1.types of Computers - Wiki.20150309
1.types of Computers - Wiki.20150309
1.types of Computers - Wiki.20150309
Types of Computers
Contents
1 Classes of computers 1
1.1 Classes by size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Microcomputers (personal computers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Minicomputers (midrange computers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.3 Mainframe computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.4 Supercomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Classes by function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Workstations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Information appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.4 Embedded computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
i
ii CONTENTS
4 Analog computer 11
4.1 Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Timeline of analog computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.2 Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3 Electronic analog computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4 Analog–digital hybrid computers and hybrid computing devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.5 Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5.1 Mechanical analog computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5.2 Electronic analog computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.6 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.7 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.8 Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.9 Practical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5 Deltar 20
6.5.5 EDVAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.5.6 Commercial computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.5.7 Microprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.5.8 Magnetic storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.6 Early computer characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.7 Transistor computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.7.1 Transistorized peripherals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.7.2 Supercomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.8 The integrated circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.9 Post-1960 (integrated circuit based) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.10 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.12 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Classes of computers
Computers can be classified, or typed, in many ways. 1.1.2 Minicomputers (midrange comput-
Some common classifications are summarized below. For ers)
others see Category:Classes of computers.
Minicomputers (colloquially, minis) are a class of
multi-user computers that lie in the middle range
1.1 Classes by size of the computing spectrum, in between the smallest
mainframe computers and the largest single-user sys-
tems (microcomputers or personal computers). The
1.1.1 Microcomputers (personal comput- term superminicomputer or supermini was used to dis-
ers) tinguish more powerful minicomputers that approached
mainframes in capability. Superminis were usually 32-
Microcomputers are the most common kind of comput- bit at a time when most minicomputers were 16-bit.
ers in use as of 2014. The term “microcomputer” was in- The contemporary term for minicomputer is midrange
troduced with the advent of systems based on single chip computer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and
microprocessors. The best-known early system was the Itanium-based systems from Oracle Corporation, IBM
Altair 8800, introduced in 1975. The term “microcom- and Hewlett-Packard.
puter” has practically become an anachronism.
These computers include:
1.1.3 Mainframe computers
• Desktop computers – A case and a display, put un-
The term mainframe computer was created to distinguish
der and on a desk.
the traditional, large, institutional computer intended to
• In-car computers (carputers) – Built into a car, service multiple users from the smaller, single user ma-
for entertainment, navigation, etc. chines. These computers are capable of handling and pro-
cessing very large amounts of data quickly. Mainframe
• Game consoles – Fixed computers specialized for computers are used in large institutions such as govern-
entertainment purposes (video games). ment, banks and large corporations. They are measured
in MIPS (million instructions per second) and respond to
up to 100s of millions of users at a time.
Smaller microcomputers are also called mobile devices:
1
2 CHAPTER 1. CLASSES OF COMPUTERS
tions in real numbers. In terms of computational capabil- the computational requirements of the specific applica-
ity, memory size and speed, I/O technology, and topolog- tion and may be slower and cheaper than CPUs found in
ical issues such as bandwidth and latency, supercomput- a personal computer.
ers are the most powerful, are very expensive, and not
cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction pro-
cessing. Transaction processing is handled by less pow- 1.3 See also
erful computers such as server computers or mainframes.
• List of computer size categories
1.2.2 Workstations
This list of computer size categories attempts to list • Desktop computer—see computer form factor
commonly used categories of computer by size, in de- for some standardized sizes of desktop com-
scending order of size. Of course, one generation’s “su- puters
percomputer” is the next generation’s “mainframe”, and a • Home computer
“PDA” does not have the same set of functions as a “lap-
top”, but the list should have some recognition value. It
also ranks some more obscure computer sizes.
2.5 Mobile computers
• Desktop replacement computer or desknote
2.1 Supercomputers
• Laptop computer
• Minisupercomputer • Notebook computer
• Subnotebook computer, also known as
a Kneetop computer; clamshell varieties
2.2 Mainframe computers may also be known as minilaptop or ul-
traportable laptop computers
Mainframe computers are large and expensive but pow-
erful, so they can handle hundreds and thousands of con- • Tablet personal computer
nected users at the same time. • Slabtop computers including “word-processing key-
boards” and the TRS-80 Model 100
3
4 CHAPTER 2. LIST OF COMPUTER SIZE CATEGORIES
• Category:Mobile computers
2.6 Others • Category:Desktop replacement computers
• Category:Laptops
• Deskside computer - often strd. rack width but
• Category:Notebooks
less than half of the typical rack height, esp.
for mid-range servers (e.g. RS/6000 7025-F80), • Category:Tablet computers
visualisation (e.g. Onyx Deskside) or vector pro- • Category:Subnotebooks
cessing (e.g. SX-6i).
• Category:Handheld computers
• Cart computer • Category:Pocket computers
• Category:Personal digital assistants
• Microsoft Sphere
• Category:Enterprise Digital Assistants
• Rackmount/Framemount computer • Category:Handheld PCs
• Category:Palmtops
• Multimedia server
• Category:Calculators
• Blade server
• Category:Handheld game consoles
• Blade PC • Category:Pocket PCs
• Category:Portable data terminals
• Small form factor personal computer (SFF, ITX, • Category:Electronic organizers
DTX.etc.)
• Category:Information appliances
• Category:Wearable computers
2.7 Distinctive marks • Category:Embedded systems
The classes above are not rigid; there are “edge devices” • Category:Wireless sensor network
in most of them. For instance, the “subnotebook” cate- • Category:Smartdust
gory can usually be distinguished from the “PDA” cate-
gory because a subnotebook has a keyboard and a PDA • Category:Nanocomputer
has not; however, tablet PCs may be larger than subnote-
books (making it seemingly correct to classify them as
laptops) and also lack a keyboard, while devices such as 2.9 See also
the Handspring Treo 600 have something that might char-
itably be called a keyboard, but are still definitely in the • Classes of computers
“smartphone” category.
In the higher end of the spectrum, this informal rule might • Computer form factor
help:
5
6 CHAPTER 3. TORPEDO DATA COMPUTER
3.1 Background
3.1.1 History
outfits.)[24] It proved to be the best torpedo fire control actually move in a straight path immediately after launch
system of World War II.[25] and it does not instantly accelerate to full speed, which are
referred to as torpedo ballistic characteristics. The bal-
In 1943, the Torpedo Data Computer Mark IV was de-
listic characteristics are described by three parameters:
veloped to support the Mark 18 torpedo.[26][27]
reach, turning radius, and corrected torpedo speed. Also,
Both the Mk III and Mk IV TDC were developed by the target bearing angle is different from the point of view
Arma Corporation (now American Bosch Arma). of the periscope versus the point of view of the torpedo,
which is referred to as torpedo tube parallax.[30] These
factors are a significant complication in the calculation
3.1.2 The problem of aiming a straight- of the gyro angle and the TDC must compensate for their
running torpedo effects.
