The Philippine Bureaucracy 1

The Philippine Bureaucracy

Political Science 14
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 2

Introduction
To many, the term bureaucracy suggests inefficiency and time-consuming
formalities : in short, "red tape". In the field of politics, bureaucracy refers to
the administrative machinery of the state: that is, the massed ranks of civil
servants and public officials who are charged with the execution of
government businesses. From Max Weber's point of view, “Bureaucracy is the
best form of the organization. As an organization, it substitutes a rule of law
based on the whims of those who happen to govern.” And from a Filipino
sociologist, Socorro S. Espiritu, said that bureaucratic structures in institutions
are not necessarily confined to political organizations. They tend to develop
wherever it is necessary to coordinate the activities of many people.
Bureaucracy offers both an efficient mechanism for reaching institutional
goals and the danger of allowing the mechanism to appear more important
than the service it is supposed to perform.

We, the researchers, hope that we will be able to rationalize our

researches and findings as relevant to the purpose of this paper. We are going
to present and analyze the different concept of bureaucracy and how it was
applied in the Philippine context in terms of its structure, model and
problems.
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 3

Concept of Bureaucracy

According to book of Andrew Heywood, Albrow (1970:84-105) identified no

fewer than seven modern concepts of bureaucracy: as rational organization, as
organizational inefficiency, as rule by officials, as public administration,
administration by officials, as organization, and as modern society. But to
some extent, these contrasting concepts and usages reflect the fact that
bureaucracy has been viewed differently by different academic disciplines.

Role of Bureaucracy
Administration
The core function of the bureaucracy is to implement or execute law and
policy: it is thus changed with administering government business. This is
why the bureaucracy is sometimes referred to as "the administration", while
the political executive is termed as "the government". This distinction implies
that a clear line can be drawn between the policy-making role of politicians
and the policy-implementing role of the bureaucrats. Certainly, the vast
majority of the worlds servants are engaged almost exclusively in
administrative responsibilities.
Policy Advise
The political significance of the bureaucracy stems largely from its role as
the chief source of the policy information and advice available to government.
This policy role helps to distinguish top-level civil servants, who have daily
contact with politicians and are expected to act as policy advisers, from
middle-ranking and junior ranking civil servants, who deal with more routine
administrative matters.
Articulating Interest
Bureaucracies often help to articulate and sometimes aggregate interest.
Bureaucracies are brought into contact with interest groups through their ask
of policy implementation and their involvement in policy formulation and
advice.

Political Stability
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 4

The final function of bureaucracies is to provide a focus of stability and

continuity within political systems. This is sometimes seen as particularly
important in developing states, where the existence of a body of trained
career officials may provide the only guarantee that government is conducted
in an orderly and reliable fashion.

Structure and Model of Philippine Bureaucracy

According to the Weberian model, created by German sociologist Max

Weber, a bureaucracy always displays the following characteristics:
Hierarchy, specialization, division of labor, impersonal and the standard
operating procedure. In the Philippines, this model is being adopted and
practice. Hierarchy is one of the characteristics of this model according to
Weber which a bureaucracy is set up with clear chains of command so that
everyone has a boss. The bureaucrats can range from the lowest employees to
the highest official of the hierarchy. Next to this is the specialization which the
bureaucrats specialize in one area of the issue their agency covers. This allows
efficiency because the specialist does what he or she knows best, then passes
the matter along to another specialist. Then the division of labor which each
task is broken down into smaller tasks, and different people work on different
parts of the task. And lastly, the Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) also
called formalized rules, SOP informs workers about how to handle tasks and
situations. Everybody always follows the same procedures to increase
efficiency and predictability so that the organization will produce similar
results in similar circumstances. SOP can sometimes make bureaucracy move
slowly because new procedures must be developed as circumstances change.

