Effects of Mobile Gaming Patterns On Learning Outcomes: A Literature Review
Effects of Mobile Gaming Patterns On Learning Outcomes: A Literature Review
Effects of Mobile Gaming Patterns On Learning Outcomes: A Literature Review
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1 Introduction
Within the past five years, the number of mobile learning games (MLGs) has snowballed.
For commercial and for scientific use they have been developed for various target groups
and learning contexts (Lilly and Warnes, 2009) such as role-based history learning
(Akkerman et al., 2009), interactively discovering the principles of digital economy
(Markovic et al., 2007) or geometry (Wijers et al., 2010). Mobile learning games are
considered to have potential for encouraging both cognitive and socio-affective learning
in young adults (Mitchell, 2007). Also, Klopfer (2008) argues that mobile learning games
enable situative learning offers that make a meaningful and valuable contribution to the
process of learning by providing aspects such as temporal flexibility, natural
communication or situated learning scenarios.
The highly complex technologies and the many different gaming opportunities
available make it increasingly difficult for educational practitioners to decide which
game to choose for learning. Re-using and sharing a game is difficult without a clear and
detailed description of the benefits, targeted learning outcomes and potential impact.
There have been several efforts to find a common structure and language of games to
better understand the complex issue (Björk and Holopainen, 2004; Cook, 2010; Kelle
et al., 2011; Kiili and Ketamo, 2007). Still, there is a lack of scientifically acceptable
methodology to evaluate mobile learning games. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is
to define a conceptual framework that helps to evaluate and to categorise mobile learning
games and to identify mechanisms that support design decisions of future mobile
learning games.
Methodologically, this paper scrutinises evaluation reports on mobile learning games
(MLG). It identifies game design patterns (Davidsson et al., 2004) and analyses how
individual patterns might contribute to a particular learning outcome. Thereto, the
patterns will be lined up against Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objects (1975) within
the affective and cognitive domain (see Figure 1).
The framework might help to better understand the mechanisms of mobile learning
games and to make use of the various effects they enable. Thus, the framework raises
three questions:
How does a pattern influence learners' motivation to deal with a particular
subject or a given learning content?
What are effective mobile game design patterns to support the acquisition of
knowledge?
What are best practices for mobile learning games to support knowledge gain?
Effects of mobile gaming patterns on learning outcomes
There are a number of mobile game-based learning projects that have already tested and
evaluated the effects of mobile games on students’ learning. Only few trace their findings
back to individual game mechanisms or patterns in order to better understand why a
game is successful. Instead, reports often reason effects with the use of the game itself,
e.g. “students found the use of Lecture Quiz engaging, they perceived they learn
moreusing such games…” (Wang et al., 2008). While such statements are vital in that
they back up the more self-evident use of mobile devices for learning, they allow no
conclusions as to why and how this effect is transferrable and reproducable. In addition,
no information is deducible about what gameplay elements influence learning outcomes.
Studies often lack empirical evidence on the motivational and cognitive effects that
mobile learning games enable. However, literature provides some conclusive evidence
regarding the effects of mobile learning games which we summarise and discuss over the
course of this paper.
therefore excluded 9 papers that stated evaluation results on an unspecific level with
regard to patterns (Table 1, E.3), e.g. the game contributed to increased learning and
motivation (Klopfer et al., 2011; Shin et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2008) or the use of MLGs
contributes to the development of collaboration skills (Sanchez and Olivares, 2011). We
imply that affordances of up-to-date mobile devices' hardware (e.g. accelerometer, dual
cameras, etc.) have an impact on the game and that they are reflected in the individual
design patterns composing a game. The review did not take into consideration a specific
age group. The research we reviewed was conducted mainly on pupils and young adults
(age range: 10–25 years). Possible variations in effect due to that range of age were not
considered. The following table sums up the inclusion/exclusion criteria which we
applied for the analysis.
Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the analysis
The pattern Physical Navigation, for example, “forces players of a mobile game to
move or turn around in the physical world in order to successfully play the game”
(Davidsson et al., 2004, p.18). The MLG Frequentie 1550 (Akkerman et al., 2009), for
instance, uses this pattern. Players have to move around to find sources of information
and to complete tasks. Also, Explore (Costabile et al., 2008) makes use of this pattern. It
requires groups to walk around the ruins trying to identify the place the mission refers to.
The pattern Physical Navigation is instantiated by (caused by the use of), e.g. the
pattern Player-Player Proximity, Player-Artifact Proximity, Player-Location Proximity
and Artifact-Artifact Proximity. The pattern Player-Location Proximity in turn is defined
by the distance between the player and a certain physical location which can affect
gameplay and trigger an event. Frequentie 1550 makes use of this pattern. On entering
one of the six areas the old city of Amsterdam is divided into (each area dealing with a
different theme in medieval times), an introductory video clip is provided. The video clip
presents words that can help to complete the assignments in that area (Akkerman et al.,
2009).