Straight running torpedoes were usually launched in salvo
A straight-running torpedo has a gyroscope-based control (i.e. multiple launches in a short period of time)[31] or a
system that ensures that the torpedo will run a straight spread (i.e. multiple launches with slight angle offsets)[31]
course. The torpedo can run on a course different from to increase the probability of striking the target given the
that of the submarine by adjusting a parameter called the inaccuracies present in the measurement of angles, tar-
gyro angle, which sets the course of the torpedo relative to get range, target speed, torpedo track angle, and torpedo
3.1. BACKGROUND 7
speed. Angle on the bow is the angle formed by the target course
Salvos and spreads were also launched to strike tough tar- and the line of sight to the submarine. Some skippers, like
gets multiple times to ensure their destruction.[32] The the legendary Richard O'Kane, practiced determining the
TDC supported the firing of torpedo salvos by allowing angle on the bow by looking at IJN ship models mounted
short time offsets between firings and torpedo spreads on a calibrated lazy Susan through an inverted binocular
by adding small angle offsets to each torpedo’s gyro an- barrel.[34]
gle. Before the sinking of South Korea's ROKS Cheo- To generate target position data versus time, the TDC
nan by North Korea in 2010, the last warship sunk by a needed to solve the equations of motion for the target
submarine torpedo attack, the ARA General Belgrano in relative to the submarine. The equations of motion are
1982, was struck by two torpedoes from a three torpedo differential equations and the TDC used mechanical in-
spread.[33] tegrators to generate its solution.[35]
The TDC needed to be positioned near other fire control
equipment to minimize the amount of electromechanical
interconnect. Because submarine space within the pres-
sure hull was limited, the TDC needed to be as small as
possible. On World War II submarines, the TDC and
other fire control equipment was mounted in the conning
tower, which was a very small space.[36] The packaging
problem was severe and the performance of some early
torpedo fire control equipment was hampered by the need
to make it small.[37]
There is fairly complete documentation available for a [13] There were other forms of torpedo guidance attempted
Japanese torpedo fire control computer that goes through throughout WWII. Notable are the Japanese human-
the details of correcting for the ballistic and parallax fac- guided Kaiten and German pattern running and acoustic
tors. While the TDC may not have used exactly the same homing types for attacking convoys. Today, most
approach, it was likely very similar. submarine-launched torpedoes are wire-guided with ter-
minal homing.
[20] Britain
[2] “Analog Computers”. Lexikon’s History of Computing.
1995. Retrieved 2006-07-03. [21] Jackson, USNR, Lt.(jg) J.G. (February 1946). Japanese
Torpedo Fire Control (PDF). US Naval Technical Mission
[3] While the TDC’s target tracking abilities were unique for to Japan. Fascicle O-1, Target O-32.
submarine torpedo fire control during WWII, target track-
ing was used on surface ship torpedo fire control systems [22] Holwitt, p.147.
by a number of nations (see references in this article to US
destroyer and Japanese torpedo fire control). The TDC [23] Mohl, Michael (2006). “Tambor (SS-198)". NavSource
was the first analog computer to miniaturize the capabil- Online: Submarine Photo Archive. Retrieved 2006-08-01.
ity enough for deployment on a submarine.
[24] Beach, Edward L., Jr. Dust on the Sea.
[4] Beach, Run Silent, Run Deep
[25] Holwitt, p.147; Friedman, Norman. U.S. Submarines
[5] Through 1945 (Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute Press,
1995), p.195.
[6]
[26] The Mark 18 was electric and therefore wakeless and dif-
[7] ficult for surface forces to trace. On the downside, it was
slower than the Mark 14. This made it more difficult to
aim accurately because larger gyro angles were involved.
[8] O'Kane, Richard (1977). Clear The Bridge:The War Pa-
Even so, thousands of them were fired during WWII.
trols of the U.S.S. Tang. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN
0-553-14516-9.
[27] O'Kane, Richard (1977). Clear The Bridge:The War Pa-
trols of the U.S.S. Tang. New York: Bantam Books. p.
[9] O'Kane, Richard (1987). Wahoo: The Patrols of Amer-
221. ISBN= 0-553-14516-9.
ica’s Most Famous World War II Submarine. New York:
Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-28161-5.; Beach, Edward [28] Friedman, Norman (1995). US Submarines Through
L., Jr., Captain, USN (rtd). Run Silent, Run Deep, pas- 1945: An Illustrated Design History. Naval Institute Press.
sim; Beach, Dust on the Sea, passim; Grider, George. War p. 196. ISBN 1-55750-263-3.
Fish, passim; Blair, Clay, Jr. Silent Victory (New York:
Bantam, 1976), passim. [29] Torpedoes were developed by the United States with this
capability during WWI. However, without automated fire
[10] Dusty Dornin was widely agreed to be the best. Blair, control it was difficult to realize the full advantages of this
p.357. approach.
[11] Blair, p.357. [30] Commander Submarine Force, United States Atlantic
Fleet, ed. (2006-04-16) [1950-02]. “Definitions”.
[12] “Museum documents an operating US, WW II built sub- Submarine Torpedo Fire Control Manual. pp. 1–12. Re-
marine in Taiwan.”. Retrieved 2008-07-13. trieved 2006-08-22.
10 CHAPTER 3. TORPEDO DATA COMPUTER
[31] Commander Submarine Force, United States Atlantic [46] O'Kane, Richard (1977). “Part V, Chapter 3”. Clear The
Fleet, ed. (2006-04-16) [1950-02]. “Definitions”. Bridge:The War Patrols of the U.S.S. Tang. New York:
Submarine Torpedo Fire Control Manual. pp. 1–9. Re- Bantam Books. p. 303. ISBN 0-553-14516-9.
trieved 2006-08-22.
[47] Most work on computing intercept angles is done using
[32] Commander Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet, ed. (2006- track angle as a variable. This is because track angle is a
02-17) [1944-02]. “Attacks -- General (Chapter IV, Sec- strictly a function of the target’s course and speed along
tion 1)". Current Submarine Doctrine. pp. paragraph with the torpedo’s course and speed. It removes the com-
4614. Retrieved 2006-07-02. plexities associated with parallax and torpedo ballistics.
[33] Nathan Decker (July 2005), Submarines 1950-2000, a [48] Commander Submarine Force, United States Atlantic
study in unused potential, archived from the original on Fleet, ed. (2006-04-16) [1950-02]. “Chapter 5: Duties
2007-03-17, retrieved 2006-08-20 of the Fire Control Party”. Submarine Torpedo Fire Con-
trol Manual. pp. 5–25. Retrieved 2006-08-19.
[34] O'Kane, RIchard H. (1989) [1987]. “Part 4: Chapter 1”.
Wahoo: The Patrols of America’s Most Famous World War
II Submarine (Bantam ed.). New York: Bantam. pp. 108–
109. ISBN 0-553-28161-5. 3.3 External links
[35] Bromley, Allan (1990). “Analog Computing Devices”. • USS Pampanito: Article on the Pampanito’s TDC.
Computing Before Computers. Retrieved 2006-07-22.
• Torpedo Data Computer Mk IV
[36] Wise, Robert (Director-One scene shows how cramped a
conning tower could be.) (1958). Run Silent, Run Deep • A. Ben Clymer: The mechanical analog Computers
(Film). Pacific Ocean. of Hannibal Ford and William Newell, IEEE Annals
[37] Friedman, Norman (1995). US Submarines Through
of the history of computing
1945: An Illustrated Design History. Naval Institute Press. • US Torpedo History: Good description of opera-
p. 350. ISBN 1-55750-263-3.
tional use of the Mk 14, Mk 18, and Mk 23
[38] Commander Submarine Force, United States Atlantic
• Original Manual for the Torpedo Data Computer
Fleet, ed. (2006-04-16) [1950-02]. “Chapter 4: The Tor-
pedo Fire Control Party”. Submarine Torpedo Fire Control Mark 3
Manual. pp. 4–2. Retrieved 2006-08-22.
• Discussion of the torpedo ballistic and parallax cor-
[39] Bureau of Ordnance, ed. (June 1944) [1944-06]. Torpedo rections used by the Imperial Japanese Navy
Data Compter Mk 3 Mods 5 to 12.
Analog computer
4.1 Setup
Setting up an analog computer required scale factors to
be chosen, along with initial conditions—that is, starting
values. Another essential was creating the required net-
work of interconnections between computing elements.
