CHAPTER - 3

TRANSMISSION LINES

3.1 Introduction
From last three decades Energy Management programmes are fairly
ensuring efficient energy use and there is a conscious development to improve the
power generation and transmission system. To reduce the losses in the network and
improve the efficiency, the upgradation of voltage levels have been adopted
globally. The complex system of power transmission has envisaged some severe
problems of reactive power in the network. With rapid industrilization the per
capita consumption of power is steeply rising as a symbol of technological
advancement. On the other hand the Transmission and Distribution (TD) losses are
very much reduced in advance countries whereas it is increasing in developing
countries.
For efficient transmission of power and reduction of line loss there is a
persistent endeavour throughout the world to increase voltage level.
At present the transmission voltage level is 1100 KV in developped
countries whereas in developing countries it is 400 KV to 800 KV. In this power
transmission system to reduce Reactive Power, harmonic power loss and to sustain
feasible international grid may be set up [67]. hi U.S.A. the Live Line maintenance
is so advanced that for 500 KV Lines helicopters, rolling ladders and portable
towers are used [24].
3.2 Existing system of Transmission Lines (T.L.)
For Transfer of bulk power Transmission line is a vital link to utility zones.
In one aspect 1 KW of electrical energy generated from 3 KW of mechanical heat
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.2

energy and to deliver 1 KW at consumer’s end the actual energy generated is 1.25
KW [1].
In a developing country like India the Transmission and Distribution losses
were 14.62% in 1965-66 and has increased to 37% in 1998, whereas the
international standard of TD loss is 8-13%. But in Japan it is only 4% [101]. So it
is of prime importance to raise the Transmission Line voltage level to reduce loss
and to increase line capacity.
Table No.3.1 shows the TD losses of several developed and developing
countries. Table No.3.2 shows the acceptable system T.D. Losses.
From generating stations the voltage is stepped up for Transmission.
According to British Standard the voltage levels are classified as 11 KV, 22 KV, 33

KV are high voltage (HV), 66 KV, 132 KV are extra high voltage (EHV) and 220
KV, 400 KV, 800 KV and above are ultra high voltage (UHV). The level of
transmission is not same for all countries. However most of the developing
countries adopt British Standard.
For a distance 75 to 100 Km 132 KV single or double circuits are drawn.
33 KV lines are used up to 15 to 20 Km.

3.2.1 Drawback of existing 33 KV, 132 KV and 220 KV Transmission Lines

In grid power transmission network most of the lines are single circuit of
radial feeders without tie arrangement. The system fault level is below 1000 MVA
and in some cases 500 MVA even. There is no muscel in the system to take load
variation in frequent or quick succession.
From 132 KV Grid Substations power is again transmitted in 33 KV/22
KV lines to various places, hi subzones 33 KV feeders are stepped down to 11
KV for distribution to different local substations in urban places. But in some cases
132 KV and 33 KV Lines are also directly fed to the consumer’s premises. These
Lines are passing through forests, terrians, in single circuits or double circuits
controlled by a single breaker of old design, which is prone to frequent faults. In
case of fault in one feeder there is voltage dip in all feeders. A failure of any
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.3

overhead line would cause immediate interruption to the receiving stations,

connected through radial feeders, till the alternative arrangemet is done through the
Tieline (when it is available), after locating the fault and isolating the fault line.
Again this complete procedure of locating and rectifying the fault and to
feed the plant through different tie lines appears to be very premitive. Therefore,
delay in interruption is an accepted phenomenon causing energy loss and plant
stoppages.

