Energy Conversion and Management: Hassan Z. Al Garni, Anjali Awasthi, Makbul A.M. Ramli
Energy Conversion and Management: Hassan Z. Al Garni, Anjali Awasthi, Makbul A.M. Ramli
Energy Conversion and Management: Hassan Z. Al Garni, Anjali Awasthi, Makbul A.M. Ramli
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: This research contributes to the ongoing discussions about the grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) systems
Renewable energy and draws attention to the optimal design by considering various PV array tracking systems towards enhancing
Solar energy the power generation. The PV tracking system configurations considered in this study include horizontal-axis
HOMER (monthly adjustment, weekly adjustment, daily adjustment, continuous adjustment), vertical-axis (continuous
Grid-connected photovoltaic system
adjustment), and a two-axis tracking system. HOMER (Hybrid Optimization of Multiple Energy Resources)
Saudi Arabia
software is employed whereas the actual data required by the model have been collected in Makkah, Saudi
Arabia.
The results show that the two-axis tracker can produce 34% more power than the fixed system, while the
vertical axis tracker with continuous adjustment was able to generate up to 20% more power than the fixed
system. Horizontal tracker with continuous adjustment shows the highest net present cost (NPC) and the highest
levelized cost of energy (LCOE), with a high penetration of solar energy to the grid. For the case of Makkah, the
vertical axis tracker with continuous adjustment is the best option as it has low LCOE and NPC values with a
positive return on investment (ROI) as well as high renewable energy penetration to the grid, which enhances its
viability for a utility-size solar PV grid-connected system.
1. Introduction manufacturing costs have declined over the past few years. In contrast
to the concentrated solar thermal technology, PV panels work in the
Presently, most of the energy supplied globally is generated from presence of both direct and diffuse solar irradiations.
fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. The major disadvantages of The integration of fossil fuels with RES produces a hybrid electrical
the fossil fuel sources are their fluctuating prices, environmental pol- system that overcomes the major limitations of solar energy, which are
lution, and the fact that they are finite resources. In this context, re- its intermittency and the fluctuating energy quantity. Such hybrid
newable energy sources (RES) are promising to take a significant share schemes could deliver a more reliable, sustainable, and en-
in the energy sector and they are considered a viable option for in- vironmentally friendly system. For the last 15 years, the deployment of
tegration with conventional fossil fuel power plants. Currently, more grid-connected PV surpasses the off-grid installation of PV worldwide,
than 24% of power globally is generated by RES, as shown in Fig. 1. as shown in Fig. 2 [3]. The exploitation of utility-size grid-connected
RES including solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal are clean and ea- solar PV has proven its advantages and has gained favor where vast
sily replenished sources. In 2016, more than 170 countries adopted at areas are accessible and where significant amount of solar irradiation is
least one type of RES target, an upward trend from only 43 countries in available. This research focuses on optimal design of grid-connected
2005 [1]. Among the RES technologies, solar energy technologies have solar PV and studies different tracking systems to compare their tech-
shown a significant advancement and maturity for power generation. nical and economic feasibility. It aims at designing a system that re-
Solar photovoltaic (PV) technology, which directly converts the sun quires the lowest investment among the alternatives available while
irradiation into electricity, is one of the fastest growing RES technolo- providing a highly efficient solar PV system. As per the authors’
gies worldwide. Recently, the solar PV modules’ prices have dropped by knowledge, this techno-economic investigation of the tracking systems
80% since 2009 and are anticipated to keep falling [2]. with different time adjustment for a grid-connected configuration, re-
Solar PV technologies have improved in efficiency whereas their presents an original contribution.