Sometimes it was necessary to re-think the structure of
the problem so that the computer would function satis-
A page from the Bombardier’s Information File (BIF) that factorily. No variables could be allowed to exceed the
describes the components and controls of the Norden bomb- computer’s limits, and differentiation was to be avoided,
sight. The Norden bombsight was a highly sophisticated opti- typically by rearranging the “network” of interconnects,
cal/mechanical analog computer used by the United States Army
using integrators in a different sense.
Air Force during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam
Running an electronic analog computer, assuming a sat-
War to aid the pilot of a bomber aircraft in dropping bombs ac-
curately. isfactory setup, started with the computer held with some
variables fixed at their initial values. Moving a switch
released the holds and permitted the problem to run.
In some instances, the computer could, after a certain
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the running time interval, repeatedly return to the initial-
continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena conditions state to reset the problem, and run it again.
such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to
model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital com-
puters represent varying quantities symbolically, as their
numerical values change. As an analog computer does
4.2 Timeline of analog computers
not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, pro-
cesses cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, 4.2.1 Precursors
as they can with Turing machines. Analog computers do
not suffer from the quantization noise inherent in digital This is a list of examples of early computation devices
computers, but are limited instead by analog noise. which are considered to be precursors of the modern
11
12 CHAPTER 4. ANALOG COMPUTER
A slide rule
unveiled in 1949.
Computer Engineering Associates was spun out of
Caltech in 1950 to provide commercial services using
the “Direct Analogy Electric Analog Computer” (“the
largest and most impressive general-purpose analyzer fa-
cility for the solution of field problems”) developed there
by Gilbert D. McCann, Charles H. Wilts, and Bart Lo-
canthi.[15][16]
Educational analog computers illustrated the principles
of analog calculation. The Heathkit EC-1, a $199 edu-
cational analog computer was made by the Heath Com-
pany, USA c. 1960.[17] It was programmed using patch
cords that connected nine operational amplifiers and other
components.[18] General Electric also marketed an “edu-
Analog computing machine at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Lab- cational” analog computer kit of a simple design in the
oratory in 1949. early 1960s consisting of a two transistor tone generator
and three potentiometers wired such that the frequency
of the oscillator was nulled when the potentiometer dials
were positioned by hand to satisfy an equation. The rela-
tive resistance of the potentiometer was then equivalent to
the formula of the equation being solved. Multiplication
or division could be performed depending on which dials
were considered inputs and which was the output. Ac-
curacy and resolution was limited and a simple slide rule
was more accurate, however, the unit did demonstrate the
basic principle.
In industrial process control, thousands of analog loop
controllers were used to automatically regulate temper-
ature, flow, pressure, or other process conditions. The
technology of these controllers ranged from purely me-
chanical integrators, through vacuum-tube and solid-state
Heathkit EC-1 educational analog computer devices, to emulation of analog controllers by micropro-
cessors.
systems that were too large to solve with numerical meth-
ods at the time.[11] These were essentially scale models
of the electrical properties of the full-size system. Since 4.3 Electronic analog computers
network analyzers could handle problems too large for an-
alytic methods or hand computation, they were also used The similarity between linear mechanical components,
to solve problems in nuclear physics and in the design of such as springs and dashpots (viscous-fluid dampers), and
structures. More than 50 large network analyzers were electrical components, such as capacitors, inductors, and
built by the end of the 1950s. resistors is striking in terms of mathematics. They can be
modeled using equations of the same form.
World War II era gun directors, gun data computers, and
bomb sights used mechanical analog computers. Me- However, the difference between these systems is what
chanical analog computers were very important in gun makes analog computing useful. If one considers a sim-
fire control in World War II, The Korean War and well ple mass–spring system, constructing the physical sys-
past the Vietnam War; they were made in significant tem would require making or modifying the springs and
numbers. masses. This would be followed by attaching them to each
The FERMIAC was an analog computer invented by other and an appropriate anchor, collecting test equip-
physicist Enrico Fermi in 1947 to aid in his studies of ment with the appropriate input range, and finally, taking
neutron transport.[12] Project Cyclone was an analog com- measurements. In more complicated cases, such as sus-
puter developed by Reeves in 1950 for the analysis and pensions for racing cars, experimental construction, mod-
design of dynamic systems.[13] Project Typhoon was an ification, and testing is not so simple nor inexpensive.
analog computer developed by RCA in 1952. It consisted The electrical equivalent can be constructed with a few
of over 4000 electron tubes and used 100 dials and 6000 operational amplifiers (op amps) and some passive linear
plug-in connectors to program.[14] The MONIAC Com- components; all measurements can be taken directly with
puter was a hydraulic model of a national economy first an oscilloscope. In the circuit, the (simulated) 'stiffness
14 CHAPTER 4. ANALOG COMPUTER
puter to get the advantages of the two techniques . In such Online, there is a remarkably clear illustrated refer-
system, the digital computer will control the analog com- ence (OP 1140) that describes[19] the fire control com-
puter, providing initial set-up, initiating multiple analog puter mechanisms. For adding and subtracting, preci-
runs, and automatically feeding and collecting data. The sion miter-gear differentials were in common use in some
digital computer may also participate to the calculation computers; the Ford Instrument Mark I Fire Control
itself using analog to digital and digital to analog convert- Computer contained about 160 of them.
ers. Integration with respect to another variable was done by
The largest manufacturer of hybrid computers was Elec- a rotating disc driven by one variable. Output came from
tronics Associates Inc.(EAI). Their hybrid computer a pickoff device (such as a wheel) positioned at a radius
model 8900 was made of a digital computer and one or on the disc proportional to the second variable. (A car-
more analog consoles. These systems were mainly ded- rier with a pair of steel balls supported by small rollers
icated to large projects such as the Apollo program and worked especially well. A roller, its axis parallel to the
Space Shuttle at NASA,or Ariane in Europe. , especially disc’s surface, provided the output. It was held against
during the integration step where at the beginning every- the pair of balls by a spring.)
thing is simulated, and progressively real components re- Arbitrary functions of one variable were provided by
place their simulated part. cams, with gearing to convert follower movement to shaft
Only one company was known as offering general com- rotation.
mercial computing services on its hybrid computers( CISI Functions of two variables were provided by three-
France ~1970 to 1980). The best reference in this field dimensional cams. In one good design, one of the vari-
is the 100 000 simulations runs for each certification the ables rotated the cam. A hemispherical follower moved
automatic landing system of Airbus and Concord planes. its carrier on a pivot axis parallel to that of the cam’s ro-
After 1980, purely digital computers progressed more tating axis. Pivoting motion was the output. The second
and more rapidly and were fast enough to compete with variable moved the follower along the axis of the cam.
analog computers. One key of the speed of analog com- One practical application was ballistics in gunnery.
puters was its full parallel computation, but this was also Coordinate conversion from polar to rectangular was
a limitation. The more equations required for a prob- done by a mechanical resolver (called a “component
lem, the more analog physical operators are needed, even solver” in US Navy fire control computers). Two discs on
when the problem isn't time critical. “Programming” a a common axis positioned a sliding block with pin (stubby
problem consists of interconnecting the analog operators; shaft) on it. One disc was a face cam, and a follower on
even with a removable wiring panel it’s not versatile at all. the block in the face cam’s groove set the radius. The
So presently there are no more big hybrid computers, but other disc, closer to the pin, contained a straight slot in
only hybrid components, AD and DA converters to tie which the block moved. The input angle rotated the latter
digital computers with the analog world. disc (the face cam disc, for an unchanging radius, rotated
with the other (angle) disc; a differential and a few gears
did this correction).
site side. In many cases, this variable changed sign; the Other non-computational mechanisms included internal
hypotenuse could coincide with the adjacent side (a zero odometer-style counters with interpolating drum dials for
input), or move beyond the adjacent side, representing a indicating internal variables, and mechanical multi-turn
sign change. limit stops.