The Philippines adapted the "ideal" Weberian model of bureaucracy. The

hierarchical characteristics of this can be seen in the organizational form of the
government. The President of the Philippines is at the top of the organization
is a chief who oversees the entire bureaucracy. Power flows downward. The
specialization of jobs in the government is that workers in a government
perform specialized tasks that call for training and expertise. Trained
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 5

personnel can accomplish their jobs efficiently. The downside of

specialization is that bureaucrats often cannot (or refuse to) "work out of
class" — that is, take on a task that is outside the scope of their job description.
Division of labor in the bureaucracy must have a demarcation line in
performing different tasks of the government. Example to this is in the
national government, the task of legislating laws must be isolated merely in
the legislative body, the task of executing the laws must be exclusively given
to the executive body concomitant with the bureaucratic agency and the task
of adjudicating or interpreting the laws must be handled only by the judicial
body. However, it is important to take note that albeit the existence of the
division of labor, each civil servants belonging to different tasks must value
the coherency in achieving the goal of the government as a whole.
Bureaucracy based on Max Weber’s works puts great emphasis with the
creation of an extensive organization that is structured in such a way that it
becomes an impersonal organization which is “dehumanized,” eliminating
personal feelings, so that in turn it will influence the lives and fate of every
citizen in the Philippine nation. Genuine impersonality should be
acknowledged and be taken into great consideration by officials so as to avoid
unnecessary interference and influence that may affect the already fragile
integrity of Philippine bureaucracy. The Bureaucracy of the government
function under formal rules. These instructions state how all tasks in the
organization, or in a particular tier of the hierarchy, are to be performed. The
rules are often called standard operating procedures (SOP) and are formalized
in procedures manuals. By following the rules, bureaucrats waste no time in
making appropriate decisions. There are different Standard Operating
Procedure in every department and agencies in the government.

There are contradictions in the operation of a bureaucracy, however. The

narrow focus on special expertise may blind a bureaucrat to a flaw in the
performance of a task. Compounding the problem may be the bureaucrat's
inability to recognize the problem if it occurs in an area outside the
bureaucrat's expertise. The hierarchical structure also prevents a democratic
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 6

approach to problem-solving. Lower-level staff find it difficult to question the

decisions of supervisors, and executives and managers may be unaware that a
problem exists several rungs down the organizational ladder.

Federal Bureaucracy
The federal bureaucracy holds a large number of employees of about 2.6
million, plus many freelance contractors. Everybody within the bureaucracy
works to administer the law but for the most part, the executive branch
manages the federal bureaucracy. Although the executive department
controls the majority of the tasks; the legislative as well as the judiciary
branches also have great influences.
Employees under this bureaucratic system are stereotyped as “faceless
bureaucrats” – impersonal, interchangeable, caught up in their own petty
rules, and too busy shuffling papers to be moved by any individual citizens
plight.
In the case of the Philippine bureaucracy, about 1.3 million civil servants
were only administered by the Civil Service Commission which means that
our bureaucracy failed to achieve the number of employees required for our
bureaucracy to be considered as federal.
Anyhow, we are partly on the realm of this federal bureaucratic structure
considering one its elements – the five organizations comprising the federal
bureaucracy. These five types of organizations include the Cabinet
Departments, Independent Executive Agencies, Independent Regulatory
Agencies, Government Corporations, and Presidential Commissions.
At the top of this bureaucratic ladder are the executive departments.
Currently, there are fifteen cabinet departments assigned with respective
tasks based on the different premise of bureaucracy. These departments are
the following: Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Education,
Energy, Health and Human Services, Justice, Homeland Security, Housing
and Urban Development, Interior, Labor, State, Transportation, Treasury, and
Veteran Affairs. Each department is headed by a secretary and comprises the
president’s cabinet. Under each of the mentioned departments are numerous
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 7

agencies, commissions, bureaus, boards and administrations.

The Independent Executive Agencies, on the other hand, are federal
agencies having direct communication with president or often called as line
organizations. These organizations do not fall under the control of any of the
fifteen cabinet departments in accordance to the President’s will of having
new agencies to be independent so that they have more direct control over
them. The congress also has the power to decide on how to fit these new
independent executive agencies within the existing bureaucracy.
In addition to these departments and agencies, the federal bureaucracy
also includes numerous independent regulatory agencies. These agencies do
not fall under the supervision of any of the mentioned executive departments
which means that they are outside the cabinet departments and more on
making and enforcing rules and regulations. The president nominates people
to regulatory boards and agencies, and the Senate confirms them. Generally,
these bureaucrats serve set terms in office and can only be removed for illegal
behavior. Regulatory agencies tend to function independently from the
elected parts of government, which gives them the freedom to make policy
without any political interference.
The fourth organizations under the federal bureaucracy are the
government corporations. These are government-owned enterprises function
in a businesslike manner and provide some services for a fee or engage in
commercial or non-commercial activities. An example of this would be the
Government Service Insurance System or GSIS, a social security system for
government employees which received significant subsidies from the
National Government, amounting 21 billion pesos in 2011. Government
corporations differ in some important ways from those of the private
corporations. For example, government corporations do not have
stockholders and do not pay dividends if they make a profit, instead, the
government corporations retain all profits. But these government corporations
can be handled by the private sector. They are being paid for their services,
though often at cheaper rate than a consumer would pay a private sector
producer.
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 8