On the other hand, we classified the effects extricated from the empirical studies
according to learning outcomes. A learning outcome is the specification of what the
successful learner is expected to be able to do at the end of the module/course unit or
qualification (Adam, 2004). Learning outcome orientation can be seen within a wider
trend in educational technology. One of its main ideas is to prepare students for the
requirements of professional life (Vander Ark, 2002). Rather than defining the resources
to be used during the learning process, outcome-oriented learning scenarios focus on the
results of the educational process, e.g. the skills and content students are able to
demonstrate. To depict the various learning outcomes, we applied Bloom's taxonomy
(1956) which sorts learning outcomes into three domains:
affective domain – motivational learning outcomes
cognitive domain – knowledge learning outcomes
psychomotor domain – manual/physical learning outcomes
According to Bloom, the affective domain encompasses attitudes and motivation. The
cognitive domain deals with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the development
of intellectual abilities and skills. The psychomotor domain encompasses manual or
physical skills or the performance of actions. For the review we focused on motivational
and knowledge learning outcomes. Learning outcomes that relate to manual or physical
learning outcomes, e.g. exergames (cf. Lucht, 2010; Yang, 2011) or console games were
not considered, as they have a different didactic approach.
For the cognitive domain, Bloom distinguishes six successive levels that can be
fostered – Knowledge (e.g. observation and recall of information, knowledge of dates,
events and places), Comprehension (understanding information, grasping meanings or
ordering, grouping, inferring causes), Application (using learned material in new
situations, putting ideas and concepts to work in solving problems), Analysis (breaking
down information into its components, understanding organisational structure), Synthesis
(putting parts together) and Evaluation (judging the value of material for a given
purpose).
The framework described above provides the basis for categorising gameplay
mechanics according to learning outcomes. From this categorisation we expect to enable
B. Schmitz, R. Klemke and M. Specht
a rather specific use of gameplay elements. We aim at defining which patterns support
(a) motivational learning outcomes and (b) cognitive learning outcomes in the six
categories from least complex (knowledge) to most complex (evaluation).
In the following section, we present the results of the literature survey. For the review,
we searched practical papers regardless of any particular pattern. In a first step, we
scrutinised what games impact motivation (affective learning outcomes) and knowledge
(cognitive learning outcomes). We then went into detail, focusing on the patterns used in
the games. We listed the patterns and investigated how individual patterns impact
motivation or knowledge.
The mobile learning game ARGuing, for example, impacts both affective and
cognitive learning outcomes. From the study by Conolly et al. (2011), we identified the
following patterns: Pervasive Games, Collaborative Actions, Cooperation, Communication
Channels, Competition, Imperfect Information, Memorability and Avatar. For the pattern
Pervasive Games, we were able to extricate effects with regard to motivational and
cognitive learning outcomes (see Tables 2 and 3). The pattern Pervasive Games for
example, impacts affective learning outcomes: Learners are motivated to learn a foreign
language. The following sections list our findings from reviewing the literature by
patterns and present the effects we identified.
Imperfect One aspect of information Participants are eager to finish the game (Sedano
Information about the total game situation is et al., 2007).
not fully known to a player. Players immersed in the narrative (Carrigy et al.,
2010)
Score Numerical representation of the Students are motivated to deal with content on a
player’s success in the game, regular basis, positive peer pressure (Douch,
often also defining it. Attewell, and Dawson, 2010).
Agents Entities controlled by the game Students are motivated to deal with the learning
system, e.g. to support narrative material (Liu et al., 2010).
structure.
The patterns Avatar, Competition and Roleplaying are not part of the revised list by
Davidsson et al. (2004). They are part of the original list of Game Design Patterns
B. Schmitz, R. Klemke and M. Specht
provided by Björk and Holopainen (2004). However, the patterns seemed to be relevant
for the design of mobile learning games too. We therefore included them in the study
(Table 3).
Table 3 Effects of patterns with regard to affective learning outcomes
From the empirical studies we could ascertain that mobile learning games can help (a) to
increase learners’ motivation to engage with a particular learning environment, in our
case this is to play the learning game (Admiraal et al., 2011; Costabile et al., 2008;
Rosenbaum et al., 2006; Sedano et al., 2007) and (b) to foster students’ motivation to
engage in learning activities and to deal with a particular learning content (Douch et al.,
2010; Markovic et al., 2007; Schwabe and Göth, 2005). In particular patterns such as
Cooperation, Augmented Reality, Pervasive Games or Physical Navigation seem to
positively influence learners' motivation to deal with a particular subject or a given
learning content.
for describing the several levels in written objectives. Table 4 lists the relevant patterns
and describes their assigned cognitive learning outcomes. Since Table 4 contains the
same patterns than Table 3, the pattern descriptions apply accordingly.
Table 4 Effects of patterns with regard to cognitive learning outcomes
The review revealed that only few studies empirically research the actual cognitive
learning outcomes from MLGs (e.g. pre-test/post-test). Papers discuss the educational
value of diverse patterns but provide little evidence that this approach leads to better
learning outcomes. On the one hand, this is due to the fact that patterns have only to a
limited extent been subject to explicit reasearch. But on the other hand, studies seldom
explicitly research the cognitive learning outcomes of MLGs. Many pilot studies apply
qualitative measurements to evaluate effects. Further research is needed to provide a
clearer picture of how individual patterns or groups of patterns function and how they
effectuate cognitive learning outcomes. In order to provide an in-depth understanding of
the educational effects of game design patterns for MLGs, we suggest a mixed methods
evaluation (Pérez-Sanagustin et al., 2012), which combines quantitative and qualitative
data.
