Folklore History
Folklore History
Folklore History
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Culture is an integrated dynamic whole which consists of common world view or view of life,
common values, goals, meaning, thinking, environment and patters of behaviour. These are
acquired, embodied and transmitted through language, status and role systems, modes of
behaviour, music, dance, painting, artifacts and techniques. They are transmitted through a long
tradition and are capable of influencing society. Culture is also what a social group considers as the
best and sum-total of its thinking, living and expressing. It is a living and dynamic reality supported
and nourished by folklore. In this unit you are expected to understand
• Tribal Folklore • Folklore in Tribal Life • Cultural Expression • Village Organisation 2 • Socio-
Religious Customs: Rites of Passage • Annual Feasts and Festivals
1 INTRODUCTION
According to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary this word is made up of folk meaning the great
proportion of the members of a people that determines the group character and that tends to
preserve its characteristic form of civilization and its customs, arts and crafts, legends, traditions and
superstitions from generation to generation. Lore means something that is learned. That is, (a)
knowledge gained through study and experience, (b) traditional knowledge or belief. Folklore thus
means traditional customs, tales, or sayings preserved orally among a people. In a broad sense, it is a
medium through which the soul of a people expresses itself colourfully. Culture has been variously
defined. Thus, one can say that it is ‘a learned behaviour and the products of that behaviour as
opposed to instinctive or biologically determined behaviour’. In its external manifestation, it bears
on tangible realities, activities and ways of conduct of social life, behaviour of people, relation to
their natural environment and other persons and groups; tools and techniques, customs, forms of
instruction, etc. In other words, it means social practice. In its inner formation, it is symbolic
indicating all that transmit meaning. It is the ‘way in which a group of people live, think, feel,
organize themselves, celebrate and share life. In every culture, there are underlying systems of
values, meanings and view of the world, which are expressed visibly in language, gestures, symbols,
rituals and styles.
TRIBAL FOLKLORE
Origin Myths
A common feature of many cultures of the world is to have ancient story traditions explaining
human frailty and cosmic order. There are many tribal narratives in this line highlighting human fall
with a subsequent action of God. One of such narratives among the major tribal groups in the
Central-Eastern region of India is as follows:
Destruction
God found the earth infested with undesirable elements. So, one day He decided to destroy
mankind. He rained down fire day and night. He told the monkey to beat his drum as a sign that half
the earth was thus cleansed. The monkey stationed himself on a high ebony tree. He was taken up in
enjoying the ripe fruits of the tree. He forgot all about his duty until the fire scorched his hind
quarters! The bark of the tree turned black. In this rain of fire a pair of a male and a female humans,
a boy and a girl, hid themselves in a crab-hole of a paddy field.
Preservation
When the whole earth had thus been burnt, God did not get offerings from human beings for His
own food. And He was sad. His divine beloved, seeing this, knew it was time to spring her surprise,
which her own foresight had prepared. She told Him to go to the paddy field hunting. He went,
taking His hawk on a golden staff accompanied by His dogs. They scented the two human beings
saved by His divine beloved. The boy and the girl ran and hid themselves in a crab hole and said:
“See grandfather, they will bite us.” And God answered: “No grandchildren, they will not harm you.
Delightedly, He then brought them home and looked after them affectionately. He taught them to
plough and cultivate. He gave them seeds for cultivation. Whenever crops failed, they approached
Him for a remedy. Tribals have a very familiar attitude to God. The image they have of Him is that of
a grandfather. Their relationship with the grandfather is very cordial, familiar and spontaneous with
complete faith and trust in him. This is how they understand and see God who is provident in looking
after them.
Procreation
The boy and the girl, till this time, used to sleep side by side but they discreetly used to place a
log/husking pole between themselves. On God’s advice they drank rice beer one night and when
they were drunk God solemnly invited the boy, “If you cross the log/husking pole mankind will
multiply!” The boy did so and mankind multiplied and filled the whole earth! Thus, God imparted to
the first human couple the secret of procreation.
Comment
It is common in ancient cultures to attribute human shape and characteristics to God. This
anthropomorphism, as a way to speak understandably about divine mysterious realities reveals the
basic personality of each people and their culture as they identify themselves in close fellowship
with the godhead itself. Through this delightfully familiar symbolism, the tribal myth seeks to bring
light to bear on their origins. This story communicates a profoundly optimistic view and a sense of
general well-being. For tribals, life is the way it has been ordained by God.
Tribals live in a symbiotic union with nature. Hence the rural population enjoys a deep familiarity
and bond with both animate and inanimate creatures. Tribal folk-tales reflect this close communion
in which pride of place is always given to human beings, because they have intelligence and wisdom.
This can be illustrated with one hilarious tale of a tailless jackal as follows:
A certain old man used to cross a river every day in order to go and plough his fields. His wife would
dutifully carry him his rice for the noonday meal. One day a jackal met the wife and asked her:
“Where are you going, old lady?” “Child I am taking rice to the old man.” The jackal craftily said to
her: “Mother, you are aged and the river already has much water in it. I am going to help you
across.” As the old lady was about to enter the water, the jackal suggested, “Mother, I shall take the
rice upon my head. You just hold on to my tail.” During the crossing of the river, the jackal ate half of
the rice. And every day without failing he tricked the old lady, so that when the food was brought to
her husband it was clear that half had already been scooped away. So one day the old man asked:
“Wife, why do you bring me regularly rice, part of which has been taken away?” The old lady
answered, “Husband, every day on my way here, I meet a certain jackal. It is he who plays the cheat
and eats off half of your full portion of rice.” The next day, unknown to anyone, the wife was in the
field and the husband at home. In the morning when the sun was high up, the old man combed his
long hair, put on a lady’s long garment, sharpened a razor, and set off with a pot of rice on his head,
just as his wife usually did. Near the river he came upon the jackal: “Where do you go, old lady?” the
jackal asked in mock politeness. “Child, I am taking rice to the old man,” said the husband in
disguise. Pat came the invitation from the jackal, “There is much water in the river. How will you
cross it? I shall carry your rice and you take hold of my tail!” So they set off. But as soon as the jackal
started to eat the rice the old man took out his razor and cut his tail clean off! In great surprise the
jackal turned round, saw what had happened, and only then he recognized the old man. Angry and
ashamed that he had lost his tail, the jackal threatened, “Wait a bit, old man! I will cover the handle
of your plough with filth!” The clever old man ordered some sharp pointed nails to be made by the
village smith and then he fixed them into his plough-handle. When the unsuspecting jackal came and
sat on the handle, he got his own seat damaged!
With his pride hurt again, the jackal warned: “Wait a bit, old man! You have cheated me, but I shall
have your fowls for my meal!” True to his threat, soon after the jackal came with a whole pack of
jackals to rob the old man of his fowls. But the farmer was ready for the attack. He had already
removed the chickens from their house and he himself was there armed with a scythe. When the
jackals entered the chicken house, the old man gave a touch of his weapon and they shouted: “Oh
brothers, a huge cock is there! And it pecks very hard!” The tailless jackal was not afraid of any cock,
so he too entered and the old man inflicted a good gash into him. The jackal ran off shouting: “You
fellows! What you call a cock, is really the old man!” Again he made a threat: “Wait a bit, old man,”
he said. “I shall have all of your pumpkins!” So the wise old man plucked all the pumpkins off his
roof. He then covered his body with ashes, and hid himself there amid the leaves. Once more the
jackal took some associates with him for a night robbery. As soon as the jackals got up upon the
roof, the old man gave them each a good hard and rough push. The jackals cried: “Oh brothers, the
old man’s pumpkins are butting frightfully!” Then came the tailless jackal’s turn to go to the roof for
the pumpkins. Just as he came onto the roof, the old man gave him such a sharp blow that he
jumped off and ran away shouting: “You fellows, what you call the old man’s pumpkins, is really the
old man himself!” So, this is the way it went: Neither could the old man kill the tailless jackal, nor
could the tailless jackal rob the old man of anything.
In the end, the man and his wife held a council: “How shall we lure all those jackals together and
make an end of them, once and for all?” they asked. They devised a plan and this is what it was. One
day the old lady seated herself at the door of her house and cried out in lament: “My husband is
dead! What shall I do?” The jackals said to her: “Old lady, you must prepare a funeral repast. And
you will invite us, won’t you?” The clever woman said: “Why shouldn’t I invite you, children?” What
did she do then? She collected a good quantity of dry cow dung and pebbles. After hiding away her
husband, she invited all the jackals for the feast. When they had all gathered, she made the cow
dung into a heap over the pebbles, and then set fire to it. Each time she would take a stone out, she
would drop it into water and it hissed violently. Deceived the jackals greedily shouted: “Give it to
me, granny! Give it to me granny!” The old lady replied: “Wait, Children! If you allow the cooking its
time, there will be nice cakes for all! I will give you each your share!” Finally she said: “Come on
children! The cooking is over!” As the impatient jackals approached, she said: “Children if you remain
as you are, you will rob one another, or you will have a fight. So come, I shall tie you all down with
ropes to keep peace.” And so she tied them all with ropes, and the tailless jackal she bound with a
chain. Now that they were captive all, and seated in a row, she shouted. “Come quick, old man, ho!
ho!” The jackals asked: “What do you say, old lady?” She replied, “Children, I was only calling out my
husband’s ancestors.” With that, out of his concealment came the old man with a large wooden
hammer in hand and he began to beat all those jackals one after the other up and down the row.
When he came to the tailless jackal, he gave him such a thrashing that his chain snapped. At this
sight, the other jackals too, vehemently pulling their ropes, broke them, and they all ran for their
lives, each in a different direction and from that day they never were seen nor heard of again.
Summer evening hours are generally spent by children gathered around some old man listening to
him telling them such tales in the village for hours enchanted till sleep got the better of them.
Folklore is a means not only to entertain children but also to teach them values, attitudes towards
life and relationships.
Riddles
They have been yet another means of entertainment and pastime that have a real
communitybuilding role among the tribals. At leisure time at night, when they come together after
the day’s work, both young and old revel in telling practical jokes and riddles. They enter into a lively
competition to outdo one another with these mind-teasers. Such competitive superiority hurts no
one – it is good fun for everyone to enjoy. Riddles also present a good glimpse into the symbolic
nature of the tribal mind and a graphic feature of their language. Here are some examples:
1. As a youngster there were four feet, turned adult there were only two, and when old there were
three. What is it? (A human being!)
2. A prince royal cannot bear up with the most insignificant cause of pain. What is it? (The eye!)
4. Fire has broken out in one village, the smoke rises in another, while the alarm is given in a third.
What do you say of this? (It is the hookah, a smoking device with three different parts!)
5. Flesh inside, bowels outside. What is it? (The paddy bale!) 6. A flower droops all day, but at night
it blooms. What is it? (A mat!)
7. As one takes this baby in arms, it creates a din, but when one lays it down, it keeps quiet. What is
it? (The drum!)
8. A girl, after raking up her sweepings, takes her station at the back of the house. Who is she? (A
comb!)
9. This tiny fellow knocks down big, strappy, powerful men. Who is he? (Rice beer!)
10. A water spring coming out of dry wood. What is it? (An oil press!)
11. A broad, flat fish flounders about in a few drops of water. What is it? (The tongue!) 8
12. Held with the hand, it does not hold in the hand. What is it? (An umbrella!)
Proverbs
They are perhaps the best example of refined tribal sentiments. Tribals are basically
people of deep emotions, they relish delicate feelings. Proverbs are the means through which they
reflect their sophisticated manners and social attitudes. They are also excellent examples of tribal
wisdom which is based on their concrete experience rather than on cerebral activity. Some
illustrations follow:
1. With men who are perpetually hanging about their wives’ petticoats have no social
interaction.
Comment: For a male tribal, it is a gentle reminder that though tribal women are strong
characters, husbands are not to be over-dependent on them.
2. A pig does not forget the taste of beer leftovers.
Comment: This is a symbolic language and refers both to the tendency to vice and to people
who have an incorrigible taste for vice – particularly fornication and adultery.
3. When they find the bird-dirt people say, ‘The birds have lodged here for the night!’
Comment: The image of bird-dirt merely insinuates an illicit relationship.
4. Danger from a tiger in the home, danger from a tiger in the jungle, whither can I run?
Comment: There are certain inescapable problems and a person simply has to face up to
them. Nothing is gained by trying to escape an inescapable responsibility!
5. Shall I tie the yoke to the plough with the bullock’s tail?
Comment: A tribal who is poor and without any means expresses his helplessness and brings
home to listeners his wretched condition through this graphic agricultural proverb.
6. If you take only one cupful, they say, the cow charges at you; take a cupful more! 9
Comment: It is commonly used in drinking parties, and means that etiquette and good
manners require that you accept a second helping. It is symbolic of tribal hospitality and
sensitivity.
7. You will see your parents’ wedding!
Comment: It is used to admonish young, mischievous boys and girls, to caution and
admonish them against misadventure and danger. It would mean, “Don’t court trouble,
don’t endanger your life, don’t take undue risks!”
8. Verily, how moonlike shines your face!
Meaning: Indeed, you are too good to be true.
9. Everything else may be washed away, but the clan won’t.
Meaning: It is not easy to forget one’s kin.
10. If not while only a sapling, never when it is a tree.
Meaning: Evils must be remedied before it is too late.
Cosmology
Tribals often express their perception of truth and their experience of life not in conceptual
language but in their own characteristically graphic, down-to-earth manner. It is the form of
myths and fables which satisfy their questionings. Thus, for example, to explain lunar phases
they tell the following tale:
One day the moon invited the sun to dinner and gave him a good meal of sweet potatoes
cooked in butter. These were so delicious, that the sun asked what the food was and how it
had been prepared, for he wanted to have the same menu again. The moon shamefacedly
confessed that the food she had served were her own children. “Well,” said the sun, “my
children must be as good as yours!” So saying, he killed them all. Only as he began to eat
them did he realize that he had been tricked. So he went in a rage to punish the moon.
Seeing him coming, the moon hid behind a mango/banian tree. The sun 10 saw this ruse and
with his sharp sword he slashed the moon. At the same time, he cursed her saying: “Now
you shall keep that cut all your life! You will try to get cured every month. But as soon as you
think you are all right, the cut will reappear and go on increasing.” And so it is. From that
time onwards we have the different phases of the moon. The shadow of the mango/banian
tree remains printed upon the moon’s face. From that time, also, the moon carefully
remains hidden from the sun. She appears only when she knows that he has gone to sleep.
Astronomical Legends
Tribals weave beautiful legends about stars, planets and galaxies. They are also accustomed
to create stories about everything and anything that make up the situation and condition of
their everyday domestic life and work. These are good expressions of their rich, aesthetic
grasp of reality. They show how the tribal mind revels in contemplation of the beauty and
mystery of creation. They take much pride in knowing and relating these traditions. So goes
the story of the heavenly constellations Orion and Pleiades
God made the plough for the boy and girl, first ancestors of human beings. With it they were
to till the earth and bring it under cultivation. It took Him seven days and seven nights to
make this implement Now, while He was making the plough, a certain tiger came to frighten
and attack Him. To protect Himself He threw a handful of wooden chips upon the tiger, and
sent His wild dog after it. So, the wild dog went after the tiger and ever since the wild dog
has become a bitter enemy of tigers.
God again set about making the plough. He saw a dove sitting on her eggs. He aimed his
hammer at the dove and threw it but it fell short. He next threw his file at it, again He
missed, and the dove flew away from its nest. This dove became a star and the double eggs,
double stars, and the hammer became the Pleiades, while the file became Orion.
Folk Song and Dance
The underlying current of tribal living is a sense of celebration. It is an exultation of life that
finds spontaneous expression in song and dance. The jovial and celebrative character of
tribal personality is best portrayed in their strong musical tradition. Song and dance are
effective ways in which tribals express themselves creatively, sharing their experience of life,
their emotions, their history and, above all, their irrepressible hope and joy-in-living.
Folk Song
The theme of tribal songs may be about any life-event: birth, marriage, death, ploughing,
sowing, reaping, etc. These are daily life-experiences: pain and suffering, joy and sorrow,
success and failure, frustration and aspiration. Tribal song is a deeply poetic expression. It
may just be sung, or it may be accompanied by dramatization, movement and dance. It is
never a solo performance. Song accompanied by dance is always in the community, with the
community and for the community
It is important to remember that tribal songs are sung according to different seasons during
the year and those who sing are carried away by the rhythm of the season they are in. They
witness the signs of nature and events facing them, surrounding them and affecting them. It
is that experience of feeling and emotion that they give expression through songs. For
example, they sing when they see clouds gathering on the distant horizon. They know that
the pre-monsoon winds are building up and so one of the soothing songs they sing is as
follows: Pour down, you dark clouds!
Shower you rains, why tarry!!
Comment: This song, thus, gives voice to their eager and joyous anticipation of the rains
which bring relief and prosperity. So, as the clouds and breezes are as if ready for
celebration, people’s deep emotions burst forth in thankful anticipation. Experience has
taught them how to read the signs of late summer days just before the incoming monsoon.
With its rains there is a promise for plenty of (a) water in fields, ponds and rivers, (b) crops in
the land, and (c) greenery and fruits in the forest!
Same observation as above follows in some important life-events like marriage. From their
marriage tunes one gets a glimpse into the wealth of tribal poetic simplicity. One such
example is as follows:
Come out and look, O mother dear! Are they not the kin, here? From the East do they come
and enter Are they not the kin, here? Comment: This song is sung during the very first phase
of marriage negotiations, when the mediators from the prospective bridegroom’s family
arrive at the house of the prospective bride. By proxy it expresses the excitement and joy
felt by the latter.
Folk Dance
Folk song is accompanied with community dance. Rural tribals spend their evenings during
both lean agricultural seasons and festivals in singing and dancing. “The tribe that dances
does not die,” states Verrier Elwin, India’s famous anthropologist. In fact, song and dance
are important ways in which tribals express, relive and relieve their emotions. Over the
centuries they have built up a tradition, a whole cycle of song and dance corresponding to
their agricultural and social customs. They have different kinds and styles of seasonal songs
and dances. It is characteristic of tribal song and dance that they are performed in a variety
of ways. Some songs are only sung while others are sung and danced. Some others are sung
and danced accompanied by instruments. Tribal dance is rendered by groups of performers
locked arm-to-arm, arm-toshoulder or arm-to-waist, moving in beautiful, undulating waves.
CULTURAL EXPRESSION
Folk culture in a tribal society is seen in the following four different forms:
Oral tradition: These include mostly verbal arts or expressive literature consisting of spoken,
sung and voiced forms of traditional utterances like songs, tales, poetry. Ballads, anecdotes,
rhymes, proverbs and elaborate epics.
Material Culture: These are visible aspects of folk behaviour, such as, skills, recipes and
formulae as displayed in rural arts and crafts, traditional motifs, architectural design,
clothes, fashions, farming, fishing and various other types of tools and machinery
Social Folk Customs: these are areas of traditional life that emphasize the group rather than
the individual skills and performances. They include large family and community
observances and relate to rites of passages, such as, birth, initiation, marriage and death or
annual celebrations, festivals, fairs, ritual and ceremonial gatherings, market occasions and
rural meets.
Performing Arts: These consist of traditional music, masquerades, dance and drama.