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (H.Z. Al Garni), [email protected] (A. Awasthi), [email protected] (M.A.M. Ramli).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.10.090
Received 21 July 2017; Received in revised form 21 October 2017; Accepted 28 October 2017
0196-8904/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Oil-dependent countries including Saudi Arabia, which is a major The prolonged hot weather during summer is causing a significant
oil producer and exporter, and the country with highest oil consump- usage of air conditioning, which consumes more than 60% of the total
tion in the Middle East, have an arduous task ahead concerning energy power generated in the country [8]. To tackle the high power con-
production and consumption [4]. Nowadays, 100% of the power in sumption issue, several measures have already been taken by the de-
Saudi Arabia is generated from fossil fuels, as shown in Fig. 3. Saudi cision makers, including the establishment of the Saudi Energy Effi-
Arabia consumes more than 3 million barrels/day of oil, primarily for ciency Centre in 2010 to publicize the rationalization awareness and to
power generation, water desalination, and transportation [5]. The boost power consumption efficiency, in order to preserve the national
growing power demand is burdening the country, as generating more wealth of energy resources [9]. Furthermore, the King Abdullah City for
power means burning more fossil fuel. Recently, the Electricity and Atomic and Renewable Energy (K.A.CARE) was established, to improve
Cogeneration Regulatory Authority (ECRA) highlighted the power gap the diversification of energy resources. In June 2016, the government
as high as 25% between the supply by the Saudi Electricity Company’s removed subsidies for power generation and made a new adjustment to
(SEC), the main electricity provider, and the peak loads in central and the consumption tariffs, which caused an increase in the cost of energy
southern provinces [6]. Furthermore, according to The World Bank, the of more than 60% in some service categories [8]. Such policy measures
CO2 emissions in Saudi Arabia were around 18.1 metric tons per capita were intended to encourage commercial and industrial solar energy
in 2013, which places it in the top 10 countries in CO2 emissions applications in the country. Currently, Saudi Arabia plans to produce
worldwide [7]. 9.5 gigawatts from renewables, mainly solar and wind power, by 2023
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Crude oil
Diesel
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage share %
as a part of the Kingdom’s 2030 vision [10]. power into a transmission grid. Hafez in [32] studied different config-
Considering such relevance of the grid-connected solar energy urations of hybrid renewable energy systems including diesel only, fully
technologies, the objective of this paper is to examine the grid-con- RES, diesel-RES mixed and RES-grid-connected configuration. Using the
nected solar PV systems propped by different tracking systems, and hybrid optimization of multiple energy resources (HOMER) software,
particularly to examine their performance under different time adjust- the load applied was a hypothetical rural community, while the solar
ments. As per the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study examining data was derived from National Aeronautics and Space Administration
different tracking designs for a grid-connected configuration with their (NASA) surface metrology database. The results showed that diesel-RES
impact on the system cost. Furthermore, this is an original techno- mixed configuration has the lowest net present cost (NPC), while the
economic study of solar PV tracking systems in Gulf Cooperation fully RES has the highest NPC with no carbon emissions. A hybrid RES
Council countries (i.e. Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and grid-connected system was found to be the most economical option due
the United Arab Emirates) to date, which entailed a detailed in- to the low capital cost. Furthermore, a break-even grid extension dis-
vestigation of the local conditions. This objective requires a compre- tance from the microgrid was analyzed.
hensive investigation, and the technologies examined have a high po- Anwari and Ayong in [24] studied the technical feasibility of off-
tential deployment in this region. grid PV that generated 2.5% of load requirement of Makkah city in
This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the related Saudi Arabia based on solar irradiance using HOMER software. The
studies about grid-connected PV and tracking systems. In Section 3, the load profile with random variability factors was assumed based on the
problem definition and the case study are presented. Then in Section 4, load pattern in Makkah with no grid connection consideration. In [25],
the proposed system designs and the associated model inputs are de- they applied grid-connected solar PV to the same case. Similarly,
fined. The results and discussion of various cases considering tracking Adaramola examined the feasibility of grid-connected solar PV in Jos,
designs are presented in Section 5. Finally, the conclusion and future Nigeria, investigating the technical and economic performance of the
works associated with this research are presented in Section 6. system [26]. The load profile was assumed based on the pattern of the
energy consumption in Jos. He concluded that the solar PV system
2. Literature review could provide for around 40% of the annual electricity consumption,
whereas, aside from the amount of solar irradiation, the initial cost of
Many research papers studied the techno-economics of PV systems the scheme plays a significant role in electricity price. Tomar and Ti-
based on off-grid [11–23] or grid-connected settings [24–32]. The grid- wari in [27] studied demand-side management to obtain an optimal
connected systems are intended to supply power generated by RES into design of solar PV system for a decentralized application in New Delhi,
the electric grid. Such schemes could be in a distributed form, serving a India. They concluded that a grid-connected solar PV system without
particular grid-connected client, or in a centralized form, delivering battery storage is a technically and economically viable option for
44
H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
decentralized applications. Mondal et al. [28] examined the economic generated 36% more electricity than the tilted system.
