travelled by the time taken t.
velocity distance travelled/time taken (v s/t)
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity (how quickly speed is increasing
or decreasing). It is usually measured in metres per second per second.
Newton’s second law of motion says that a body will accelerate only if it is
acted upon by an outside force. The outside force on a car is either the
accelerator to increase speed (accelerate) or the brakes to decrease speed
(decelerate).
Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration of an object falling due to the
earth’s gravity. The value used for gravitational acceleration g is 9.806 ms2
(10 ms2 is usually near enough for our calculations).
The average acceleration a of an object travelling in a straight line over a time
t may be calculated using the formula:
acceleration change of velocity/time taken
or, if v is its final velocity and u its initial velocity,
a (v u)/t
A negative answer (less than zero, like 2) means that the object is slowing
down (decelerating).
Friction The force that opposes the relative motion of two bodies in contact is known
as friction. The coefficient of friction is the ratio of the force needed to
achieve this motion to the force pressing the two bodies together.
For motor vehicle use friction is greatly reduced in some places by using
lubricants, such as oil and grease. In other places friction is deliberately
increased – for example brake shoes and pads, drive belts and tyres.
Figure 20.2 The

‘smooth’ surface of mild
steel under a microscope
Pressure In a fluid or gas, pressure is said to be the force that acts at right angles per
unit surface area of an object immersed in the fluid or gas. The SI unit of
pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to a pressure of one newton per square
metre. In the atmosphere, the pressure decreases as you go higher: from
about 100 kPa at sea level to zero where the atmosphere dwindles into space.
The other common unit of pressure you will meet is the bar. One bar (100
kPa) is atmospheric pressure.
Absolute pressure is measured from a perfect vacuum or zero pressure.
Gauge pressure is the difference between the measured pressure and
atmospheric pressure. A tyre gauge works like this because it reads zero in
atmospheric pressure. When we talk about a vacuum or a depression, what
we really mean is a pressure less than atmospheric. It is best to use absolute
pressure figures for discussing subjects such as the operation of an engine.
Increasing pressure
50 bar Maximum pressure after

combustion in an engine
cylinder
Fuel pressure
3 bar (injection system)
Typical tyre pressure
2 bar
Fuel pressure
(carburettor system)
Pressure less than 1 bar Atmospheric pressure
atmospheric can
be called a
Inlet manifold pressure
depression or a
at idle speed
vacuum
0 bar
Zero pressure
Figure 20.3 Pressure from absolute zero

Centre of gravity or This is the point in (or near) an object about which it would turn if it could
centre of mass rotate freely. A symmetrical object, such as a cube or ball, has its centre of
mass at its geometrical centre; a hollow object, such as a glass, may have its
centre of gravity in the space inside it.
For an object such as a car to be stable, a perpendicular line down through its
centre of gravity must run within the boundaries of its wheel base. If the car
is tilted until this line falls outside the wheel base, it will become unstable
and fall over!
Centre of gravity acts straight

down when car is standing
level or moving in a straight
line on a level road
Cornering
to the left rear
Spring oscillation
with a damper Centre of gravity
acts more towards the
outer wheels when
cornering
Start of
oscillation
Without a damper
rear
Centre of gravity
acts towards the lower
Figure 20.5 Spring wheel when on a slope
oscillation with and
without a damper Figure 20.4 Centre of gravity of a car
Oscillation An oscillation is one complete to-and-fro movement of a vibrating object or

system. The time taken for one complete oscillation is the time period of the
vibration. The number of oscillations in one second is its frequency. In most
mechanical systems in the car oscillations are damped down. The dampers
fitted to the suspension help to prevent the springs oscillating.
Energy, work and Energy can be thought of as the ability to do work, or the amount of work
power stored up; it is measured in joules. When you have no energy, it’s hard to
work! Energy cannot be destroyed, only converted to another form. It can be
stored in a number of forms:
■ kinetic or mechanical energy, like the movement of an engine
■ potential or position energy; when you lift a hammer, its potential
energy increases
■ electrical energy, such as that made by an alternator
■ chemical energy stored in a battery
■ heat energy from burning something
Hammer is lifted,
The weight of the giving it potential
hammer falling energy
has kinetic
energy
The blow of the hammer

converts the energy into
heat, sound and 'spring'
energy as the pin is
compressed
Figure 20.6 Movement of a hammer showing changes of energy
■ nuclear energy which is not yet used on vehicles, fortunately!

Power is the rate of doing work or converting energy. It is measured in
watts. If the work done or energy consumed is E joules in t seconds, then the
power P is calculated by:
power work done or energy consumed/time P E/t
Force and torque A force is thought of as any influence that tends to change the state of rest or
the motion in a straight line of an object – just like braking force slowing
down a vehicle. If the body can’t move freely, it will deform or bend. Force is
a vector quantity, which means it must have both size and direction. Its unit
is the newton, N.
Torque is the turning effect of force on an object. A car engine produces a
torque at the wheels. Torque is measured by multiplying the force by its
perpendicular distance from the turning point. Its units therefore are newton
metres, Nm.
Distance
Nut or Torque Force

bolt head wrench being
applied
The torque applied is the force in

newtons times the distance in metres
Figure 20.7 Force and torque (a torque wrench)
Mass, weight and Mass is the quantity of matter in a body as measured by its resistance to
force movement. The SI system base unit of mass is the kilogram, kg. The mass of
an object determines how much driving force is needed to produce a certain
acceleration. The mass also determines the force exerted on a body by
gravity. The force F, mass m and acceleration a (or g, if due to gravity) can be
calculated by:
Weightless in space, but yo

would still have mass
Mass and gravity

give you your weight
The World
Figure 20.8 Mass and weight
force mass acceleration F ma

or
force mass gravity F mg
At a given place, equal masses experience equal gravity, known as the
weights of the bodies. Masses can be compared by comparing the weights of
bodies at the same place.
Volume and density Density is a measure of the compactness of a substance; it is measured in kg

per cubic metre. The density D of a mass m occupying a volume V is given
by:
density mass/volume D m/V
Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to that of water. This
is useful for testing older types of battery by comparing the density of the
electrolyte to that of water.
Figure 20.9 Testing the relative density of battery electrolyte