Among these, the oral tradition and the performing arts appear to be the main media of
communication, Storytellers, singers, minstrels and other kinds of folk entertainers have
acted for centuries as sources for the transmission and dissemination of news and
information through face-to-face live communication. Families, social groups and
community gatherings served as the main platforms of communication and sources for
feedback for the folk performers. The values, attitudes, beliefs and culture of the people are
propagated, reinforced and perpetuated through these folk forms. The issues in a society are
depicted in the form of satire by the folk artists for curing societal evils.
Material Culture Every tribal group develops techniques of work that respond to the
demands of the environment, to the capacity, creativity and level of living standard of the
group. Hunters, fishers, farmers of different tribal cultures have markedly different
techniques of hunting, fishing and tilling the soil. So, also it is from the way of playing,
singing, painting, cooking and the like that it can be decided whether one tribal group is
different from the other or not. 14 Technology and economy fall under material culture.
They play an important role in shaping the mode of life of any tribal group. When the group
is small, its technology is simple, resources are scarce and the problem of survival is most
important. In order to survive in his material surroundings, a tribal develops techniques,
invents some instruments and uses them for earning his food, making his clothes and
constructing his shelter.
There is no tribal society without methods of production, distribution and consumption and
some forms of exchange and some expression of value in terms of monetary or other
symbols. The economy of the majority of tribals is agriculture-based economy. Land is their
biggest asset and agriculture is their main occupation though forest produce is equally
important in their economy. For agricultural activities they depend very much on the help of
their animals, especially for manuring and ploughing their fields and threshing their crops.
They have two kinds of agricultural land, (a) upland, and (b) lowland. In the former they
grow crops which require less water whereas in the latter they grow paddy and wheat crops
which require more water.
The economy of tirbals is mainly consumption based economy. They do not bother about
saving or investing for the future. If their produce is plentiful for consumption for the year,
they are quite satisfied. Other necessary things for everyday life are obtained through
exchange. Nowadays, money is being used more than the barter system even in remote
villages.
Other occupations like weaving, basket-making, pottery, blacksmithing, tanning, etc. are
best left to their low class Hindu neighbours among the tribals of Central-Eastern region of
India. However, in the case of necessity they take up some of these works, too, as a part
time job. They are very reluctant to take up trade as their occupation. Even those who take
up this job are rarely found successful in it. They would prefer to sit in the office holding
some job but would have no patience to sit in the shop! Being educated they are now going
for jobs in public as well as private sectors. With mining and industries coming in their areas,
even the uneducated ones among them are going to work in them as unskilled labourers.
Hariari
When seedlings get ready for transplantation, it is celebrated on a day fixed for it. The
village priest prays to God to give His blessing upon green plants in the field and protect
them against all dangers and help them to yield rich harvest. After this he goes to his field
and plants five sheaves of seedlings. Following it other members of the village may begin to
transplant in their fields too.
Karam
celebration begins on 11th day of the lunar month of Bhado (August-September) and
continues till the harvest season. Although the feast is meant to ensure protection of
standing crops, it is primarily the feast of unmarried girls who have been recently engaged.
They pray for the blessing of healthy children in their future life in order to perpetuate the
family, clan and tribe.
On the karam feast day, the unmarried girls who want to take part in the ceremonies keep
fast. Towards the evening, young men and women of the village go in procession to a karam
tree singing, dancing and drumming. One of the young men, cuts three branches from it.
These branches are caught in mid air by the girls who carry them in dance procession to the
village priest’s courtyard. He and his wife together plant the branches in the middle of the
dance ground. The girls after their light refreshment gather there and sit in a wide circle
around the karam 25 branches to listen to the story narrating God’s blessings upon human
beings. After this, young men and women of the village proceed to dance the whole night
around the karam branches symbolizing God the Creator.
Nawakhani
It is celebrated in the lunar month of Kuwanr (September-October) when the first paddy
crop is ready for harvest. The head of each household sacrifices a chicken to the ancestor
spirits in gratitude for giving the gift of life, land and livestock to their descendants. The
choicest portion of the festal meal is first offered to them and ritual rice beer is poured for
them and prayers are made for their blessing and protection upon the family members.
Soharai
This feast is kept on the eve of the new moon day in the lunar month of Kartik
(OctoberNovember). It is celebrated to honour the cattle helpful in agriculture. Occasionally,
a fowl is sacrificed by the head of the family to the spirit of cowshed. Cattle are
indispensable for the tribals in agriculture. They are the tribe’s most prized gift and
possession given by God who had given oxen to the first human beings to plough their fields
and grow crops for their livelihood. Thus, cattle are the gift of God and therefore man needs
to take care of them.
Khalihani
It is celebrated in the lunar month of Aghan (November-December). On behalf of the village
community, the village priest on this occasion prays to God in the morning of the feast day
at his threshing floor for getting plenty of grain in their threshing activity.
Maghe
It is celebrated in the month of Magh (January-February) to honour a house servant. The
housewife washes his feet, applies oil on his hair and combs it. She then offers him rice beer.
After tasting it if he says, ‘it tastes good, it is delightful!’ then it is a sign that he wishes to
continue to give his service to the family for yet another year. If he wishes to discontinue his
service, he would remain silent. The willing servant is kept while the unwilling one is
released after paying him duly as per agreement. 26 Thus, the annual feasts among the
tribals centre around the good of the family, clan and tribe which is their highest good.
Concretely, they are connected with the health and prosperity of their children, cattle and
crop ensuring continuation and happiness of the tribe. The feasts thus manifest the common
worldviews of the tribals. They also show how the tribals live their core values during the
annual cycle of their agricultural life. Thus, they support and strengthen the socio-cultural
identity of the tribals in the multi-cultural Indian society.
Tribals often express their perception of truth and experience of life not in conceptual
language but in their own characteristically graphic, down-to-earth manner. It is the form of
myths and fables which satisfy their questionings. They weave beautiful legends about stars,
planets and galaxies. They are also accustomed to create stories about everything and
anything that make up the situation and condition of their everyday domestic life and work.
These are good expressions of their rich, aesthetic grasp of reality. They show how the tribal
mind revels in contemplation of the beauty and mystery of creation.
Storytellers, singers, minstrels and other kinds of folk entertainers have acted for centuries
as sources for the transmission and dissemination of news and information through face-to-
face live communication. Families, social groups and community gatherings served as the
main platforms of communication and sources for feedback for the folk performers. The
values, attitudes, beliefs and culture of the people are propagated, reinforced and
perpetuated through these folk forms. The issues in a society are depicted in the form of
satire by the folk artists for curing societal evils.
Each tribe is divided into a number of clans named after totems, such as, animals, birds, fish,
plants, minerals, etc. with solidarity of particular human groups of common ancestry. They
are names standing for persons to whom one’s ultimate ancestors can be traced back. It is
this which is the foundation of marriage outside one’s own clan. It is for the same reason
that sexual union between persons of the same clan is regarded as union between close
family members.
. The annual feasts among the tribals centre around the good of the family, clan and tribe
which is their highest good. Concretely, they are connected with the health and prosperity of
their children, cattle and crop ensuring continuation and happiness of the tribe. The feasts
thus manifest the common worldviews of the tribals. They also show how the tribals live
their core 30 values during the annual cycle of their agricultural life. Thus, they support and
strengthen the socio-cultural identity of the tribals in the multi-cultural Indian society.
These definitions cannot be valid. According to Dundes, “The term folk can refer to any
group of people, whatsoever, who share at least one common factor. It does not matter
what the linking factor is – it could be a common occupation, language, or religion – but
what is important is that a group is formed for whatever reason it calls its own.”
Folk culture cannot be demarcated through geographical notions or by literary reasons
alone. It can belong to people of similar race, gender, religion or occupation. It can cut
across geographical boundaries and have close human to human interaction. It can also be
shaped by technology and modern society. For example, net surfers all across the world can
have their own kind of folk culture that distinguishes them from others. Folk always implies
some kind of collectivity as it is a shared experience, common to more than one person.
Even though it is created by one individual, a folk culture cannot become one unless it is
shared and is collective. It is not necessary that all the folk members should know one
another. They can be distant and not connected in any manner.
Folk does not necessarily imply rural or lower class. There can be a strong urban literate folk.
As discussed above, television, computers, telephone all have impacted folk genres such as
jokes, songs, stories and myths. It also has become a great tool in the transmission and the
generation of new folk culture.
Folk culture is alive and vibrant. In the 19th century folklore was considered to be a dead
culture. However, it would wrong to assume so. It is deeply connected with a vibrant ever
changing cultural tradition of any region. It can change its meaning and significance over
time but the essence remains the same. For example, certain jokes and proverbs have no
longer any social significance. However, they still will belong to folk culture.
To many, folklore implies some kind of falsity and fantasy. Folk tales and stories often are
considered to be based on incorrect facts and myths. While it is true for some genres of
folklore, like tales and stories, it would be wrong to imply that all forms of folk culture have
some notions of falsehood inherent in it. It is very much based on the material life of the
people and some forms like theatre and performance are very much based on tangible truth.
Folk culture comprises of learned habits, beliefs, rituals, institutions and expressions of the
people. However this is not strictly limited to oral habits and could include material culture
as well. This is closely associated with the notions of a folk society which is a group of
individuals who are organized around some common interest. Both folk culture and folk
society thus go together.As described earlier the notions of folk culture has greatly changed.
The initial ideas of folk culture were based on ideal, romantic ideas and saw the folk culture
as that of the rural and common people. It was also linked up with nationalism. However
folk culture truly encompasses all.
Definitions of scholars of folklore range and differ. According to Klintberg, it stands for,
“traditional cultural forms that are communicated between individuals through words and
actions and tend to exist in variation.” However folk are comprised by all and everyone in
society. Scholars have long believed that folklore is communicated orally through informal
methods or means. They also believe that since folklore is largely verbal it can differ greatly
with every instance of communication.
However, informal means of communication should not be seen as the sole methods as it
can be transmitted through a variety of methods and numerous ways. Both print and visual
media often communicate folk ideas. Well known artists also have communicated their
thoughts through their artistic creations such as theatre, dance or paintings. For example,
the very famous playwright Girish Karnad has explored folk motifs in his plays Hayavadana.
Folklore is deeply connected with tradition. As tradition involves change and continuity,
cultural symbols, items and icons of folklore all undergo a process of change. Folklore,
hence, is in a continuous process of flux and is inherently dynamic. Folklore is deeply
connected to the social life and its processes of change and alterations. Hence this is an
artistic process that is both creative and imaginative and in a state of flux and change.
Folklore often has an inherent inconsistency in it. Often we see that certain principles and
standards held by the people are often challenged. On the other hand, folklore also
maintains set and standard cultural values. This can be seen in folksongs where values such
as love between the mother and child, family bonding, patriotism, unity between man and
nature etc are constantly upheld. Folklore hence can bind people together like in the case of
songs or separate them as in the case of humiliating jokes. Contrasts are hence inherent in
folklore
. Folklore can be global or local, national or international, personal or public. For example,
folktales of the hero rescuing a princess from the clutches of evil are universal but tales from
the region of Rajasthan, like that of Dhola maru, are local in nature. Folklore is deeply
connected with aesthetics and the appreciation of beauty, for example, art and folk crafts.
This is defined by the folklorists in the sense of style and artistry. Some scholars do not
consider jokes, riddles or everyday art objects like clay pots and fabrics as being creative or
aesthetic. However, art objects or everyday idioms, speech patterns and verbal utterances
are artistic patterns of communication
Folklore also remains deeply authentic and reliable. This is in contrast to high culture where
authenticity rests with the individual and this also determines originality. In folklore on the
other hand authorship is anonymous. However, in folklore the continuity of tradition proves
to its authenticity.
FUNCTION
Psychological or individual
Folklore is largely personal and is shaped through people’s behaviours, motivations and habits. By
and large folklore is entertaining; it thus fulfills an amusement amongst the community members.
Jokes, riddles, metaphors, tales and performances as well as the arts highly entertain the people.
These forms of folklore provide entertainment to the people. It is a well thought out distraction from
the humdrum and the daily needs of life. Stories and anecdotes assert often cultural symbols and
values and shape individuality. Archetypes and heroic figures instill courage and love amongst the
listeners. Folk customs, rituals and narrative enrich individual interaction with the community.
Stories that emphasize good over evil, wicked demons getting slain, witches getting locked up in
cages and thrown away immediately gratify the viewer. Folklore maintains group cohesion and
interaction, for example children’s games further bond the child not only to his mother but also
make him cooperate and bond with his entire community. Superstitions, games and riddles often
reflect the social context. Individual and social taboos are also either reinforced or denigrated by the
folklore. For example, we find several jokes on toilets and excretion or we see in folksongs certain
taboo relations such as between the wife and her brother-in-law are often talked with great
freedom and no restraint is placed on such topics. Myths and legends either mirror or distort the
reality of the society and reflect the individual’s position in society. In the famous Hindu ballad, the
Ramayana, a position of the woman shown as Sita is banished from her kingdom but at the same
time she has an exalted position as she is considered to be virtuous and has all the qualities needed
for a good wife
Functional
Folklore gratifies or expresses the hostilities found in the culture and society. Proverbs can help
solve legal decisions, while riddles sharpen wit and humour and reinforce cultural values, myths
validate conduct in the society, and satirical songs release pent up feelings and tensions. All the
above folklore helps the individual to remain in the society. Some tales about nature also talk about
how to grow crops and folk medicines help to cure diseases. Some customs are purely social and can
be described as rites of passage. They help the individual to come closer to society. One such major
rites of passage ritual in India are the thread or the Upanayana ceremony. Weddings can also be
seen as a rite of passage or the new born baby birth ceremony. These customs 13 Conservation and
Preservation: Some Ethical and Legal Issues accompany the change of place, state, social status and
age. In this the social and the physical position of an individual is either altered or reinforced. It is a
cultural socialization process. Some of these transitions might take place once in an individual’s life
for example birth, initiation, death etc.; and may occur daily like when we do our daily prayers, the
change coming from profane to sacred. This theory has been propounded byVan Gennep who
believes that rites of passage accompany every change of place, state, social position and age. Many
of these rites are made public and open to the whole society. Important symbols and values of the
people are often expressed in traditions and passed down from one generation to another. Folklore
hence passes on preexisting ethics and standards of the society. This gets also reinforced through
performances. This hence helps one to connect to the heritage of the society
Religious
Religion is a part of the daily existence of life. This is expressed in everyday belief, speech, story and
song. It also affects both the private practices and pubic ritual activities and also the material life like
clothing, food and objects. Legends about saints like that of Sant Kabir and Tukaram, supernatural
narratives like the myths of Krishna, magic and occult practices all are deeply religious in content.
Talismans and totems, proverbs and sayings, folk songs, dance and theatre, use of devotional texts
etc.are all replete with the concerns of religion. Folk religion however differs from formal state
religion. Religious motifs hence integrate the individual’s ideas and practices into a smooth
transition into human society. Folk belief also gets manifested in healing contexts such as magic,
occultism and medicine. Individuals hence hold these belief systems and express them in personal
and communal demonstrations. It is within this context of religious beliefs that one can see several
instances of human religiosity. The belief system is largely communicative. Furthermore a ritual can
be easily observed in the group and is also an expressive form of any religion. Rituals have social
dimensions and they are quite different from personal actions of an individual. They consist of
number of rites or verbal and non verbal communications. Some rites are performed to remove
some crisis, for example the practice of occult and shamanism to remove illnesses. These are
attempts to make normal life restored. Some rites are performed periodically, like special rites are
performed while cutting the grain (like that of baisakhi) and rituals for New Year (Gudi padwah in
Gujarat and Pongal in south). The other major rites are initiation rites or the rites of passage that are
associated with different phases of human life such as puberty, birth, old age, marriage etc. Rituals
are an important constituent of religion and are often psychologically determined. It also has hidden
social goals that make ritual symbolic. Rituals also can create a strong sense of body awareness. For
example, in the Ramleela festival ordinary humans are worshipped like gods. Hence their physical
bodies are given much importance. Folklore is not static and requires performance; it also becomes
goal driven. Rituals hence play an important role in transmitting cultural knowledge and religious
symbols and it maintains the functioning of the society from the past to the present
Historical-national
Folklore is a strong cultural symbol that advocates national and ethnic pride. This is primarily done
through the development, preservation, imitation and collection of literature, language and
traditions. These ideas of a strong historical and cultural nationalism arose in the 18th and 19th
century. This greatly emphasized the ideas of the individual and creativity and also it inspired an
interest in antiquity, tradition and folklore. The ideas of Goethe and Rousseau were developed in the
18th century and a greater need arose to recreate and preserve the past. The most significant
contribution to this field was the collection of folktales of the Grimm brothers. This served as an
impetus for the recording and publishing of folklore material all over Europe. The romantic
nationalism also provided for the inspiration to create national epics. In Europe, great interest was
generated in Homer’s works. For example, Elias Lonnrot compiled the Finnish national epic The
Kalevala on the basis of folk poetry. Romantic nationalism also arose in the Soviet Union with a
creation of high cultural form, socialistic in content and international in spirit. In the mid 1930s many
cultural clubs began to be formed, in which the programs consisted of pure folk performances and
gradually texts propagating the political systems began to be devised. They were based on folk
models and new melodies that greatly resembled the older folk songs began to be composed. During
the 20th century we come across the strong notions of nationalism emerging in Asia, Africa and
South America. The role of folklore was diverse in these countries as it ranged from efforts being
made to collect folklore and to also use in various national and cultural movements. Such collections
are crucial therefore in creating a sense of national identity, cultural life and sometimes they have
also provided the impetus to develop a written language. This interest was generated from a deep
desire to reinforce the nation’s self image and to arouse interest in the nation’s own language and
culture. This has also prompted the formation of national archives and publication of folklore
material all over the world. Many performances also have been based on traditional themes and
elements. It is important to note here that this arose from a perspective towards modernity. People
thus created their national language and formed national myths and symbols such as flags, national
anthems and national festivals. It can be said here that Bal Gangadhar Tilak,a very famous freedom
fighter of India revived the Ganesh festival to arouse nationalistic sentiments. Rabindranath Tagore
also is said to have composed many songs that were based on folk songs of Bengal. Some difference
should be made here from political nationalism. A deep interest in folklore studies created a cultural
consciousness or a cultural movement. In this national and patriotic fervor was created through the
use of folklore in music, art, dance, drama and literature. However it should be noted that
nationalism created through the study of folklore can greatly vary according to the different socio-
cultural and political contexts of different nations.
Economic
Folklore has also made great contributions to the economic life style of the people. This can be seen
in the creation of material culture that has economic as well as 15 Conservation and Preservation:
Some Ethical and Legal Issues utilitarian skills. Crafts are one such example. This is a process through
which goods are created by hand. Craft can become essential to the daily utilities of life as well have
some decorative and spiritual functions. They also provide with the basic equipment needed for
domestic life be it tools, furnishings, houses, clothes etc. Craft hence has both utilitarian as well as
aesthetic characteristics. Many scholars today feel that crafting is the process of doing rather than
creating. In addition to historical crafts such as pottery or weaving some scholars feel that non-
canonized traditions such as cooking meals, building houses etc. should be seen as processes of
crafts. Folklore also presents opportunities for consumption and for selling. It has become a pivotal
point through which tourists are attracted. Many crafts bazaars are held all over India that create an
opening for sale and economic transactions. The Dilli haat in Delhi is one such famous crafts bazaar
Cross-cultural
All folklore material is based on commonality and intercultural diffusions. If one understands the
above statement, it can create a cultural cooperation amongst nations. For example, myths seem to
originate in ancient sacrificial fertility rituals. With the passage of time the myths went their separate
ways and rites became customs. This helps us to imagine that we all live in pluralistic, open ended
and free world in which every society possesses its own unique history and values. Folklore hence
creates several opportunities and fulfills several functions. Hence it has several meanings and
creates many new opportunities. It also becomes important to study the various genres of folklore.