Typically, a pinion-operated rack moving parallel to the Considering that accurately controlled rotational speed in
(trig.-defined) opposite side would position a slide with a analog fire-control computers was a basic element of their
slot coincident with the hypotenuse. A pivot on the rack accuracy, there was a motor with its average speed con-
let the slide’s angle change freely. At the other end of the trolled by a balance wheel, hairspring, jeweled-bearing
slide (the angle, in trig, terms), a block on a pin fixed to differential, a twin-lobe cam, and spring-loaded contacts
the frame defined the vertex between the hypotenuse and (ship’s AC power frequency was not necessarily accurate,
the adjacent side. nor dependable enough, when these computers were de-
At any distance along the adjacent side, a line perpendic- signed).
ular to it intersects the hypotenuse at a particular point.
The distance between that point and the adjacent side is
some fraction that is the product of 1 the distance from 4.5.2 Electronic analog computers
the vertex, and 2 the magnitude of the opposite side.
The second input variable in this type of multiplier po- Electronic analog computers typically have front panels
sitions a slotted plate perpendicular to the adjacent side. with numerous jacks (single-contact sockets) that per-
That slot contains a block, and that block’s position in its mit patch cords (flexible wires with plugs at both ends)
slot is determined by another block right next to it. The to create the interconnections which define the problem
latter slides along the hypotenuse, so the two blocks are setup. In addition, there are precision high-resolution po-
positioned at a distance from the (trig.) adjacent side by tentiometers (variable resistors) for setting up (and, when
an amount proportional to the product. needed, varying) scale factors. In addition, there is likely
to be a zero-center analog pointer-type meter for modest-
To provide the product as an output, a third element, an- accuracy voltage measurement. Stable, accurate voltage
other slotted plate, also moves parallel to the (trig.) op- sources provide known magnitudes.
posite side of the theoretical triangle. As usual, the slot is
perpendicular to the direction of movement. A block in Typical electronic analog computers contain anywhere
its slot, pivoted to the hypotenuse block positions it. from a few to a hundred or more operational amplifiers
(“op amps”), named because they perform mathematical
A special type of integrator, used at a point where only operations. Op amps are a particular type of feedback
moderate accuracy was needed, was based on a steel ball, amplifier with very high gain and stable input (low and
instead of a disc. It had two inputs, one to rotate the ball, stable offset). They are always used with precision feed-
and the other to define the angle of the ball’s rotating axis. back components that, in operation, all but cancel out the
That axis was always in a plane that contained the axes of currents arriving from input components. The majority
two movement-pickoff rollers, quite similar to the mech- of op amps in a representative setup are summing ampli-
anism of a rolling-ball computer mouse (in this mecha- fiers, which add and subtract analog voltages, providing
nism, the pickoff rollers were roughly the same diameter the result at their output jacks. As well, op amps with
as the ball). The pickoff roller axes were at right angles. capacitor feedback are usually included in a setup; they
A pair of rollers “above” and “below” the pickoff plane integrate the sum of their inputs with respect to time.
were mounted in rotating holders that were geared to- Integrating with respect to another variable is the nearly
gether. That gearing was driven by the angle input, and exclusive province of mechanical analog integrators; it is
established the rotating axis of the ball. The other input almost never done in electronic analog computers. How-
rotated the “bottom” roller to make the ball rotate. ever, given that a problem solution does not change with
Essentially, the whole mechanism, called a component in- time, time can serve as one of the variables.
tegrator, was a variable-speed drive with one motion in- Other computing elements include analog multipliers,
put and two outputs, as well as an angle input. The angle nonlinear function generators, and analog comparators.
input varied the ratio (and direction) of coupling between
the “motion” input and the outputs according to the sine Electrical elements such as inductors and capacitors used
and cosine of the input angle. in electrical analog computers had to be carefully manu-
factured to reduce non-ideal effects. For example, in the
Although they did not accomplish any computation, elec- construction of AC power network analyzers, one motive
tromechanical position servos were essential in mechan- for using higher frequencies for the calculator (instead
ical analog computers of the “rotating-shaft” type for of the actual power frequency) was that higher-quality
providing operating torque to the inputs of subsequent inductors could be more easily made. Many general-
computing mechanisms, as well as driving output data- purpose analog computers avoided the use of inductors
transmission devices such as large torque-transmitter syn- entirely, re-casting the problem in a form that could be
chros in naval computers. solved using only resistive and capacitive elements, since
4.7. LIMITATIONS 17
• inversion
Analog computers often have a complicated framework,
but they have, at their core, a set of key components which • multiplication
perform the calculations, which the operator manipulates
through the computer’s framework. • exponentiation
• Multipliers
• potentiometers 4.7 Limitations
• fixed-function generators In general, analog computers are limited by non-ideal
effects. An analog signal is composed of four basic
The core mathematical operations used in an electric ana- components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and
log computer are: phase. The real limits of range on these characteristics
18 CHAPTER 4. ANALOG COMPUTER
limit analog computers. Some of these limits include Analog (audio) synthesizers can also be viewed as a form
the operational amplifier offset, finite gain, and frequency of analog computer, and their technology was originally
response, noise floor, non-linearities, temperature coef- based in part on electronic analog computer technol-
ficient, and parasitic effects within semiconductor de- ogy. The ARP 2600's Ring Modulator was actually a
vices. For commercially available electronic components, moderate-accuracy analog multiplier.
ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are al- The Simulation Council (or Simulations Council) was an
ways figures of merit. association of analog computer users in USA. It is now
known as The Society for Modeling and Simulation Inter-
national. The Simulation Council newsletters from 1952
4.8 Decline to 1963 are available online and show the concerns and
technologies at the time, and the common use of analog
In 1950’s to 1970’s, digital computers based on first computers for missilry.[21]
vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits and then
micro-processors became more economical and precise.
This led digital computers to largely replace analog com- 4.10 See also
puters. Even so, some research in analog computa-
tion is still being done. A few universities still use • Signal (electrical engineering)
analog computers to teach control system theory. The
American company Comdyna manufactures small ana- • Signal (computing)
log computers.[20] At Indiana University Bloomington,
• Differential equation
Jonathan Mills has developed the Extended Analog Com-
puter based on sampling voltages in a foam sheet. At the • Dynamical system
Harvard Robotics Laboratory, analog computation is a re-
search topic. Lyric Semiconductor's error correction cir- • Chaos theory
cuits use analog probabilistic signals. Slide rules are still
• Analogical models
popular among aircraft personnel.
• Field-programmable analog array
• Voskhod Spacecraft “Globus” IMP navigation in-
4.9 Practical examples strument
[8] Tuncer Őren (2001). “Advances in Computer and Infor- 4.13 External links
mation Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents”, Turk
J Elec Engin 9 (1), p. 63-70 [64]. • Biruni’s eight-geared lunisolar calendar in Archae-
ology: High tech from Ancient Greece, François
[9] Donald Routledge Hill (1985). “Al-Biruni’s mechanical
Charette, Nature 444, 551-552(30 November
calendar”, Annals of Science 42, p. 139-163.