Lastly, the federal bureaucracy establishes presidential commissions

regularly appointed by the president to investigate problems and make
recommendations.
The appointment of officers under these stated departments also follows
the articulated appointing considerations stated on the Article VII, Section 16
of the 1987 Philippine Constitution as such stated:
“The President shall nominate and with the consent of the Commission on
Appointments, appoint the heads of the executive departments, ambassadors,
other public ministers and consuls…”

Philippine Civil Service Commission

The Civil Service Commission (CSC) is the central personnel agency of the
Philippine government. One of the three independent constitutional
commissions with adjudicative responsibility in the national government
structure, it is also tasked to render final arbitration on disputes and
personnel actions on Civil Service matters.

Historical Highlights

The civil service system in the Philippines was formally established under
Public Law No. 5 ("An Act for the Establishment and Maintenance of Our
Efficient and Honest Civil Service in the Philippine Island") in 1900 by the
Second Philippine Commission. A Civil Service Board was created composed
of a Chairman, a Secretary and a Chief Examiner. The Board administered
civil service examinations and set standards for appointment in government
service. It was reorganized into a Bureau in 1905.

The 1935 Philippine Constitution firmly established the merit system as

the basis for employment in government. The following years also witnessed
the expansion of the Bureau’s jurisdiction to include the three branches of
government: the national government, local government and government
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 9

corporations.

In 1959, Republic Act 2260, otherwise known as the Civil Service Law,
was enacted. This was the first integral law on the Philippine bureaucracy,
superseding the scattered administrative orders relative to government
personnel administration issued since 1900. This Act converted the Bureau of
Civil Service into the Civil Service Commission with department status.

In 1975, Presidential Decree No. 807 (The Civil Service Decree of the
Philippines) redefined the role of the Commission as the central personnel
agency of government. Its present mandate is derived from Article IX-B of the
1987 Constitution which was given effect through Book V of Executive Order
No. 292 (The 1987 Administrative Code). The Code essentially reiterates
existing principles and policies in the administration of the bureaucracy and
recognizes, for the first time, the right of government employees to self-
organization and collective negotiations under the framework of the 1987
Constitution.

The Philippine Civil Service has undergone a great number of reforms in

terms of structure, size, leadership, position classification, and pay scheme,
among others, under the management and regulation of the CSC. Presently,
CSC’s mandate is based on Executive Order No. 292 or the Revised
Administrative Code of 1987.

Mandated Function

Under Executive Order No. 292, the Civil Service Commission shall
perform the following functions:

(1) Administer and enforce the constitutional and statutory provisions on the
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 10

merit system for all levels and ranks in the Civil Service;
(2) Prescribed, amend and enforce rules and regulations for carrying into
effect the provisions of the Civil Service Laws and other pertinent laws;
(3) Promulgate policies, standards and guidelines for the Civil Service and
adopts plans and programs to promote economical, efficient and effective
personnel administration in the government;
(4) Formulate policies and regulations for the administration, maintenance
and implementation of the position classification and compensation and set
standards for the establishment, allocation and reallocation of pay scales,
classes and position.;
(5) Render opinion and rulings on all personnel and other Civil Service
matters which shall be binding on all head of departments, offices and
agencies and which may be brought to the Supreme Court on certiorari;
(6) Appoint and discipline its officials and employees in accordance with law
and exercise control and supervision over the activities of the Commission;
(7) Control, supervise and coordinate Civil Service examinations.
(8) Prescribe all forms for Civil Service examinations, appointment, reports
and such other forms as may be required by law, rules and regulations;
(9) Declare position in the Civil Service as may properly be primarily
confidential, highly technical or policy determining;
(10) Formulate, administer and evaluate programs relative to the
development and retention of qualified and competent work force in the
public service;
(11) Hear and decide administrative cases instituted by or brought before it
directly or on appeal, including contested appointments, and review decisions
and actions of its offices and of the agencies attached to it.
(12) Issues subpoena and subpoena duces te cum for the production of
documents and records pertinent to investigations and inquiries conducted by
it in accordance with its authority conferred by the Constitution and pertinent
laws;
(13) Advice the President on all matters involving personnel management in
the government service and submit to the President an annual report on the
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 11