The next unit will discuss this
GENRES
Oral literature
Under this category are spoken, sung or merely voiced forms of verbal communications that show
some repeated behaviour. This is sometimes defined as verbal or communicative arts. The details of
the various subgenres are given below: Oral narratives/st
Oral narratives/stories/tales
The need to tell a story and the need to listen to it is ageless. Folk narratives encompass all genres of
oral literature. The tale provides a sense of fantasy to the listener. Industrial expansion and
urbanization has also floated a large number of tales. These tales can be having fictitious, historical,
revered or ridiculed treatments and plots. The characters may be mortal, divine, supernatural or
human.The Panchatantra stories from India are very popular folk narratives
Folk poetry
This can be differentiated from narrative in the manner of its transmission. Sometimes they do not
concentrate on a single poem on its own. Oral epics come under this group. Poetry is often
repetitive, dramatic and exaggerated. This often deals with materials of dramatic local significance.
Epics on the other hand are poems that are highly ornamental dealing with the adventures of
extraordinary people. They can be heroic, romantic and historic. The Mahabharata and the
Ramayana are the two major epics of our country
Proverbs
This can be easily observed and collected and they have been a part of everyday verbal recourses.
These are short, witty traditional expressions that arise as part of our everyday discourse a well as in
highly structured situations like education. For example the saying “from the frying pan into the fire”
They often take a personal circumstance and embody it in a witty form.
Riddles
Riddles are questions that are framed with the purpose of confusing or
testing the wits of those who do not know the answers. Usually they have confusing descriptions
and often describe a scene.
Folk speech
This is a highly informal way of talking that is learned by linguistic acculturation and by observing
language patterns from ones family, friends and associates. Often one describes this as dialect. They
are often subject to regional, class and community peculiarities. It is distinguished from cultivated
and common speech through its pronunciation.
Material culture
In direct contrast to the oral folklore is the physical folk life that can be described as material culture.
This responds to the techniques transmitted across generations and all the processes that are hand
made fall under this group. Some of its important sub genres are described below:
Crafts
Any item having artistic or utilitarian functions, that is hand made and has been passed down by
tradition come under crafts. This is different from art and an occupation. It has immense aesthetic
appeal and requires workmanship.
Art
Any object that gives some pleasure and also serves some practical social or economic purpose can
be called folk art. It should be noted here that if the pleasure giving function predominates, then the
artifact is called art and if a practical function predominates it is called craft. The main purpose is
aesthetic appeal. This object can be more popular and will not be subject to rapidly changing
fashions
Folk architecture
This can be said to be traditional architecture. It is concerned with all traditional aspects of building,
the shapes, sizes and its layouts, such as barns and sheds; the material used and the tools and
techniques of building; the sites chosen and the placement of the various buildings; the uses and
functionality of such buildings.
Folk costumes
The dress of all traditional, ethnic, occupational and sectarian groups that is determined
geographically and expresses the region or the locality comes under this category. This can also be
different for different sects and religions. For example the Muslim ladies wear purdah and the
sardars a turban.
Folk cookery
This can be defined as traditional domestic cookery marked by regional variation. It is the opposite
of commercial and institutional cookery. This includes the study of food themselves, their
composition, their preparation, their preservation, social and psychological functions. It also includes
attitudes, taboos and food habits.
In between the oral literature and material culture lie areas of traditional life that we may call social
folk customs. This is based on group interactions rather than individual skills and performances.
Some of the subgenres include:
Almost all societies periodically set aside some time for celebrations. These are moments of special
significance to the entire community. They can be seasonal, anniversaries of historical events, birth
or death of a hero or god or religious in significance. They might be moments in which some living or
dead person is honoured with feasting and some performance.
This is a form of expressive behaviour and can be non-productive in nature. This is separated from
reality and the goals are in built. The main idea behind the game is recreation and pleasure. Many
folklorists have paid attention traditional games and pastimes.
Folk medicine
This consists of natural or herbal folk medicines and magical religious folk medicines. In the former
cure is sought from herbs, plants, minerals and animal substances while the latter attempts at curing
through charms, holy words and actions, in other words occultism. Ayurveda is one such popular
form of folk medicine.
Folk religion These are orally transmitted popular beliefs amongst the people. This recognizes one
or more deity, spirits ad demons, personal and impersonal power, ghosts, fate, luck and magic. In
this rationalism and science makes very little impact. They also embrace the attitudes, behaviours
and cultural values of the people.
These are conscious presentations by individuals or groups with folk instruments, dance, costumes
and props. Some of its subgenres are discussed below
: Folk drama They are performances that occur in festivals and rituals. They use conventional
symbols such as masks and costumes and the performance takes place through stylized actions. It is
essentially a public performance and is easily understood by the audiences. They often use
manytechniques such as dancing, singing, bombastic speeches to attract the audiences.
Folk music This is all traditional music that is aurally transmitted and passed down by ear and
performed by memory. It is not written down and also does not have any musical score. The origin
of the music remains largely unknown. It can get highly diffused as it passes down from one
individual to another.
Folk dance A traditional, anonymously choreographed dance that is communally derived can be
called folk dance. It has strong regional or local characteristics. It is usually also expressed
vernacularly and is often a product of change and innovation.
ETIOLOGICALTALES: DEFINITIONS
The word etiology is an explanation of how things came to be or the way they are or were at a given
time and condition. It can be seen in the stories of creation, the origin of man and the development
and growth of plants and animals. This word etiology is taken from Late Latin and Greek word
aetiologia meaning “cause description” or the explanations of occurrences in the world. It has also
been used in a number of other fields like medicine when the causes of certain diseases are referred
to. In the study of folklore, the term etiology is applied to the accounts of incidences in narrative
form. To these definitions belong belief tales, folktales, myths and legends. Any narrative or story
belongs to several kinds of definitions or genres. It also depends highly on the intention of the
narrator or the story’s function is very important. Hence, a traditional account of how things happen
and how a thing originated is taken extremely seriously by both the narrator and the listener.
Folklore primarily focuses on the collective memory or the recollection of a social group in historical
times. It thus also deals with the collective memory of human actions and experiences and also tries
to explain historical occurrences. We can say that etiological tales have strong historical
connotations. Each geographical region has its own rich tradition. Etiological tales are often
connected to the regional history about certain places. To a large extent it explains the cultural
origins of any geographical area. The etiological oral narratives reveal several major historical
anecdotes and facts that get manifested in various forms of folklore like songs and dances. Kerala, a
rich and diverse state of India has several such etiological tales that define many strong historical
origins of the state. One such tale is that of Parasurama. This deals with the origin of Kerala. There
are some major historical books such as Keralolpathi in Malyalam which talk about the coronation of
the kings. We also understand through this text that Kerala extended from Kanyakumari to
Gokarnam.
MEANINGAND SIGNIFICANCE
DEFINITION OF TRADITION
The English term ‘tradition’ has its origin in the Latin root ‘tradere’that implies meanings like
surrender, transfer, handing over, etc. According to Anthony Giddens, ‘tradere’ was originally used
in the context of Roman Law, where it referred to the laws of inheritance. Property 8 Market and
Cultural Property that passed from one generation to another was supposed to be given in trust -
the inheritor had obligations to protect and nurture it.” (1999) Thus, tradition of a particular
community is constituted by its cultural elements that are transferred from one generation to the
other. American Anthropologist Robert Redfield says, “(T)he word ‘tradition’ connotes the act of
handing down and what is handed down from generation to another. Thus tradition carries with it
the sense of age, long continuity and stability” (1962). This is a widely accepted definition of
tradition. According to this view, the concept of tradition has two aspects. The first is a process and
the second is the product of this process. We may take the case of the Indian Classical dances, for
instance, which is a glorious component of the Indian music and culture. For several hundred years
the various forms of Indian Classical dance have been transferred from one generation to the other
through a definite process of teaching and learning either in temples or in the gurukul.The existence
of various gharanas that we know today also testifies to this.
You have already seen above some of the definitions of tradition and the process of production of
tradition. Now we will try to distinguish tradition from dogma. There is a tendency to associate
tradition with negative attributes such as dogma and ignorance. Tracing the history of such a notion
of tradition, British Sociologist Anthony Giddens writes, “(I)t was the 18th Century Enlightenment in
Europe that gave tradition a bad name. Tradition comes to be looked as merely the shadow side of
modernity, an implausible construct that can be easily brushed aside.”(1999) He continues, “The
term ‘tradition’ as it is used today is actually a product of the last 200 years in Europe….in mediaeval
times, there was no generic notion of tradition. There was no call for such a word, precisely because
tradition and custom were everywhere.” The idea of tradition, then, is itself a creation of modernity.
In this context, the comment of T. S. Eliot, one of the most influential poets and intellectual of the
20th century, appears quite significant. Even though considered conservative by certain standard in
his treatment of culture, Eliot, in his celebrated essay, ‘Tradition and Individual Talent’ comments,
“(T)radition is not solely, or 9 Impact of Technology in Transforming Folk Art to Commodity even
primarily the maintenance of certain dogmatic beliefs...We are always in danger, in clinging to an old
tradition, or attempting to re-establish one, of confusing the vital and the unessential, the real and
the sentimental. Our second danger is to associate tradition with the immovable.” (1953: 20-21) He
further says, “(T)radition...involves a historical sense...and the historical sense involves a perception
not only of the pastness of the past, but also of its presence.”(ibid: 23). What is implied in Eliot’s
comment is that the way in which the presence is influenced by the past, the idea of the past may
also be modified according to the present need. Thus, it is not correct to hold that tradition has only
to do with the past. The truth is that tradition marches on incorporating new elements without
divesting its linkage with the past. Here, a statement of the noted British folklorist Edwin Sidney
Hartland is worth noting. He writes, “(T)radition is always being created anew, and new traditions of
modern origin are as much within our province as the ancient ones.” (1978: 23) Thus, the idea of
tradition is not connotative of something static; it is rather a dynamic concept. Some examples
should drive home the point more clearly
In this section, we will try to understand what the basic issues in the debate are over ‘invented’ and
‘genuine’ aspects of tradition in a society. Hobsbawm in his ‘Introduction’to The Invention of
Tradition gives an outline of his understanding of invented traditions.According to him, “invented
tradition” is “a set of practices, normally governed by overtly or tacitly accepted rules and of a ritual
or symbolic nature, which seeks to inculcate certain values and norms of behaviour by repetition,
which automatically implies continuity with the past” (1983: 1). He distinguishes ‘invented’ from
‘genuine’ traditions by claiming that in the former case continuity with the “historic past” is “largely
factitious” (ibid: 2). Hobsbawm further argues that the invention of tradition is universal, but occurs
most frequently during periods of “rapid” social change (ibid: 4), when the “functions” of invented
traditions are to legitimize “relations of authority” and to establish or symbolize “social cohesion or
the membership of groups, real or artificial communities” (ibid: 9). For Hobsbawm, these functions
made invented traditions particularly useful at a time when the emergence of mass politics posed
problems of social control to the authorities of large, centralized political entities. However,
Hobsbawm and Ranger go on to contend that invented traditions and customs are not genuine ones.
They are manufactured often with certain objective which has mostly to do with acquiring power.
But the contention that invented traditions are not genuine is challenged by many other scholars.
Eminent British sociologistAnthony Giddens, for example, argues, “all traditions are invented
traditions. No traditional societies were wholly traditional, and traditions and customs have been
invented for a diversity of reasons. We shouldn’t suppose that the conscious construction of
tradition is found only in the modern period. Moreover, tradition always incorporates power,
whether they are constructed in a deliberate way or not. Kings, emperors, priests and others have
long invented traditions to suit themselves and to legitimise their rule. It is a myth to think of
traditions as impervious to change. Traditions evolve over time, but also can be quite suddenly
altered or transformed…they are invented and reinvented.” (1999)
Tradition is not only re-invented, existing traditions might also require some innovation from time to
time for their sheer survival in a changing context. For example, various genres of the traditional
Indian classical music like songs, dances, and instruments have undergone various innovations in
order to suit the 13 Impact of Technology in Transforming Folk Art to Commodity demand of a
changing time as well as context (from gurukul or royal courts to theatres and audio-visual media). In
the process, these genres have been presented today more as packaged versions of their earlier
selves. Again, there are cases of items which were traditionally used for some specific purposes. For
example, a decorated hookah (oriental water pipe for smoking) and a sword were two
quintessentially traditional items of the feudal era. They are hardly used in the same contexts today.
But they have not disappeared and have found new uses as decorative pieces. Similarly, ethnic
dresses and ornaments in present times have also come out of their traditional socio-cultural spaces
and have found new domains of uses which not only ensures their survival but also new expansion.
Such innovation or exploration of new uses has also given a new lease of life to these traditional
items. Such examples can be multiplied.
Let us now focus on the modernization of tradition. Tradition even might need to be consciously
modernized from time to time on the same ground that has been mentioned above. Such steps are
warranted for adding efficiency, sustainability or finesse to the traditional artifacts. For example, one
cannot afford to be resistant to introducing new technology in agriculture just for the sake of
maintaining the tradition of plough cultivation. However, such straightforward examples may not
always serve to illustrate the issue clearly. Modernizing traditional material culture (say, the shift
from plough to mechanized form of agriculture) is relatively easy. But the kind and degree of change
that it might bring to the non-material culture (say, the customs, beliefs, etc. associated with the
plough cultivation) is the main cause of concern. The latter is more resistant to any change as it is
deeply ingrained in the worldview of the people. Even a sudden change (indeed imposed from the
above) in the realm of material culture is also not without problem. For example, an abrupt shift
from the plough to mechanized cultivation may prove quite disjunctive in the peasant way of life in
the sense that it may result in the loss of traditional occupations of a variety of people deeply
intertwined with a peasant economy characterized by a preponderance of the use of plough.
Therefore, any conscious attempt at modernizing a tradition should be such that the targeted people
can absorb the impact of change with relative ease.
However, it should be made clear at this point that while the changeability of tradition is an
accepted fact, this change, however, gets legitimacy only within a definite framework with respect
to time, space, and the degree of change. In other words, a new tradition, in order to get some
popular legitimacy must have some functional, physical or emotional, relevance for the society.
Moreover, some relation with the past traditions also helps new traditions acquire popular
legitimacy. It is seen that many new traditions arrive riding on the back of the old traditions. The key
issue accounting for the legitimacy of the new tradition is its anchorage in the life experiences of the
people in a given socio-cultural milieu. In this context, a debate among folklorists regarding ‘genuine’
and ‘spurious’ folklore is also worth noting. While there has been a tendency among a section 14
Market and Cultural Property of folklorists to denounce invented or improvised forms of folklore as
‘fakelore’ (Dorson 1950), others disagree. The latter argue that such a notion which refuses to
acknowledge any evolution or transformation of folklore would only lead to a fossilized view of
folklore or traditional cultural artifacts and practices. In the context of the manner in which
industrialization has facilitated the mechanical production of what previously had been the unique
artifacts of a specific cultural milieu, it makes more sense to recognize the changing faces and
functions of these traditional artifacts rather than confining them to an imagined ‘cultural enclave’
(Bendix 1989: 339) untouched by modernity
1) In their celebrated book, The Invention of Tradition (1983), historians Eric Hobsbawm and
Terence Ranger show that much of what we think of as traditional, and steeped in the mist of time,
is actually a product at most of the last couple of centuries, and is often much more recent than
that. They illustrate this with the help of various examples. As for example, the Scots, though a part
of the United Kingdom, are quite particular about celebrating their national identity.Whenever
occasion arises they would flaunt their tradition in elabourate fashion. Men wear the kilt, with each
clan having its own tartan - and their ceremonials are accompanied by the wail of the bagpipes. By
means of these symbols, they show their loyalty to ancient rituals - rituals whose origins go far back
into antiquity. However, Hobsbawm and Ranger show that along with most other symbols of
Scottishness, all these are of quite recent origin. The short kilt seems to 16 Market and Cultural
Property have been invented by an English industrialist from Lancashire, Thomas Rawlinson, in the
early 18th Century. He set out to alter the existing dress of highlanders to make it convenient for
workmen. Kilts were a product of the industrial revolution. The aim was not to preserve time-
honoured customs, but the opposite - to bring the highlanders out of the heather and into the
factory. The kilt didn’t start life as the national dress of Scotland. The lowlanders, who made up the
large majority of Scots, saw highland dress as a barbaric form of clothing, which most looked on with
some contempt. Similarly, many of the clan tartans worn now were devised during the Victorian
period, by enterprising tailors who correctly saw a market in them.
2) The celebration of the Biswakarma Puja in various parts of north India, especially its eastern side,
can be considered an example of ‘invented’ tradition. Biswakarma is the Hindu deity associated with
smithereens of different kinds. However, like many other deities in the Hindu pantheon, his annual
worshipping was not scheduled in the Hindu calendar. No mention is also there in the Hindu
scriptures about his worship. How did the annual ritual of Biswakarma worship that we witness
today then begin? In fact, though sounds strange it was the initiative of the British industrialists in
India that was behind this phenomenon. These industrialists owning factories in and around Calcutta
in the early colonial period having realized the strong influence of religion on the workers of these
factories found a novel way in for annual cleaning up of the factories and the machineries therein.
Thus a day was fixed, viz, 17th September for the purpose. One would notice that unlike all other
annual worshipping of Hindu deities that is determined by Hindu almanac, Biswakarma Puja every
year takes place on a fixed date according to the Gregorian calendar
3) Modernization of tradition may apply on both material and non material culture. Modernizing
traditional material culture (say, the shift from plough to mechanized form of agriculture) is
relatively easy. But the kind and degree of change that it might bring to the non-material culture
(say, the customs, beliefs, etc. associated with the plough cultivation) is the main cause of concern.
The latter is more resistant to any change as it is deeply ingrained in the worldview of the people.
Even a sudden change (indeed imposed from the above) in the realm of material culture is also not
without problem. For example, an abrupt shift from the plough to mechanized cultivation may prove
quite disjunctive in the peasant way of life in the sense that it may result in the loss of traditional
occupations of a variety of people deeply intertwined with a peasant economy characterized by a
preponderance of the use of plough. Therefore, any conscious attempt at modernizing a tradition
should be such that the targeted people can absorb the impact of change with relative ease.