feasibility of grid-connected solar PV for Bangladesh employing a pro- A review of sun-tracking methods by Mousazadeh et al. [52] con-
posed 1 MW solar PV system. All sites showed favorable condition for cluded that using two-axis sun-trackers can increase the energy pro-
development of the proposed solar PV system. Liu et al. [29] simulated duction by 30–40% yearly. Eke and Senturk in [53] compared double-
and optimized a grid-connected PV system of residential power supply axis sun tracking versus a fixed PV system and found that 30.79% more
in Queensland, Australia. It is found that the PV system is an effective electricity is obtained with double-axis sun-tracking. Similarly, Ismail
way to decrease electricity bills and mitigate CO2 emissions. Raturi et al. [54] found that dual axis tracker achieved 20.4% more in annual
et al. [30] described the current status of grid-connected PV systems in energy production compared to a fixed system. Salah [55] studied four
the Pacific region and reviewed some challenges associated with the tracking systems including dual-axis, one axis vertical, one axis east-
power utilities which are completely dependent on diesel generators west and one axis north-south. The results revealed that each of the four
and hydropower. The results obtained that both grid-connected and trackers was superior to the fixed system. The electrical power gain was
stand-alone solar PV presented economically attractive to tackle these 44%, 38%, 34% and 16% for the two axes, east-west, vertical and
challenges. Kim et al. examined hybrid PV-wind-battery systems by north-south tracking, respectively. The above-mentioned studies reveal
simulating a system composed of a renewable energy grid system and a that solar PV tracking systems are superior to the fixed systems when it
diesel generator on Jeju Island in South Korea [33]. This study found comes to power generation. However, there is no study investigating
that the grid-connected PV-wind-battery hybrid system is the most the techno-economic aspects of different PV tracking system config-
economically feasible system. Furthermore, comprehensive reviews of urations with different time adjustments, including fixed system, hor-
different aspects of grid-connected PV systems, along with highlights on izontal-axis, vertical-axis, and two-axis for a grid-connected solar PV.
technical and economic constraints that may hinder the solar energy
projects, were provided in [34,35]. 3. Problem definition
In promoting RES, the renewable energy feed-in tariff (REFIT) me-
chanism has been applied the most extensively and it has proven to be The techno-economic assessment of energy systems could be carried
an efficient system offering substantial benefits to both RES project out using reliable and advanced commercial simulation tools as an al-
developers and consumers [36]. REFIT has prevailed as a fruitful policy ternative to the complex and lengthy algorithms and to the costly
approach to spur renewable energy penetrations, which obligates the physical experiments. Currently, there exist several software to design,
public power entities to purchase the power generated from RES. Lau in optimize and simulate RES, primarily aiming at technical and economic
[31] analyzed the effects of such policy and economic factors on grid- assessment. HOMER, RETScreen, PVSyst, Hybrid2, iHOGA, and
connected PV systems in Malaysian residential sector. The effect of TRNSYS are among the most popular and the most frequently reported
varying interest rates, electricity tariffs, and the carbon tax was dis- software tools in the literature. Due to the nature of the problem, which
cussed. The grid-connected system with no battery showed to be the includes 1-h time-step data of load profile and air temperature, HOMER
most feasible alternative, as introducing a battery increases the system’s has been selected for this study, as it is superior to other software in
NPC. As of 2016, more than 100 countries and provinces enacted feed- handling this type of input. Moreover, HOMER demonstrates high
in-tariff policies [1]. The REFIT is considered to be the most commonly capability to handle different simulation scenarios, including various
adopted regulatory mechanism to prompt RES. tracking schemes, and to perform optimization and sensitivity analysis.