3.2.2 Drawback at Power Receiving Centre from 132 KV and 220 KV

Transmission Lines on week MVA rating
In selecting 220 KV, 132 KV, 66 KV and 33 KV switchgears, proper care
was not taken for use of breakers at different time of requirement. The MVA rating
of the breakers are varying from 1500 MVA to 2000 MVA. At present the MVA
rating of 132 KV breakers are 1000 MVA or below. Those breakers are not
adequately rated for closing and breaking on fault. Due to weak MVA system and
weak muscel arrangement, there is appreciable voltage drop when breakers~are
closed on fault. In many cases distant relays are not provided. The voltage dips will
travel to and fro into the same radial feeder and will reflect at any substation/
receiving station connected with the same network. The voltage dip during breaker
closing on fault will definitely affect the plant power supply.
3.2.3 Drawback on Relay gradation Time

The outgoing radial feeder Lines are having different receiving stations.
Those are generally protected through zone protection arrangements or through
distance protection relays.Generally it is assumd that any circuit breaker will require
4-5 cycles for closing and relay will actuate within 2 to 3 cycles. The isolating time
during fault of this type breaker shall be 10 to 12 cycles. The reclosing time of the
breaker for operation shall be within a period of 0.2 to 0.25 seconds. If this time is
more than the above value the voltage dip will be noticed to reflect on plant
steppage. ^
Ch.-S Transmission Lines 3.4

3.3 Reasons of Voltage dip

The major reasons of voltage dip in Transmision Lines are:

a) Weak MVA system at receiving station
b) Weak Isolation system through protective relays
c) Equipments drawing heavy power at any time without prior notice
d) Uncontrolled power drawn by different agencies/sections
It is therefore quite obvious that these low voltages or voltage dips,
originated from the power stations, will be reflected in any part of the radial feeders
as the system is having weak MVA on fault.
e) There is another reason of voltage dip which may originate from
overhead lines in the form of high resistance earth fault occuring intermittently.
This high resistance earth fault may not cause the controlling circuit breaker to trip
if the earth resistance of the substation or the earth fault relay setting on the feeder
is high.
3.3.1 Traditional Protection System in Transmission Lines against voltage

instability as well as voltage dap

With rapid increase of load in the system, problems connected with poor
voltage stability and quality have increased in recent years. Main reason is the
higher loading and absence of suitable control device for reactive power source.
Power system instabilities are traditionally called phase angle or voltage instabilities.

a) Phase angle instability: Phase angle instability is characterized by a

generator or a group of generators falling out of step after disturbance and being
isolated from the rest of the system by protection gear.This instability cannot settle
down to new equilibrium due to kinetic energy being injected to the rotor of the
generator as a consequence of fault. This is called Transient Instability. The time
scale is below 5 seconds. Occurence of such instability is reflected heavily in the
entire network [31, 51],
b) Voltage instability: In general as the load in the system increases, the
voltage decreases at points remote from generating stations. Unless system
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.5

upgradation is taken up the load carrying capacity of the system will be restricted,
with increase of demand in the region. Voltage instability can develop much faster
if for example a line shunt capacitor bank is tripped, resulting in a sudden voltage
collapse or when some fast controllable devices play decisive roles in the dynamics
of the system. Voltage instabilities are primarily affected by the reactive power
conditions in the network. The active power flow exerts a large influence on heavily
loaded network due to the increase in reactive losses. A stable network with normal
linear loads brings instability with sudden application of non-linear loads [31, SI].
Another aspect is the time scale of dynamics, which is significant for
modelling of the system and design of corrective action as per choice.
Depending on all the above circumstances the type of control such as
Manual Switching Capacitor (M.S.C.) or Static Var Compensator (S.V.C.)
selected as per design, choice and economy is specified alongwith their degree of
use / application.

Manual Switching Capacitor (M.S.C.)

This system of control consists of many banks of capacitors, each of which
is separately switched on so that the amount of corrections may be done crudely by
switching on different numbers. The zone centers are far away from generating
stations. There is voltage drop in the Lines. When reactive load is higher the
capacitors are switched on which affects at the generating stations. During lean
period when load is reduced, there is steep voltage rise. To overcome this a reactor
is switched on.
Static VAR Compensator (S.V.C.)
i) It consists of both capacitors and reactors, each of which may be
switched on independently. When reactive power is high, Capacitors are switched
on and when voltage is high, reactors are switched on. Once the Targets are set
they generate or absorb VAR in a similar manner. They do not produce gradual
voltage change like M.S.C. [51].
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.6

ii) In thyristor controlled S.Y.C. voltage is controlled more accurately.