INTRODUCTION
Folklore refers to the tradition or the lore of the common people. This was first propounded by
William John Thoms in 1846, in Athenaeum. Folklore can be said to be the large body of teachings,
knowledge and facts of a group of people belonging to one geographical region or bound by
common features such as language, ethnicity, and occupation, economic, social, cultural or religious
commonalities. It determines the lifestyle, thought processes and actions of human beings. The
materials of folklore have important literary connotations. The authorship of folklore is most often
unknown, passed down from one generation to another, however the text may be written down in
some form. The resources of the folklore are often imitative which can be seen in the fictional
genres such as myths, legends, tales, poetry and ballads; the genres based on speech such as
gestures, proverbs and riddles, or the performed forms such as music, dance, craft, cookery, art and
games. The group to which the folklore belongs often adapts the actions of the others. 84 Market
and Cultural Property The text of the folklore, thus, is in a constant state of flux and transition. It is
also often highly modified and depends largely on the imagination of the narrators and the
performers. Hence many variations of a single text can be found and do not conform to any
uniformity. One can add here that the original creator of the folklore often falls into obscurity and
insignificance. The performers and the narrators of the folklore continuously alter it by accepting or
rejecting the information. Hence, we can say that any text of folklore is group based and has
communal origins and orientations.
Text is one of the basic materials of folklore and it has been subject to intense research and study.
The recording and the investigation of the fictional texts of folklore has led to the creation of diverse
literary products within specific geographical regions and belonging to particular nations. This has
provided the much needed ideological orientation for the cultural life of a country. Sometimes,
folklore collections have been published that help to fulfill the political and the moralistic aims of a
community. This can be seen in the collections of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm and Charles Perrault.
The creation of national epics is one major aspect of the formation of literary texts. For example, in
Finland, Elias Lonnrot is said to have collected several versions of oral poetry, and lyrics and
compiled the Kalevala in 1849. Elias was greatly motivated by the example of Homer, who collected
short songs and embodied them into the Iliad and Odyssey. The romantic nationalistic fervor of the
country gave Lonnrot the ideological framework for his work. Several such national epics were also
formed in Europe in the nineteenth century such as the Latvian epos Lacplesisthat was put into verse
form by Pumpurs. The work of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s Song of Haiwatha grouped together
Native American prose legends and mythical figures to give some framework of unity and
coherence. In India too we have enormous efforts put by the Indian scholars to create the national
epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. It took a group of Indian thinkers thirty -five years to prepare a
nineteen volume critical edition of the Mahabharata. They realized that such a work could not be
dated as it formed an intricate maze of both old and new materials.
Historic-geographic method
In this comparative method the possible origin and the authorship of any narrative is determined. In
this method, a manuscript “A” is compared with a manuscript “B” and then scholars attempt to
determine whether they grew independent of each other or are derived from each other. This
developed from the studies of Julius Krohn and his son Kaarle Krohn. This method is largely
evolutionist and seeks to explain diffusion of various texts. This method attempts to establish the
original core, form and content of any text. It also endeavors determine the geographic distribution
of the text and the narrative. This method has also come under criticism. Many scholars claim that
this method does not pay attention to literary influences in manuscripts. It is also said to pay too
much attention to geographical aspects and very little to historical ones. Studies of material culture,
folksong, traditional narratives and folk drama include a major historical component. The variations
between texts and cultures have historical depths and foundations. History thus forms an important
element of folklore texts, which will be discussed in the next section
As we have seen from the previous sections, it is clear that folklorists, right from the beginning, have
been involved in a historically-oriented project, focused on the past. The earlier ages and times have
been retained in our practices, tales, myths, ballads etc. Folklore has been conceived as materials
that have had some presence in the past that is fast disappearing. As described earlier, the currents
of nationalism and romanticism have led many people to engage in the collections of oral traditions.
However, there always appears to be some kind of skepticism to regard folklore material as
historical. This is largely because most of the materials are largely oral and unwritten and are
considered to be unreliable. It is also believed that “good” history must be supported by other
documents. Since folklore is largely undocumented and unwritten it is not considered to be
chronologically correct.
In this method of analysis, the text is reduced into cognitive, concrete models called structures. The
structures can be said to be mental models that help to understand folklore texts. Here, we must
emphasize that the structures are not physical models or based on any natural phenomenon but are
founded on cultural realities. They exist, in the human mind. Some of the important structuralists
are Saussure, Roland Barthes, Claude Levi Strauss and Lacan. As structuralism seeks to understand
mental models, some important social and psychological theoreticians were also influential such as
Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud. Amongst all of the scholars the most influential and noteworthy is the
work of Levi Strauss. 89 Impact of Technology in Transforming Folk Art to Commodity Levi Strauss
claims that there is more importance to marriage than that of descent. This exchange of women
between groups of related men results in a great social solidarity. This leads to greater cohesion
amongst the kin groups. According to Strauss, this regulation of marriages creates an “alliance or an
exchange” of women in simple societies. Incest therefore is also a cultural taboo and therefore sex
and other human drives have cultural connotations. Levi Strauss also claims that there is great unity
in the structure and function of the human mind. Mental processes are the same in various cultures,
although the manifestations might be different. According to him, to discover the structure behind
any myth one must explore its “deep structure.” The deep structure will give us a clarification of the
myth. All myths, says Strauss, have binary oppositions, such as day and night, left and right etc. For
example, in the tale “Sleeping Beauty”, the heroine is doomed to die on her fifteenth birthday, thus
creating an opposition. Hence mediation is required to find a solution to the problem. This is solved
in the tale by the actions of the twelfth fairy and the death is transformed into a hundred year sleep
Folklore in context
One has to understand that folklore texts are placed within a dynamic and changing socio-historical,
cultural and political context. Hence the text is highly dependent on the environment that it is placed
in. The texts are thus natural created within an indigenous background and cultural settings. Despite
the folklore materials being highly mobile one can trace sameness and unity in them. Tales and
songs may be hugely varied and divergent but one can see commonalities between them. The social
context, cultural attitude and the individuality of the performer are important variables to the
conditions of the text. This section will discover these surroundings of the text.
Oral-formulaic theory
This theory propounds that any oral tradition prescribes a specialized language or idiom that forms
the base of its composition. Its founders, Parry and Lord described phrases as formulas, narrative
scenes as themes and large-scale organization of ideas as story patterns. Many oral and epic ballads
have also been analyzed to determine certain set paradigms. Milman Parry studied the Homeric
epics of Iliad and Odyssey and revealed the systematic patterning behind the recurrent phrases. This
was seen as the creation by a legacy of generations of bards over centuries rather than the work of
an individual or conglomerate of smaller poems. Parry hence devised a formula in which expressions
were regularly used to express a single idea
Folklore exits within a wide area of the society and mirrors the sentiments, joys and sorrows of the
people. Folklore is thus contained within the aesthetic expression of the society. Folklore can only
exist if it is accepted and amalgamated within the society. An ethnographer seeks to explain any
society; the kinship laws, community, child rearing practices, marriages, occupation, economic life,
customs and traditions, religious beliefs, housing and clothing. Such studies must include the study
of folklore such as myths, legends, tales, arts, crafts, jokes, riddles, material culture such as
traditional housing and clothing etc. The folklore in a social context depends largely on culture.
Folktales can be said to narrate important traditional characters of a society. It can be said that,
“people act on what they believe to be true, not what they think is mere fiction.” (Hallowell, 1947,
548). It is important therefore to have a proper understanding of cultural traditions of any society
Folklore in traditional contexts
Folklore also depends highly on the tradition of any group. This can be defined as the repeated
patterns of behaviours, beliefs and enactments passed down from one generation to another.
Tradition can also be defined as set of preexisting values and materials that are passed down and
help in creating an identity. However, innovation does occur in any traditional model. This is passed
down in folklore as customs and practices of the people. One such example of the traditional custom
of the Hindus in India is the namakarana ceremony (name-giving ceremony) (reference, P Thomas,
Hindu Religion, “Customs and Manners”,79). This is popular among the Hindus and is performed on
the twelfth or tenth day of the child’s birth. A family in which a child is born is considered
ceremonially unclean for ten days and the Namakarna is preceded by a minor purification ceremony
Folklore is a learning of a people that is shared communally by the group. This hence is the
knowledge of the entire community. This information is shared by the total community members
and is largely expressed in actions both verbal and non verbal. The medium of transmission and
communication is pivotal for the growth of folklore. Therefore the mode of transmission is purely
oral and imitative. The material of folklore is in a communicative process. The texts of the folklore
are constantly modified and it depends on the narrator and the audience. Folklore is a social
interaction that involves both speaking and gesturing. This is community participation and is
adhered to and held fast by all the members, which distinguish it from any non-verbal
communication. It has thus a strong cultural and social base
EXAMPLESOFFOLKANDMODERNWRITTEN
NARRATIVESINLITERATURESOFTHEWORLD
Onemajor difference in the use of ‘folk’as narrative inmodernwritten narratives
from that in the pre-modern narratives is that in the former, use of ‘folk’narrative
is generally premised on the strict understanding of distinction between oral and
written narratives. However, one commonality with the pre-modern narratives
in this regard is that it continues to be used to indicate or conceptualize people as
distinct or essential groups of cultural beings. In the modern period, ‘folk’ has
come to be used in written narratives in three broad ways, viz. (a) as folk tales,
(b) as folk narrative techniques, and (c) as concept of people. Significantly, all
the three processes are closely related to each other.
Folk tales continues to exist as one of the most popular categories of modern
narratives. Since the pioneering 19th century works of Hans Christian Anderson
(Denmark) and Grimm Brothers (Germany) in writing folk tales, it emerged as a
popular tradition inmost cultures across the world in the 19th and the 20th centuries.
In South Asia as well, the influence of this tradition of literature can be seen in
the extensive production of ‘grandmother’s tales’ in the various languages. The
important point that needs to be noted in this regard is that this tradition of folk
tale primarily constitutes a rendering of folk tale in thewritten narrative structure
of themodern period. Despite being folk tales, they do not exist as oral narratives.
This transformation in the nature of narrative leaves its imprint in the nature,
concept and function of these folk tales. The change fromoral to written narrative
transforms the mode of narration and language. The specific linguistic registers
(linguistic registers are specific uses of language based on nature, concept and
function of language) of narration, language or the role of narrator that are
particular to a culture or cultural practice generally get standardized in a universal
written narrative. Therefore, the production of folk tales since the 19th century
was also related to the growth of study of folklore since the period. For example,
the Grimm bothers known widely for their collection and publishing of German
folktales in the first half of the 19th century were also associated with the study of
folklore, especially philology. Further, the increase in the production of folktales
was also associated with the growth of nationhood across the world during the
period. Through folk tales, the attempt was to create/invent a socio-cultural
legitimacy of the nation/people during the period. This was evident not only in
Europe but also widely in South Asia. In other words, folktales emerged as a
means or method of knowing or discovering the nation during the period.
Linguistic distribution
Tracing the linguistic map of India, we can see that diverse groups of tribes in
India speak different languages in various regions. Some of the language families
found among the tribal communities of India are:
The Dravidian language family used by tribes of southern India and in some
pockets in central India including the Gonds, Oraons, Kandh, Todas, Palliyans,
Irulas, Chenchus, Kadars, etc.
The Austro-Asiatic language is spoken in some pockets in the north-eastern
Himalayan region of Meghalaya, in Nicobar Islands and in most part of central
India by tribes like the Khasis, Jaintias, Mundas, Santhals, Hos, Saoras, Bondos,
Korkus, etc.
Tibeto-Chinese languages are spoken in the entire Himalayan region. The Tai
group of people (Khamptis, Phakials), Bhotia, Khampa, Memba, Akas, Miri,
Lepchas, Totos, Mishmis, Nocte, Sulung, Tagin, Kachari, Dimasa, Garo, Lotha,
Konyak, Hmar, Koireng, Paite; Vaiphei, use this family of languages.
The Indo-Aryan group, including the tribes of Gujarat, Rajasthan and the Indo-
Gangetic Plain converse in languages belonging to this family. Some of the
languages belonging to this group includes Chattisgarhi, Gujarati, Marathi,
Assamese, Oriya, etc.
There is yet another language family spoken by the tribes of theAndaman Islands
by tribes such as the Great Andamanese, Onges, Jarawas and the Sentinelese.
They speak what is loosely called the Andamanese language family.
Racial distribution
The racial composition of the tribes of India can be grouped into the following
categories:
The Proto-Australoids with dark skin colour, short to medium stature, low
forehead, sunken nose, dark complexion and curly hair. The tribes of middle
India like the Mundas, the Oraons, the Hos, the Gonds, the Khonds, etc. belong
to this group.
The Mongoloids with straight hair, flat nose, prominent cheek bones and almond
shaped eyes with the epicanthic fold present, yellowish skin colour, medium
stature, high head and medium nose. The tribes of north-eastern India and the
Himalayan region belong to this category.
The Dravidians include tribes of South India, like the Kadars, the Irulas and the
Paniyans.
The Great Andamanese, Onges, Sentinelese and the Siddhis form yet another
racial category.
Demographic size
In India tribal groups vary greatly when we consider their size in terms of total
population. On one hand, we find tribal communities like the Gonds, Bhils, with
a population of about forty lakhs. The Santhals too have a population size of
over thirty lakhs. On the other hand there are more than forty tribes in India
which have a population ranging fromone to five lakhs.And then, on the extreme
end of the spectrum, we have tribal communities like a fewAndamanese groups
who are even less than hundred in number.
1.3.5 Degree of assimilation into mainstream society
Tribal and non-tribal communities in India have co-existed for centuries,
influencing each other in different ways and to varying degrees. The degree of
assimilation of the tribal population into non-tribal, caste-based Hindu society
varies greatly and tribes have also been classified according to this criterion.
The following classifications are based on the basis.
Tribal communities includes those tribes which have confined themselves to
their original habitats and maintained their distinct traditional pattern of life.
Examples of these are the hunting-gathering and hill cultivating tribes of India.
Semi-tribal communities include those tribal communities who have mostly
settled down in rural areas and have adopted agriculture and other allied
occupations as a source of livelihood.An example of these is agriculturist tribes.
Acculturated tribal communities includes those tribal communities who have
migrated to urban or semi-urban areas and are engaged in the industrial sector
and adopted the cultural traits of the rest of the population, for example, industrial
labourers including Santhals and the Hos.
Totally assimilated tribal communities includes those tribes which have been
assimilated and are an integral part of the new social order.The Bhumjis,Majhis,
Raj Gonds are examples of such assimilated tribal communities.
Migrant
The phenomenon of population movement into the Indian subcontinent started
around the second half of the second millennium B.C. and continued till about
the nineteenth century. This shaped the culture, social structure and political
systems in the region. The earliest known population movement is those of the
Aryans who migrated to India in around 1500 B.C. from Iran via Afghanistan.
This was followed by the Greeks led byAlexander theGreat in the fourth century;
the Scythians known as the Sakas in India from the West and Central Asia; the
Yue-Chi from Central Asia; the Arabs from Baghdad in the eight century; the
Turks of Afghanistan in the thirteen century; the Central Asian invaders under
Babur in the sixteenth century, laying the foundation of Mughal rule in India and
finally by the Europeans.
Migrant communities came to India asmerchants, traders, religious practitioners,
rulers, and even as slaves.
17
Interestingly, migrant communities who came to India subsequently became a Migrant
Tribes / Nomads
part of the Indian mosaic and were absorbed into the Indian population whilst
still being able to retain their identity.
Causes of migration
Over the centuries, most of the causes behind the movement of people have not
been clearly established.Anumber of factors may have led to migration of people.
Some of these are as follows:
Economic
Search for livelihood is one of the main causes for people to migrate. These may
have been either forced, as in the case during colonial rule, or voluntary. For
instance, the Mahali or Mahli; the Nagesias, Oraon, Mundas and the Santhals
migrated during colonial rule to work in tea and indigo plantations. Some Kabui
Nagas migrated to the Naga Hills during the British colonial period to work as
porters. A section of the Kols of Maharashtra moved to Madhya Pradesh as
migrant labourers.
Ecological change/ natural calamities
Ecological changes in the region and other natural calamities may also have
forced people to migrate. For instance, the Khairwars, a catechu manufacturer
community inhabiting the Brindavan area of Uttar Pradesh migrated toMadhya
Pradesh due to the decrease in the number of catechu trees in the former. The
Lodhas migrated to West Bengal and to Orissa due to deforestation in their
territory.Agroup of theKhamyiangs,migrated fromAssamtoArunachal Pradesh
following the great earthquake in Assam in 1950. The Santhals began migrating
to the Birbhum and Santal Pargana in 1770 after their original homeland was
affected by famine.
Socio-religious causes
Sometimes certain social-religious reasons caused people to migrate. For instance,
the Kurichians of Kerala were ex-communicated following their conversion to
DIFFERENTACADEMICAPPROACHES
Mythological school
Mythological school
After the works of the Jacob Grimm, the first theoretical perspective in study
and analysis of folklore was put forward by FriedrichMax Müller (1823 – 1900),
a profound German philologist, Indologist and a great Sanskrit scholar, Max
Müller drew on linguistic viewpoint to explain not only the meaning of myths
but also the process ofmyth-creation. Being an authority on comparative religion,
MaxMüller strengthened the comparativemethodology and diachronic approach
of Jacob Grimm to formulate what was known as the mythological school of
folklore studies.His theory attempted to explain the phenomenon ofmyth-creation
as the result of the semantic changes in language. He used the phrase “malady of
language” (disease of language) to mean this change in language – which is a
phenomenon where words and terms used by the primitive man at a particular
stage of one language lose their originalmeanings at a later phase of the language
and at the hands of later generations.Myths are created, according to MaxMüller,
as the explanatory narratives of such words and expressions by the later
generations. This Mythological school, which was championed mostly by Max
Müller, and few other scholars too, however, were abandoned in later times as
its reconstruction of the prototype myth was proved to be too hypothetical.
However, Mythological theory is to be credited for being the first of its kind to
attempt theoretical interpretation of folkloric forms such as myths. Also, the
work of Max Müller was highly productive in shaping the methodology in the
study of folklore.
2.5.2 Diffusion/migration theory
Theodor Benfey (1809 -1881) was another German philologist and Orientalist
who is best known for compiling the great Sanskrit-English Dictionary. However,
he made novel contribution to the theoretical and intellectual development of
folklore studies through his translation of Indian anthology – the Pancatantra
into German language, with a highly comprehensive introduction in it. Benfey
deciphered fascinating similarities between Sanskrit tales of ancient India and
the tales of Europe. He opined that such similarities were not necessarily due to
genetic relationship of people as thought by Max Müller. Rather, Benfey put
forward the idea that folktales can and do travel across territories. He believed
that it was the ancient India where all the folktales were originally produced
which later ‘migrated’ to Europe and other parts of the world through various
means of cultural contacts between peoples. Further, Benfey also attempted to
construct the exact routes through which such folktales migrated from India to
the rest of the world. This idea of monogenesis or atomistic origin of folk tales
and other folk forms can be seen as the central theme of the works of philologists
since Jacob Grimm andMax Muller. Benfey’s theory andmethods influenced in
later times the Historical-geographical methods in Finland.
Anthropological perspectives
The rise in anthropological scholarship in nineteenth and twentieth century, in
England and America, brought out a strong anthropological perspective in the
study of folklore. In fact, anthropology and folklore studies as academic fields
share almost the same types of subject matters with differences only in perspectives
and emphases. Folklorists, typically, have been studying the orally
and verbally transmitted cultural resources more than the other types of resources,
though modern folkloristics do encompass the study peoples’ customs, material
cultural resources and art forms. However, this special attribution to oral tradition
is not a feature in the works of anthropologists who study the material and
nonmaterial
aspects of culture from functionalist viewpoints, and see the cultural
norms and values as predictable and theorizable patterns of human behaviour.