The performance of solar panels is primarily dependent on the Also, it is user-friendly and offers powerful graphical presentations.
amount solar irradiation received. Hence, a mechanical system that Computer tools used for the integration of renewable energy into var-
tracks the sunlight and enables orienting the panel towards being per- ious energy systems with different objectives were analyzed and com-
pendicular to the light beam leads to capturing more solar irradiation, pared by Connoly et al. [56]. According to a recent study of 19 software
which accordingly advances the system performance. A tracking system associated with RES sizing and planning, Sinha and Chandel concluded
for a PV array can increase the array’s annual energy production up to that HOMER, developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
27% using a single-axis tracker and 40% for dual-axis trackers [37–39]. (NREL), is the easiest to use and the fastest in evaluating the RES
A single-axis tracker adjusts either the azimuth or the tilt angle, while [57,58]. Moreover, Bahramara et al. presented a comprehensive review
dual-axis tracking can adjust both angles. The tilt angle is the vertical of papers which used HOMER exclusively for optimal planning in the
angle between the horizontal plane and the solar panel surface (typi- area of RES. The study showed that HOMER software is the most
cally towards the south if PV site located in north hemisphere). The popular tool considered by many researchers and that it has been ap-
azimuth angle is the deviation angle between the surface and the south plied widely in the developing countries [59].
direction horizontally, as illustrated in Fig. 4. The primary economic metrics used to rank various energy system
Typically, PV panels are installed with fixed tilt and no tracking configurations are the NPC and the levelized cost of energy (LCOE). The
system, as in the cases studied in [26,41–47]. Nevertheless, single-axis NPC computes the present cost of installation and operation of the
and dual-axis trackers have recently undergone intense research. In entire system over the project lifetime minus the present revenues, and
addition to the daytime movement of the sun rays from morning to it can be expressed by Eq. (1), whereas the LCOE calculates the average
evening, their direction also varies across the seasons throughout the cost per kWh of electrical energy in the system and is calculated using
year.
Compared to fixed systems, the advantage of the tracking systems is
the significant boost in power production. In high irradiation areas,
one-axis tracking has dominated for utility-scale PV systems, with
benefits greater than the costs [48]. Lazaroiu et al. [49] examined the
daily energy production of a fixed system and the sun-tracking PV
systems and found that sun tracker systems generated 12–20% more
power than the fixed system. Based on both technical and economic
criteria, Alexandru [50] determined that a single axis tracking system is
preferable to dual-axis tracking for the area of Brasov, Romania.
Mehrtash et al. [51] investigated the performance of solar tracking PV
systems in Toronto, Canada with four different tracking systems: fixed
tilted, fixed horizontal, single-axis and dual-axis tracking. The study
Fig. 4. The tilt and azimuth angles of the solar panel [40].
showed that dual-axis tracking received 33% more irradiation and
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Eq. (2). potential supplement to the primary utility's generation to cope with
the massive load.
Cann,tot
NPC = One of the key factors in solar PV performance is the angle between
CRF (i,N ) (1)
the sun rays and the solar PV panels. Accordingly, the main objectives
where Cann,tot is the total annualized cost, i is the annual interest rate, N of this research are as follows:
is the project lifetime, and CRF is the capacity recovery factor, given by
CRF (i,N ) =
i (1 + i) N
(1 + i) N − 1
• To examine different solar PV tracking system configurations with
different time adjustments, including horizontal-axis, vertical-axis,
Cann,tot and two-axis systems by studying their impact on the system cost
LCOE ("$"/kWh) =
Rprim + Rtot ,grid,sales (2) and power generation.
where Rprim is the primary load (kWh/year) and Rtot ,grid,sales is the total • To design an optimal solar PV grid-connected system based on
realistic key inputs including metrological data, user profile data,
grid sales (kWh/year).
and economic factors.
When making such important decisions, alternative economic per-
formance measures could be considered. Along with NPV and LCOE, the
4. System under consideration
return on investment (ROI) represents the amount of return on an in-
vestment relative to a reference system. HOMER calculates ROI using
To achieve the above objectives simulation and optimization pro-
Eq. (3):
cesses are used. The major inputs for the simulation and optimization
N
model consist of the key factors in the performance of a PV system. The
∑ Ci,ref −Ci model inputs are electrical load, solar irradiation, air temperature,
i=0
ROI = components cost, and energy prices. In contrast to studies [24] and
N(Ccap−Ccap,ref ) (3)
[36], real-data including metrological data, load profile, and the tech-
where: nical and economic characteristics of the equipment are used in this
research. Fig. 6 shows the major research steps. In previous work [61]
• C = reference system nominal annual cash flow
i,ref
the authors have presented a preliminary analysis of the model pre-
• C = current system nominal annual cash flow
i sented in this manuscript considering different costs inputs as well as
• C = current system capital cost
cap different technical and economic measures. In this paper, we extend
• C = reference system capital cost
cap,ref this work by adding a comprehensive analysis to each tracking system
performance under feed-in-tariff mechanism with a detailed investiga-
Beyond the original approach presented in this research, the case of tion of the local conditions. Moreover, an additional economic measure,
the Makkah, Saudi Arabia is investigated as a case study. Makkah is the ROI, has been examined and compared among different tracking de-
capital city of the western region with the highest number of consumers sign. The following sub-sections describe the system design components
(more than 2.7 million), and it had a maximum energy sale of with their specifications applied in this study.