Once die Target voltage or Target MVAR level has been set die microprocessor
control will ensure the Target to be maintained [87],
3.4 Modifications of Transmission Lines

As per British Standard voltage variation of ±6% in low and medium

voltage and ±10% in HV are permissible [10].

From the past trend, with the rapid industrial development, the annual
growth rate is 10% of the demand in the generating stations. Therefore any
Transmission Line designed to deliver 100 MW load this year shall be capable to
deliver 200 MW after 6 to 7 years or it will double its transmission level as well as
generation level to cope up with the system. So it is a complicated problem to
maintain the voltage profile as per stipulated act. The present work proposes a few
points for optimal design of the system parameters.

3.4.1 Modification on Technical Super Structure

There are two preliminary aspects.
a) Development of National Grid with its interconnection to all central
generating stations by U.H. V.Iines.
b) Inter Connection of National Grid with the Power Grids of the
states through back to back connection of all substations. The system shall be
capable to handle maximum power of National Grid with State Grid.
3.4.2 Modification on Control of Surge Impedance Level (SIL)
In any transmission line surge impedance to match the load is not under the
control of the designer. At the same time it is also difficult to load a T.L. optimally
without use of additional reactive power controllers. The surge impedance may be
changed to match the load, by use of judicious addition of shunt capacitors and
series reactors in the system. When this will be properly controlled as per load
demand, line loss wil be minimum. The Transmission Lines generate and consume
reactive power and it is independent of load. The reactive power is consumed due
to inductance of the line. It is called Surge Impedance Load (SIL).
CH.-3 Transmission Lines 3.7

SIL = (E2/Z)MVA

where, E = Transmission Voltage (Line to Line)

Z = Surge Impedance Loading in ohms
V(L/C) = 1.351oao(D/R)

D = Spacing of Conductor
R = Radius of the conductor
Z is indepenent of line length which is constant for all lines. The conductors
per bundle are of the same value of Z equals to 400 ohms for single conductor line
and 230 ohms for twin bundle conductor line [87].
Li any transmission line, load varies hour to hour so as the reactive load,
when EHV line will not be compensated, the transient voltage will be high and may
damage the equipment.
The reactive power generated are [87]:
132 KV line = - 3 MVAR/100 Km
220 KV line = - 13 MVAR/ 100 Km
400 KV line = - 55 MVAR/ 100 Km
With four conductors per bundle for a parallel configuration. The line end
voltage

E3 = Er + IR coscj) - IX sincj)

where, Es = Sending end voltage

Er = Receiving end voltage
I = transmitted load current
X = Reactance of the line

<}> = Phase angle (It is positive for leading and negative for lagging)
Traditional control of reactive power is done with Shunt reactors, Shunt
capacitors, Series Capacitors, Synchronous condensers and Saturable reactors. This
is economical but not suitable for full control.
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.8

• Shunt reactors

For EHV lines shunt reactors at line terminals control 60% to 70% of the
reactive load (permanently connected) and at heavy loading some reactors are
disconnected to avoid voltage drop,

• Shunt capacitors
It improves p.f in disturbtion.

• Series Capacitors
These are self regulating device to increase load drawal and to obtain
desired load share between parallel lines of different voltage level as shown in Fig.
3.1.
This provides 20% to 70% compensation as referred to line inductive
reactance. The choice of location depends on overall economy and system
reliability. Series capacitors may produce the subsynchronous resonance in Thermal
sets, which may damage the machine shaft, when connected to generator buses.

• Synchronous condensers
It is traditional to connect at receiving end to generate and absob reactive
power. In HVDC line at inverter end it will increase short circuit capacity. The
absorbing capability is only 60% of their rated generating capacity. By increasing or
decreasing the excitation, the lagging and leading power factor are controlled

respectively.
• Saturable reactors
Although it is a fixed voltage device, but by internal adjustment the
saturation voltage may be varied. To adjust system voltage a regulating transformer

of On Load Tap Changer (OLTC) is provided between reactor and busbar. By step
up transformer with OLTC, voltage adjustment may be done. To reduce harmonics
current, each phase is made into parts and interconnected. These are termed Twin
Trepler or Treble Tripler. By this, harmonics upto 17th to 1981 will be less than 2%

to 1% respectively.
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.9

3.4.3 Thyristor Controlled Capacitors and Reactors to reduce Reactive

Power Loss [87]