Heat and Heat is a form of energy a substance has as a result of the vibrating
temperature movement, or kinetic energy, of its molecules or atoms. Heat only flows from
a higher temperature to a lower temperature. Its effect on a substance may be
simply to raise its temperature, or to cause it to expand. Solids can melt,
liquids vaporise and gases, if confined, will increase in pressure. This is
much like ice, water, steam and steam pressure in a boiler.
Quantities of heat are usually measured in units of energy, such as joules (J).
Specific heat is the amount of heat energy needed to heat a given mass of the
If the small block is heated to a
higher temperature than the substance through a given range of temperature compared to the heat energy
large block, they could both needed to heat an equal mass of water through the same range. This is useful
contain the same heat energy
for comparing materials.
Figure 20.10
Heat energy is transferred by conduction, convection and radiation.
Temperature and heat
Conduction is the passing of heat along a medium to neighbouring parts. For
example, the whole length of a metal rod becomes hot when one end is held
in the flame of a welding torch. Convection is the transmission of heat
through a liquid or gas in currents: for example, when the air in a car is
warmed by the heater matrix and blower. Radiation is heat transfer by
infrared rays. It can pass through a vacuum and travels at the speed of light!
For example, you can feel radiated heat from a vehicle headlight just in front
of the glass.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch with an explanation to show all the different energy
conversions which take place in a car. Start with the chemical energy in the fuel.
➠ Write a short explanation about why friction is sometimes a problem and
sometimes very useful.
3 Electricity
Electrons and To understand electricity properly, we must start by finding out what it
things really is. This means thinking very small! The molecule is the smallest part of
matter that can be recognised as that particular matter. Subdivision of the
KEY WORDS molecule results in atoms. The atom is the smallest part of matter. An
element is a substance which comprises of atoms of one kind only.
■ Current, voltage
The atom consists of a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.
and resistance
Electrons orbit around this nucleus, a bit like planets around the sun.
■ Series and parallel
The neutron is a very small part of the nucleus. It has an equal positive and
■ Open circuit and
negative charge. It is therefore neutral and has no polarity. The proton is
short circuit
another small part of the nucleus; it is positively charged. As the neutron is
■ Induction neutral and the proton is positively charged, the nucleus of the atom is
positively charged.
The electron is an even smaller part of the atom and is negatively charged. It
orbits the nucleus and is held in orbit by the attraction of the positively
charged protons. All electrons are similar, no matter what type of atom they
come from.
When atoms are in a balanced state, the number of electrons orbiting the
nucleus equals the number of protons. The atoms of some materials have
Electrons electrons which are easily detached from the parent atom and join an
adjacent atom. In so doing they move an electron (like polarities repel) from
this atom to a third atom, and so on through the material. This is a random
movement. These are called free electrons
Materials are called conductors if the electrons can move easily. In some
materials it is extremely difficult to move electrons from their parent atoms.
These materials are called insulators.
Neutrons and
protons (nucleus)
Figure 20.11 The atom
Electron flow or If an electrical pressure (electromotive force or voltage) is applied to a

conventional flow conductor, a directional movement of electrons will take place (like
connecting a battery to a wire).
Switch
Conditions for an electron flow:
Battery Bulb
■ a pressure source, e.g. from a battery or generator
■ a complete conducting path for the electrons to move, e.g. wires.
Wires to complete An electron flow is termed an electric current. Figure 20.12 shows a simple
the circuit electric circuit. The battery positive terminal is connected, through a switch
Figure 20.12 A simple and lamp, to the battery negative terminal. With the switch open, the
electrical circuit chemical energy of the battery will remove electrons from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal via the battery. This leaves the positive
terminal with fewer electrons and the negative terminal with a surplus of
electrons. An electrical pressure or electromotive force (emf) exists between
the battery terminals.
With the switch closed, the surplus electrons on the negative terminal will
flow through the lamp back to the electron deficient positive terminal. The
lamp will light, and the chemical energy of the battery will keep the electrons
moving in this circuit from negative to positive. This movement from
negative to positive is called the electron flow.
However, scientists once thought that current flowed from positive to
negative. This convention is still followed for practical purposes and will be
used throughout this and other books. So even though it is not correct, the
most important point is that we all follow the same convention. We say:
‘Current flows from positive to negative.’
Whilst the switch in the above circuit was closed, the chemical energy of the
battery was first converted to electrical and then heat energy in the lamp
filament.
Effects of current Current flow in a circuit can produce only three effects:
flow
■ heat
■ magnetism
■ chemical action.
The heating effect is the basis of electrical components, such as lights and
heater plugs. The magnetic effect is the basis of relays and motors and
generators. The chemical effect is the basis for electroplating and battery
charging.
Heating effect
in a bulb
Magnetic effect
in a motor or generator
Chemical effect
in the battery
Figure 20.13 A bulb, motor and battery – heat, magnetic and chemical effects
These three effects are reversible. Heat applied to a thermocouple will cause
a small emf and therefore a small current to flow. Practical use of this is
mainly in instruments. A coil of wire rotated in the magnetic field of a
magnet will produce an emf and can cause current to flow. This is the basis
of a generator. Chemical action, such as in a battery, produces an emf which
can cause current to flow.
Voltage, current In Figure 20.13 the number of electrons through the lamp every second is the
resistance and rate of flow. The cause of electron flow is the electrical pressure. The lamp
power produces an opposition to the rate of flow set up by the electrical pressure.
Power is the rate of doing work or changing energy from one form to
another. All these quantities are given names:
Name Definition Name Symbol Abbreviation
Electrical flow A number of electrons past ampere I A