84,264,000 MWh in 2014 [6]. Makkah has an extremely hot summer
season and it hosts millions of visitors every year during various re- 4.1. Model inputs
ligious occasions. Consequently, the power grid experiences a high-
power consumption, mainly due to air-conditioning. A recent study by 4.1.1. Metrological data
Al Garni and Awasthi in [60] investigated the most suitable sites to- Solar irradiation and the ambient temperature of the PV array affect
wards deploying a utility-size solar PV in Saudi Arabia. This study the amount of energy that a PV system generates. Accordingly, HOMER
found Makkah city as a highly suitable site for such a project con- uses the monthly average global horizon irradiance and the monthly
sidering several technical and economic factors. average temperature among its inputs. These inputs are defined in the
A significant drawback of the solar energy lies in its unpredictable HOMER resources, and their effects on the output performance of the
nature, as it depends on weather conditions. Nevertheless, the high PV system are described. The following points give more detail about
demand in Makkah quite often coincides with the high solar irradiation, the data used in this study for these two variables:
particularly during the summer season. Fig. 5 depicts the real load
profile data for the period 2011–2015 and the monthly average global • The solar irradiation: the monthly average GHI of Makkah
horizon irradiance (GHI) for the period 1994–2012 on the monthly (Latitude 21.42 N, Longitude 39.82 E) is downloaded from
average basis. This indicates that solar energy technologies may be able K.A.CARE. It is based on GeoModel Solar for the period 1994 – 2012
provide an adequate alternative source of energy. The solar power is a with 3 km resolution. An extensive comparison study for 18
Solar irradiation (GHI) Load demand Fig. 5. The relation between load demand and
global horizontal irradiation in Makkah City.
8 3000
Solar irradiation (kWh/m2/day)
7
2500
Load demand (MW)
6
2000
5
4 1500
3
1000
2
500
1
0 0
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Study and compare different tracking system efficiency against the fixed solar PV.
validation locations in Europe and the Mediterranean region, au- several factors including weather variations - an extremely hot summer,
thored by Ineichen, concluded that Geomodel data has the lowest religious events such as the month of fasting (Ramadan), and pil-
overall bias [62]. The solar irradiation ranges between 4.22 kWh/ grimage (Hajj), and other special occasions (National day, Eids, etc.)
m2/day and 7.4 kWh/m2/day, whereas the annual average solar [25]. Fig. 10 shows the yearly average electrical load profile for years
irradiation for this region is 6 kWh/m2/day as depicted in Fig. 7. 2011 to 2015 in 1-h time step size.
From March to September, the GHI rises above the average, with a Fig. 11 illustrates the monthly average load profile with a peak
peak in June. The remaining months particularly January, De- demand starting in April, continuing during summer season and de-
cember, and November have relatively low solar irradiation. clining in November. This is mainly due to the overlap of the summer
• The air temperature: the monthly average temperature for years and the Holy Mosque visitors’ period. The daily average power con-
2011–2015 using a 1-h time step, is depicted in Fig. 8. The average sumption is 47,752 MWh/d with a peak of 3041 MW.
annual temperature is 31 °C, and the long summer season with even The histogram in Fig. 12 shows a bimodal distribution with two
higher temperatures is from May until September. This ambient relative peaks of power demand (1200 MW and 2600 MW). The relative
temperature profile will be considered in determining the PV power frequency of load consumption reveals that the highest frequency is
efficiency, as HOMER software can calculate the power output of a between 2000 and 3000 MW yearly. Another peak is between 1000 and
PV array utilizing the cell temperature in each time step. Fig. 9 2000 MW with lower frequency. This indicates that different customers
shows the temperature data frequency distribution with a normal utilized a different distribution of power consumption throughout the
shape. year.