Some of the foremost scholars of classical anthropology drew heavily upon the
folkloric resources which they collected through exhaustive fieldworks in distant
places and diverge communities. The names which can be mentioned in this line
are E. B. Tylor (1832 – 1917) andAndrew Lang (1844 – 1912) in England, Franz
Boas (1858 – 1942), Ruth Benedict (1887 – 1948), M. J. Herskovits (1895 –
1963) in the Unites States. E. B. Tylor in his famous book Primitive Culture
advocated that folklore, understood as the customs and beliefs of the peasant
societies, could beworth studying in reconstructing the collective human activities
of primitive times. Tylor and his followerAndrew Lang explained the similarities
between cultural traits and practices amongst communities living in different
geographical locations through the new concept of anthropological evolution of
mankind. In sharp contrast to the idea of monogenesis and atomistic origin,
maintained by Max Müller and Theodor Benfey, this anthropological school put
forward the notion of polygenesis and multiple origins of cultural and folkloric
traits.According to this notion, a cultural trait or an item of folklore could have
independently originated at two or more places unrelated to each other, either at
the same time or at different times, but at similar stages of human progress. It
was believed that evolution of mankind followed a singular universal path of
progress in every place, with three absolutely identical stages everywhere –
savagery, barbarism and civilization.
Historical-geographical school
Theodor Benfey’s hypothesis, as mentioned earlier, invoked a rigorous
methodology in Finland to study the origin and migration of folklore items. This
technical method, which was initially experimented in the study of the Finnish
national epic Kalevala, was based on the notion that as folklore forms travel
from place to place, they undergo changes in form and content yet retaining their
basic recognizable features. Thus it was believed that not only the original forms
of folklore items and could be reconstructed but the exact route of migration of
those items also could be traced through thorough comparative exercise. It was
known as Finnish Method or Historical-geographical Method because of its
research along historical (original form) and geographical (route of migration)
scales. The major exponents of this method were Kaarle Krohn,C.W.Von Sydow,
Archer Taylor, Stith Thompson andAxel Olrik. Besides the precision techniques
of comparative analysis of folklore data, a major development that arose out of
this Historical-geographical method was the scientific way of breaking down
folklore forms, such as folktales, into identifiable traits for cross-comparative
analysis. Further development of this practice led in later time concept of motif
in folklore texts, on which the American folklorist Stith Thompson compiles
The Motif Index of Folk Literature.
Psychoanalytical school
The works of the Austrian psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) on the
unconscious self were highly influential in the twentieth century academics.
For his exploration of the human mind, he extensively studied folklore materials and
brought out the books like The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), Jokes and their
Relation to the Unconscious (1905), and Totem and Taboo (1913). He, and many
of his followers of psychoanalytical school, used to see the myths, dreams, jokes
and tales as the symbolic expressions of the unconscious human mind. In his
Interpretation of Dreams, Freud drew analogies between dreams and myths that
dreams are the disguised reflection of the repressed desires of an individual in his
or her subconscious mind whereas the myths are the symbolic expressions of the
collective unconsciousness of a race or culture. C. G. Jung, another stalwart of the
psychoanalytical school, deciphered symbols of sexual drive in myths and other
folk narratives. The influence of Freudian and post-Freudian psychoanalysis was
enormous, both in academics and common public values of twentieth century. In
folklore studies, it brought out radically new theoretical and methodological
perspectives.
Oral-formulaic theory
In 1930, American literary scholar Milman Parry was working on the formulaic
characters of the classical epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey.He extended his analysis
of formulaic characteristics of classical epic to theYugoslav oral poetry. His aim
was to delineate the form of oral poetry and to compare it with the form written
verses. After Parry’s death in 1935, his method was taken up by Albert B. Lord
who published his book under the title The Singer of Tales in 1935. With his
seminal methodology, he closely observed the unlettered oral poetry being
performed or sung without reading and writing. It was observed that the “epic
singersmemorize a set of formulas which enable themto carry on the traditional
themes with reasonable accuracy and at the same time give them freedom to
improvise new elements depending on the occasion without altering the form
drastically” (Handoo 1989: 50). The work of Parry and Lord remained influential
in succeeding folklore scholarships. Besides imparting useful perspectives on
narrative composition of oral poetry, it also initiated the trend in folklore studies
to take folklore forms as more than texts (the performance or singing dimension
in their case of oral epics).An important thing to be noted that during the time of
Parry and Lord’s works, i.e. in the 1930s, the Russian formalist V. J. Propp was
also working on similar lines, though Propp’s work was on folktales and not oral
poetry. Both the works were attempts to decipher the characteristics of narrative
composition of folklore forms.
Structural school
Structuralism is an approach in which any field or object of study is treated as a
system of interrelated parts. It was a popular and widely accepted perspective in
several academic fields of twentieth century. In folklore studies, the seed of
structural analysis was planted by Vladimir J. Propp (1895 – 1970). The Russian
formalist published his book Morfologia Skazki in Russian language in 1928,
which was translated into English in 1958 as Morphology of the Folk Tale. In
that remarkable book, Propp took an entirely new synchronic approach to the
study of Russian folktales. Instead of the meanings of folktale, Propp analyzed
their structural forms, component parts of the structures and the interrelation
amongst them. Regarding the issue of the similarities of folktales of different
places, he was interested neither in finding origin of these similarities nor in
random comparison and classification of the similar traits of tales. He showed
that the vital components of a folktale are not its characters but certain actions of
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the characters, which are found to be constant in folktales of different places.
The presence of such constant actions, which he called functions, are responsible
for the similarities between different folktales.
Claude Lévi-Strauss, an extraordinarily versatile French anthropologist, led
another structuralist approach for the study of folklore forms. Lévi-Strauss, who
applied his structural formulations to explain myth, kinship and visual arts,
followed complex interpretation schemes which he built on the concepts of
Saussurian linguistics. Unlike Propp, Lévi-Strauss did not separate the form and
content (meaning) of folklore texts. He treated myth as a higher and complex
level of communication carrying mythic messages. These messages are logical
formulations, to be found in somewhat codified binary oppositional schemes,
which are constructed in cultures to overcome the contradictions of human
understandings. Lévi-Strauss believed that a universal structural scheme could
be possible to explain entire myths around to world.
Contextual theory
Towards the late twentieth century, along with the radical changes and
developments in the academic and intellectual fields, American scholars like
RogerAbrahams, Dan Ben-Amos, Alan Dundes, Kenneth Goldstein and Robert
Gorges began to take folklore items within multidimensional frameworks. In
this new enlightened approach, the items of folklore began to be seen not merely
as texts but as events, where the contexts of folk performances (like story-telling,
singing, rituals and festivals, and conversations) were regarded as important as
the texts. However, the root of such outlook can be seen in the works of Parry
and Lord of oral-formulaic theory where attention was given to the contextual
data of oral epic singing. Theworks of the contextualists involve comprehensive
fieldwork for holistic recording of folklore events, in contrast to the text-oriented
exercises of the earlier scholars, shifting the attention more to the field than to
the library.
under the leadership of newly emerging Indian intellectual groups who were
enlightened with the western education and initiated a renewed nationalistic
attitude towards their own societies and traditions. Also, the works of the
missionaries and civil servants, who brought a bulk of textual production on
Indian local traditions, indirectly contributed to a sense of nationalistic
consciousness amongst the Indian intellectuals. Such sentiments got momentum
along with the Indian struggle, which began in 1857, to achieve independence
from the British. Indian scholars and intellectuals began to search and establish
their cultural roots by exploring their own culture and tradition.
Some of the major works of this period are: Lakshminath Bezbaruah’s Burhi Ait
Sashu (1911);DineshChandra Sen’s Sati (1917) and The Folk Literature of Bengal
(1920); ZeverchandMeghani’sHalardan (1928); Dadajini Vato (1933); Lok Sahitya
and Kankavati (1947); Suryakaran Pariks and Narottam Swamy’s DholaMaru ra
Doha (1947), Ramnaresh Tripathi’s Hamara Gram Sahitya (1940); Devendra
Satyarthi’s Bela PhuleAdhi Rat (1948),Dhart Gatt Hai (1948),DhireBaho Ganga
(1948) and many many others. Besides straight collections and anthologies of
folklore materials, many Indian creative writers brought literary productions, in
the forms of novel, drama, poetry and short stories, that were either based on or
highlighting the local folklore themes.
Besides the Indian scholars and authors, few western scholars also contributed
heavily in the collection and study of Indian folklore during this time. Specially
noteworthy is the works of Verrier Elwin whose important books were Songs of
the Forest: The Folk Poetry of theGonds (1935), Folktales of Mahakosal (1944),
Folksongs of Maikal Hills, Folksongs of Chattisgarh (1946), Myths of Middle
India (1949), Tribal Myths of Orissa (1954) and Myths of the Tribal Frontier
Agency (1958).
In this unit we study different epistemological trends emerged as reactions against the subject
oriented epistemology of the modern philosophy, particularly of the idealist tradition
INTRODUCTION
Epistemology can be generally divided into two broad schools; realistic epistemology and
idealistic epistemology. The realist epistemologists, like realists in general, share the view that
the mind is capable of knowing external realities as they independently exist. But, as in the case
of idealism, idealistic epistemology offers the view that the knower is unable to know anything
objectively of the external realities and the object of his knowledge is only the mental
representation of them. The mind represents external realities inasmuch they are present before
the mind; mind mirrors them. Idealist epistemology generally assumes that mind, by the
speculative and dialectical use of reason, is capable of mirroring the world, the phenomena.
The idealistic epistemology opens up a subjectivist version of epistemology. The rationale of the
subjectivist approach to knowledge is that the source and foundation of knowledge is something
internal to the subject, namely the self-conscious of the subject. A subject knows something only
when he/she is conscious of himself/herself. The foundation of knowledge is thus reduced to the
subjectivity of the knower. This subjectivist turn in epistemology was the salient features of
almost all philosophers since Descartes, who is the father of modern epistemology. Ever since
Descartes, there had been a tendency to conceive knowledge and its acquisition as an enterprise
of the subject alone
The first systematic revolt against the aforementioned idealistic conception of knowledge came
from the existentialistic corners, with Kierkegaard to pioneer it. Postmodernism and feminism
are subsequent forms of such revolts. While Kierkegaard’s revolt is against pure rational,
3
speculative and impersonal account of the subject as the knower, postmodernists and feminists
rejects the metaphysical conception of knower as a self-present or conscious subject. For
Kierkegaard, the subject is the very existing individual, who does not depend on the rational
objectivities and proof, rather is open to the manifold uncertain possibilities that his existence
brings forth and the world presents before him. For postmodernists and feminists, on the other
hand, the knower is no more any self-present subject, rather he is a product of various factors,
such, culture, power, society, history etc. In what follows we examine these revolts against the
subjectivist conception of knowledge held by idealistic traditions.
POSTMODERNISM
Postmodern thoughts make a thorough critique of the subject as a knowing agent. This critique is
associated primarily with the work of Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Jacques Lacan and
Gilles Deleuze. These thinkers question the subject’s ability to declare itself self-evidently
7
independent of the external conditions of its own possibility, such as the language in which it
expresses clear and distinct ideas, the body whose deceptions it fears, and the historical or
cultural conditions in which it perceives. For their critique of the subject as self-evident they
draw inspirations from two sources:
1. Their philosophy primarily draws upon Marxist, Freudian and Nietzschean insights that
consciousness of the subject depends upon its material conditions and some unconscious
roots or constituting ‘outside’.
2. They have, however, a common fidelity to Kant’s search for the ‘conditions of
possibility’ underlying subjective experience, as well as his scepticism regarding our
capacity to know the self as an “objects in itself.”
Drawing on these two philosophical traditions, philosophers in the postmodern tradition portray
the subject differently as there are different ways of postmodern thinking. We are, however, not
examining all the postmodern portrayal of the subject; we limit our analysis only to Foucault and
Derrida.
Feminism is a complex movement. Although it is generally based on the belief that women are
oppressed, it is a mistake to think of feminism as a single philosophical doctrine or as implying
an agreed political programme. From the philosophical point of view, feminism is an attempt to
liberate philosophy from the male dominance in the western history of philosophy. When we
come to the question of epistemology, it tries to emancipate the use of knowledge and its
construction from the same dominance.
Feminist epistemologies have grown out of critical interrogations of the universalistic
presumptions of the theories of knowledge. While rejecting the very possibility of developing a
theory of knowledge universal in nature, feminist epistemologists have insisted on the
constitutive role that epistemic contexts plays in the making and evaluating of knowledge claims.
10
Their argument is that many of the best-established theories of knowledge, with their
conceptions of reason, epistemic agency, objectivity, experience and knowledge, tacitly draw
their conceptual and theoretical foundation from an idealized view of the knowledge produced
and validated by a male dominant social, political and economic situations. Feminist argue that
male dominant western epistemological tradition’s portrayal of the subject’s self-presentation
tended to be male, though the specificity of their identity and circumstances are usually effaced
in their self-presentation as ‘representative’ human subjects.
According to Lynn Nelson, a leading feminist empiricist, one of the salient features of feminists
empiricism is that it is communities, not individuals, who are knowers and knowledge claims are
entangled in and shaped by webs of belief, testable always against communal experience. It
amounts to a contention that there could be no knowledge, no appropriately justified beliefs,
without communal standards of justification and critique. In this contextual empiricism
evidential or empirical reasoning is context-dependent, and knowledge construction is a
thoroughly social practice.
Feminists epistemologists apply empiricism even in psychological analysis about the knowing
subject. This empirical study of the knowing subject is proposed by Lorraine Code. Here the
monologic individualism of orthodox empiricism as well as that of post-positivist theories gives
way to a picture of contextualized , socially embedded knowers conducting epistemic
negotiations across multiple spaces of the social-political world. Thus, knowing other people is
exactly the epistemic activity as knowing medium-sized physical objects. Code even goes for an
an ecologically modelled epistemology that draws on narrative analyses to position human
knowing within interconnected systems of social, natural and other environmental relations.
Standpoint theory
Idealist epistemology
Idealist epistemology generally assumes that mind, by the speculative and dialectical use of
reason, is capable of mirroring the world, the phenomena. The mind represents external realities
inasmuch they are present before the mind; mind mirrors them. This subjectivist turn in
epistemology was the salient features of almost all philosophers since Descartes, who is the
father of modern epistemology. Ever since Descartes, there had been a tendency to conceive
knowledge and its acquisition as an enterprise of the subject alone. This tendency was at its
height in the philosophy of Hegel.
The first systematic revolt against the aforementioned idealistic conception of knowledge came
from the existentialistic corners, with Kierkegaard to pioneer it. Postmodernism and feminism
are subsequent forms of such revolts. While Kierkegaard’s revolt is against pure rational,
speculative and impersonal account of the subject as the knower, postmodernists and feminists
rejects the metaphysical conception of knower as a self-present or conscious subject. For
Kierkegaard, the subject is the very existing individual, who does not depend on the rational
14
objectivities and proof, rather is open to the manifold uncertain possibilities that his existence
brings forth and the world presents before him. For postmodernists and feminists,
STRUCTURALISM
INTRODUCTION
Structuralism
has been one of the most influential theories in the study of culture and folklore.
Structuralismhad its origin in the discipline of linguistics. However, it eventually
made forays into the domains of literary criticism, sociology of literature, aesthetic
theory, social sciences, and indeed folklore. In structuralist method, the
understanding of objects is relational rather than substantial. The principal feature
of the structuralist method is that it takes as its object of investigation a 'system',
i.e., the reciprocal relations among a set of facts, rather than particular facts
considered in isolation.
The linguistically-oriented discourse of structuralism came to the forefront of
the French intellectual scene in the 1960s. Structuralists applied structurallinguistic
concepts to the human sciences which they attempted to re-establish
on a more rigorous basis. The structuralists deployed holistic analyses that
explained phenomena in terms of parts and wholes, defining a structure as the
interrelation of parts within a common system. Structures were governed by
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unconscious codes or rules, as when language constituted meaning through a
differential set of binary opposites, or when mythologies codified eating and
sexual behaviour according to systems of rules and codes.
STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS
Let us now begin with what is structural linguistics. The Swiss linguist Ferdinand
de Saussure (1858-1916) is recognized as the founding father of the structuralist
method. His views on the new method of studying linguistics are expounded in his
seminal work Course in General Linguistics (1916). Four of his seminal ideas are
especially relevant here:
Firstly, he sees language as a social system that was coherent, orderly and
susceptible to understanding and explanation as a whole. Syntax and semantics
together constitute a group of rules imposed on individuals, and to which
individual thought must be submitted if it seeks expression to systems of rules
and codes.
Structural analysis focuses on the underlying rules which organised phenomena
into a social system, analysing such things as totemic practices in terms of
divisions between the sacred and profane in traditional societies, or cuisine in
modern societies in terms of culinary rules.
Secondly, de Saussure points out the arbitrariness of the verbal sign, the signifier,
which being conventional supposes neither an intrinsic rapport with the concept
which constitutes its signification, the signified, nor in consequence any inherent
stability with it.
Thirdly, de Saussure makes a significant distinction between, on the one hand,
langue, the institution of language, and on the other hand, parole, or the particular
and individual acts of linguistic expression.
Fourthly, de Saussure views the structures as entirely independent of history
(diachrony). A diachronic approach to the study of a language involves an
examination of its origins, development, history and change. In contrast, he opts
for a synchronic approach which entails the study of a linguistic system in a
particular state, without reference to time.
He further mentions that there are two dimensions in the relationship of words:
a) the syntagmatic or 'horizontal' relations; b) the associative or 'vertical' relations,
more usually described as paradigmatic. By this distinction he means that each
word has a linear relationship, i. e., syntagmatic, with the words that may go
before it and come after it. For example, in the sentence 'the batsman hit the ball
to the boundary' there is a perceptible relationship between each word. The
paradigmatic relationship entails a consideration of the fact that each word in,
say, a sentence (like the one above) has a relationship with other words that are
not used but are capable of being used - and by being capable are thus associated.
Obvious associative words in this instance would be pads, gloves, bat, bowleror
even the whole concept of cricket. Thus, the syntagmatic is concerned with
combination; the paradigmatic with substitution. (Cuddon 1977 (1992): 946)
LÉVI-STRAUSS' STRUCTURALISM
the name of Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908), the celebrated French anthropologist,
is inextricably linked with the wide popularity that structuralism gained in the
domain of social sciences, especially cultural anthropology and folklore. His
article 'Social Structure' (1963 (1993): 277-323) is the most abstract statement
of his theoretical approach. He holds that social structure has nothing to do with
reality, but with models built after it. The best model is the one which accounts
for all the facts.
Lévi-Strauss' concept of model formation is influenced by structural linguistics.
He uses the de Saussurean dichotomies between:
a) langue and parole
b) paradigmatic and syntagmatic
c) code and message (a spoken language is a code and its message is its
substance. In the realm of sign, one's facial expression is a code giving
message.) Each society has its own code to transmit a particular message or
substance. But there are many other kinds of codes. Each such code is a
language and the sum of all such codes is the culture.
d) synchrony and diachrony.