or current a fixed point in one second
Electrical A pressure of 1 volt applied volt V V
pressure to a circuit will produce a
current flow of 1 ampere if
the circuit resistance is 1 ohm
Electrical This is the opposition to ohm R Ω
resistance current flow in a material or
circuit when a voltage is
applied across it
Electrical When a voltage of 1 volt watt P W
power causes a current of 1 ampere
to flow, the power developed
is 1 watt
If the voltage applied to the circuit was increased but the lamp resistance
stayed the same, then current would increase. If the voltage was maintained
constant but the lamp was changed for one with a higher resistance, the
current would decrease. This relationship is put into a law called Ohm’s
Law.
Ohm’s Law states that in a closed circuit the current is proportional to the
voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance:
voltage current resistance (V IR) or (R V/I) or (I V/R)
Switch Current
(closed) flow
The battery The bulb has

has a voltage a resistance
or pressure. to flow. A
A higher V higher
pressure will resistance will
P R reduce the
make more
current flow flow of
current
The power of a bulb says how

much electrical energy it will
convert to heat and light. Higher
power makes more light so more
current will flow
Figure 20.14 An electrical circuit demonstrating Ohm’s Law and power
When one volt causes one ampere to flow, the power used (P) is one watt:
power voltage current (P VI) or (I P/V) or (V P/I)
A typical diode Three terms are useful when discussing electrical circuits:
■ Open circuit: the circuit is broken, therefore no current can flow.
Diode symbol
■ Short circuit: a fault has caused a wire to touch another conductor and
the current uses this as an easier way to complete the circuit.
Direction of current flow
■ High resistance: a part of the circuit has developed a high resistance
Figure 20.15 Diode and (such as a dirty connection), which will reduce the amount of current
diode symbol which can flow.
Conductors, All metals are conductors. Silver, copper and aluminium are among the best
insulators and and are frequently used. Liquids which will conduct an electric current are
semiconductors called electrolytes. Insulators are generally nonmetallic and include rubber,
porcelain, glass, plastics, cotton, silk, wax paper and some liquids. Some
materials can act either as insulators or conductors, depending on conditions.
These are called semiconductors and are used to make transistors and
diodes.
Factors affecting In an insulator a large applied voltage will produce a very small electron
resistance of a movement. In a conductor a small applied voltage will produce a large
conductor electron flow or current. The amount of resistance offered by the conductor is
determined by a number of factors:
■ Length: the greater the length of a conductor, the greater is the
resistance.
■ Cross-sectional area: the larger the CSA, the smaller the resistance.
■ The material from which the conductor is made: this is known as the
resistivity or specific resistance of the material.
■ Temperature: most metals increase in resistance as temperature
increases.
Electrical Increased length

conductor increases resistance
Increased cross-sectional
area reduces resistance
Different materials have

different resistances
Temperature changes
resistance
Resistance of most metals
increases as temperature
increases
Figure 20.16 Factors affecting electrical resistance
Resistors Good conductors are used to carry the current with minimum voltage loss
due to conductor resistance. Resistors are used to control the current flow in
a circuit or to set voltage levels. They are made of materials that have a fairly
high resistance. Resistors to carry low currents are often made of carbon.
Resistors for high currents are usually wire wound.
Circuit networks When components are connected so that there is only one path for the same
current to flow through each component they are said to be connected in
series. Rules for series circuits:
■ Current is the same in all parts of the circuit.
■ Applied voltage equals the sum of the volt drops around the circuit.
■ Total resistance of the circuit (RT) equals the sum of the individual
resistance values (R1 R2 etc.)
When components are connected so that they provide more than one path
for the current to flow in and have the same voltage across each component,
they are said to be connected in parallel. Rules for parallel circuits:
■ Voltage across all components of a parallel circuit is the same.
■ Total current sum of the current flowing in each branch.
■ Current splits up depending on each component resistance.
■ Total resistance of the circuit (RT): 1/RT 1/R1 1/R2 or RT (R1
R2)/(R1 R2).
R1
V Series
circuit
R2
V Parallel
R1 R2
circuit
Figure 20.17 Examples of series and parallel circuits