personnel programs;
(14) Take appropriate actions on all appointments and other personnel
matters in the Civil Service including extensions of service beyond retirement
age;
(15) Inspect and audit the personnel actions and programs of the departments,
agencies, bureaus, offices, local government including government-owned or
controlled corporations; conduct periodic review of the decisions and actions
of offices or officials to whom authority has been delegated by the
Commission as well as the conduct of the employees in these offices and
apply appropriate sanctions whenever necessary.
(16) Delegate authority for the performance of any functions to departments,
agencies and offices where such functions may be effectively performed;
(17) Administer the retirement program of government officials and
employees, and accredit government services and evaluate qualification for
retirement;
(18) Keep and maintain personnel records of all officials and employees in the
Civil service; and
(19) Perform all functions properly belonging to a central personnel agency
such as other functions as may be provided by law.
Article IX-B Section 1
(1) The civil service shall be administered by the civil service shall be
administered by the Civil Service Commission composed of a Chairman and
two Commissioners who shall be natural-born citizens of the Philippines and,
at the time of their appointment, at least thirty-five years of age, with proven
capacity for public administration, and must not have been candidates for any
elective position in the elections immediately preceding their appointment.
(2) The Chairman and the Commissioners shall be appointed by the
President with the consent of the Commission on Appointments for a term of
seven years without reappointment. Of those first appointed, the Chairman
shall hold office for seven years, a Commissioner for five years, and another
Commissioner for three years without reappointment. Appointment to any
vacancy shall be only for the unexpired term of the predecessor. In no case
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 12

shall any Member be appointed or designated in a temporary or acting

capacity.
Article IX-B Section 2
(1) The civil service embraces all branches, subdivisions, instrumentalities,
and agencies of the Government, including government - owned or controlled
corporations with original charters
The Civil Service Commission is currently led by Chairman Francisco
Duque III. His term started on February 3, 2010 and scheduled to end on
February 2, 2015. He was appoint by Former President Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo. Next to his position is the two commissioner, Robert Martinez, July 6,
2013- February 2, 2018 and Nieves Osorion, May 20, 2013- February 2, 2020
who were both appointed by President Benigno Auino III.

Career Executive Service Board

Intended as the main entity in-charge of the affairs of occupants of the
government's top management positions, the Career Executive Service Board
(CESB) was created as an attached agency to the Civil Service Commission.
The board administers also the Career Executive Service (CES) Eligibility
Examination to screen aspirants to CES positions in government.

The CESB is composed of eight (8) members, namely: the Chairperson of

the Civil Service Commission (CSC) and the President of the Development
Academy of the Philippines (DAP) as ex-officio members, and six (6) others
appointed by the President of the Philippines for a term of 6 years.

The latest total number of Civil Servants in the Government

The estimated number of government personnel as of 2nd quarter of 2010
is 1,312,508. Employees in the National Government Agencies (NGAs
including SUCs) comprised 63.6% or 834,327 personnel, while Government
Owned and Controlled Corporations (GOCCs) has a total of 94,759 personnel
or 7.2%. The total personnel complement in the Local Government Units
(LGUs) reached 383,422 or 29.2%.
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 13

In the career service, first level employees comprised 30.3% of the total
career government workforce or 348,866, while second level employees
totaled 775,908 or 67.4%. Third level employees totaled 13,267 or 1.2%, while
there are 13,321 (1.2%) non-executive career personnel nationwide. In the non-
career service, a total of 19,624 (12.2%) coterminous employees and 97,951
(60.8%) casual personnel are still in government service in the 2nd quarter of
2010. Contractual employees totaled 21,315 (13.2%), while elective officials
and noncareer executives totaled 20,686 (12.8%) and 1,570 (1%), respectively.
Compared to the total personnel complement in the 1st quarter of 2010
which totaled 1,313,770, there was 0.09% (1,262) decrease in the number of
government employees in the 2nd quarter of 2010. NGAs including SUCs
registered the biggest decrease totaling 825 staff. LGUs followed with 383
personnel, while GOCCs registered a net decrease of 54 personnel only.