Thyristor Controlled Capacitors and Reactors are used to reduce Reactive
Power Loss. In case of traditional saturable reactors the value is fixed, but when
static control device thyristors will be put in the circuit the values can be altered as
desired. In this system capacitors are split up into many steps. These steps will
operate using bi-directional thyristor switches. Each bank will have small reactors,
thyristors and capacitors. To limit the thyristor current and to prevent resonance in
the system, capacitors are operated by control of required firing angle. Transient
free switching off is achieved by closing switch instantly at natural zero passage of
current, alternatively by keeping the capacitors charged to positive or negative peak
value of the bus voltage at all times in steady state. Switching on time is selected
when bus voltage is maximum and of same polarity with the capacitor voltage.
Switching off is accomplished by suppression of firing pulses to thyristor and
capacitor is charged as positive or negative peak and shall be ready for next
switching. When capacitors are provided with dischage resistances, a short firing is
given to last conducting thyristor at each instant. The benefits of thyristor swithed
capacitor are:

• Steep rise control

• Practically no transient

• No generation of harmonics
• Low loss at low capacitor reactive output

• Average one half cycle delay in executing command from regulator

3.4.4 Thyristor Controlled Reactor

Three phase reactors of adequate ratings are included with thyristor switch.
Current compensation is provided by delaying the closing of thyristor switch with
reference to natural passage of zero. This scheme has the following features.

• Time required for executing the command is only half cycle from the reactor.

• It generates harmonics.
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.10

• It has high loss at low compensative reactive power output, when it is included
with fixed capacitor.

3.4.5 Breaker Switched Capacitor and Thyristor Controlled Reactor [87]

A bank of capacitors is switched on by circuit breaker and reactors are
controlled by thyristor firing angle. Control circuit controls the thyristor firing angle,
so as to alter the inductive path. To supress the harmonics, filters are provided.
3.4.6 Unified Power flow controller (UPFC)
In this system there are two numbers of inverters with a D.C. link to
provide series compensation in the transmission line as shown in Fig. 3.2. From this
common D.C. link the inverter will transfer the real power among the transmission
lines. As each inverter is able to provide reactive compensation, this system is able
to carry both active and reactive power compensation. It will also compensate
reactive voltage drop and will increase the effectiveness to the compensating system
against the dynamic disturbances.
The real power established in the UPFC system is to inject both an inphase
and a quadrature voltage component for comprehensive series line compensation
[111].
It is known that quadrature voltage injection which primarily affects the real
power flow in the line can be accomplished by series reactive compensation. In
phase voltage injection which primarily changes the reactive power flow in the link,
is associated with active power exchange. The reactive power flow control in the
line can be achieved by active power compensation. The series inverters are to
provide series reactive compensation for the associated lines. High utilisation of a
transmission line can only be accomplished by combined quadrature and inphase
voltage injection, which allow independent control on active and reactive power in
the line [116].
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.11

3.4.7 Conversion of AC Lines to DC Lines to increase the Line efficiency

This is applicable where there exists two parallel double circuit AC lines
either 220 KV or 400 KV of more than 200 Km to 500 Km length. One AC
transmission line may be coverted to DC transmission line. The HVDC line will
draw reactive voltampere at converter end and will deliver active voltampere at
inverter end. The fault level of this combined HVDC and HVAC line is very much
less than that of an HVAC line.
This conversion of AC lines to DC line will result to double or triple the
power carrying capacity of an existing double circuit AC line. A double circuit 220