Lévi-Strauss develops his model using these dichotomies in order to examine
'social reality'.His studies on kinship and totemism, two domains of social reality,
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using the structuralist method yieldedmuch newer insights into the idea of social
structure and the role of human actors therein. However, here we will confine
our discussion only to the application of structuralist method to the study of
myth, and to examine as to how human mind work through myth.
STRUCTURALANALYSIS OFMYTH
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using the structuralist method yieldedmuch newer insights into the idea of social
structure and the role of human actors therein. However, here we will confine
our discussion only to the application of structuralist method to the study of
myth, and to examine as to how human mind work through myth.
2.4 STRUCTURALANALYSIS OFMYTH
Lévi-Strauss felt that because myth had no practical function, it could reveal the
working of the mind at a deeper level. The meaning of a myth cannot be
determined simply from listening to its telling, its surface characteristics. In a
fashion parallel to language and grammatical law, myth creators are only partially
or intermittently aware of structures ofmyth. Lévi-Strauss shows not how humans
think inmyth but how myths operate in human minds, without their being aware
of that fact.
He contends that myths have the same linear structure through time as language.
Like language, a myth can be segmented into constituent units and these units
analyzed in relation to each other. These constituent units or mythemes can be
found at the sentence level. Lévi-Strauss further contends that the true constituent
units of a myth are not the isolated relations but bundles of such relations, and it
is only as bundles that these relations can be put to use and combined so as to
produce a meaning.
In this usage, myth has no location in chronological time. A myth is akin to
fairytales and dreams, especially in the complete absence of nature-culture
distinction. Nevertheless, myths and fairytales are meaningful. As we cannot
write lexicon without grammar, without structure also we cannot decipher
meaning. As a follower of Freud's psycho-analysis he believed that the meaning
of folktales/myths is hidden.
Following Freud's analysis of dreams, Lévi-Strauss states myth to be a code,
hidden behind the sense which the myth makes at face value. This message in
code can be interpreted to reveal the hidden meaning. Then what is the nature of
this hidden meaning?
Firstly, all myths present resolutions to contradictions that are inherently
irresolvable. Lévi-Strauss states that as we decode myth we see repeatedly that
the hidden meaning has to do with unwelcome, uncomfortable contradictions
which plague all human societies.
Secondly, myths contain concrete messages passed on from 'senders' (not very
clear who is sending, but we may think of the ancestors or the senior members of
the society as 'senders') to 'receivers' (clearly the younger generation which must
be indoctrinated by the bearers of the tradition). Let us represent the 'senders' asA
and 'receivers' as B. Now if an individual A who is trying to pass a message to a
friend Bwho is almost out of earshot and if the communication is further hampered
by various kinds of interference noise from wind, passing cars and so on, what
willAdo? If he is sensible, he will not be satisfied with shouting his message just
once, he will shout it several times, and give a different wording to the message
each time, supplementing his words with visual signals. At the receiving end B
may very likely get themeaning of each of the individualmessages slightly wrong,
but when he puts them together the redundancies and themutual consistencies and
inconsistencies will make it quite clear what is 'really' being said. Suppose, for
example, that the intendedmessage get obliterated by interference from other noises
then the total pattern of what B receives will consist of a series of 'chords' as in an
orchestra score (see below).(Leach 1970: 59)
Lévi-Strauss says that it is not via one myth that a message is passed to the
'receiver'. The entire corpus of myth of a particular community as a single whole
passes on the message. Lévi-Strauss here compares this corpus to an orchestra
score.Myths and music are alike in being languages that transcend spoken-about
experience and unfold in time. They both have syntagmatic and paradigmatic
structures. The syntagmatic structure of music is found in relations of contiguity
such as the A/B/Astructure of sonata form. The syntagmatic structure of music
creates melody - the lineal arrangement of notes that unfold through time when
the score is played. The paradigmatic structure, which is the simultaneity of
notes, creates the harmony.
STRUCTURALISM INMARXISTANALYSIS
Structural Marxism emphasizes Marx's concern with structures that are
themselves not visible but which organise reality and account for visible facts.
Cultures, like organisms, are structures and have the built-in capacity to reproduce
themselves. Unlike the structuralists, structural Marxists do not believe that the
structure reproduces itselfwhen internal contradictions between structures orwithin
a structure cannot be overcome. It is rather contended that in such an eventuality
the structure evolves or is transformed. (Levinson and Ember, ibid: 1269)
It is generally accepted that the structural analysis in theMarxist thought has its
root in the works of French Marxist philosopher, Louis Althusser.According to
him, Marx eliminated the human subject from social theory and constructed a
'new science' of the levels of human practice (economic, political, ideological
and scientific) which are inscribed in the structure of a social reality. Hence, the
Marxist theory is not 'humanist' or 'historical' but is concerned essentially with
the structural analysis of social totalities (e.g. mode of production, social
formation); and the object of such analysis is to disclose the 'deep structure'
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which underlies and produces the directly observable phenomena of social life.
(Bottomore 2000: 527) Maurice Godelier arguing against empiricism and
functionalismin anthropology says that for Lévi-Strauss, as forMarx, "structures
are not directly visible or observable realities, but levels of reality which exist
beyondman's visible relations andwhose functioning constitutes the deeper logic
of a social system."(ibid: 527-28) The idea of a real structure behind appearances
also influenced Marxist political economywhere Marx's analysis of commodity
in Capital is seen as an exemplary instance of structural analysis. (ibid: 528)
STRUCTURALISMINLITERARYCRITICISM
AND SEMIOTICS
Broadly speaking, in literature structuralism is concerned with 'language' in a
most general sense: not just the language of utterance in speech and writing. It is
concerned with signs and thus with signification. Structuralist theory considers
all conventions and codes of communication including, for example, all forms
of signals (smoke, fire, traffic lights, flags, gesture), body language, clothes,
artifacts, status symbols, and so on. In short, everything in the theory of
structuralism is the product of a system of signification or code. The relationship
between the elements of the code gives it signification. Codes are arbitrary (like
sign) and without them we cannot apprehend reality.
Roman Jakobson's Two Aspects of Language and Two Types of Aphasic
Disturbances (1956), provides one forms of structuralist theory. He developed a
theory based on the concept of binary opposition in the structure of language. He
was mainly concerned with the metaphor/metonymy opposition and its
implication in the analysis of realism and symbolism. He uses the distinction
developed elsewhere between the two axes of language:
i) Syntagmatic and
ii) Paradigmatic
The first may be thought of as a Horizontal line (here one word is associated
with otherwords through contiguity); the second as a vertical linewhere meanings
can be substituted one for another.
Through his study of Aphasia (language disorder resulting from memory loss),
Jakobson extends hismodel to Metaphor andMetonymy.Therefore, the language
disorder acts on the two axes of language in different ways so that those suffering
from a 'continuity disorder' tend to use substitution (i.e. metaphor) and those
suffering from 'similarity disorder' tend to use association (i.e., metonymy).
Jakobson says "Metaphor is alien to similarity disorder, and Metonymy to the
continuity disorder." His point is that some forms of writing use one or the other
mode predominantly. Romantic and Modernist poetry primarily usesMetaphor,
and the Realist novel uses Metonymy. Magic Realism and Post Modernism
subvert themainlymetonymic axis of the narrative discourse/novel form. (Cuddon
1992: 543).
Jonathan Culler, who is largely credited with for popularizing structuralist
thoughts in the United States, and for developing a theory of structuralist poetics
in his book Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of
Literature (1975), propounds that the real object of poetics "is not the work
itself but its intelligibility. One must attempt to explain how it is that works can
be understood; the implicit knowledge, the conventions that enable readers to
make sense of them, must be formulated." Thus, Culler puts more emphasis on
reader than the text. His opinion was that while it is possible to determine the
rules that govern the interpretation of texts, it is not possible to determine the
rules that govern the composition of texts. Thus, the structure resides in the
system that underlies the reader's interpretation or 'literary competence' rather
than in the text.
French semiotist Roland Barthes (1915-80) interprets cultural practices involving
foods and clothes as sign systems which function on the samemodel as language.
Thus, he elaborates the idea that there is a 'garment system' which works like a
language.Garments in general are the system (what de Saussurewould call 'langue'
and Chomsky would call 'competence'); a particular set of garments is the
equivalent of a sentence (what de Saussure denotes as ‘parole’ and Chomsky as
'performance'). The same distinction applies to food. Foodstuffs in general
constitute the system; a particular menu and meal constitute the 'sentence
Gender studies
Gender refers to an identification of a person as a male or female according to
culture- specific criteria. Sex and gender differ greatly in the eyes of folklorists.
Sex refers to the biological and functional features of a man and woman while
gender is culturally and sociologically conditioned. This is hence not biologically
determined. This denotes a large range of behaviours and roles that is appropriated
for members of one sex.
In feminist folklore the behaviour pattern that is seen to be natural and proper for
both men and women are studied. These roles are not only seen at home but also
within the limits of work, religion, society, performance and recreation and
government. According to this study an individual’s behaviour, relationships,
attitudes are strongly influenced by culture. The possibilities of connection
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between men and women in both biological and cultural conditions are studied
in feminist folklore studies. These gendered connections are also questioned and
attacked. For example, in many cultures aggression is seen as the act of a female
trait rather than a male one.
This study of gender in folklore goes back to the study of Margaret Mead (in the
early 1920s)who documented gender roles in tribal societies. Simone de Beauvoir
also has explored how women are seen as ‘not-men’. Carol Gilligan has stated
that women have been culturally conditioned to be different. Folklore has also
studied the communication between people who are seen as being homogenous
and one unified whole. Identity in aesthetic expressions is questioned and
challenged.
Gender has also shaped themethodological considerations in the study of folklore.
These studies contend that gender roles are social and artistic forms on their
own. Gender roles are studied as having their own lore and types of internal and
external communication. This means that the way the woman expresses herself
in folk life is quite different from that of men. One thus needs to study and
recognize how women style their behaviours and function.
Ethnomusicology
Folklore has also led to the development of ethnomusicology. This stresses the
importance of music in and as culture. This sees music in the cultural context.
This was first used by Zaap Kunds. Early researchers of ethnomusicology
borrowed from allied fields and disciplines such as ethnology, anthropology,
musicology and psychology.
Some of the important topics that it discusses are the origin and universals of
music, musical change and conflict, function of music in society, relationships
between language and music. As pointed out by Charles Seeger, no such single
definition is correct. In general one can say thatmusic in real tradition and living
musical systems are the important concerns that have appealed to
ethnomusicologists.
Although formal study is quite recent, interest in non-western music dates as
early as 1768with the efforts of Rousseau. In the 18th and 19th century missionaries,
civil servants and world travelers took an interest in exotic music.With the advent
of invention of phonograph and the development of the pitch measurement
recording of music were added to the collection of instruments, song notations
and photographs. Nationalism also promoted the revival of interest in folk song.
The efforts of Bela Bortok and Zoltan Kodaly are noteworthy.
After world war II two professional societies were also formed. They were the
International Folk Music Council in1947 and the Society for Ethnomusicology
in 1955. In the late 1950’s they were divided into two camps, one led byAllen
Merriam, and the other by Mantle Hood. Scholars in the 1960’s rejected
comparisons as the primary feature of ethnomusicology. In the old times this had
been described as being savage, primitive, exotic, oriental and non-Western.
However, these definitions have been greatly transformed. During the 1970’s
and 80’s anthropological concerns fused into this discipline. Now this field
analysesmusic in its cultural settings and also sees how it is stored and generated.
Fieldwork is the human face of this discipline. It is critical for it. Themusicologist
assembles the primary sources,makes observations and field notes, recordsmusic
and interviews and gleans through data from archives and libraries. Fieldwork
includes the recordings of informant performances, interviews, photographs, and
video recordings.
Linguistics
The studyof languages (linguistics) has greatly contributed to the study of folklore.
They have several commonalities and it has led to many fruitful exchanges
between the two of them. Both language and folklore are concerned about the
meaning that they convey. They both study the interaction of the community and
the responses of the performer with the audience and the subject matter of the
discipline becomes of pivotal importance. Both linguistics and folklore are shaped
human experience, understanding and behaviours that are shaped by
community and the latent culture.
Hence linguistics plays a very important role in folklore studies. This discipline
arose from the romantic ideals of the eighteenth and nineteenth century where
the efforts of the intellectuals and elite members of society maintained the study
of linguistics and folklore. Many of the concepts and the theories of linguistics
have been employed in the field of folklore. This can be seen in the geographical
and historical approaches, the work of structuralists like Strauss and the
ethnography of communication and speech patterns.
In the 19th century linguistics was deeply involved in the historical origins of
language and its cultural growth. Prior existing forms of languages were studied
and analyzed and carefully compared. This hence revealed certain generic
concepts particularly found in the language patterns of Europe. The Grimm
brothers also collected their famous folktales from the ancient Germanic
mythology. Several Finnish scholars also studied the folksongs in detail and
used the techniques from comparative linguistics.
Both folklorists and linguists were deeply interested in the study of folk speech.
By studying this they hoped to reconstruct the historical and geographical
conditions of the society. This helped to understand the cultural movements of a
nation’s state. In this regard great efforts were made and the publication of
dictionaries such as Dictionary of American Regional English had a great
influence.
The main challenge facing the folklorists and the linguist is the collection of
data. Modernity has seen the erosion of several languages and the efforts of
Boas,Alfred Kroeber and Edward Sapir are noteworthy.Their painstaking efforts
led to the recording and collecting of many American speech narratives. Boas
collected many folk myths and other forms of religious narratives that helped to
understand and comprehend history, value structure, and beliefs of the people
and the aesthetic concerns of society.
Edward Sapir believed that the study of languages helped to understand the world.
He did recognize regional and cultural variations and said that language is
subjective. According to him an individual’s thoughts are greatly determined by
language.According toWhorf, “the problemof thought and thinking in the native
community is not purely and simply a psychological problem. It is quite largely
cultural. It is moreover a matter of one especially cohesive aggregate of cultural
phenomena that we call language.” Language thus serves as the foundation of
culture. This has also been realized by other disciplines such as anthropology.
This helps to study the values held by the people.
One must add here the efforts of linguists of the Prague school of thought. The
scholars in this school such as Jakobson and Bogatrey paid attention not to the
historical development of language but to the usage of it. Its functional features
were studied alongwith its context. This school led to the development of
ethnopoetics.
This is the study of the aesthetic structures in oral performances. This
discipline seeks to discover the descriptive features of oral traditions. Initially
this was studied basically on Native American narratives but it soon spread to
other forms and genres as well. This helps folklorists to look into the concerns of
literature, translation and cultural change.
Both Dell Hymes and John Gumprez have greatly contributed to this study. They
have researched on the pauses and the tonal qualities of the voice and seen its
variation in folk narratives. It has been observed byHymes that NativeAmerican
languages resemble poetry rather than prose. This has helped researchers to find
grammatical structures and find patterns in cultural speech.
Another very important linguist who contributed greatly to folklore studies is
Sassaure. He studied the speech actingwithin a context and determined the rules
of language. He also observed about signs and symbols and determined this
study as semiotics. Folklore as a discipline greatly makes use of semiotics. This
verifies the functions of signs as a means to interpret communication. Both artistic
and social communication comes under the purview.
In the 1970s and 1980s Chomsky discovered the basic rules for spoken language
and avoided its study within the social context. During the 1960s and 1970s
researchers like Dell Hymes and John Gumprez focused their attention on
language functions in context. They say that language is a key signifier to define
community and its everyday processes. They define the social groups as speech
community.According toHymes, “…is a community sharing rules for the conduct
and interpretation of speech, and rules for the interpretation of at least one
linguistic variety.” The understanding thus allows us to study communities that
have more than one language and are bilingual.
Hence folklorists owe a great deal to the effective methods employed by the
linguists and in turn the linguists have also gained much from the folklorists.
They thus give each other new perspectives and fresh dimensions for growth
and exploration
Psychology
Many of the concepts of psychology like unconscious decisions, principles of
human understanding, self- motivations, behaviour patterns and consciousness
have lent to folklore studies. Man is seen as being motivated by his inner urges
and also responds to certain stimulus and is capable of guiding and changing his
behaviour.
Interest in psychology began in the twentieth century and many scholars like
Aarne and Walter Anderson have applied its guiding beliefs to their studies in
folklorism.Apsychoanalytical school was formed in 1967 that viewed folklore
as behaviour. The significant contributions of Freud, Jung and Boas during the
19th and 20th century led to great advancements being made in folklore research.
Folklore is seen as being the byproduct of the unconscious mind and repressed
inner feelings.
Freud usedmany folktales,myths and jokes to explain his work. The distant past
according to him was hidden in the unconscious past and reflected in folklore
symbols. Freud leaned heavily on myths, fairy tales, taboos and jests and said
that the dreams express the fears and wishes of infantile sexuality as expressed
in symbols. For example, he drew upon the famous Greek myth of Oedipus and
exposed the desire of the boy child loving his own mother.
In the 20th century research revaluated the fact that the hidden past was seen to
survive in dreamlike images. The unified cultural past was thus linked up deeply to
the development of the human man. Jung also interpreted myths and fairy
tales by the method of symbolism. He says that all men share in collective
unconsciousness that is reflected in archetypes or models. The persona of the
man hence assumes a professional role. For example, we can see that negative
figures in myths represent the dark side to a personality. Hence, according to
Jung the past represented a significant human activity throughwhich an individual
could experience inner symbolic representations of a collective human experience.
Jung saw the psyche or the human mind as consisting of the personal conscious,
the personal unconscious and collective conscious.
Ernest Jones and Geza Rahiem also find direct associations between dreams and
folklore. They see dreams as combining with fantasies to form myths. Dreams
are thus the substance of mythical tales. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution of
man also is reflected in psychological approaches to folklorists. In 1944
Malinowski established the functional analysis of culture as based on the
behaviour patterns of individuals.
AfterWorldWar II the role of the individual grew in folklore. The identity of a
person was given much more significance than social environments. The
individual was seen as fulfilling many roles and his social behaviour was given
much attention. Traditional folk culture was thus seen to have greater intimacy
and person to person contact rather than mass culture. This became the main
object of study in the 1960s. Individual attitude was not seen to have any class
considerations.
The emphasis was here on the process rather than the product. According to
Hasan al Shamy the folklorists should be concerned about the responses and the
experience of the people. One should not pay attention to the folklore items but
rather the social and cultural conditions in which the individual is placed. Shamy
believes that folklore behaviour makes a direct connection to the people’s
motivation, context, rewards and punishments. The expression of folklore is
affected by the individual ego and individuals attitudes towards themselves.
GENRE TRANSFORMATIONS
GENRE TRANSFORMATIONS
Introduction: genre and narrative/performance medium
In this section, we will learn about genre.Anykind of category based on a criterion
or a set of criteria can be called genre. In other words, genre is a method to
classify. In this and the subsequent units, we shall see how genre is used for
classification of cultural forms. Genre has been used in various media, such as
literature, folklore, cinema, music, dance, craft, painting and many others. The
different kinds of cultural productions are distinguished from each other based
on certain methods or distinguishing elements. Thus, a genre is either invented
or is attributed to a given cultural form. For example, in novels and short stories,
there are genres like horror, romantic, modernist, historical, feminist and many
others. In modern painting, there are genres like naturalist, expressionist, cubist
and others. Similarly, in cinema, there are genres likemelodrama, realist, feminist,
Western (Hollywood, cowboy) among others. Therefore, irrespective of the medium,
genres can be found, or more appropriately, they have been used to
classify cultural productions widely, especially in the modern period.