Magnetism and Magnetism can be created by a permanent magnet or by an electromagnet

electromagnetism (remember that magnetism is one of the three effects of electricity). The space
around a magnet in which the magnetic effect can be detected is called the
magnetic field. In diagrams the shape of magnetic fields is represented by
flux lines or lines of force.
Some rules about magnetism:
■ Unlike poles attract. Like poles repel.
■ Lines of force in the same direction repel sideways; in opposite
directions they attract.
■ Current flowing in a conductor will set up a magnetic field around the
conductor. The strength of the magnetic field is determined by how
much current is flowing.
■ If a conductor is wound into a coil or solenoid, the resulting magnetism
is the same as a permanent bar magnet.
Electromagnets are used in motors, relays and fuel injectors – to name just a
few. Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is caused
because of two magnetic fields interacting. This is the basic principle of how
a motor works.
Permanent bar Solenoid

magnet (coil or winding)
Wires
Current flowing Current flowing

towards us away from us
N S Section of
a motor
Section of a motor
Figure 20.18 Magnetic fields
Electromagnetic Basic laws:

induction
■ When a conductor cuts or is cut by magnetism, a voltage is induced in
the conductor.
■ The direction of the induced voltage depends upon the direction of the
magnetic field and the direction in which the field moves relative to the
conductor.
■ The size is proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts or is cut
by the magnetism.
This effect of induction, meaning that voltage is made in the wire, is the basic
principle of how generators such as a car alternator work: a generator is a
machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
N S
Electricity is ‘induced’
into the wire as it moves
up or down
Figure 20.19 Induction
Mutual induction If two coils (known as the primary and secondary) are wound on to the same
iron core, then any change in magnetism of one coil will induce a voltage in
to the other. This happens when a current is switched on and off to the
primary coil. If the number of turns of wire on the secondary coil is more
than the primary, a higher voltage can be produced. If the number of turns of
wire on the secondary coil is less than the primary, a lower voltage is
obtained. This is called transformer action and is the principle of the ignition
coil.
Iron core
Secondary
Primary
As the switch in the primary is closed and opened, the flow of electricity
makes a changing magnetic field around the iron core. The changing
magnetism mutually induces electricity into the secondary winding
Figure 20.20 Mutual induction

Value of this ‘mutually induced’ voltage depends upon:

■ primary current
■ turns ratio between primary and secondary coils
■ the speed at which the magnetism changes.
Capacitors A capacitor is a device for storing an electric charge. In its simple form it
consists of two plates separated by an insulating material. One plate can
have more electrons compared to the other. On vehicles its main uses are for
reducing arcing across switch contacts, for radio interference suppression
circuits as well as in electronic control units.
Plates
Electrons are +
Electrons are
attracted from here +
– repelled here from
to the battery + – the negative side of
positive –
– the battery
+ –
+ –
+ –
+ –
+
+ –
Switch
When the switch is opened, the plates stay

as shown. This is simply called ‘charged up’
Figure 20.21 A capacitor charged up
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show what is meant by series and parallel circuits.
➠ Examine a real system and see where electrical effects are used.
➠ Write short notes to explain what electricity really is.
4 Materials
Introduction Because of their properties, different materials are used in different places on
motor vehicles. For example, cast iron is normally used for the very hot
exhaust manifold, but could plastic be used instead? Well of course not, and
KEY WORDS it is obvious why. Could you use aluminium instead? This time it is not
obvious, and more thought is required to decide the most suitable material.
■ All words in the The following table lists several types of material together with important
tables properties. As a rough guide these are given as a number from 1 (best) to 5
■ Corrosion (worst) in a kind of league table. This makes the table easier to use for
comparing one material to another.
Figure 20.22 Exhaust manifold
Material Ease of Strength Withstand Electrical Corrosion Cost Typical MV

shaping heat resistance resistance uses
Copper 2 3 2 1 3 4 Wires and

electrical parts
Aluminium 2 3 2 1 3 4 Cylinder
heads
Steel 3 2 1 1 4 3 Body panels

and exhausts
Cast iron 3 2 1 1 4 3 Manifolds and

engine blocks
Platinum 3 1 1 1 2 5 Spark plug tips
Soft plastic 1 5 5 5 1 1 Electrical

insulators
Hard plastic 1 4 4 5 1 1 Interiors and

some engine
components
Glass 3 5 2 5 1 2 Screens and

windows
Rubber 2 4 5 5 3 2 Tyres and

hoses
Ceramics 4 4 1 5 1 4 Spark plug

insulators
This table is just to help you compare properties; the ‘league table’ positions
are only crude estimates and will vary with different examples of the same
material.
Corrosion Corrosion is the eating away and eventual destruction of metals and alloys (a
mixtures of metals) by chemical action. Most metals corrode eventually, but
the rusting of ordinary iron and steel is the most common form of corrosion.
Rusting of iron or steel takes place in damp air, when the iron combines with
oxygen and water to form a brown deposit known as rust. Higher
temperatures make this reaction work more quickly. Salty road and air
conditions make car bodies rust more quickly.
Some materials other than metals, for example rubber based ones, corrode or
perish over a period of time. Plastics have the great advantage that they
appear to last for ever!
Figure 20.23 Rust!
The following table lists some terms used to describe materials.
Property Explanation
Hardness Can withstand indentation (marking)