KV AC line of 300 MW capacity can be easily converted to a ±300 KV DC link

capable of transferring 800 MW. This would call for simple modification of one
cross arm of the existing tower, with no other modifications. The tower can be used

for ±200 KV and can cany 400 MW with simply bunching of 3 phase conductor.
Moreover, the fault level decreases with increase of DC/AC power ratio till
it reaches minimum of 1.6. Any further increase in ratio beyond 1.6 will increase
the fault level. The fault level of parallel HVDC and HVAC depends on the phase
angle difference of sending end and receiving end bus voltages. Higher the
difference, lower is the fault level. Increase of converter end power factor decreases
the fault level, whereas, increase of inverter end power factor raises the fault level.
By increasing converter end commutating reactance, fault level will rise. By
increasing of DC line resistance the fault level will decrease, but the combined
effect is very much less [2, 30].
3.4.8 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACT)
Several advancements such as HVDC Transmission or Static VAR
Compensation in line have helped the power transmission efficiency. The power
transmitted can be increased from 1000 MW to 2000 MW [41, 59].
The recommended compensations are:
1) 30% series + 180% shunt compensation, S = 40°

2) 60% series + 100% shunt compensation, 8 = 35°

Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.12

3) 300% shunt compensation, 6 = 70°

4) 75% series compensation only, 8 < 35°

All these alternatives lead to some level of capacitor MV AH with 1.8

MVAR/MW of SIL can increase total MVAR, i.e, 1800 for 1000 MW load.
Application of thyristor in EHVAC alongwith HVDC Transmission Line
and static VAR compensator are all integral part of FACT. FACTs can be used for
power flow in parallel lines so that line losses are minimized under steady state
condition. Under transient conditon FACT can substantially enhance emergency
power carrying capacity of the line.
This FACT will provide greater flexibility and controllability as compared to
the existing system. This can accomplish the followings:
1) Control of load flow on chosen lines in a complex network.
2) Increase the transmission capacity of the existing line.
3) Exploitation of coordinated control for better system damping to enhance
system stability and security and add a new dimension to Power Transmission.
A typical example of FACT as shown in Fig. 3.3 uses thyristor conrolled
phase shifters, thyristor controlled dynamic breakers, thyristor controlled series
devices with adjustable impedance.

3.4.9 Application of Dynamic Reactor with Thyristor Control [59]

The dynamic reactor which can switch in or out afixed reactor is connected
to the EHV line through a step down transformer as shown in Fig.3.3. The reactors
will be out of circuit within a cycle when load is more and it will be on when load is
rejected to limit the over voltage. It is connected with high energy absorption
capacity ZNO lightning arrestor to control first couple of peaks of transient over
voltage following load rejection in EHV lines.
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.13

3.4.10 Compact AC Line

The basic design features of compact AC lines are:
• To increase number of conductors per phase.

• To reduce phase to phase and phase to ground clearance and thereby reduce
inductance through (a) optimum design of stringing arrangements and bundling
of conductors, (b) reduction of phase to phase insulator separation near tower
and at midspan. Above design features increase the surge impedance loading to
the transmission line.

• Controlled shunt reactors located at regular interval on the line to have the
voltage control of 1.02 pu at reactor terminals and 1.2 pu between the reactors
under light load condition.
The compact AC lines are commercially adopted at several places:
e.g. 1: 5.5 Km long 110 KV double circuit with tower height of 22.5 m and phase
to phase clearance 1.5 m and phase to earth 1 m line operation at Russia.
e.g. 2: 2.5 Km, 220 KV, tower height of 20 m and phase to phase clearance 3 m,
experiment line at Cuba.
3.5 Modification of 33KV Transmission Line for reduction in
Transmission Losses
i) The substation earthing system may be checked yearly and new earthing to
be made adequately.
ii) When power is availed to any agency with two separate breakers and
feeders, both the feeders are made parallel at both ends. This reduces line loss and
improves voltage regulaton.
iii) hi 33 KV lines at both end superior type surge arrestors such as ZNO type
are used.
iv) The p.f. at load is made above 0.9 lagging.
v) Line capacitors are connected at breaker terminals.
vi) 33 KV isolators are provided in 132 KV outdoor grid substations for all
outgoing feeders of ACSR conductors. Isolator contacts are made of copper alloy.
CH.-3 Transmission Lines 3.14