The objective of genre is to classify. Classification can be considered one of the
basic requirements to understand an object of study. In fact, classification itself
is the beginning of study. The fact that an object is classified means that some of
the basic features of the object have already been identified and based on those
features, the object is placed in a certain group that generally shares those features.
Once an object has been classified, it stands in relation to many other objects
which do not share those basic features and are classified in other groups. Thus,
if a cultural product, whether in the medium of literature or cinema or music,
etc. is placed in a certain genre, it means that the product shares certain
commonality with others of its kind and also shares dissimilarity with other
products of its kind. For example, though all novels are same in that they are
novels, but different novels belonging to different genres would be different
from each other
It is possible to add more examples of art forms that do not come strictly under
one genre. For example, if under the broad category of literature, one tries to classify
‘religious’ and ‘secular’ literatures of the pre-modern age in the Indian
subcontinent, it would be extremely difficult to sustain the two genres of
‘devotional’and ‘secular’.This is because the strict distinction between ‘religious’
and ‘secular’ was not maintained in the cultural productions or traditions of the
period. For example, the Gita is both a philosophical and a religious treatise.
Tales like the Jataka or the Panchatantra are both ‘secular’and ‘religious’ at the
same time. The very conception of culture along the lines of distinction between
the ‘religious’ and ‘secular’ was not present. Rather, there was an attempt to
conceive from the various dimensions of social life (time, space, and universe)
as a relation between the physical/mortal and the metaphysical/universal. Thus,
genres such as ‘religious’ literature or ‘secular’ literature would be of little help
as modes of literary classification
The above problem can be illustrated from the field of what came to be called
classical literature (since the 19th century) of the pre-modern period. It is important
to note here that classification of literature during the ‘classical’ period was
primarily based on the nature of relation that literatures shared with society and
with each other. In such classification of literature, all the literatures were broadly
placed under six categories. They were (a) Suta literature, (b) Mantra literature,
(c) Shastra literature, (d) Akshara literature, (e) Prakrit literature and (f) Sangam
literature. (Devy: 1998)
Suta literature was primarily oral literature. It also consisted of the largest body
of literature of the period. Most of Suta literatures were generally based on a
text, such as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, etc. However, what distinguished
them from written literature was their transmission which was oral rather than
being written. In the process of oral transmission, strict adherence to the original
text was not maintained. As the narratives travelled into various regions, new
plots or anecdotes got added to the original.An important aspect of this literature
was that they were lexical in nature, i.e. they had words that were based on
dictionary/recognized vocabulary, and that as narratives they did not lack a
grammatical structure. Suta literatures were generally a part of the collective life
and memory of the people. Names of individual authors were hardlymentioned
in such literatures. Most of the bardic literature of the subcontinent can be placed
under Suta literature. Further, Suta literature did not maintain a strict distinction
between myth and history in its construction of collective life in a given society.
However, it needs to be remembered that this characteristic of combining myth
and history was central to its very existence and transmission, i.e. its survival.
Mantra literature is another classification of literature of the pre-modern period.
Mantra literature generally includes the Vedas, the Brahmanas and the
Upanishads. The uniqueness of Mantra literature is that they constitute textual
literature, yet their transmission has been oral in nature. However,mantra literature
is different from Suta literature in this regard. Whereas in Suta literature, the
content of the narratives may change over time and across space, in Mantra
literature, they cannot change. This characteristic of non-change is fundamental
to its identity. Mantra literature has also been classified as shruti (what is heard)
and smriti (what is remembered).Vedas were shruti literature and theUpanishads
(which were derived from the Vedas) were smriti literature
FOLKAND GENRE
Folk in different genres
Now we will try and see how folk forms can be classified under different genres.
Folk forms have been classified into several genres. In the category of oral
narratives, some of the commonly used genres are tales, myths, lullabies, omens,
street narratives, idioms and phases, and proverbs. Non narrative folk forms
include art and totems, music, dances and performances. The distinction of folk
forms into various genres is generally done in terms of their origin/context or
function or the nature of their constitution/narrative structure. For example, one
of the important differences between tales and myths on the one hand and proverbs
or omens or street narratives on the other is that the former are generally long
while the latter are short. Therefore, tales and myths are long narratives while
the other ones are short narratives.
Further, tales are different from myths, though there could be occasions when
they both could come together. For example, the katha tradition found across
many societies in the Indian subcontinent comprises of tales as well as myths
and legends. A tale could be based on myths. But a tale could also be based on
legends, in which case, it is based on a historical episode or character, though the
tale based on the historical episode or character does not have any historical
evidence, i.e. a legend. Myths could also be of various types. For example,myths
could be origin myths or they could also be about mythical characters, whether
human or animal or bird. Myths have been one of the most studied genres of
folklore, especially of societies which does not maintain a written language, to
trace historical origin.
Folk songs are another categorywhich has been extensively studied. Folk songs
have been generally divided into several genres, such as harvest songs, ritual
songs, festival songs, dirge or mourning songs, nature songs and others. This
classification is generally done on the basis of their function or occasion in which
they are sung. Similarly, folk dances have also been classified into several genres
based on their function or occasion of performance. Folk performance is a category
in which music and dance get combined. Music and dance are used to narrate a
subject, and that becomes a primary characteristic distinction of folk performance
from folk music or folk dance. However, such narratives are different from oral
narratives such as tales or myths. The difference lies not only in their function
but also in their nature, i.e. their structure.
Literature
Modernist literature has many similarities with the other arts. As in the visual
arts, there was a tendency to break with traditional structures of the past. In the
case of literary works, this was manifested through the subversion of narrative
structures. This also included the juxtaposition of multiple subjectivities and
time/space locations.
Modernist literature also expressed much of the alienation and social
fragmentation that was experienced by individuals as traditional modes of life
faded away. T. S. Eliot is a poet who uses these themes. Another innovation of
modernist literature is that of “stream of consciousness”, a practice that was
directly influenced byFreud. This can be seen inwriting of James Joyce, especially
in the novel Ulysses where the author attempts to recreate the subjective stream
of impressions occurring in an individual. Modernist literature strongly called
into question the social changes that were dislocating and isolating individuals.
Arundhati Roy, in The God of Small Things, employs variations of these
techniques and themes.
4.2.9 Music
Modernism had a strong influence on many styles ofWestern art music. Serialism
was a form that used purely mathematical constructs to composemusic no longer
dependent on tonal structures. The composers wanted music of pure science,
fromwhich the irrational human elementwas removed. Thismusicwas extremely
difficult for the average listener, and so never gained a great deal of popularity.
Another style of music which became popular during this period is known as
minimalism. Minimalism utilized very sparse, repetitive patterns which were
stacked on top of each other. This style, while abstract, was much more pleasing
to the average listener than serialism, and is still used today. However, popular
music, with its bouncy beats, lyrics, and relentless marketing, has captured the
mass audience.
4.2.10 Post-modernism
Post-modernism is generally considered the designation of the current period,
although some scholars believe that we are in the post-post-modern era. In the
post-modern worldview, the particular models of progress described by
modernism are shown to be false constructions. For post-modernism, scientific
truth is just another mode of constructing reality. That means that the scientific
worldview is just one possible model, no truer than any other. One important
trend in post-modernism is that of deconstruction.
PRESERVATIONOFTRADITIONALCULTURE
4.4.1 History of cultural preservation in India
India’s traditional culture is so varied, rich and complex, that its preservation
seems an overwhelming task, especially in the face of the challenges ofmigration
and modernization. This has leed to the establishment of many agencies and
boards in India. The founding of the All-India Handicrafts Board in 1952, and
associated regional design centers for training in traditional crafts were
established. They have also begun a thriving export business.
Many traditional practices have been kept alive in India. However, we should
say that, if the crafts are being produced apart from the community that inspired
them, the item loses its context and its function can be obscured. However, many
crafts are still produced in the traditional village context. Thus its cultural
preservation takes place. This can be observed in traditional paintings.
Paintings done in villages include many varieties. The painted walls of theWorli
of Maharastra, the Saora of Bihar and Orissa, and the Mithila region of Bihar,
have moved to paper and are now being sold to city dwellers. These designs
have lost their original function.At the other end of the spectrum, other traditions
of wall painting in the Bhil region of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh have been
unaffected. Rangoli,or kolam diagrams using colored powders placed on the
ground at the entrance of the house, are used in many villages and towns
Many varieties of decorative arts of folklore can be seen in the urban cities.
Decorative arts also flourish in cities. Vans, buses, walls, signs and billboards
are covered with colorful designs and motifs, advertising specific products or
just celebrating with exuberance the imagination of the artist. .
Textile crafts are extremely popular in the village context, and some are very
well known for their quality and craftsmanship. These are also traditionally
preserved in India. They are usuallymade exclusively bywomen, and embroidery
is themost common formof decoration.Weaving, dyeing and printed are usually
done by professionals. Northern and western India is the focal points for these
crafts.Mothers make decorated wedding garments for their daughters. In Gujarat,
men of theAhir and Rabari communities wear embroidered jackets and trousers.
In Bengal, embroidered quilts, or kanthas, are made for the home, with designs
similar to those in rangoli. Applique work is popular in Gujarat, is used for
shrines and weddings, wall hangings, bedcovers and cart decorations. Among
themostwell-known are thosemade by the Kathi families of Saurashtra,
Gujarat.
DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO
FOLKLOREAND CULTURAL
PRESERVATION
INTRODUCTION: LANGUAGE, CULTURE
AND IDENTITY
We all care about our identity.AWelsh proverb captures the essence of the answer
to the question 'Why should we care if languages die?' "Cenedl heb iaith, cenedl
heb gallon" meaning 'A nation without a language is a nation without a heart'.
(David Crystal). 'Language…is not only an element of culture itself; it is the
basis for all cultural activities.' Bloch and Trager (1942:5). So much of one's
culture is articulated in its language that it is not possible to be a member of a
community if one does not speak its language for language is an essential attribute
of its customs. What elements of the old language can be taken over by the
latest, without major cultural slaughter? It might, however, still be possible to
narrate the old literature through the medium of the new language, and much of
the old lore and wisdom can also be elucidated and referred to in it. But the fact
is that a great deal will be lost in the conversion, and the new language will be
incapable of putting into words the tenderness or fortitude of the literature that
the older language could do so well. In the process, the repartee will be lost,
anecdotes and gags will lack a convincing thump and ritual terminology would
not have the same alliterative or graceful magnitude.
FOLK CATEGORIES
Let us discuss some of the folk categories which have been an integral part of the
folklore, and which are slowly moving into the clutches of oblivion, causing a
cultural decline.
4.3.1 Folk tales
Story-telling is the historically oldest folk art. It is the intellectual pastime of
some villagers, specially old men and women who are gifted with great skills,
thoughts, power of expression and theatrical action. To recount a story is the
easiest possible thing but demands greater sanctity, greater concentration and
attention to detail. Folk-tales have their roots in the hoary past when Man acquired
the power of articulate expression. He proudly expressed his heroic feelings
when hunting a ferocious tiger, lion, killing his inveterate enemy or narrated his
pitiable lot in the face of storms, floods, famines or earthquakes. He used his
rich imaginative power in devising the circumstances of the creation of the earth
and voiced his eternal interest in natural phenomena. He painted his nascent
feelings and emotions on the wall, sang them in song or expressed them in the
form of tales. We can find a trace of those very ancient stories among the
aborigines. It either forms a part of their current tales or some traditional social
beliefs, which are slowly fading into oblivion. To preserve folk culture, their
revival has to be the first step.
Folk-Stories are generally classified into Legends and Folk-Tales. Alegend is a
storyline of things which are assumed to have happened about a historical
dignitary, region or occasion. But a Folk-Tale is a complete fantasy which may
not have any relation to reality. But there has not yet been any standard effort to
collect the thousands of legendary tales associated with historical personages
Proverbs or 'Dakbachans'
Poets and writers frequently make use of proverbs and local sayings to make
their language forceful and rooted to the soil. Sometimes the wise and pithy
words of great writers are repeated by the people and they gradually become a
part of the treasury of proverbs. Thus the illiterate as well as the intellectuals
participate in this exciting and basic exchange of each other's culture and ideas.
There are popularly accepted proverbs in every culture on interesting themes
like co-wife, villainous mother-in-law, conjugal life, worthless husband, sarcastic
comments on various aspects of human society, cultivation, maxims, gods and
goddesses. In the course of time, dakbachans are also going into decline towards
the void of extinction.
4.3.5 Community features in proverbs
Society is a system of associations of a diversity of persons who form its structure.
Our predecessors believed that the social order was created by God who entrusts
his powers to the king. Noncompliance to the king was considered the equal of
disobedience to God. Individuals gave up many of their legitimate rights to this
emblem and assurance of security, the king, however oppressive he might be.
Leaders of society, in their attempt and eagerness to play the role of the savior,
sometimes acted in the most inhuman way. Some people were excommunicated.
Thus many of the aspirations of the people were crushed under the wheels of
social laws.The basic urges and interests of men are modified bysocial and cultural
influences of primary groups of which the most familiar types are represented by
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Conservation of
Culture
family, caste, community or neighborhood. In the process of socialization the
younger generation accepts the behaviour patterns, the values and ideals of the
family group. Economic, intellectual, moral and aesthetic traditions play a part in
the moulding of his character. The society we are introduced to in the proverbs of
the folk groups is a feudalistic one dominated by kings, nobles and priests. Ideal
characters such as those of great conquerors, famous heroes, poets, philosophers,
artists or sculptors are rarely depicted. We come across mostly common people
who are vital for the existence and well-being of each other.
Legends
A legend is generally about a place of pilgrimage, a fetish god, and there is,
almost about every god, some legend or the other. Through the folk legends, we
can find our ancient world silently breathing within us. These legends, if
documented and made available, will give us a picture of our past which, though
it may not be historically genuine or verifiable, can offer fascinating insights
into the lives of the people and their culture and institutions.
Most families tell stories of various gods and goddesses specially during the
time of festivals. The narrator of these stories are usually elderly women of the
family and the art of this type of story telling is gradually dying out under the
onslaught of modernity, TV and film.
Activity
What are the stories told in your family during festivals?Are they same as those
of other families or communities? How do these stories depict the gods and
goddesses?
4.3.7 Beast tales
In BeastTales, the protagonists are animals who converse and behave like human
beings. These beasts are clever, considerate and dignified. They never show
disloyalty to Man. Sometimes strange happenings are described in Beast Tales,
like for instance, the lives of men or animals are saved by a benign prince when
a forest fire breaks out. The thankful tiger and tigress accept him as one of
themselves and are ready to serve him at any time. Or a princess is lost in the
forest in childhood, she is brought up by a lioness who becomes a mother to her.
But ultimately she is united with her family after falling in love with her prince
charming. The lioness sacrifices her life for the princess. These are always stories
with amoral.The stories are like fables inwhich the animal characters are imbued
with human traits, nobility and even, occasionally, failings and always have a
lesson to offer to both young and old people.
Ploughman's songs
Culture has two main torrents. One flows among the erudite in the form of the
Vedas, Upanishads and different branches of higher literature and the other among
the primitive, unrefined common mass of people in the form of folklore. The
common public is a prevailing force in directing the fortune of a nation and its
civilization. Their God, Ganapati, though it possesses the head of an elephant
(Gaja means a 'Fool') is worshipped as the most scholarly being in the world.
This group adopts a country's culture in its own way, gives it a new character, a
new shade and a new energy. The ploughmen comprise the major segment of the
mass who sell their labour for two square meals a day. They work hard all day
long. All the doors of culture are closed to them. They have no learning, no
leisure. A cultivator's life is one of hard toil, stern realities and no imaginings.
His only entertainment, his songs, forms a part of his daily work. They are not
the compositions of idle hours. Work and song and work - one stimulates the
other; both are interlinked in a knot of companionship. Thus, there is no point in
seeing whether the lines rhyme properly or not, whether the ploughman has been
able to generate a new meter or not, or if the idea expressed is creatively original
or plagiarised. Typically the songs are very short - three or four lines each - all
composed in a limited repertoire of one or two meters. The ploughman
reverentially keeps away from the songs of great poets, his songs are the songs
of the common man, down to earth, which are passed on to himthrough an oral
tradition from his forefathers. He sings his own songs, is the protagonist of his
own poetry, the performer of his own life's theater. His own life is his best source
of inspiration. These interesting songsmust be preserved, documented, andwritten
down as these are an important facet of our culture.
CONSERVATIONAND
PRESERVATION: SOME LEGAL
AND ETHICAL ISSUES
INTRODUCTION
In general conservation means to preserve and restore all kind of objects getting
to deteriorate. But here we are going to discuss specifically about conservation
of all kind of material/art objects/sound recording that depreciates right from
the time they aremade or created for several purpose. The term conservation can
thus be defined in following order:
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Culture
any action that is determined about the character or properties of materials
used in any kind of cultural set up or in their housing, handling or treatment,
any effort taken to understand and control the causes of corrosion, and
any action taken to better the condition of such natures
Let us first understandwhy conservation is important and also know the difference
between restoration and preservation as they are fundamental principles.
"Restoration means any action taken in order to try to return the objects as far as
possible to its original and physical and aesthetics state. This attempt is to rectify
the result of deterioration for a limited purpose and period. Preservation is an
attempt to keep any objects in a sound physical and chemical condition. It is an
ongoing process. The objects for preservation can be broadly divided in to two
groupsmaterial/art objects andOral traditions (O.P.Agrawal. 1993. Preservation
of art objects and library materials. pp.xii-xiii).
There are thus varied tasks involved in conservation of all objects, for which a
good understanding of the perspectives and techniques of preservation is needed.
Some of the common conservation procedures of such properties includes physical
or chemical processes such as; removing dirt from the objects, which can cause
damage, in case of acid paper; removing the chemical products or agent of decay
etc, preservation of environment-temperature, humidity, light control etc.
Conservation of all kind of material/art objects/sound recording are done under
three main headings and involving specific institutions: (1) Conservation of
museum object (2) Conservation of library materials (3) Conservation of archival
materials. Although they have separate identity, basically they are one institution
divided under three divisions. The museum, library and archives, therefore, play
an important role in our society to provide comprehensive and specific need
based information to their users with special reference to information
management, information retrieval, networking and relating one another with
their collection. Let us now look into these institutions in specific.
5.2.1 Conservation of museum objects
"Museums is a permanent institution in the service of society and of its
development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches,
communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and
hold in its environment, for the purpose of education, study, and enjoyment, as
defined by the International Council ofMuseums.According to theUK Museums
Association. Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration,
learning and enjoyment. They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make
accessible artifacts and specimens, which they hold in trust for society. (http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/museum)
Conservation in museums includes all kind of processes of looking after a place
where art /material objects/recordings of any cultural significance will be retained.
It includes the continuation and protection of the objects, setting of a place, its
maintenance and also its preservation, restoration, reconstruction etc.