Softness Can be easily indented
Toughness The ability to resist fracture
Brittleness Breaks or shatters under shock loads (impact)
Ductility Plastic (deforms and stays that way) under tension or stretching
Malleability Plastic under compression (squeezing)
Plasticity The ability to retain a deformation after a load is removed
Elasticity The ability to return to its original shape when a deforming load is
removed
Strength The ability to withstand a load without breaking
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Examine a real vehicle and note some of the materials used in various places. See
if you can suggest why certain materials are used.
➠ Copy out the headings in the properties table and, by using other books, see if
you can add further types of materials and give them a position in the league.
5 Mechanical machines
Introduction A simple mechanical machine is a device that allows a small force to

overcome a larger force. There are only three basic machines:
■ ramp – such as a wedge
KEY WORDS ■ lever – such as a lever!
■ wheel and axle – such as pulleys and a belt.
■ Mechanical
All other machines are combinations of these three. This is a good way of
efficiency
making any complicated machine easier to understand.
■ Gears or cogs
The main features of a machine are:
■ Mechanical
advantage ■ mechanical advantage, which is the ratio of load to effort (think of a car
jack)
Ramp or wedge
When forced, it
will raise the block
Lever
When force is applied,
it will raise the block
Fulcrum or
pivot point
The block is
raised when force
is applied
Figure 20.24 Basic mechanical machines
■ velocity ratio, which is the velocity input compared to the velocity

output (think of a car gear box)
■ efficiency, which is the work output divided by the work input as a
percentage.
In a perfect machine, with no friction, the efficiency would be 100%. All
practical machines have efficiencies of less than 100%, otherwise perpetual
motion would be possible!
Gears Gears are toothed wheels that transmit the turning movement of one shaft to
another. Gear wheels may be used in pairs, or in threes if both shafts need to
turn in the same direction. The gear ratio, which is the ratio of the number of
teeth on the two wheels, determines:
■ the torque ratio – the turning force on the output shaft compared with
the turning force on the input shaft
■ the speed ratio – the speed of the output shaft compared to the speed of
input shaft.
Gears with the ratio 2:1 (say 20 teeth input and 10 teeth output) will have an
output of twice the speed and half the torque of the input.
A common type of gear for parallel shafts is the spur gear, with straight teeth
parallel to the shaft axis. The helical gear (most common in car gear boxes)
has teeth cut at an angle in a corkscrew shape The double form of the helical
gear is the most efficient for energy transfer. Did you know this is where the
shape of the Citroën badge came from?
Direction of
rotation
Driver
Gear
rotation
Gear
types
Spur gears Helical gears Double helical

(herringbone) gears
Figure 20.25 Operation and different types of gears
Hydraulics Hydraulics means using the properties of liquids to transmit pressure and
movement. The best known type of hydraulic machines are the hydraulic
press and the hydraulic jack. The hydraulic principle of pressurised liquid
increasing mechanical efficiency is ideal for use on vehicle braking systems.
900 N
in small 1 350 N
cylinder in large
cylinder
750 N
in master
cylinder
Foot applies 250 N
Figure 20.26 A basic hydraulic system

A basic hydraulic system consists of two liquid connected pistons in

cylinders, one of narrow bore, one of large bore. A force applied to the
narrow piston applies a certain pressure to the liquid, which is transmitted to
the larger piston. Because the area of this piston is larger, the force exerted on
it is larger. The original force has been increased, although the smaller piston
has to move a greater distance to move the larger piston only a little.
Mechanical advantage is gained in force, but lost in movement.
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Make a simple sketch to show gears of different sizes, one driving the other.
Work out the torque and speed ratios.
➠ Write a short explanation explaining why a hydraulic jack makes lifting a car easy.
6 Simple, easy maths
Percentages Q. Give me two good reasons why I need to be able to work out percentages.
A1. So when a data book says the car should have 30% antifreeze, you know how
KEY WORDS much to put in!
■ Percentages For example, if the data book says 30% antifreeze and the cooling system
■ Fractions holds 8 litres, how much antifreeze should you add? 30% means 30/100,
which cancels to 3/10. 3/10 8 24/10 2.4 litres.
■ Indices
■ Ratios A2. So when your bonus scheme at work increases your hourly rate by 22%, you
know how much you will get!
■ Areas
■ Volumes For example, the normal pay rate is £5 per hour. How much will you get
now? 22% means 22/100. 22/100 £5 £1.10. Your new pay rate is
£5 £1.10p £6.10 per hour. Easy isn’t it?
100% when full
30% to here
Figure 20.27 Percentages
Fractions Q. Give me two good reasons why I need to be able to work out fractions.
A1. So you know what you get when your overtime pay is time and a quarter!
1 unit of gold For example, the normal pay rate is £5 per hour. How much will you get
now? Time and a quarter means 1¹⁄₄ your normal rate. 1¹⁄₄ £5 5/4
5/1 25/4 6.25. Your overtime pay rate is £6.25 per hour.
A2. So you can understand the effect of resistors in parallel circuits!
1 units of gold
For example, if a heater blower circuit has a 2 Ω and a 3 Ω resistor connected
Figure 20.28 Fractions in parallel by the speed control switch, what is the combined resistance?
Looking back to the electrical section, you will see the formula is
1/RT 1/R1 1/R2. This means 1/RT 1/2 1/3. To add fractions, the
bottom numbers must be the same: 1/RT 3/6 2/6 5/6. RT 6/5
= 1.2 Ω.
Ratio Q. Give me one good reason why I need to be able to understand ratios.
A. So you know why things are made as they are!
2.5 1.0
For example, if the maximum speed an alternator can run at is 15 000
rev/min and the top speed of the engine is 6 000 rev/min, why is the pulley
ratio 2.5:1?
2.5 : 1 15 000/6 000 2.5 (the ratio of the speeds), so the alternator can never be
Figure 20.29 Ratios driven too fast.
Areas Q. Give me one good reason why I need to be able to work out areas.
A. To work out how much paint you need to cover a bonnet!
For example, if the bonnet is 1.2 m long and 1.1 m wide, and the aerosol says
1.2m it will cover 1.5 m2 will it be enough?
The area is 1.2 1.1 1.32 m2. Yes, you have got enough paint (for one coat)!
1.1 m
Figure 20.30 Area
Volumes Q. Give me one good reason why I need to be able to work out volumes.
Bore A. So you can understand engine capacity!
8 cm
For example, if the bore of a four cylinder engine is 8 cm and the stroke
(distance from BDC to TDC) is 6.9 cm, what is the capacity of the engine? The
Stroke 6.9 cm volume of a regular solid is the area the height. For a cylinder the area is
πr2, so the volume must be πr2h (r, the radius, is half the bore diameter; h is
the stroke). The volume is 3.14 4 4 6.9 346.66 4 cylinders
1 386.62 cc. This would probably be called a 1 400 cc or a 1.4 l engine.
Figure 20.31 Volumes
Indices Q. Give me one good reason why I need to be able to understand indices.
A. So you can write out very large or very small numbers without loads of zeros!
3 = 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000
10 For example, looking back to the electrical section, to describe completely the
current flow of 1 ampere, I should have said 6 000 000 000 000 000 000
Figure 20.32 Indices electrons pass a point in one second! It is much easier to write 6 1018. This
simply means 6 with 18 zeros after it. This quantity of electrons is known as a
coulomb. It is about enough electricity to work a heavy duty starter motor
for about 0.001 seconds! This could be written as 103 s. This means moving
the ‘point’ 3 places to the left (dividing by 1 000).
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Work through some of the examples given above, but use different figures. Ask
yourself each time: does the answer look about right?
➠ You can use evidence from this section to help you gain a key skills qualification in
numeracy.
7 Drawings
Introduction Drawings are an ideal way to pass on important information. Many