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
assessment of REFIT and their applications in Europe, Asia, and Africa, connected PV systems require an inverter to adapt the DC generated by
Ramil et al. in [36] concluded that applying fixed REFIT in Saudi Arabia the PV array and supply it to the load side. Since this system has no
is likely to accelerate the development of its renewable energy sector. batteries or external generator, the utility grid will be the main power
Such fixed pricing scheme is market independent, which neglects in- supplier to the load.
flation and is not affected by the fossil fuel prices. Accordingly, the
residential rate in Saudi Arabia (see Table 1) is utilized to design a 4.2.1. PV modules
scheduling rate that permits fixed prices at each time of day and month A PV module is a RES integrated into the system, which supplies
as presented in Fig. 13. renewable electricity to the DC line. The size of a PV module depends
Fig. 13 shows the daily grid scheduled rates divided into five in- on the system constraints, including the unmet load permission and the
tervals based on the peak load period, where each column presents the size of other renewable fractions contributing to the system. In this
daily hours starting at 00:00 [25]. The rates include off-peak, shoulder study, the PV system should be sized to deliver the required peak load
and peak hours whereas their prices are $0.016/kWh, $0.027/kWh, and demand, and this determines the output power requirement of a PV
$0.040/kWh respectively, as shown in Fig. 14. As a result, the buying/ panel system. The output power of a PV system can be calculated using
selling of power from/to the grid at a fixed REFIT scheme is possible. Eq. (3) [64].
GT ⎞
4.2. Model design of solar PV grid-connected using HOMER PPV = YPV ∗fPV ⎜⎛ ⎟ [1 + αP (Tc −Tc ,STC )]
⎝ GT ,STC ⎠ (3)
The design of the system under consideration comprises four com- where:
ponents: solar PV array, direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC)
converter, grid system, and primary load as presented in Fig. 15. Grid- •P PV = is the generated power from PV system
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Table 1
Consumption rates for residential category in Saudi Arabia [8]
1–2000 1
2001–4000 3
4001–6000 5
6001–8000 8
> 8000
6. Two-axis (TA): the panels rotate in both axes (horizontal and ver-
tical) continuously in order to maintain the perpendicular angle
between PV panels and sun rays.
Fig. 14. The scheduled rates for different time during the day [25]
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Table 2
PV and converter parameters.
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Fig. 16. Illustrations of (a) horizontal axis, (b) vertical axis and (c) two-axis tracking system [67]
Table 3 tracking system components boost the LCOE for these two systems
Cost inputs for the different tracking systems [67] compared to other trackers.
Due to the differences in cost of solar tracking systems and in solar
No. Tracking system Capital cost ($/kWh)
irradiation, the optimal solar tracking design may vary for different
1 Horizontal-axis, daily, weekly, and monthly 563.00 locations. The results obtained using HOMER software in this research
tracking system could be compared with the results from existing projects with similar
2 Horizontal-axis, continuous adjustment 870.00
solar irradiation. In the United States, more than 50% of the utility-
3 Vertical-axis, continuous adjustment 255.00
4 Two-axis 1000.00
scale operating solar PV (which account for 60% of the total solar PV
unit capacity) use either single-axis or dual-axis form of tracking system
[69]. These tracking technologies tend to be located in the Southwest
there is no tracking, the PV component cost of $2339 million has a where the solar irradiation ranges from 5 to 6 kWh/m2/day, which is
moderate cost compared to other tracking systems scenarios. comparable to that in Makkah, Saudi Arabia.
It is interesting to discuss the purchasing and selling periods In comparison to the reference case which is the FT, all the hor-
throughout the year. The power flow during the year to and from the izontal axis trackers demonstrate a negative ROI (−3.3%) as shown in
grid for the tracking scenario FT is depicted in Fig. 26, where three Fig. 28. This is mainly due to the high capital cost at the year zero of the
periods can be distinguished. In the first three months of the year project. On the other hand, despite the double capital cost of the TA
(period 1), the air temperature and the customer load are lowest. system compared to the reference, the negative impact on the TA’s ROI
Consequently, the system shows the highest amount of power sold to is mitigated by a higher efficiency throughout the project lifetime
the grid, reaching 1000 MW. However, during most of the year (period which is considered as 25 years for all designs. The ROI of the TA is
2) the system becomes more reliant on the grid due to high demand in −1.8%. Notably, TA can generate extra power and sell it to the grid.