Two numbers of jumper leads with pg clamps are provided in place of single
jumper to safeguard early failure against burning.
vii) Step voltage regulator are installed.
viii) Line condensers are connected to reduce reactive power loss.
ix) Improvement of protection system is done by introducing Relay tripping
time coordination and instantaneous earth fault relay, so that faulty breaker can be
isolated and located immediately.
x) Checking and maintaining of earth resistance of the system and poles are
done.
xi) Any double circuit is controlled by separate breaker.
3.6 Case Studies showing Reduction in Transmission Losses
Transmission losses are reduced by paralleling of double feeders and
upgradation of sub-transmission voltage level.
3.6.1 Reduction in Transmission Loss by paralleling of double feeders
There are 132/33/11 KV Grid Substations, which feed power to medium
and small industries. In some cases there are double feeders on the same pole, one
feeder is being kept as a standby and the other feeder to cater the entire load. The
standby feeder is kept charged for any emergency and to avoid theft. When both
feeders are charged in parallel and cater the entire load, the transmission losses will
be half. Presently all Electricity Boards are more concious about the losses and
pressing to avail supply in 132 KV when the load is more than 4 MW. When
subtransmission voltage is lower than 132 KV for 4.5 MW of load die billing will
be 10% more towards the imposition of penalty on the consumer.
The double feeding system or paralleling two feeders will reduce the line
loss and will make the system more reliable due to less failure of pg clamps, jumper
leads and joints of the conductors.
Ch-3 Transmission Lines 3.15

Case Study No. 3.1

M/S J.K. Paper Mills, Rayagada, India, 1995-1996

In a double feeder circuit,
Total length of line 10 Km
Total contract demand (CD) 12 MW
Average p.f. 0.9
Running Load (RL) 8.5 MW
at 33 KV, line current 160 A
No. of working days in the year 330
Conductor size Mink

Resistance 0.457 Q per Km

Line loss for three conductors
(3 x 160 x 160 x 0.457 x 10 x 24 x 330 + 1000) - 28 x 10s KWh

(approximately)
When both feders are parallel, loss = 14 x 105 KWh

Next higher size conductor is reccon 0.3643 Q per km

So, Line loss x( 3 x 160 x 160 x 0.3643 x 10 x 24 x 330 + 1000)

= 22.15 lakhs KWh for a single feeder (approximately)

Next higher size conductor has 0.2747 Q per Km

Line loss x (3 x 160 x 160 x 0.2747 x 10 x 24 x 330 + 1000)

= 16.7 lakhs KWh (approximately)

With change of higher size conductor and paralleling of both feeders the
line loss will come to 8.35 lakhs KWh. Energy savings can be further achieved if all
aluminium alloy conductors are retrofitted in place of ACSR conductors.
3.6.2 Reduction in Transmission Loss by Upgradation of Sub-Transmission
Voltage Level
About 4% losses will be reduced in all sub-transmission lines, when the
supply voltages will be upgraded, hi addition to energy savings, other advantages
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.16

such as voltage dips, short interruptions and power trips will be eliminated resulting
in continuity of power supply.
Case Study No. 3.2

J.K. Paper Mill, Rayagada, India

Power Supply at 33 KV
Contract Demand 10 MW
Monthly average drawal 8 MW
Average p.f. 0.9
Running current 155 Amps, in 33 KV side
Length of line 10 Km
Size of conductor Mink (ACSR)

Resistance = 0.457 Q/Km

Energy loss in Mink (ACSR) conductor per year

(3 x 155 x 155 x 0.457 x 10 x 24 x 330 / 1000) = 2608711 KWh

After availing power supply in 132 KV

Panther conductor resistance 0.1385 Q/Km

Load current 38.8 Amps.
Energy loss in Panther conductor per year

(3 x 38.8 x 38.8 x 0.1385 x 10 x 24 x 330 / 1000) = 49540 KWh

Net energy saving (2608711 - 49540) = 2559171 KWh per year
Case Study No. 3.3

J.K. Paper Mill, Rayagada, India

When power will be delivered in 132 KV, voltage dip will be reduced.
Consequently there will be a national gain or intangible gain. For 10 MW load
industry with 33 KV line there is National Intangible loss for a single power trip for
a 10 MW load heavy industry.
200 TPD Paper Mill 55% own generation, 45% grid power
1 mint, power trip will cause production loss 4 Tonne of paper
Energy consumption per tonne of paper 1500 KWh
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.17