2006), doi:10.1038/444551a
[10] Ray Girvan, “The revealed grace of the mechanism: • The first computers
computing after Babbage”, Scientific Computing World,
May/June 2003 • Large collection of electronic analog computers with
lots of pictures and documentation
[11] Thomas Parke Hughes Networks of power: electrification
in Western society, 1880-1930 JHU Press, 1993 ISBN 0- • Large collection of old analog and digital computers
8018-4614-5 page 376 at Old Computer Museum
[12] Metropolis, N. “The Beginning of the Monte Carlo • A great disappearing act: the electronic analogue
Method.” Los Alamos Science, No. 15, p. 125 computer Chris Bissell, The Open University, Mil-
ton Keynes, UK Accessed February 2007
[13] Small, J. S. “The analogue alternative: The electronic ana-
logue computer in Britain and the USA, 1930-1975” Psy- • German computer museum with still runnable ana-
chology Press, 2001, p. 90 log computers
4.12 References
Deltar
20
Chapter 6
PROCESSOR
OUTPUT
INPUT
INFORMATION INFORMATION
STORAGE
21
22 CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE
A slide rule
Scottish mathematician and physicist John Napier dis- In 1642, while still a teenager, Blaise Pascal started
covered that the multiplication and division of numbers some pioneering work on calculating machines and af-
could be performed by the addition and subtraction, re- ter three years of effort and 50 prototypes[9] he invented a
spectively, of the logarithms of those numbers. While mechanical calculator.[10][11] He built twenty of these ma-
producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to chines (called Pascal’s Calculator or Pascaline) in the fol-
perform many tedious multiplications. It was at this point lowing ten years.[12] Nine Pascalines have survived, most
that he designed his 'Napier’s bones', an abacus-like de- of which are on display in European museums.[13] A con-
vice that greatly simplified calculations that involved mul- tinuing debate exists over whether Schickard or Pascal
tiplication and division.[5] should be regarded as the “inventor of the mechanical
6.1. EARLY DEVICES 23
Reconstruction of Babbage’s Analytical Engine, the first general- Sir William Thomson's third tide-predicting machine design,
purpose programmable computer. 1879-81
the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he Newman by Alan Turing[63] and spent eleven months
built in 1934 went into operation 5 years later, convertingfrom early February 1943 designing and building the
a portion of the telephone exchange network into an elec- first Colossus.[64][65] After a functional test in December
tronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it
tubes.[38] was delivered on 18 January 1944[66] and attacked its first
[59]
In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. message on 5 February.
Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the
Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942,[57] the first
electronic digital calculating device.[58] This design was
also all-electronic, and used about 300 vacuum tubes,
with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum
for memory. However, its paper card writer/reader
was unreliable, and work on the machine was discontin-
ued. The machine’s special-purpose nature and lack of
a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern
computers.[59]
began work on developing an electronic stored-program the University of Manchester in 1946 and 1947, it was
digital computer. His 1945 report ‘Proposed Electronic a cathode ray tube that used an effect called secondary
Calculator’ was the first specification for such a device. emission to temporarily store electronic binary data, and
Meanwhile, John von Neumann at the Moore School of was used successfully in several early computers.
Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, cir- Although the computer was considered “small and prim-
culated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945. itive” by the standards of its time, it was the first working
Although substantially similar to Turing’s design and con- machine to contain all of the elements essential to a mod-
taining comparatively little engineering detail, the com- ern electronic computer.[76] As soon as the SSEM had
puter architecture it outlined became known as the "von demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was
Neumann architecture". Turing presented a more de- initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable
tailed paper to the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) computer, the Manchester Mark 1. The Mark 1 in turn
Executive Committee in 1946, giving the first reasonably quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1,
complete design of a stored-program computer, a device the world’s first commercially available general-purpose
he called the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE). How- computer.[77]
ever, the better-known EDVAC design of John von Neu- The SSEM had a 32-bit word length and a memory of
mann, who knew of Turing’s theoretical work, received 32 words. As it was designed to be the simplest possible
more publicity, despite its incomplete nature and ques- stored-program computer, the only arithmetic operations
tionable lack of attribution of the sources of some of the implemented in hardware were subtraction and negation;
ideas.[38] other arithmetic operations were implemented in soft-
Turing felt that speed and size of memory were crucial ware. The first of three programs written for the ma-
and he proposed a high-speed memory of what would to- chine found the highest proper divisor of 218 (262,144),
day be called 25 KB, accessed at a speed of 1 MHz. The a calculation that was known would take a long time to
ACE implemented subroutine calls, whereas the EDVAC run—and so prove the computer’s reliability—by testing
did not, and the ACE also used Abbreviated Computer In- every integer from 218 - 1 downwards, as division was
structions, an early form of programming language. implemented by repeated subtraction of the divisor. The
program consisted of 17 instructions and ran for 52 min-
utes before reaching the correct answer of 131,072, after
6.5.2 Manchester “baby” the SSEM had performed 3.5 million operations (for an
effective CPU speed of 1.1 kIPS).
Main article: Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Ma-
chine
The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine,
6.5.3 Manchester Mark 1
6.5.5 EDVAC
ENIAC inventors John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
proposed the EDVAC's construction in August 1944,
and design work for the EDVAC commenced at the
University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electri-
cal Engineering, before the ENIAC was fully operational.
The design would implement a number of important ar-
chitectural and logical improvements conceived during
the ENIAC’s construction and would incorporate a high
speed serial access memory.[84] However, Eckert and Front panel of the IBM 650.
Mauchly left the project and its construction floundered.
In June 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Com-
It was finally delivered to the U.S. Army's Ballistics Re-
puter) was delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau. Reming-
search Laboratory at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in
ton Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than US$1
August 1949, but due to a number of problems, the com-
million each ($9.09 million as of 2015).[89] UNIVAC was
puter only began operation in 1951, and then only on a
the first “mass produced” computer. It used 5,200 vac-
limited basis.
uum tubes and consumed 125 kW of power. Its primary
storage was serial-access mercury delay lines capable of
storing 1,000 words of 11decimal digits plus sign (72-bit
6.5.6 Commercial computers
words).
The first commercial computer was the Ferranti Mark IBM introduced a smaller, more affordable computer in
1, built by Ferranti and delivered to the University of 1954 that proved very popular.[90] The IBM 650 weighed
Manchester in February 1951. It was based on the over 900 kg, the attached power supply weighed around
Manchester Mark 1. The main improvements over the 1350 kg and both were held in separate cabinets of
Manchester Mark 1 were in the size of the primary stor- roughly 1.5 meters by 0.9 meters by 1.8 meters. It
age (using random access Williams tubes), secondary cost US$500,000[91] ($4.39 million as of 2015) or could
storage (using a magnetic drum), a faster multiplier, and be leased for US$3,500 a month ($30 thousand as of
additional instructions. The basic cycle time was 1.2 mil- 2015).[89] Its drum memory was originally 2,000 ten-
liseconds, and a multiplication could be completed in digit words, later expanded to 4,000 words. Memory
about 2.16 milliseconds. The multiplier used almost a limitations such as this were to dominate programming
quarter of the machine’s 4,050 vacuum tubes (valves).[85] for decades afterward. The program instructions were
A second machine was purchased by the University of fetched from the spinning drum as the code ran. Efficient
Toronto, before the design was revised into the Mark 1 execution using drum memory was provided by a com-
Star. At least seven of these later machines were deliv- bination of hardware architecture: the instruction format
ered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs included the address of the next instruction; and software:
in Amsterdam.[86] the Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program, SOAP,[92] as-
32 CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE
signed instructions to the optimal addresses (to the extent computer. The IBM 704, introduced in 1954, used mag-
possible by static analysis of the source program). Thus netic core memory, which became the standard for large
many instructions were, when needed, located in the next machines.
row of the drum to be read and additional wait time for IBM introduced the first disk storage unit, the IBM 350
drum rotation was not required. RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and
Control) in 1956. Using fifty 24-inch (610 mm) metal
disks, with 100 tracks per side, it was able to store 5
6.5.7 Microprogramming megabytes of data at a cost of US$10,000 per megabyte
($90 thousand as of 2015).[89][98]
In 1951, British scientist Maurice Wilkes developed the
concept of microprogramming from the realisation that
the Central Processing Unit of a computer could be con-
trolled by a miniature, highly specialised computer pro- 6.6 Early computer characteristics
gram in high-speed ROM. Microprogramming allows the
base instruction set to be defined or extended by built-in
programs (now called firmware or microcode).[93] This
6.7 Transistor computers
concept greatly simplified CPU development. He first de-
scribed this at the University of Manchester Computer In- Main article: Transistor computer
augural Conference in 1951, then published in expanded Further information: List of transistorized computers
form in IEEE Spectrum in 1955.