Ratio of the Civil Servants with the Population

The current population of the Republic of the Philippines is estimated to
be approximately 97.704 million people, which is an increase of 3.0% from the
last record of the population while the total civil servants of the country is
estimated as 1,312,508. The ratio of the civil servant to the population is more
or less 1:74. Compared to the statistics given in 2004 that the number of Civil
Servants was 1, 475, 699 and the population was only 88, 574, 614 which
resulted to the ratio of 1:60, the relationship between the civil servant and the
population now is inversely proportional. This means that even if the the civil
servant decreased still the population continuously increase. One civil servant
is complemented with 74 persons in the population.

Problems in Philippine Bureaucracy

The world’s most successful economies — those that do not rely chiefly
on petrodollars for prosperity — have several things in common. Their
formulas for success include transparency and accountability. Another is
world-class public education. Another is a professional bureaucracy.
These are societies where success is based on merit rather than political
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 14

connections. Their bureaucracies do not need to be oiled with grease money

to function properly. Heads of government can come and go at the drop of a
hat, such as in Japan, without affecting the efficiency of public services. With a
professional bureaucracy in place, it becomes harder for political appointees
at the top levels of government to enter into corrupt deals.
In a society where the public is used to dealing with a professional
bureaucracy, it becomes harder to flood the government service with political
appointees, or to make promotions and assignments that are not based on
merit.
But in the Philippines, as it turns out after so many governments passed
there has been no discernible effort to develop a professional bureaucracy.
Related to the bureaucracy is the bureau pathologies which refers to
pattern of behavior that bureaucracies are observed to exhibit that make them
dysfunctional and inefficient.

System-based Problems
Bureaucratic red tape is the excessive regulation or rigid conformity to
formal rules that is considered redundant or bureaucratic and hinders or
prevent actions or decision making. This includes the filling out of
paperwork, obtaining of licenses, having multiple people or committees
approve a decisions and various low-level rules that make conducting one's
affair slower, more difficult or both. In a survey conducted by the PERC, the
Philippines ranked 3rd after the India and Indonesia to have Asia's most
inefficient bureaucracies, with red tape a constant blight to citizens and
deterrent to foreign investment. Even though the government "goes through
the motion" of addressing problems of bureaucratic red tape still there is
nothing really made a dent in the problem. There are five red tape prone
agencies according to the National Competitiveness Commission (NCC),
namely the Bureau of Customs, Local Government Units, Laguna Lake
Development Authority, Bureau of Fire Protection and Food and Drugs
Administration. Bureau of Internal Revenue, Bureau of Investigation, SSS,
DENR and PhilHealth have been taken out of the list because the agencies
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 15

made considerable progress in combating red tape.

But on the 19th day of February 2007, Senate Bill no. 2589 and House Bill
no. 3776 passed the Republic Act No. 9485 or the "Anti- Red Tape Act of 2007"
(An Act to Improve Efficiency in the Delivery of Government Services to the
Public by Reducing Bureaucratic Red Tape, Preventing Graft and Corruption,
and Providing Penalties Therefore). This aims to promote transparency in the
government with regard to the manner of transacting with the public by
requiring each agency to simplify frontline service procedures, formulate
service standards to observe in every transaction and make known these
standards to the client.

Other problems in the bureaucracy of the Philippines are the following :

very hard to introduce innovation, limited degree of decision making, and not
allowing contestation. Even in the advent of new technologies now, some
agencies in the government still using old reliable method of producing files
such as typewriters which was very easy to produce falsified or manipulated
documents which can be used in illegal activities.

Culture-based Problems
Vulnerability to nepotism
Underlying Philippine bureaucracy are substructures of small kinship
groups. Members of family groups by consanguinity, by affinity, and by ritual
kinship( or compadrazgo) give top priority to family loyalty. Within such
groupings, all of them feel that they are under obligation to help each other in
a variety of ways. New employees may not fully qualify for the vacancy,
however people who can best meet the requirements of the job tend to be
ignored in substitution for relatives/friends of particular individuals involved
with the entity. This may cause conflicts at the agency.

The Philippine bureaucracy is also "bloated with excess officials"and

agencies topping the list are the departments of agrarian reform, national
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 16

defense, environment and natural resources, and interior and local

government. In these departments, the number of undersecretaries and
assistant secretaries exceeds the limit of five. In fact in many national
government agencies (NGAs), bureau and regional directors keep their posts
way beyond the legal one-year tenure.