manufacturers provide information in the form of drawings. It is essential
KEY WORDS that you can interpret the details you need and are not put off by the amount
of information presented. To help you do this, some simple standards are
■ Information used relating to the type of lines:
sources
■ Continuous thick line __________________ Visible outlines
■ Projection
■ Continuous thin line __________________ Projection, dimension and
■ Drawing
hatching lines
terminology
■ Short thin dashes _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Hidden details
■ Long thin chain ___ _ ___ _ ___ _ ___ Centre lines
■ Long chain ___ _ ___ _ ___ _ ___ Cutting planes
Centre line
Dimension
lines
Hidden detail
99
Figure 20.33 Drawing of a basic object using different lines to show details
Terminology
Sections When the inside details of an object are important, it is often convenient to show this by
sectioning or cutting the object in a suitable place. A sectioned view of a brake cylinder is
a good example
Dimensions Lines with arrow heads, in some cases to simply show the size of the object. This is used
more for drawings used to make an item than to pass on information for repair
Tolerances and limits Dimensions can never be dead on although very close in some cases. A good example of a
tolerance or limit on a motor vehicle drawing could be the bore of a cylinder given as
70 ±0.05 mm
Fits Two types of ‘fit’ can be used. With clearance fit a pin is slightly smaller and therefore
slides into a hole. Interference fit is where the pin would be very slightly too large and
would need pressing into the hole
Projection A term used to describe the way an object is drawn. You can imagine it as if projected on
to a screen from different angles
Line diagram A simplified diagram showing only the most basic of information
Block diagram Complicated systems can be simplified by representing, say, the fuel system as one block,
the engine as another and so on
Exploded diagram This is often used in workshop manuals. It shows a collection of components spread apart
to show their details and suggest their original positions
Air
supply Transmission
Exhaust
Fuel Engine
Electrical
Ignition Cooling Etc.
Figure 20.34 Block diagram of an engine and its systems
The following table gives some sources of drawings and other information.
Source Details
Technical bulletins Sheets of information sent from manufacturers to dealers

outlining the latest repair information
Parts books The pictures or drawings in parts books can be very useful for
repair procedures as they often show all the component parts
of an object
Textbooks This one, of course, but a number of other good books are
available
Workshop manuals This is the traditional source of detailed information on specific
vehicles and systems
Microfiche Pictures and information are often stored on microfilm as a
large amount can be stored in a small space. It is like a very
small photograph negative which can be read on a viewer
Video Video tapes are available on many topics. They are ideal training
aids
Computer The computer is increasingly becoming essential in many ways.
A large amount of data can be kept on disk and retrieved with a
few key strokes
Figure 20.35 Combined information and diagnostic system

Source Details
Compact disk (CD) The CD is an extension of the computer storage. One CD can
hold a massive amount of information (many workshop manuals
full), and this information can be accessed quickly and easily by
a computer. Often now CDs are built into test and diagnostic
equipment
On line databases Many sources of information are now available ‘on line’. This
means that with a computer and modem you can access
remote databases. These can be provided by manufacturers for
their dealers. Sources are now even available over the Internet
Types of drawings Drawings can be produced in a number of ways; the best for engineering
type drawings, shown in Figure 20.36, are as follows:
■ In orthographic projection three elevations are shown: usually a front,
plan and end view
■ Pictorial projections, such as isometric and oblique, show a
representation of what the item looks like.
■ The isometric view is often used in workshop manuals to show the
arrangement of a complicated system.
Elevation End

45°
Oblique
projection
30°
Isometric
Plan projection
First angle
projection
Figure 20.36 First angle, oblique and isometric projections of a simple shape
Summary Congratulations for working to the end a chapter like this one! To really get
to the bottom of some of the details, you will have to keep referring back to
look up different things. A great skill to learn in our trade is not to know
everything, but to be able to find out anything when you need to! This is
another reason why the content of this chapter is important: it gives you the
tools to learn new subjects more easily. Well done again and keep at it!
LEARNING TASKS
➠ Draw a chosen vehicle component in section to show hidden details.