It was widely used in the CPUs and floating-point units of The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From
mainframe and other computers; it was implemented for 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in com-
[99]
the first time in EDSAC 2,[94] which also used multiple puter designs, giving rise to the “second generation”
identical “bit slices” to simplify design. Interchangeable, of computers. Initially the only devices available were
replaceable tube assemblies were used for each bit of the germanium point-contact transistors.[100]
processor.[95]
contact transistors, less reliable than the valves they re- interchangeability guarantees a nearly unlimited quantity
placed but which consumed far less power.[102] Their first of data close at hand. Magnetic tape provided archival
transistorised computer and the first in the world, was capability for this data, at a lower cost than disk.
operational by 1953,[103] and a second version was com- Many second-generation CPUs delegated peripheral de-
pleted there in April 1955.[104] The 1955 version used vice communications to a secondary processor. For ex-
200 transistors, 1,300 solid-state diodes, and had a power ample, while the communication processor controlled
consumption of 150 watts. However, the machine did card reading and punching, the main CPU executed cal-
make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock wave- culations and binary branch instructions. One databus
forms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic
would bear data between the main CPU and core mem-
drum memory, so it was not the first completely transis- ory at the CPU’s fetch-execute cycle rate, and other
torized computer.
databusses would typically serve the peripheral devices.
That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955,[105] On the PDP-1, the core memory’s cycle time was 5
built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy microseconds; consequently most arithmetic instructions
Research Establishment at Harwell. The design featured took 10 microseconds (100,000 operations per second)
a 64-kilobyte magnetic drum memory store with multi- because most operations took at least two memory cycles;
ple moving heads that had been designed at the National one for the instruction, one for the operand data fetch.
Physical Laboratory, UK. By 1953 his team had tran- During the second generation remote terminal units (of-
sistor circuits operating to read and write on a smaller ten in the form of Teleprinters like a Friden Flex-
magnetic drum from the Royal Radar Establishment. owriter) saw greatly increased use.[112] Telephone con-
The machine used a low clock speed of only 58 kHz nections provided sufficient speed for early remote ter-
to avoid having to use any valves to generate the clock minals and allowed hundreds of kilometers separation be-
waveforms.[106][107] tween remote-terminals and the computing center. Even-
CADET used 324 point-contact transistors provided by tually these stand-alone computer networks would be gen-
the UK company Standard Telephones and Cables; 76 eralized into an interconnected network of networks—the
junction transistors were used for the first stage ampli- Internet.[113]
fiers for data read from the drum, since point-contact
transistors were too noisy. From August 1956 CADET
was offering a regular computing service, during which it 6.7.2 Supercomputers
often executed continuous computing runs of 80 hours
or more.[108][109] Problems with the reliability of early
batches of point contact and alloyed junction transistors
meant that the machine’s mean time between failures was
about 90 minutes, but this improved once the more reli-
able bipolar junction transistors became available.[110]
The Transistor Computer’s design was adopted by the
local engineering firm of Metropolitan-Vickers in their
Metrovick 950, the first commercial transistor computer
anywhere.[111] Six Metrovick 950s were built, the first
completed in 1956. They were successfully deployed
within various departments of the company and were in
use for about five years.[104]
A second generation computer, the IBM 1401, captured
about one third of the world market. IBM installed more The University of Manchester Atlas in January 1963
than ten thousand 1401s between 1960 and 1964.
The early 1960s saw the advent of supercomputing. The
Atlas Computer was a joint development between the
6.7.1 Transistorized peripherals University of Manchester, Ferranti, and Plessey, and
was first installed at Manchester University and offi-
Transistorized electronics improved not only the CPU cially commissioned in 1962 as one of the world’s first
(Central Processing Unit), but also the peripheral devices. supercomputers - considered to be the most powerful
The second generation disk data storage units were able computer in the world at that time.[114] It was said
to store tens of millions of letters and digits. Next to that whenever Atlas went offline half of the United
the fixed disk storage units, connected to the CPU via Kingdom’s computer capacity was lost.[115] It was a
high-speed data transmission, were removable disk data second-generation machine, using discrete germanium
storage units. A removable disk pack can be easily ex- transistors. Atlas also pioneered the Atlas Supervisor,
changed with another pack in a few seconds. Even if the “considered by many to be the first recognisable modern
removable disks’ capacity is smaller than fixed disks, their operating system".[116]
34 CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE
came ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond. This has allowed computing to become a commodity
In April 1975 at the Hannover Fair, Olivetti presented which is now ubiquitous, embedded in many forms, from
the P6060, the world’s first personal computer with built- greeting cards and telephones to satellites. The thermal
in floppy disk: a central processing unit on two cards, design power which is dissipated during operation has be-
code named PUCE1 and PUCE2, with TTL components. come as essential as computing speed of operation. In
It had one or two 8” floppy disk drives, a 32-character 2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total energy budget
plasma display, 80-column graphical thermal printer, 48 of the U.S.[137] The energy consumption of computer data
Kbytes of RAM, and BASIC language. It weighed 40 kg centers was expected to double to 3% of world consump-
tion by 2011. The SoC (system on a chip) has compressed
(88 lb). It was in competition with a similar product by
IBM that had an external floppy disk drive. even more of the integrated circuitry into a single chip;
SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single
MOS Technology KIM-1 and Altair 8800, were sold as hand-held wireless mobile devices.[138] Computing hard-
kits for do-it-yourselfers, as was the Apple I, soon after- ware and its software have even become a metaphor for
ward. The first Apple computer with graphic and sound the operation of the universe.[139]
capabilities came out well after the Commodore PET.
Computing has evolved with microcomputer architec-
tures, with features added from their larger brethren, now 6.10 Future
dominant in most market segments.
Systems as complicated as computers require very high Although DNA-based computing and quantum comput-
reliability. ENIAC remained on, in continuous oper- ing are years or decades in the future, the infrastruc-
ation from 1947 to 1955, for eight years before be- ture is being laid today, for example, with DNA origami
ing shut down. Although a vacuum tube might fail, it on photolithography[140] and with quantum antennae for
would be replaced without bringing down the system. By transferring information between ion traps.[141] By 2011,
the simple strategy of never shutting down ENIAC, the researchers had entangled 14 qubits.[142] Fast digital cir-
failures were dramatically reduced. The vacuum-tube cuits (including those based on Josephson junctions and
SAGE air-defense computers became remarkably reli- rapid single flux quantum technology) are becoming more
able – installed in pairs, one off-line, tubes likely to fail nearly realizable with the discovery of nanoscale super-
did so when the computer was intentionally run at reduced conductors.[143]
power to find them. Hot-pluggable hard disks, like the
hot-pluggable vacuum tubes of yesteryear, continue the Fiber-optic and photonic devices, which already have
tradition of repair during continuous operation. Semi- been used to transport data over long distances, are now
conductor memories routinely have no errors when they entering the data center, side by side with CPU and semi-
operate, although operating systems like Unix have em- conductor memory components. This allows the sepa-
ployed memory tests on start-up to detect failing hard- ration of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects.[144]
ware. Today, the requirement of reliable performance IBM has created an integrated circuit with both electronic
is made even more stringent when server farms are the and optical (this is called photonic) information process-
delivery platform.[132] Google has managed this by using ing in one chip. This is denoted “CMOS-integrated
fault-tolerant software to recover from hardware failures, nanophotonics” or (CINP).[145] One benefit of optical in-
and is even working on the concept of replacing entire terconnects is that motherboards which formerly required
server farms on-the-fly, during a service event.[133][134] a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC) can now move
formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off
In the 21st century, multi-core CPUs became com- the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the
mercially available.[135] Content-addressable memory rack. This allows standardization of backplane inter-
(CAM)[136] has become inexpensive enough to be used connects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs,
in networking, although no computer system has yet im- which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.[146]
plemented hardware CAMs for use in programming lan-
guages. Currently, CAMs (or associative arrays) in soft- An indication of the rapidity of development of this field
ware are programming-language-specific. Semiconduc- can be inferred by the history of the seminal article.[147]
tor memory cell arrays are very regular structures, and By the time that anyone had time to write anything
manufacturers prove their processes on them; this allows down, it was obsolete. After 1945, others read John
price reductions on memory products. During the 1980s, von Neumann’s First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,
CMOS logic gates developed into devices that could be and immediately started implementing their own systems.