Opportunism
A change in the presidency leads to a revamp in the top echelon of the
bureaucracy directly under the chief executive. This is an opportunity for the
new president to pay political debts incurred during an increasingly
fraudulent election by appointing supporters and cronies to key managerial
positions in the bureaucracy starting with department secretaries. Some of the
appointees come from political dynasties or from vote-rich provinces that
delivered “votes” to the president. Still others are corporate bigwigs and big
landlords who use their positions in furtherance of narrow family interests
and ram through devastating economic policies.

Officially, the appointees are supposed to put into action whatever the
president’s political and economic visions are – even if what exist are myopic
and short-term. But the system of political patronage dictates that their main
role is to help preserve and consolidate presidential power from the national
down to the local bureaucracy. In turn, the top executives pick their own
proteges and minions for other key positions in the bureaus and regional
offices. The same thing is true in the LGUs.

Conclusion

After synthesizing the ideal-type bureaucracy of Max Weber, the

researchers realize that it is how he defined it, "ideal". But not all existing
bureaucracy is like as it is. The bureaucracy of Max Weber seemed to
disregard the existence and importance of many elements such as human
relations, which is proven to be an important factor in determining work
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 17

efficiency. The reality of Philippine Bureaucracy is that, despite its constancy

to the assumption of Weberian bureaucracy, one cannot deny that, indeed,
ours is mostly influenced by our cultural norms. Customs such as strong
kinship ties, corruption, regionalism and the ever-present patronage system
greatly influences the system, sometimes to the point of disregarding the
principle of hiring based on merit and competence. These “societal ills” have
plagued us for the longest time.We cannot also deny the fact that Philippine
bureaucracy has something to do with the malicious activities of the
authorities. It is not deniable that one part of our culture is “utang na loob”
which serves as a payment for the service rendered by a particular person
who is in the higher position. It is said that “the true bureaucracy has no
human emotions attached with it, such as love and hatred”. The more that
bureaucracy is dehumanized, the better chance it has of it being successful.
According to Max Weber, efficiency should be the greatest goal of the people
within an organization. Their job is to provide quality service to the citizens of
the country and not the other way around.

The researcher also concluded that the political system defines its
bureaucracy. The form and substance of the bureaucracy as the main
machinery of government is heavily defined by the latter's policies and
politics.It cannot be expected to produce and deliver goods and services
corresponding to the needs of the people if the policies of government are
anti-people. In the same manner that the bureaucracy cannot operate
differently and independently of the ills of the Philippine political system. A
political system is based on its economic foundation thus it is beyond doubt
that economic power makes political power. In a semi-colonial and semi-
feudal society such as the Philippines, it is easy to conclude that the foreign
investors, their local counterparts such as the big compradors and landlords,
who are the main players in the economy, control the state through their
cohorts in government. That it is their business, to effectively manage the
affairs of the bureaucracy as a means and source of graft and corruption for
further self-aggrandizement and their perpetuation in power.
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 18

Bureaucracy in the Philippines is not a picture of perfect bureaucracy but

a perfect example of the word bureaucracy which connotes negative image in
everyday speech. With people ransacking the funds of the nation and
hierarchies filled with power-hungry officials, much has to be done with the
bureaucracy if things are to be straightened out.

REFERENCES

 Book

Heywood, Andrew. "Politics (Second Edition)". Palgrave Macmillan, New

York, New York. 2002

Naguit, Reynaldo S. "Discourses on the 1987 Philippine Constitution". Trinitas

Publishing, Inc., Meycauayan, Bulacan. 2005

 Internet Websites:

http://excell.csc.gov.ph/cscweb/civil.html

http://www.lawphil.net/administ/csc/csc.html

http://celebratepcsa.wordpress.com/history/
 The Philippine Bureaucracy 19

http://dap.edu.ph/pmdp/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=27&Itemid=38

http://excell.csc.gov.ph/cscweb/statisti.html

http://www.worldpopulationstatistics.com/philippines-population-2013/

http://www.shmoop.com/federal-bureaucracy/growth-bureaucracy.html

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/more-subjects/american-government/the-
bureaucracy/characteristics-of-a-bureaucracy
http://www.managementstudyhq.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-
bureaucracy.html