➠ Make simple sketches to show different types of projections.
➠ Examine a real system and choose one component. Find further information
about this from other sources.
21 Revision and what next?
1 Revision
Stop here! If you have just decided to take a look at the last chapter to see if the book
has a happy ending – it does. The trouble is that you won’t know that until
KEY WORDS
you read it all from the start. Call back here later and all will be revealed!
■ Revision If you have made it this far from the front of the book – congratulations! If
you have not yet completed all your assessments, then now is a good time to
do a bit of revision. The best way to revise is not to start again, but to just
look back at the key words and learning tasks. Most of them will seem quite
easy now. This is because you know the subject so much better than when
you started. If some of the key words and learning tasks are still not clear,
then a little further reading is needed in that particular area. Also ask your
assessor or teacher for some advice.
Well done once again. By now you will understand a lot more about motor
vehicle technology and the industry in general. If you have enjoyed learning
about the subject, then that is even better.
LEARNING TASK
➠ Look back through the book at the key words and learning tasks; study again just
the parts you are not quite sure about.
Figure 21.1 Stop
2 What next?
NVQ level 3 The title of this section says it all. If you have made it this far and completed
most of your level 2 assessments for your portfolio, then I’m sure you have
KEY WORDS
the ability to go further. Level 3 will take you more into diagnostic type
work, and you will be expected to start working without supervision. Better
■ Money
qualifications mean better job prospects, which mean more money, which
■ Prospects means a better life style etc. Look out for the level 3 version of this book.
■ Further study
And now for the happy ending! It’s simple: you feel good about yourself,
you made it through the course, you made it through the assessments, you
did the work – you take the credit.
LEARNING TASK
Figure 21.2 Go!

Revision and what next? 287
3 World Wide Web
Introduction If you have access to a computer and modem then you are no doubt already
interested in the Internet and the web. In this short section I want to
highlight some of the online resources available to you.
All the major vehicle manufacturers have web pages, as do most of the parts
suppliers. There are user groups, forums for discussions and many other
sources of information, as well as just good fun. So go ahead and surf the net.
I would be most pleased to meet you at my web site where you will find up-
to-date information about all my books, new technologies and links to just
about everywhere. Just point your browser to: http://www.automotive-
technology.co.uk/
Figure 21.3 shows a page from the site. The content is kept up to date as I
find other interesting places to visit or information to include. Please let me
know if you have any suggestions. My email address is:
[email protected]
Figure 21.3 Automotive Technology web site
Software Interactive simulation software that shows how many automotive electronic
systems operate is available from my web site. It is shareware so free to
download and try out – but you should pay the small registration fee if you
continue to use it. Figure 21.4 is a screenshot from the program. The
following is a short extract from the help file:
‘It is all about INPUTS and OUTPUTS. The program allows you to control
the inputs to systems and note the effect this has on the outputs. In this way
you will start to understand the operation of automobile electronic systems.
The main part of the program is the engine management simulation. In this
case an example of an input sensor would be the engine speed sensor, and an
example of an output actuator would be a fuel injector.
Diagnostics are possible by creating a fault and carrying out tests to locate it!
A database is built into the program to assist with this and MultiScope has
lots of functions to help. The methods used are appropriate for use on real
systems. This is an ideal training system for trainees and students.
The system will react and control the outputs in just the same way as a real
vehicle. Be warned the unregistered version runs out of fuel!’
Figure 21.4 Simulation program screen shot
KEY WORDS Good luck with your future studies and work.
■ Internet LEARNING TASKS