addition to the rising temperatures (over 40 °C). Finally, in period 3, the Ultimately, VCA shows a positive ROI (+1.73%) which makes it the
system resumes generating more power than required by the load and best option since it generates a profit in the project lifetime. We should
selling the surplus to the grid. Power purchasing from the grid is con- also bear in mind that solar tracker prices are anticipated to continue
tinuous throughout the year, with a maximum of 2931 MW during falling in the coming years, as the historic drivers including the steadily
August and September. reducing production costs and the market expansion are likely to con-
The findings of the different tracking simulations show that FT has tinue into the future. Therefore, the ROI of all trackers will increase.
the lowest NPC and LCOE as shown in Fig. 27. This is due to the rela-
tively low power generation cost along with the low cost of the simple 6. Conclusion and future works
system. Conversely, HCA demonstrated the highest NPC and LCOE of
$12,662 million and 0.05434 $/kWh respectively. Despite the daily and The following are the key findings and contributions of this re-
weekly adjustment of the tilt angle in HWA and HDA, results presented search:
almost the same as each other in terms of LCOE and NPC values.
Moreover, there are no significant differences between HMA, HWA, and • Grid-connected solar PV systems with different tracking system
HDA regarding LCOE, whereas HCA had the highest LCOE followed by designs, including different time adjustments of the tilt angle, have
TA. On the other hand, the VCA tracking system showed enhanced been examined and compared. An optimal design of a utility size
performance. Consequently, in this scheme less power is purchased solar-PV grid-connected system for a specific location has been de-
from the grid, which reduces its NPC (10,470 million) and LCOE monstrated. Six tracking designs including FT, HMA, HWA, HDA,
(0.04475 $/kWh). In spite of the high contribution of renewable energy HCA, VCA, and TA are considered as viable options for a solar PV
to the system by HCA and TA, the high costs of grid purchases and the grid-connected system. The techno-economic performance of the
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Fig. 19. Solar PV production versus ambient temperature throughout the year.
2000
1500
MW
1000
500
0
6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00
FT TA VCA HCA HDA HWA HMA
different tracking schemes was assessed using HOMER simulation in HAD, HWA and HMA designs had no significant effect on the
tool and discussed. amount of power generated compared to each other. Whereas HCA
• In a comparative analysis of daily power generation, all the tracking produced only 2.4% more than HDA.
systems produce similar power output at noontime while the power • Regarding excess power, TA similarly produced the highest amount,
density varies noticeably in other periods. The results reveal that TA 400% more than FT. All horizontal axes trackers (HMA, HWA, HDA,
can produce 34% more power than FT, which was the base case and and HCA) produced similar amounts of excess electricity as each
the lowest producing scheme, while VCA can produce up to 20% other. VCA produced a reasonable amount compared to other
more power than FT. The different time adjustments of the tilt angle trackers.
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
150000
MW
100000
50000
0
FT HMA HWA HDA HCA VCA TA
900
Powe production (MW)
800
700
600
500
400
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
715 HMA
Powe production (MW)
705 HWA
695
HDA
685
Mar Apr May Jun Jul
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
Fig. 24. The production of PV system along with grid to maintain load demand.
of tracking configurations for grid-connected applications, as it viability, and further analysis could be carried out to observe its impact
considers the key factors of PV system performance including load on the economic performance of the system. Moreover, the effect of
profile, component costs, and resource availability. different models of solar PV with different temperature coefficients and
their effect on power generation, NPC, and LCOE could be investigated.
To conclude, this study further enriches the body of knowledge In the future research, a comparative performance analysis of off-grid
about the feasibility, technical performance, and economic aspects of and grid-connected designs for various locations with different me-
grid-connected solar PV with different tracking systems and different trological conditions will be investigated. Moreover, hybrid systems
time adjustments. Nevertheless, several possible limitations need to be such as solar-wind-biomass could be integrated to examine the optimal
considered. First, REFIT can play a vital role in the RES economic design.
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H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
$30,000.00 0.06
$25,000.00 0.05
$20,000.00 0.04
$/kWh
$15,000.00 0.03
Millions
$10,000.00 0.02
$5,000.00 0.01
$0.00 0
FT HMA HWA HDA HCA VCA TA
56
H.Z. Al Garni et al. Energy Conversion and Management 155 (2018) 42–57
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