made as fast as other circuit types; computer power con- To this day, the pace of development has continued,
sumption could therefore be decreased dramatically. Un- worldwide.[148][149][150]
like the continuous current draw of a gate based on other
logic types, a CMOS gate only draws significant cur-
rent during the 'transition' between logic states, except 6.11 See also
for leakage.
• Antikythera mechanism
36 CHAPTER 6. HISTORY OF COMPUTING HARDWARE
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7.6. REFERENCES 45
For the most early 8-bit and 16-bit microprocessors, per- [4] http://www.jcmit.com/cpu-performance.htm
formance was measured in thousand instructions per sec-
[5] http://web.archive.org/web/20120424231244/http:
ond (1 kIPS = 0.001 MIPS).
//www.depi.itch.edu.mx/apacheco/asm/Intel_cpus.htm
zMIPS refers to the MIPS measure used internally by IBM
to rate its mainframe servers (zSeries, IBM System z9, [6] http://www.drolez.com/retro/
and IBM System z10). [7] 2 cycles per instruction
Weighted million operations per second (WMOPS) is a
[8] http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/super/0003.html
similar measurement, used for audio codecs.
[9] http://homepage1.nifty.com/KSudou-NET/ks0D0D03.
htm
7.3 Timeline of instructions per [10] 1 instruction per cycle
second [11] 4 cycles per instruction = 0.25 instructions per cycle
Note: Bold highlight indicates the next step-up in terms [12] http://archive.org/stream/bitsavers_
of the highest known MIPS figures of their time. inteldataSngleComponent8BitMicrocomputerDataSheet1_
846962/8048_8035_HMOS_Single_Component_8-Bit_
Microcomputer_DataSheet_1980
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(1.75 MIPS), NEC-Zilog Z80 @ 4 MHz (0.58 MIPS)
, Intel 8751 @ 8 Mhz (8 MIPS ), Intel 8048 @ 6 MHz
(6 MIPS )
7.6 References
[26] http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=
[1] Ted MacNeil. “Don't be Misled by MIPS”. IBM maga- KzoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT22
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[3] MCS4 > IntelP4004 pg=PA130
46 CHAPTER 7. INSTRUCTIONS PER SECOND
[49] Tomshardware Cpu chart 2004 [78] Tom’s Hardware Cpu Charts 2010
[84] http://www.top500.org/system/176929
[87] http://www.guru3d.com/articles-pages/
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[90] http://www.cpu-world.com/benchmarks/browse/910_
80,965_61,993_80,1035_96/?c_test=6&PROCESS=
Show+Selected
[93] http://versus.com/en/
amd-fx-8350-black-edition-vs-intel-core-i7-4770k
[94] - Notebookcheck
[95] http://www.notebookcheck.net/
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93553.0.html
[96] http://techgage.com/print/
core-i7-5960x-extreme-edition-review-intels-overdue-desktop-8-core-is-here/
48 CHAPTER 7. INSTRUCTIONS PER SECOND
TheProject, Zygmunt lozinski, Notafish, Officiallyover, Mdd, Alansohn, Enirac Sum, Guy Harris, Andrewpmk, Riana, Goldom, Light-
darkness, Mailer diablo, Polyphilo, Velella, Saga City, Wtshymanski, Suruena, TenOfAllTrades, Gunter, Redvers, TheCoffee, Vmlinuz,
Marcelo1229, Angr, Camw, Asav, Wackyvorlon, Brunnock, Jacobolus, Davidkazuhiro, Robert K S, ^demon, CaptainTickles, Ruud Koot,
Pixeltoo, Cbdorsett, Wikiklrsc, Jacj, Driftwoodzebulin, Marudubshinki, Que, Rnt20, Graham87, Don Braffitt, BD2412, Dweinberger,
Josh Parris, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Commander, JoshuacUK, Bhaak, Oblivious, EvilMoFo, Bubba73, Boccobrock, Brighterorange, Ian
Dunster, DemonStar55, Josephs1, Yamamoto Ichiro, Lonestarnot, David jones, RobertG, Greg321, Who, Gurch, TheDJ, Ballas, Al-
phachimp, Vossman, SteveBaker, Chobot, Bgwhite, Wavelength, Borgx, Crotalus horridus, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Me and, Splash, Bal-
ancer, Groogle, Rada, Lucinos, Stephenb, Manop, Gaius Cornelius, Ksyrie, Wgungfu, Eddie.willers, NawlinWiki, The Merciful, Rieger,
Grafen, Trovatore, Seeaxid, Davechatting, Jpbowen, Raven4x4x, Tony1, Adicarlo, Daniel C, Emijrp, Zzuuzz, Raistolo, Spondoolicks,
Th1rt3en, Livitup, Petri Krohn, Loginer, Nzeemin, ArielGold, Curpsbot-unicodify, Rwwww, Kimdino, Harthacnut, Itub, Veinor, Crys-
tallina, SmackBot, Emeraldemon, Selfworm, Mjposner, Anarchist42, KnowledgeOfSelf, Gnangarra, Jacek Kendysz, Jagged 85, Ace-
ofspades1217, Lakhim, Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Des1974, RDBrown, JackyR, Thumperward, OrangeDog, Timneu22, SchfiftyThree,
Jerome Charles Potts, Octahedron80, Zven, Ken Estabrook, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Aleksandar Šušnjar, OrphanBot, JonHarder,
Rrburke, Addshore, Messybeast, Funky Monkey, Blake-, Sheepdontswim, RJBurkhart, Pilotguy, Spinality, The undertow, Harryboyles,
Mouse Nightshirt, Zebbie, John, AmiDaniel, Vgy7ujm, Dejudicibus, SilkTork, Benesch, Shadowlynk, This user has left wikipedia, Core-
desat, Mr. Lefty, Ckatz, Ian Dalziel, George The Dragon, SandyGeorgia, AdultSwim, Intranetusa, Condem, Peyre, JeffW, Iridescent,
StephenBuxton, Lenoxus, Marysunshine, Tawkerbot2, Chris55, Michaelwilson, JForget, CmdrObot, Kariandelos, CharacterZero, TitusS-
chleyer, Michal.Pohorelsky, Barnas, Chrishaw, Mblumber, OnPatrol, Myscrnnm, Dancter, Torc2, Jrgetsin, Optimist on the run, Viri-
dae, Kozuch, After Midnight, Omicronpersei8, Niubrad, Satori Son, Malleus Fatuorum, Kubanczyk, Loudsox, Kablammo, Ruddyflipper,
Marek69, Humble Scribe, Parsiferon, X201, PaulLambert, The Hybrid, Tree Hugger, Dawnseeker2000, Apantomimehorse, I already for-
got, AntiVandalBot, Macmanui, Widefox, Rolgiati, Roundhouse0, Science History, Myanw, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, MER-C, Bronco66,
Matthew Fennell, Arch dude, Austinmurphy, Bookinvestor, LittleOldMe, Geniac, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Fusionmix, Hasek is the best,
JamesBWatson, Kokin, Ecksemmess, Dulciana, Nikevich, David Eppstein, Glen, Gurko, DerHexer, JaGa, Oicumayberight, MartinBot,
Eng.ahmedm, STBot, Jerry teps, Glrx, Maddogprod, Yonaa, Lilac Soul, Artaxiad, TweeterMan, J.delanoy, Jorgenumata, Pharaoh of the
Wizards, Rgoodermote, Tom Paine, Wa3frp, Terrek, Uncle Dick, Jerry, Ian.thomson, Celephicus, Mr Rookles, SpigotMap, Lee.crabtree,
Gigantic Killerdong, Ohms law, Babedacus, Jozwolf, Martial75, Stolensoul, TraceyR, Wikieditor06, Lights, Caribbean H.Q., VolkovBot,
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ClueBot, Admiral Norton, Snigbrook, Wikievil666, The Thing That Should Not Be, Plastikspork, Witchwooder, Adrian g. abac, Rilak,
Quinxorin, Boing! said Zebedee, Niceguyedc, Namazu-tron, LukeTheSpook, Gradient drift, DragonBot, Tangocz, Eeekster, IamNotU,
BOTarate, Thehelpfulone, Blow of Light, Johnuniq, DumZiBoT, Ultima1209, Terry0051, FactChecker1199, Well-rested, Avoided, Mitch
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LinkFA-Bot, LarryJeff, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Softy, Margin1522, Arxiloxos, Legobot, PlankBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace,
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Public Kanonkas, Neptune5000, Piano non troppo, Kyrstymoon, Kingpin13, RandomAct, Flewis, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Maxis