■ World Wide Web
sources
■ Simulation ➠ Search the web for some interesting automotive information. Let me know by
software email what you find.
Index
Absolute pressure 265 ECU – electronic control unit 72, Performance objectives 4
Adhesives 24 153, 213 Personnel 253
Adjustments 162, 241 Electricity and electronics 169, 184, Petrol 66
Air cooling 83, 84 211, 269 Petrol injection 67, 68, 72, 73
Air filter 95, 98, 99 Electronic ignition 103, 110 Piston 43
Air supply 94, 98 Elements 3 Portfolio 3, 9
Alarms 209, 210 Emissions 95 Power steering 173, 174
Alternator 185, 198, 199 Engine 47 PPE 12, 15, 16
Antifreeze 91, 92 Equipment 18, 34 Pressure cap 88
Assessments 5 Evidence 3, 5 Propshaft 173, 174
Assessor 1, 3 Exhaust system 94
Automatic gearbox 129, 133 Exhaust valve 43 Radiator 86
Auxiliaries 185, 205, 206 Range statements 3
Final drive 45, 136, 138 Ratios 282
Battery 195, 196, 197, 268 Fire 21 Records 233
Bearings 26, 32, 134, 135, 137 Fixings 26 Road test 234
Body fittings 217, 219, 220 Four stroke cycle 50
Bodywork 217, 218 Fuel filter 68, 76 Scientific terms 240
Brake cylinders 156, 157, 158, Fuel pump 67, 76 Sealants 33
159 Fuse 187 Security 209, 210, 223, 224, 225, 259
Brake shoes and pads 156, 160, 161 Servicing 235, 237
Brakes 42, 45, 155, 221 Gaskets 32, 33 Silencers 96, 97
Breather 123, 124 Gearbox 44, 129, 131, 279, 280 Soldering 29
Bulbs 186 Solvents 23
Hazards 17, 18, 20 Spark plug 108
Camshaft 53, 60 Health and safety 11, 12 Spring 142, 143
Carburettor 66, 68, 70 Heating 84, 90 Standard times 249, 250
Catalytic converter 95, 97, 98 Horn 206 Standards 3
Charging system 198, 215 Hydragas suspension 146, 147 Starter motor 185, 201, 202, 203
Chassis 221 Hydraulics 143, 157, 280 Steering box 169, 172
Cleaning 23 Steering geometry (angles) 171,
Clutch 43, 130 Ignition 62, 63, 102, 106 172, 173
Colour codes 188, 190, 191 Indicators 205 Steering rack 46, 169, 173
Communication 253, 255 Information sources 1, 2, 231, 234, Strut 150, 151
Companies 243, 245 284 Suspension 42, 141
Company structure 246 Inlet 43, 66 Symbols 193, 230
Compression 50, 51, 64 Inspection 228, 232, 236 Synchromesh 132
Compression ignition 67, 68 Inspection records 229, 232, 237
Constant choke/vacuum 70, 71 Instruments 185, 207, 208 Technical data 231, 234, 284
Consumables 26 Invoices 251, 252 Terminals 189
Contract 243, 257 Test equipment 64, 79, 91, 114, 125
Crankshaft 54, 55, 56, 60 Job cards 243, 250, 251 Thermostat 57, 82, 87
Customers 243, 254, 256, 259 Tools 34, 36
CV joint 135, 136 Lights 204, 205 Torque converter 129
Lubrication 118, 119, 121 Two stroke cycle 51
Damper 142, 148, 149 Tyre valve 180
Data books 231, 249, 284 Maths 281 Tyres 176, 178
Detergents 23 MOT test 12, 19, 166, 236 Units 5, 6, 7, 8
Diagnostics 65, 80, 93, 101, 115, 126,
139, 153, 166, 181, 214, 227 Nuts and bolts 26 Valve mechanisms 61
Diesel 48
Diesel injection 67, 68, 76 Oil 118, 119 Warning signs 24, 230
Differential 138 Oil filter 118, 121 Washers 206, 210
Distributor 102, 105 Oil pump 118, 123 Water pump 83
Drawing 283, 284, 285 Oil seals 34 Welding 30
Drive belt 83 Wheels 168, 174, 175
Drive shaft 45, 129, 134 Parts department 248 Wipers 206, 230
Dwell 103, 115 PDI – pre delivery inspection 229 World Wide Web 287

Motor Vehicle Enggg L2 by Tom Denton

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Motor Vehicle Enggg L2 by Tom Denton

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Motor Vehicle Enggg L2 by Tom Denton

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What chapters are covered in the book?

What chapters are covered in the book?

Motor Vehicle

Tom Denton, BA, MIRTE, SAE, Cert. Ed.

For product information and technology assistance,

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Cengage Learning EMEA

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

For your lifelong learning solutions, visit

Printed by TJ International Ltd, Padstow,

1 Introduction and welcome! 1

I’ve still got the same theory:

Thanks again to the listed companies. If I have used any information or

Last, but by no means least, thank you to my family: Vanda, Malcolm

Unit no. Unit title Level 2 Level 3

2 Ensure your own actions reduce risks to health and safety 2 2

3 Maintain positive working relationships 1, 2 and 19 1, 2 and 15

10 Remove and replace units and components 3 to 16

11 Carry out routine vehicle maintenance 18

12 Diagnose non-complex system faults 5 to 16 (last

13 Diagnose complex system faults 3 and 12

14 Rectify complex system faults 3 to 11

15 Enhance vehicle system features 13

16 Overhaul basic electrical units 15 10

18 Identify and agree customer vehicle needs 19

21 Remove and replace non-structural body panels and components 16

I Facilitate learning through demonstration and instruction (ENTO) 15

Figure 1.1 You need background knowledge for practical work

Figure 1.2 Sources of information

Figure 1.3 Modern test equipment in use

for you to repair a similar fault, only by understanding the underpinning

the workplace. However, assessment in many cases will follow on from a

2 Motor vehicle NVQ units

No. Unit title Interpretation Examples

No. Unit title Interpretation Examples

No. Unit title Interpretation Examples

1 Contribute to good housekeeping M M M M M M M M M M

34 Assess and secure the roadside situation O O O O

Figure 1.4 Collecting evidence for your portfolio

What does it mean? The Modern Apprenticeship is a government initiative. It is to formalise

Requirements Modern Apprenticeship Framework (Advanced)

2 Health and safety regulations

Figure 2.2 A motor vehicle workshop

Figure 2.3 Personal protective equipment (PPE)

■ Personal Protection Equipment at Work (PPE) Regulations 1992

Equipment Notes Example uses

Equipment Notes Example uses

Good working Working in a motor vehicle workshop is a dangerous occupation if you do

Hazard Risk Action

Hazard Risk Action

Figure 2.4 Engine crane and other lifting equipment

Construction of the vehicle

Figure 2.5 Vehicles must be in a safe condition to be used on the road

Driving and operating the vehicle

3 Look after yourself, your workshop and your work

Figure 2.6 Make sure

Figure 2.8 Different types of ﬁre extinguishers

Colour Type How it works Used on DANGER