Awell organized library is an integral part of a museum,whose purpose is having
a library in the museum. This is for the collection of books, periodical, guide
books and catalogues relating to it. We also have specific museums which are
specicaily designed like folklore and ethnographic museums which houses
collection of sound recordings of oral traditions such as folkmusic, tribal music,
folk dance, folk theatre, oral history etc., in their archives for the use of scholar
who wish to undertake serious study.
Climate
The two most important components of the climate are humidity and temperature.
Humidity and temperature are interrelated, the relative humidity of an enclosed
space increases if there is a drop in temperature, and decreases if the temperature
is
raised. The main cause of humidity is water in both liquid and vapor form,
accelerates chemical process of deterioration. For example, the presence of water
deteriorates metal and stone much faster then under dry condition. Objects like
paper, wood, leather etc., becomes limp and losses its crispness in a moist
atmosphere. High humidity favors rapid reproduction of insects and microorganisms
like fungi. Most often climatic condition also damages objects for
example, when any objects becomes adjusted to a particular balance of relative
humidity, and transported to a different climate, tend to suffer damage
Fungus
Fungi or fungus are a type of bacteria, a great danger in tropical countries because
of their humid climate. Fungi are serious threat to museum objects (specially to
organic nature), sound recording formats etc:
To control fungus following factor should be taken care of:
Time to time cleanliness of the building and the objects is necessary.
All books, art objects, sound recordingmaterials etc. should be taken out for
dusting with soft brush or low vacuum.
5.3.7 Fire
Fire is one of the major danger and destruction for the art objects both organic
and inorganic, specially organicmaterial like textiles, paper etc., all kind of sound
recordings materials. The protection measures against fire should be taken in
following ways:
while the planning the building by keeping provision for appropriate exits
door for quick evacuation of the staff as well as the visitors.
Easy availability of water supply
Installations of electronic items should be of best quality for museum or
archives or library buildings
Fire extinguish should be installed
Installation of fire detector
1) literary works
2) musical works, including all types of accompanying words
3) dramatic works, including all types of accompanying words
4) pantomimes and choreographic works
5) painting, graphic, and sculptural works
6) motion pictures and other audiovisual works
7) sound recordings
(WIPO Publication.913 (E)
The Copyright protection law varies from country to country. In the following
sections, we are going to discuss about the Act of Copyright Protection for
folklore/traditional cultural expressions in India.
5.6.2 Laws for protection of folklore/traditional cultural
expression in India
In India the legislation that takes care of the rights relating to literary and artistic
works, sound recordings, films and the right of performers and broadcasting
organizations, is the Copyright Act, 1967. The act has been amended a number
of times with most recent update in 1994.
The Indian Copyright act does not contain any provision for the protection of
folklore/ expressions of folklore. There is no separate legislation along the lines
of the model provisions, to serve the purpose of offering legal protection to
expressions of folklore.
There is no scope for the tangible elements of folklore under the Patent Act or
Designs Act
Under the amendment incorporated in the Copyright act in 1994, a certain amount
of protection is offered to the performers. As per the Act, a performer includes,
"an actor, singer, musician, dancer, acrobat, juggler, conjurer, snake charmer, a
person delivering a lecturer, or any other person who makes a performances."
Again, performer, in relation to a performer's right, is defined as "any visual or
acoustic presentation made live by one or more performers"
It is to be noted that a concept of a performer is not limited to "one who performs
a literary or artistic work, as per provisions of the Rome Convention, rather the
performer as per the Indian Act can be any one who makes a performance. To
that extent, a person who performs folklore is a performer and his rights are
protected under this Act.
The rights of performers given under the Act are limited and offer only the
"possibility of preventing' certain acts undertaken without the consent of the
performer. The following Act are taken from "Performer's right" chapter VIII,
section 38.
Etymology
A study of the origin and semantic development of words reveals the various
connotations these have occupied on the coordinates of human enterprise and its
ever changing contexts. Festivals and rituals have been perceived and actualized
differently by people across space and time. For example, we speak of a ‘food
festival’being organized at a particular shoppingmall or we describe ourmorning
cup of coffee as a ‘ritual’. These connotations would have been completely alien
to our ancestors. Let us look into the origin of these concepts:
Festival: Its origin is inMiddle English derived from Old French, derived from
Low Latin “festiualis” which in turn is derived from Latin “festiuus”
L. festiuus = belonging to a feast
L. festum = a feast
L. festus = bright, joyful
from birth to death. There are daily rituals which mark the passage of each day
from dawn to dusk. Each culture has its own set of rituals which symbolize
particular aspects of existence and human endeavour through which the
community defines itself, its place in the universe and its relationship with
nature
FESTIVALS AND RITUALS OFANTIQUITY
deadwas known to the early Palaeolithicman and it showed that theNeanderthals
exhibited concern for their dead and treated them with careful last rites. As
civilization progressed,man becamemore closely engagedwith natural processes
like the changes of day and night, the coming and going of seasons and the
cultivation of crops. Festivals and ritualized rest from work havemarked the life
of people across cultures since ancient times. The lives of the ancient people
were centred round agriculture. They were mainly agrarian communities whose
existence depended on a good harvest. These communities were also subject to
the ravages of changing seasons with little or nomeans of protection. The earliest
festivals are related to these aspects of human existence. People welcomed the
coming of Spring and the end ofWinter with celebrations. The spring equinox,
the autumn equinox, the summer solstice and the winter solstice were occasions
for celebration. Planting of new crop was also an important event. People prayed
for a good harvest and expressed this through various rites. Planting and harvesting
of cropwere occasions for community celebration andmerry-making. Man being
governed by the elements of nature, attributed the mysteries of nature to various
elemental forces such as sun, wind, rain, fire, earth. Later gods and goddesses
came to be associated with these forces.
TYPES OF FESTIVALS
Festivals originated in man’s natural urge for bonding with his fellow men, to
reaffirm solidarity within families, clans and communities. These concerns have
manifested themselves in various forms of festivals. One must remember that in
the earlier times, man’s dependence on his fellow men was greater than what it
is now. There are many types of festivals.
festivals of seasons
festivals of crops
festivals of cattle
festivals of Gods/ Goddesses
festivals of saints/legendry heroes
festivals of the state/national festivals
Modern fests
However, most of these categories are overlapping and flexible, so that a single
festival can be seasonal, agrarian, and religious. In the United States two festivals
are celebrated tomark seasonal changes. TheMother Earth Gathering is celebrated
to mark the Summer Solstice and the Middle Earth Gathering is celebrated to
mark the Fall Equinox. The ancientRomans celebrated Saturnalia and Sol Invictus
to celebrate theWinter Solstice. The Summer Solstice is celebrated variously as
146
Market and Cultural
Property
Feast of St John the Baptist, Feast of Epona, All Couple’s Day. Similarly,
Deepawali, the festival which celebrates Ram’s return toAyodhya, was originally
a three day harvest festival. In the month of October-November the members of
the Oraon tribe celebrate a festival named Sohrai in honour of cows, buffaloes,
bullocks and goats. Gau Giraaj Vrat, Go-vatsa Dwadashi, Govardhan Puja are
other cattle festivals celebrated in India. Modern Fests are celebrations structured
to commemorate important events such as the foundation day of a particular
organization, the launching of a new brand or product.
TYPES OF RITUALS
Rituals are characterized by repetitive and highly symbolic features. Each society
has its own set of rituals. These may involve specific performances by an
individual or a group of people. The site of performance may be one’s own
house, or a public site such as a river banks, wells, hills, fields, water tanks. It
may involve only a specific community or may create opportunity for exchange
between more than one group occupying different hierarchies. Over a period of
time ritual practices have come to be associated with particular religions. The
Hindu samskaras, the Christian ceremonies of christening, baptism, and
conformation are also rituals. The Jewish observance of the Shabbat is highly
ritualistic. In the Vedic period there were special fire rituals to be practiced by
every householder.
rituals of birth
fertility rituals
rites of initiation
secret rites
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Impact of Technology in
Transforming Folk Art to
Commodity
rituals to appease Gods
mourning rituals
Rituals deeply affect the individual and collective lives of people. They serve to
reaffirm one’s allegiance to a particular social order. Rituals occur at each stage
of our lives. From sunrise to sunset, from summer to winter, from birth to death,
rituals are the milestones which measure out our existence. Rituals are not only
performances, they also serve to create and validate our identity.
In ancient times, rituals were cult practices related to nature, welfare of the
community, protection against disease, protection of crops and cattle. The elders
of the community attempted to pass on this knowledge through rituals. Often the
knowledge component was lost in transmission or eclipsed by the ritual
performance. Thus, rituals survived in communities long after the reason behind
conducting these was lost.
Threat of terror
Festivities and revelry have encountered a new enemy in the form of terror.
Celebrations by organized religious bodies or by co-operative housing societies
havewitnessed a sharp decline in the number of people attending these functions.
The urban populations are wary of fairs and festivals and prefer to remain away
from large religious gatherings. This has seriously limited the possibility of
community celebrations for city dwellers.
5.5.6 Will our festivals and rituals be lost ?
Are we to assume that festivals, rituals and traditional revelry will succumb to
the pressures of modern existence, that the old festivals will be lost over a period
of time? There is a general conjecture that the number of festivals and rituals in
modern society is drastically reduced. Industrialization, secularization, mass
movements of populations, and numerous other forms of entertainment are bound
to take the place of festivals.
In this connection, let us take up a case study and discuss in detail regarding the
rituals and festivals in Orissa folk traditions, the religiosity and historicity
connected to those.
HISTORICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL THEORY:
The Historical-Geographical theory of folklore is known as Finnish school and
comparative methodology too. In fact, it is a method than a theory. A comparative
folklorist want to reconstruct a complex myth, tale or folksong historically and
geographically. Under this theory or method, a folklorist is to collect hundreds of
variants
of a particular myth, tale, ballad or folksong. Then he goes for analysing the basic plot
into essential components, makes percentage of frequencies of occurrences of each
trait,
finds out the regional distributions through map, judges the early literary or oral
version and fixes the oldest form of the tale known as archetype.’16
The hypothesis of the Finnish school is that, there are hundreds of variants of a
tale.myth.ballad, proverb etc. in fact, there is one original version which was certainly
created once at a particular spot consciously by a particular person . Later, the tale
spread to other places through diffusion. On the other hand folk tales are migrated to
other geographical region through manuscript and printed text.
identical. "22 Hence, functions, being the constant elements of a narrative, one could
study
the narratives according to the functions of the dramatis personae (characters). Thus
function became the basic ciassificatory and analytical unit" 23
Claude Levi-Strauss, a France anthropologist introduced another method of
structural analysis of folk-narrative. Levi-strauss believes that a myth can be
decomposed
and reduced to its basic components named as "mythemes" (which according to him,
are
its molecules). These mythemes can then be rearranged into meaningful or logical
paradigms so that the relations thus established reveal the mythic message.These
messages are binary in nature and always turn out to be logical formulations to
overcome
contradictions humans or cultures face. This method thus gives new interpretations
to
myths.24
'Unlike Propp, Levi-Strauss does not see any possibility of analysing structurally
a given item of folklore in isolation, i.e., when the item is separated from its cultural
context. This basic difference is due to the fact that Levi-Strauss’ structural analysis
does
not separate form from the content while Propp's work gives more emphasis to form,
in
other words, Levi-Strauss* methodology is concerned about the structured meaning
in
myths, which according to him, is a single reality and observable as such. Propp on
the other hand, does clearly distinguish between the form and the content and treats
them
53
as two separate entities. This is precisely why Propp does not go beyond the surface
structure of a folktale and discerns its morphology in terms of its linear syntagmatic
Structure. Levi-strauss, on the other hand, delves into the deep structure of myths and
rearranges the elements into meaningful paradigms.'25
CONTEXTUAL THEORY
The followers of this theory believe that, foikloristics is not only the study of folklore
text. As Malinowski says, * The text, of course, is extremely important, but without the
context it remains lifeless’.28 Therefore, the contextualists insist that the concept of
folklore
apply not to a text but to an event in which a tradition is performed or communicated.
Hence , they stressed to record not only the text but the whole circumstance (even
gestures) in which the text is delivered by the narrator and received by the audience.
Roger Abrahams, Dan-Ben Amos, Alan Dundes, Robert Georges, Kenneth Goldstein etc.
followed this method.
6.FUNCTIONAL THEORY
The main object of functionalists is to determine properly the functions of folklore
element in the society. According to Bascom, there are four functions of folklore:
(a) Amusement is, obviously, one of the function of folklore, but folklore,27 also
reveals man's attempts to escape in fantasy from the conditions of his geographical
environment and from his own biological limitations as a member of the genus and
species Homo sapiens.28
(b) Folklore plays in validating culture, in justifying its rituals and institutions to
those who perform and observe them.29
(c) Folklore plays in education, particularly but not exclusively, in non literate
societies,30
(d) Folklore fulfils the important but often overlooked function of maintaining
conformity to the accepted patterns of behaviour
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY :
This theory was introduced after Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. According to
Freud, myths, folktales, and otherforms of folklore looked like dreams and the myths
and tales are nothing but sex symbols. 'Many folklorists following Freudian principles
believed
that the "dream is the myth of the individual" some even declared that myth is the dream
of a culture; and therefore the same psychological mechanisms operated in dreams and
myths and were subject to the same interpretations. According to those scholars if the
dreams expressed the infantile desire of one human being, myths revealed psychic
repressions of the whole race or culture.32
Freud, Oppenheim, Earnest Jones, Erich Fromm, Gaza Roheim etc. have done
remarkable work in analysing myths, tales and literary works of different cultures
according to psychoanalytic method.
Apart from the above seven theories or methods, there are more theories and
methodologies, which are followed by different eminent folklorists. Here, we have no
scope to discuss all the theories and hence, we have given outline of only a few important
theories to show the line of the growth of folklore in this century.
tales are nothing but sex symbols. 'Many folklorists following Freudian principles believed
that the "dream is the myth of the individual" some even declared that myth is the dream
of a culture; and therefore the same psychological mechanisms operated in dreams and
myths and were subject to the same interpretations. According to those scholars if the
dreams expressed the infantile desire of one human being, myths revealed psychic
repressions of the whole race or culture.32
Freud, Oppenheim, Earnest Jones, Erich Fromm, Gaza Roheim etc. have done
remarkable work in analysing myths, tales and literary works of different cultures
according to psychoanalytic method.
Apart from the above seven theories or methods, there are more theories and
methodologies, which are followed by different eminent folklorists. Here, we have no
scope to discuss all the theories and hence, we have given outline of only a few important
theories to show the line of the growth of folklore in this century.
Modern Folklore/Folktale Studies in India:
Though there is evidence to believe in the establishment of folklore studies in India
long before such studies were deliberated upon in the West, modem folklore study in
India has largely followed western paradigms. The first studies into Indian folklore in
modem times were largely philological with the researcher being primarily interested in
finding the origins of the folklore material under study. Field collections of folktales and
other folklore material were started mainly by British government officials, Christian
missionaries and some enthusiasts. Folklore studies received a huge boost with the
publication of the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal from 1774. Another
important platform for folklore study was provided by James Burgess who started the
Indian Antiquary in 1872 from Bombay and encouraged the study of tales, songs and
other oral traditions in India. The Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay was started in
1886 where emphasis on the collection and publication of folklore material was
noticeable. Besides these journals, some important collections were also completed by
scholars. In 1868 Merry Frere published The Old Deccan, a collection of Indian folktales
mainly from south India. This was followed by another collection by M. Strokes in 1879
named Indian Fairy Tales. Another collection, Wide Awake Stories, mainly dealing with
tales from the Punjab region was published by Flora Steel in 1884.
The nationalist movement for independence from the British that raged all over India
augmented folklore studies as part of the very attempt to create an Indian identity.
Rabindranath Tagore established the Bangiya Sahitya Parishad in 1893 and in its
journal folklore material from various parts of Bengal found place. Among many other
enthusiasts and collectors motivated by this nationalistic zeal, one may include the names
of Kakasaheb Kalelkar, Zhaverchand Meghani, Ram Naresh Tripathi and Lakhminath
Bezbaroa who were able to inspire people to collect and preserve various folklore genres.
These works were primarily based on field collections. A subsequent approach that is
seen emerging soon after was a combination of field 'collection and philology. The
inclusion of anthropological and linguistic methodologies in the study of folklore marked
another line of development in Indian folklore studies. The post-independence period
saw more in depth analysis of folklore and many prominent scholars became interested
in the field. Indian folklore scholars continued to closely follow the line of development
in international folklore studies and the structural/semiotic study of folklore, which will
be discussed below, was also attempted in the Indian context.
The notion that human thought and communication function by means of signs is an
idea that runs deep in the Eastern and Western traditions. In the celebrated Mahayana
text, Lankavatara Sutra, Mahamati Says, “ The Bodhisattva Mahasattva asked the
Blessed One: Pray tell me ... the signification of two things, expression and expressed
The relationship between words and their meaning had been a matter of deep debate in
ancient India. Semiotic awareness was quite potent in many other regions of the ancient
world. The sophist, Prodicus (c. 460-395 B.C.E.), founded his teachings on the practical
idea that properly chosen words are fundamental to effective communication.
Questioning this notion that words possess some universal, objective meaning, Plato
(427-347 B.C.E.) explored the arbitrary nature of the linguistic sign. He suggested
separateness between an object and the name that is used to signify that object: "Any
name which you give, in my opinion, is the right one, and if you change that and give
another, the new name is as correct as the old," (Cratylus, 360 B.C.E.). Plato’s main
findings include the assertion that verbal signs only represent reality incompletely, that
the study of words cannot reveal the nature of reality as the realm of ideas is independent
of its representation in words and that knowledge through sign mediation is incomplete
and inferior to immediate knowledge (Noth 1995:15). Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)
recognized the instrumental nature of the linguistic sign, observing that human thought
proceeds by the use of signs and that spoken words are the symbols of mental experience
(On Interpretation, 350 B.C.E). He also maintained that written marks are symbols for
spoken sounds, that mental impressions are similar to actual things, that even though
mental events are same for all mankind speech is not so. Aristotle also recognizes the
conventional nature of the sign in his Peri hermenneias (Chap 2; 16a 19, 26-29) by
saying—‘A name is a spoken sound significant by convention... I say by convention
because no name is a name naturally but only when it has become a symbol”. Six
centuries later Augustine of Hippas (354-430 A.D.), elaborated on this instrumental role
of signs in the process of human learning. For Augustine, language was the brick and
mortar with which human beings construct knowledge. "All instruction is either about
things or about signs; but things are learned by means of signs," (On Christian Doctrine,
punishment, merit and reward can be taken together to organize what may be called an
“elementary sequence” (Bremond: 1977:49). Thus
deterioration --^ improvement
merit ---► reward
unworthiness ---► punishment
This elementary sequence allows Bremond to present the basic dynamics of narrative.
Thus, the deterioration of the victim is due to the unworthiness of the villain that results
in the latter’s eventual punishment; the improvement of the victim is based on help from
the worthy helper for which the helper is rewarded. As Bremond says (1977:50), the
deterioration of the victim due to the unworthy villain creates a movement towards the
valuative opposite: an improvement in the victim’s condition due to the worthy helper.
However, the unworthy villain’s action generates its valuative opposite, punishment,
while the worthy helper’s action (merit) generates the valuative complement, reward.
Reward is also the outcome of the hero’s projection of merit. Thus—