Coal consumption for 4 tonne paper 6 Tonnes

Selling of 1 Tonne Map Litho paper Rs. 30,000/-
Total selling of 4 Tonne of paper Rs. 1,20,000/-
Average profit at mill for 1 Tonne paper Rs. 6,000/-
for 4 Tonne Rs. 24,000/-
Losses
1) Loss on Excise Duty 20% Rs. 24,000/-
2) Loss on Sales Tax
(Rs. 1,20,000/- - Rs. 24,000/-) at rate 4% Rs. 3,800/-
3) Loss on Corporate Tax
@ 55% on profit per tonne of paper
for 4 Tonnes Rs. 12,000/-
4) Loss on grid power consumption
(4 x 1500 x Rs. 3/KWh) Rs. 18,000/-
5) Loss of Railway’s Transportation
and Coal India Not Considered
Total Loss Rs. 57,800/-
say Rs. 58,000/-
In a month at least there is 30 numbers of voltage dip which results
production loss.
Total national intangible loss per year
( Rs. 58,000/- x 30 x 12) = 200 lakhs Rupees
Direct saving on power loss 40 lakhs Rupees
Intangible National loss 200 lakhs Rupees
3.6.3 Elimination of smaller MVA rating Power Transformers in Sub
Transmission
For HV consumers when power is supplied in 33 KV lines, there will be
nos. of small MVA rating transformers. Those are loaded upto maximum of 50%.
By upgrading sub transmission voltage to next higher range the use of smaller
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.18

MVA rating transformers can be reduced. This has many advantages in the zonal
grid power substation.

• The no load loss of nos. of transformers will be saved.

• The station MVA load will be reduced.

• The HV consumer will be gainer on energy loss and reduction of maximum

demand changes.
Case Study No. 3.4
In J.K. Paper Mills, Rayagada, India,
5 nos. 4 MV A Power Transformer 33/6.6 KV were in operation.
Energy loss at 0.9 p.f., yearly no load loss (1%)

(5 x 4000 x 0.9 x 0.01 x 24 x 330) = 1425600 KWh

Power supply was availed in 132 KV
1 no. 15 MVA transformer is in operation.

Energy loss (15000 x 0.9 x 0.01 x 24 x 330) = 1069200 KWh yearly

Energy saving per year (1425600 - 1069200) = 356400 KWh
3.7 Power saving in 132 KV Grid Substations by provision of 33 KV and

11KVXLPE cables
The 132 KV Grid substation Power transformers consists of 132 KV
primary and two step secondary (33 KV and 11 KV) for feeding power to
respective feeders. The Paper Insulated Lead Cover Armoured (PILCA) cables are
connected to all panel breakers from which power is fed to all HT distribution zone
centres. The PILCA cable end boxes are made of cast iron filled compound. There
is more dielectric loss and this cable is susciptible for brusting due to over stress for
ageing, heating on overload and lightning surges. The characteristics of XLPE &
PILCA cables are shown in Table No. 3.3. It is recommended to replace PILCA
cables with XLPE cables.
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.19

The advantages of XLPE cables are:

• It has veiy low dielectric loss.

• The short circuit withstand temperature 250° C.

• High contineous current rating.

• The operating temperature is 90° C. It can operate upto 130° C in emergency.

• It can sustain fluctuation of voltage with load variation.

• This can withstand chemical corrosion.

• High safety against mechanical damage and vibration.

Case Study No. 3.5

In an outdoor 132 KV Grid substation, Rayagada, India,
There are 3 nos. 15 MVA, 132/33/11 KV transformers
Power delivered in 33 KV and 11 KV steps are 10 MVA and 5 MVA
respectively.
Single core, 120 sq. mm., 150 mtrs. PILCA cables are replaced by XLPE
cables.
In each transformer 6 nos. of cables.
For three nos. of transformers 18 nos. of cables.
The power saving by replacing PILCA with XLPE cables on account of
reduction in dielectric loss

{(3 x 150 x 0.123 x 24 x 365 x 60 x 60) / (1000 x 1000)}

= 200 KWh per year

3.8 Power saving in battery system of Grid Substations
In all 132 KV grid substations, a permanent DC source is required for
operation of circuit breakers, telecommunication, indicating lamps, emergency
lighting and pumping of electrical energy during interruption. Generally plant type
lead acid cells are used in single tier which has following demerits.