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Firdaus065, Shadowjams, Astatine-210, StoneProphet, FrescoBot, Degress, MetaNest, Kwiki, Citation bot 1, Nixiebunny, Pinethicket,
10metreh, Calmer Waters, Skyerise, Xcvista, Ezrdr, MastiBot, Meaghan, Lissajous, Horst-schlaemma, SkyMachine, Cnwilliams, FoxBot,
Trappist the monk, SchreyP, FlyTexas, Dalakov, Snareshane, Grammarxxx, Vrenator, Reaper Eternal, Lysander89, Jmarcus1256, DARTH
SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Max The Magnificent, Woovee, Rollins83, DASHBot, Jpatros, Haguraa, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Rac-
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Ryan1joseph, H3llBot, Indicer, Gz33, LordJeff, Deutschgirl, Noodleki, Donner60, JoHnNhOeL, Orange Suede Sofa, Gauravkkr, Demon-
icPartyHat, Whoop whoop pull up, ArsenalTechKB, Rajan2323, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Gameking123, Mohozego, Movses-bot, Deer*lake,
Snotbot, Frietjes, Braincricket, O.Koslowski, Csc300c0, 686dosco, Widr, G8yingri, BTR742, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, Bibcode Bot,
BG19bot, WilliamBrain, MusikAnimal, Ilayaaditya, Min.neel, PwilliamQ99, Klilidiplomus, BattyBot, MilanBgd, Embrittled, Danmoberly,
JYBot, FLIPPITY PANTS, Vogone, Lone boatman, LlamaDude78, Graphium, Jamesx12345, Sriharsh1234, MattyPatty33000, Tomon-
keys, Faizan, Epicgenius, Acetotyce, Mcioffi, Backendgaming, LudicrousTripe, Comp.arch, Shreyabayari, Asesino6592, Lokoturkey2,
Monkbot, Vieque, Powerful786, Bensbens1, Trackteur, Whiteguy510, Johnsoniensis, Yoloswagbossmoney, Evolutionvisions, Georgina-
Mat, Thatguydude47099, Diran2, SQMeaner and Anonymous: 839
7.7.2 Images
• File:099-tpm3-sk.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/099-tpm3-sk.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Scan made by uploader from copy of Thomson’s design sketch for the third tide-predicting machine, 1879-81, as published in
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol.65, 1881 --- too old to be in copyright. Original artist: en:J. J. Thomson (died in 1940)
• File:AKAT-1.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/AKAT-1.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Topory
• File:Abacus_6.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png License: Public domain Contributors:
• Article for “abacus”, 9th edition Encyclopedia Britannica, volume 1 (1875); scanned and uploaded by Malcolm Farmer Original artist:
Encyclopædia Britannica
• File:Analog_Computing_Machine_GPN-2000-000354.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Analog_
Computing_Machine_GPN-2000-000354.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NIX C1949-24357 Original artist: NASA Headquar-
ters - GReatest Images of NASA (NASA-HQ-GRIN)
• File:AnalyticalMachine_Babbage_London.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/AnalyticalMachine_
Babbage_London.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bruno Barral (ByB)
• File:Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/
Atanasoff-Berry_Computer_at_Durhum_Center.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Manop
• File:Beschrijving_van_de_Deltar.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Beschrijving_van_de_Deltar.jpg
License: Attribution Contributors: BeeldbankVenW.nl, Rijkswaterstaat Original artist: Henri Cormont
• File:Bifnordennomenclature.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Bifnordennomenclature.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Source: http://www.twinbeech.com/images/bombsight/bifnordennomenclature.jpg Original artist: ?
• File:Colossus.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Colossus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This
file is from the collections of The National Archives (United Kingdom), catalogued under document record FO850/234. For high quality
reproductions of any item from The National Archives collection please contact the image library.
Original artist: Unknown
• File:ColossusRebuild_12.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/ColossusRebuild_12.jpg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MaltaGC
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Curta01.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Curta01.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:
Created this image in Indianapolis, IN Original artist: Larry McElhiney
• File:De_Deltar,_27_januari_1972.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/De_Deltar%2C_27_januari_
1972.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: BeeldbankVenW.nl, Rijkswaterstaat Original artist: Henri Cormont
• File:DeflectionAngle.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/DeflectionAngle.png License: Public domain
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Commonlingua using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Ziggle at
en.wikipedia
• File:Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Difference_engine_plate_
1853.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Google books Original artist: Woodcut after a drawing by Benjamin Herschel Babbage
• File:Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2c/Drift_Sight_Mk._I_on_DH4.jpeg Li-
cense: PD Contributors:
Interwar Development of Bombsights on the US Air Force Museum Original artist:
U.S. Air Force (more likely the US Army Air Service)
• File:Early_SSA_accounting_operations.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Early_SSA_accounting_
operations.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ssa.gov/history/acalcs.html Original artist: US Social Security Admin-
istration
• File:Eniac.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Eniac.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Army
Photo Original artist: Unknown
• File:FiringGeometry.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/FiringGeometry.png License: Public domain
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Sreejithk2000 using CommonsHelper. Original artist:
Original uploader was Ziggle at en.wikipedia
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Heathkit_Analog_Computer.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Heathkit_Analog_Computer.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Swtpc6800 Michael Holley
• File:IBM-650-panel.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/IBM-650-panel.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Information_processing_system_(english).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Information_
processing_system_%28english%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be
made by User:thumperward. Original artist: Original uploader was Gradient drift at en.wikipedia
• File:Intel_8742_153056995.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Intel_8742_153056995.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/biwook/153056995/ Original artist: Ioan Sameli
• File:Intercept.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Intercept.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Quadell using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was
Ziggle at en.wikipedia
7.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 51