In this paper we have presented the findings from our review of practical research papers
on the effects of mobile learning games. It indicates that mobile learning games have the
B. Schmitz, R. Klemke and M. Specht
potential to bring about affective as well as cognitive learning outcomes. MLGs can help
to increase the motivation to engage in learning activities. With regard to “hard learning”
(Schwabe and Göth, 2005) though, empirical evidence is fragmented. In general, the
empirical evidence in the literature we reviewed was inconsistent in terms of study
design and terminology. The diverse studies had different settings with regard to
the statistical base (dependent/independent variables) and the research methods they
applied, as they addressed various research interests. Still, some verifiable effects are
in existence.
For both, affective and cognitive learning outcomes, it showed that, firstly, the impact
of individual patterns on learning is difficult to determine. The studies we reviewed
focused on a set of diverse patterns, which is given by definition. The use of one pattern
mostly requires the presence of another game design patterns (Björk and Holopainen,
2004; Klemke, and Specht, 2012). From this, other complexities derive: Does a pattern
on its own have the same effect or does it require interplay with other (particular)
patterns? For example, it was stated that the provision for the pattern Competition
positively influenced students, learning (Akkerman et al., 2009). The game additionally
provided for the patterns of Team Play, Score and Cooperation, which had an impact on
the competition between the groups too. Also, the affordances of the mobile devices'
hardware have an impact on the pattern employed by a designer. We implied that the
diverse patterns already reflect the technical possibilities.
Secondly, the effects occured with a given condition of the patterns, e.g. given time,
given level, etc. To what extent does varying the conditions of the diverse patterns (game
balancing) influence the effect? For example, the provision of Imperfect Information was
identified to motivate learners to finish the game. What amount of information is
necessary in order not to overstrain (discourage) or bore the learner?
In order to reduce such complexities in the pattern approach, further research on the
correlations between patterns and learning outcomes has to focus on a limited number of
the patterns in existence (Björk and Holopainen, 2004; Davidsson et al., 2004). The study
settings have to comprise (a) an experimental variation of patterns, i.e. game settings that
enable/disable individual patterns and (b) an in-depth variation of patterns, i.e. game
settings that allow different instances for the same pattern. This way, measurable and
feasible results can be obtained that are suitable as a base for design guidelines which
define (a) patterns that support the achievement of a desired learning outcome and (b)
ways of applying the patterns.
Game design needs to adapt to different target groups, contexts, etc. (Adams, 2010).
This in particular applies to the context of educational games. There is a vital need for
tailoring learning offers (i.e. educational games) to learners’ needs, capabilities and
according to learning targets. Intelligent adaptive game mechanisms generally reflect this
need. To a certain degree, this also applies to the patterns Level or Score. This way, the
pattern approach reflects varying target groups or contexts. A more specific analysis, e.g.
the extend to which individual patterns reflect learners’ needs or capabilities, is needed
though. Future reseach needs to verify the effectiveness of mobile learning games and to
corroborate their educational value in order to motivate teachers to use such tools for
teaching. Otherwise, the educational system may run the risk of disengaging future
learners (cf. Klopfer et al., 2011).
Effects of mobile gaming patterns on learning outcomes
5 Further work
From what was mentioned above it becomes obvious that there is clearly a need for more
comprehensive scientific studies that scrutinise the functions of the diverse patterns
mobile learning games are based on. The main research question we need to address is
therefore:
How can an effective mobile learning game be developed that enhances
motivation and cognitive learning outcomes?
The framework focuses on two aspects: affective and cognitive learning outcomes. As for
the affective learning outcomes, we identified patterns that positively impact
motivational aspects. Future research will have to investigate:
How does a pattern or a group of patterns, e.g. the provision for Competition,
influence the learners' motivation to actually deal with a particular subject or
a given learning content?
For our research, we have to consider groups of patterns because learners seldom
perceive single patterns as a game (Kelle et al., 2012).
Also, the study results show a small, though positive correlation between diverse
patterns and cognitive learning outcomes. With respect to knowledge gain, this PhD-
work will further investigate:
To what degree does a particular pattern, e.g. Player Physical Prowess,
increase the learner’s knowledge gain?
Will pupils playing mobile learning games that provide for a particular pattern
have better knowledge gains than pupils receiving traditional lesson series?
A comprehensive evaluation is to follow which examines the research questions stated. It
seeks to understand which specific patterns have the greatest impact on a stated learning
outcome. Also, the degree of effects will be the subject of future studies, for example the
degree of motivational effects of individual patterns, e.g. intrinsic versus extrinsic
motivation (cf. Schiefele and Schreyer, 1994), as well as influencing variables such as
age or the prevailing level of education (i.e. educationally disadvantaged learners).
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