• Corrosive gases are generated from the cells. Hydrogen gas involving 4% of the
room volume is highly explosive.

• Needs more attention on maintenance.

Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.20

• Four numbers of exhaust fans at four comer are essential.

• Single tier arrangement of cells needs more space.

It is recommended to retrofit valve operated lead acid (VRLA) or sealed
maintenance free (SMF) batteries in the substations for the following advantages:

• It requires less maintenance.

• It is leak proof and hence no corrosive gas formation.

• S has high power density.

• Normal ventilation with reduced number of exhaust fan which saves power.

• Ecofiiendly character

• Less space required due to two tier arrangement of cells.

Example: Power saving with the use of VRLA/SMF batteries
In place of 4 exhaust fans one may be connected.
The power savings
( 3 nos. x 1.1 kW x 0.8 LF x 24 x 365) = 23100 KWh per annum

3.9 Conclusion
The HV transmission lines have many drawbacks such as, weak MVA
rating, severe instability due to voltage dip, improper balance of surge impedance
level and reactive power. Therefore, some modifications are made to make the
system healthy and to achieve energy saving at all levels. The application of
thyristor controlled capacitors and reactors in place of conventional shunt capacitor
and synchronous condenser for reactive power balance. Application of breaker

switch capacitor and thyristor controlled reactors are reliable for system
stabilization. Adoption of unified power flow controller will increase the loading
capacity of HVDC and HVAC line. Paralleling of double feeders, upgradation of
voltage level and maintenance free valve operated batteries in grid substations
resulted energy saving in all comers. The adopted modifications in a comprehensive
manner resulted decrease of TD losses in the network.
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.21

Table No. 3.1 T.D. Losses of some Countries *

SI. No. Name of the Country Percentage of T.D. Line Loss

1 U.S.A. 6.44
2 Japan 6.14
3 Canada 11.53
4 U.K. 8.36
5 Australia 12.328
6 China 6.9
7 India 22.89
8 Indonesia 16.4
9 Malaysia 10.8
10 Pakistan 21.9
11 Phillipines 11.9
12 Thailand 9.8

* U.K. El ectricity Council of Power Utilities 92-93

Table No. 3.2

Acceptable System of TD Losses*
Power loss in %
Zone System of Element Minimum Maximum
A Step up transformer and EHV transmission system 0.5 1.0
B Transformation in intermediate voltage level and 1.5 3.0
transmission system and step down to sub
transmission voltage level
C Sub transmission system and step down distribution 2.25 4.5
voltages level
D Distribution lines and service connections 4.0 7.0
Total 8.25 15.5
*CEA Guide Line Energy Audit, May 1992
Ch.-3 Transmission Lines 3.22

Table No. 3.3

Comparison of Characteristics of XLPE and PILCA cables
SI. Particulars Unit XLPE PILCA
No. cable cable
1 Maximum Operating Temperature °C 90 70
2 Tensile Strength Kg/mm2 1.9 1.4
3 Maximum Short Circuit Temperature °C 250 140
4 Elongation at break % 300 - 500 300 - 600
5 Loss factor tan 6 at 50 Hz 30° C - 0.0003 0.003
6 Dielectric Constant - 2.3 2.3
7 Derating at 40° C - 1.0 0.75
8 Derating at 50° C - 0.88 0.50
9 Volume resistivity at 20° C Q/cm 1015 1015

10 Dielectric Strength KV/m 40-50 20-35

11 Resistance and reactance at 50 Hz. Q/Km 0.164 0.1597
 Ch-3 Transmission Lines 123

400 KY 400 KV

Fig. 3.1: LOAD DIVISION USING A SERIES CAPACITOR

 Ch. -3 Transmission L irm 3.24
Transformer
Supply

Basic circuit arrangement of the unified power flow controller

FIG.3.2 : UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER

Ch-3 Transmission Lines 3.25

BREAKING REACTOR COMPENSATOR

FIG.3.3 FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM