What are Minerals?

Minerals are the foundation of the construction, manufacturing and agricultural

industries.

Article by: Hobart M. King, Ph.D., RPG

Rhodochrosite: Specimen of rhodochrosite from the Sunnyside Mine, San Juan County, Colorado.
Rhodochrosite is a manganese carbonate mineral (MnCO3) that is used as an ore of manganese and is also cut
as a gemstone. USGS image.

We Use Minerals Every Day!

Every person uses products made from minerals every day. The salt that we add to our food is
the mineral halite. Antacid tablets are made from the mineral calcite.

It takes many minerals to make something as simple as a wooden pencil. The "lead" is made
from graphiteand clay minerals, the brass band is made of copper and zinc, and the paint that
colors it contains pigments and fillers made from a variety of minerals. A cell phone is made
using dozens of different minerals that are sourced from mines throughout the world.

The cars that we drive, the roads that we travel, the buildings that we live in, and the fertilizers
used to produce our food are all made using minerals. In the United States, about three trillion
tons of mineral commodities are consumed each year to support the standard of living of 300
million citizens. That is about ten tons of mineral materials consumed for every person, every
year.

Common items made from minerals: Most of the things that we use in our daily life are either made from
minerals or produced using mineral products. Antacid tablets are made from calcite, table salt is crushed halite,
several minerals are used to make a wood pencil, and dozens of minerals from many different countries are
used to make a cell phone.

Did You Know? The white "m" on a piece of M&M's candy is

a titanium oxide pigment, most likely produced from the
mineral rutile.

Structure of the mineral halite: The mineral "halite" has a chemical composition of NaCl. That means it
contains equal numbers of sodium and chloride atoms. In this case they are electrically charged atoms, known
as ions. Those ions are arranged in a cubic pattern that repeats in all directions. The small sodium ions are
positioned between the larger chloride ions.

What are Minerals?

To meet the definition of "mineral" used by most geologists, a substance must meet five
requirements:

 naturally occurring
 inorganic
 solid
 definite chemical composition
 ordered internal structure

"Naturally occurring" means that people did not make it. Steel is not a mineral because it is an
alloy produced by people. "Inorganic" means that the substance is not made by an organism.
Wood and pearls are made by organisms and thus are not minerals. "Solid" means that it is not a
liquid or a gas at standard temperature and pressure.

"Definite chemical composition" means that all occurrences of that mineral have a chemical
composition that varies within a specific limited range. For example: the mineral halite (known
as "rock salt" when it is mined) has a chemical composition of NaCl. It is made up of an equal
number of atoms of sodium and chlorine.

"Ordered internal structure" means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in a systematic and
repeating pattern. The structure of the mineral halite is shown in the illustration on this page.
Halite is composed of an equal ratio of sodium and chlorine atoms arranged in a cubic pattern.

Did You Know? Although liquid water is not a mineral, it is a

mineral when it freezes. Ice is a naturally occurring, inorganic
solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered
internal structure. Learn more.

The Word "Mineral"

The word "mineral" is used in many different ways. The definition given above is a formal
definition preferred by geologists.

The word also has a nutritional meaning. It is used in reference to the many inorganic chemicals
that organisms need to grow, repair tissue, metabolize, and carry out other body processes.
Mineral nutrients for the human body include: iron, calcium, copper, sulfur, phosphorus,
magnesium and many others.

An archaic use of the word "mineral" comes from the Linnaean taxonomy in which all things can
be assigned to the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms.

The word "mineral" is also used inconsistently in geology. In mining, anything obtained from the
ground and used by man is considered to be a "mineral commodity" or a "mineral material."
These include: crushed stone, which is a manufactured product made from crushed rocks; lime,
which is a manufactured product made from limestone or marble (both composed of the mineral
calcite); coal which is organic; oil and gas which are organic fluids; rocks such as granite that
are mixtures of minerals; and, rocks such as obsidian which do not have a definite composition
and ordered internal structure.

Minerals in rocks: Most rocks are aggregates of minerals. This rock, a granite pegmatite, is a mixture of
mineral grains. It contains pink orthoclase, milky quartz, black hornblende and black biotite.

Mineral Commodities in Industry

2010 United States

Mineral Commodity
Consumption
Millions
Mineral
of Metric
Commodity
Tons
Crushed
1,200.0
Stone
Sand and
786.1
Gravel
Salt 55.8
Iron Ore 48.0
Phosphate
30.5
Rock
Gypsum 22.5
Clays 21.3
Dimension
14.0
Stone
Lime 18.5
Sulfur 11.30
Bauxite 8.4
Potash 5.6
Soda Ash 5.2
Barite 2.66
Copper 1.74
Lead 1.40
Values above are
estimates of mineral
commodity
consumption from the
United States
Geological Survey.
Many other
commodities could be
added to this table.

The construction industry is the largest consumer of mineral commodities. Crushed stone is
used for foundations, road base, concrete, and drainage. Sand and gravel are used in concrete and
foundations. Clays are used to make cement, bricks, and tile. Iron ore is used to make reinforcing
rods, steel beams, nails, and wire. Gypsum is used to make drywall. Dimension stone is used for
facing, curbing, flooring, stair treads, and other architectural work. These are just a few of the
many uses for these commodities in construction.

In agriculture, phosphate rock and potash are used to make fertilizer. Lime is used as an acid-
neutralizing soil treatment. Mineral nutrients are added to animal feed.

The chemical industry uses large amounts of salt, lime, and soda ash. Large amounts of metals,
clay, and mineral fillers/extenders are used in manufacturing.
 Mohs Hardness Scale is a set of reference minerals used for
classroom hardness testing. Determining the hardness of a
mineral is one of the most important tests used in mineral
identification.

The best way to learn about minerals is to study with a collection of small specimens that you can handle,
examine, and observe their properties. Inexpensive mineral collections are available in the Geology.com
Store.

The Acid Test: Geologists use dilute hydrochloric acid to

identify carbonate minerals. Carbonate minerals will effervesce
with various levels of vigor in contact with the acid.

Physical Properties of Minerals

There are approximately 4000 different minerals, and each of those minerals has a unique set of
physical properties. These include: color, streak, hardness, luster, diaphaneity, specific gravity,
cleavage, fracture, magnetism, solubility, and many more. These physical properties are useful
for identifying minerals. However, they are much more important in determining the potential
industrial uses of the mineral. Let's consider a few examples.

The mineral talc, when ground into a powder, is perfectly suited for use as a foot powder. It is a
soft, slippery powder so it will not cause abrasion. It has the ability to absorb moisture, oils, and
odor. It adheres to the skin and produces an astringent effect - yet it washes off easily. No other
mineral has a set of physical properties that are as suitable for this purpose.

The mineral halite, when crushed into small grains, is perfectly suited for flavoring food. It has a
salty taste that most people find pleasing. It dissolves quickly and easily, allowing its flavor to
spread through the food. It is soft, so if some does not dissolve it will not damage your teeth. No
other mineral has physical properties that are better suited for this use.

The mineral gold is perfectly suited for use in jewelry. It can be easily shaped into a custom item
of jewelry by a craftsperson. It has a pleasing yellow color that most people enjoy. It has a bright
luster that does not tarnish. Its high specific gravity gives it a nice "heft" that is preferred by most
people over lighter metals. Other metals can be used to make jewelry, but these properties make
gold an overwhelming favorite. (Some people might add that gold's rarity and value are two
additional properties that make it desirable for jewelry. However, rarity is not a property, and its
value is determined by supply and demand.)

Star sapphire: A deep blue star sapphire 8 mm x 6 mm cabochon from Thailand. Inclusions of rutile within
the stone align with the crystallographic axis of the corundum to produce the star - which is only clearly visible
and centered when the back of the stone is cut at 90 degrees to the C-axis of the crystal. This stone has been
heat treated to darken the stone and enhance visibility of the star.

Mineral Information
[1] Minerals on Geology.com: Links to content about minerals on the geology.com website.

[2] USGS Mineral Information: Links to information about minerals on the United States Geological Survey
website.

[3] State and National Geological Surveys: Links to geological survey websites, most of which contain
information about minerals found and produced in their location.

[4] USGS Mineral Resources Program: The sole Federal source of scientific information on mineral potential,
production, consumption, and environmental effects.

[5] The Mineral and Locality Database: The largest mineralogy database and reference website on the internet.

Importance of Physical Properties

The primary characteristics of a mineral that determine its physical properties are its composition
and the strength of the bonds in its ordered internal structure. Here are some examples:

Galena, a lead sulfide, has a much higher specific gravity than bauxite, an aluminum hydroxide.
This difference is because of their composition. Lead is much heavier than aluminum.

Diamond and graphite both consist of pure carbon. Diamond is the hardest natural mineral, and
graphite is one of the softest. This difference occurs because of the types of bonds connecting the
carbon atoms in their mineral structures. Each carbon atom in diamond is bonded to four other
carbon atoms with strong covalent bonds. Graphite has a sheet structure in which atoms within
the sheets are bonded to one another with strong covalent bonds, but the bonds between the
sheets are weak electrical bonds. When graphite is scratched the weak bonds fail easily, making
it a soft mineral.

The gemstones ruby and sapphire are color variations of the mineral corundum. These color
differences are caused by composition. When corundum contains trace amounts of chromium, it
exhibits the red color of a ruby. However, when it contains trace amounts of iron or titanium, it
exhibits the blue color of sapphire. If, at the time of crystallization, enough titanium is present to
form tiny crystals of the mineral rutile, a star sapphire may form. This occurs when tiny crystals
of rutile align systematically within the crystalline structure of the corundum to give it a silky
luster that might produce a "star" that aligns with the primary crystallographic axis (see photo).
Do the mineral groups carbonates, halides, or
sulfides contain silicon?
Answer:
No they don't
Explanation:
Only those minerals are put in silicate group which have Si (silicon) and oxygen combined in
their chemical formula. For example
SiO2→ Quartz
Fe2SiO3
Mg2SiO3→ (Olivine)
Carbonate have carbon and oxygen. For example CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)
Halides have combination of salt forming elements of 7th group (F, Cl, Br, I) with other
elements. For example CaF2 , NaCl etc
Sulfides have S (sulfur) with other elements like ZnS, PbS
Conclusion
Only Silicates have silicon.
hope this helps thanks
Related questions
No they don't.

Only those minerals are put in silicate group which have Si (silicon) and oxygen combined in their
formula. Formula example

Si02 -quartz

Fe2SiO3

Mg2SiO3- (olivine)

Carbonate has carbon and oxygen . For example CaCO3

(Calcium carbonate)

Halides have combination of salt forming elements of 7th group ( F,Cl, Br, I) with other elements .For
example CaF2 , NaCl etc.
Studies have S (sulfur) with other elements like ZnS, PbS

Conclusion

Only silicates have silicon.

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What Group of Minerals Are the
Most Abundant in the Earth's Crust?

Silicates are the most abundant group of minerals found in Earth's crust, according to
Georgia State University. The most abundant elements in the Earth's crust are oxygen at 46.6
percent and silicon at 27.7 percent. These two elements combine with each other and other
elements to form various silicates.

Silicates are categorized by their chemical composition or their crystal structures. The most
abundant specific silicates in the Earth's crust are feldspars (primarily orthoclase and plagioclase)
and quartz, which together make up 95 percent of the continental crust rocks. Other silicates
include olivine, hornblende (known as the amphibole group), augite (known as the pyroxene
group) and micas.

Based on research, the most common chemical elements in the crust are oxygen (46.6%), silicon (27.7),
aluminum (8.1), iron (5.0), calcium (3.6), potassium (2.8), sodium (2.6), and magnesium (2.1).

Now if these element will undergo various chemical reactions, oxygen and silicon will form silicates and
therefore would comprise the most abundant mineral group combined in earth's crust.
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Silicates
The most abundant elements in the Earth's crust are oxygen (46.6%) and silicon
(27.7%). Mineralswhich combine these two elements are called silicates, and
combined they are the most abundant minerals on the Earth. The silicates can be
organized in terms of their chemical compositions and their crystal structures
(indicated by the existance of cleavage planes). They most often contain members of
the Big 8 elements. The table below is an example of such organization from Lutgens
and Tarbuck.

Mineral Idealized Formula Cleavage

Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 None

Pyroxene group Two planes at

(Mg,Fe)SiO3
(Augite) right angles

Amphibole group Two planes at

Ca2(Fe,Mg)5Si8O22(OH)2
(Hornblende) 60° and 120°

Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
Micas One plane
Muscovite KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2

Orthoclase KAlSi3O8
Feldspars Two planes at 90°
Plagioclase (Ca,Na)AlSi3O8

Quartz SiO2 None

Shipman, et al. comment that about 95% of the continental crust rocks are composed
of the two types of feldspar or quartz.
 An unknown opaque mineral has a black streak and has a
density of 18g/cm3. is the mineral metallic or non metallic?
 Ask for details
 Follow
 Report

by Nansnuhasan 23.07.2017

Answers

 eivsrich
 Helping Hand

The mineral is more likely to be metallic because it is opaque and metallic

minerals
4.4 are usually heavy and with dark streaks.
Is an unknown opaque mineral that has a black
streak and has a density of 18g/cm3 metallic or non-
metallic?
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2 Answers

Edgar Arbaje, Psychologist. Know bits of various science fields

Answered 15h ago · Author has 364 answers and 36k answer views

Picture this: most rocks on Earth have a density that is around 3 g/cm3. Porous
sedimentary and igneous rocks tend to have lower densities than that, while some
metamorphic rocks are compact. A piece of rock made from a large proportion of a
transition metal oxide (say, FeO or Fe2O3) can be denser than average. Sulfides like
cinnabar and galena can be quite a bit denser than most rocks (because they contain
mercury and lead, respectively). But you don’t tend to find sulfides at the surface; they are
typically found in mines.

Rocks generally do not reach densities as high as 18 g/cm3. The density you report is very
close to that of tungsten, which is just over 19.3 g/cm3. You might have a piece of tungsten
in your hands. Perhaps it is anodized and that is why it looks like that.
Perhaps, what you have is a lump of gold/silver alloy and it has tarnished. The density of
gold and tungsten is nearly identical. But if it is being alloyed with small amounts of silver
its density will decrease.

Best Answer: Metals tend to have higher densities which is consistent with what you have
described and also the black streak might indicate that it is mafic, which means rich in iron.
 Minerals
A mineral, by definition, is any naturally (not manmade) occurring, inorganic (not a
result of life plant or animal) substance. Its chemical structure can be exact, or can
vary. All minerals belong to a chemical group, which represents their affiliation with
certain elements or compounds. The classified chemical groups are known as:

 Elements (gold, silver, sulfur, iron, etc.)

 Sulfides (Pyrite, Galena, Sphalerite, etc.)
 Halides (Halite, Fluorite, etc.)
 Oxides (Hematite, Ilmenite, etc.)
 Sulfates (Gypsum, Barite, Celestite, etc.)
 Carbonates (Calcite, Dolomite, Smithsonite, Siderite,etc.)
 Silicates (Quartz, Feldspar, etc.).

Minerals also have distinctive properties, such as color, hardness, specific gravity,
luster, fracture, tenacity. Many of these properties can vary among a single mineral.

Mineral Properties

Color is the easiest physical property to describe, however it can also be the most
difficult property to make a mineral identification. Some minerals always have the
same color, such as gold, whereas some minerals, such as quartz, fluorite, and calcite,
come in all colors. The presence and intensity of certain elements determines a
specimens color. Minerals which have an inherit color (minerals which always occur
in the same color) have essential elements in them which cause that color. This
includes azurite and malachite, which have their strong blue and green color due to
their copper. But there are many minerals which have slight additions of color causing
elements in some specimens that cause it to be a different color. For example,
pure quartz (SiO2), is colorless, whereas amethyst (a variety of quartz), which has
traces of iron in it, has a strong purple color. Rose quartz's pink color is caused by
traces of titanium or manganese.

Certain minerals will exhibit a color change when exposed to light, heat, or
radiation. Realgar will transform into orpiment, and orpiment will crumble into a
light - yellow powder if exposed to light. Some minerals, such as proustite, vivianite,
fluorite, will darken upon prolonged exposure to light, whereas other minerals, such
as kunzite (spodumene) will fade.

Most secondary copper minerals show a bright blue (and sometimes green) color. Iron
will usually cause a mineral to exhibit a dark red or brown, and manganese is
responsible for the coloring of many pink minerals. Some minerals, such
as cassiterite and zincite, have chemical structures that would cause it to be colorless,
but due to impurities and other factors, they are never found colorless. Most
secondary uranium minerals exhibit either a bright neon yellow or green color .
Minerals containing, aluminum, sodium, and potassium, are usually colorless or very
lightly colored. In some cases, a mineral's color can depend on its atomic bonding
rather than composition, such is the case in the difference
between diamond and graphite. They both have the same elemental makeup -
Carbon (C), yet one is almost always white to very lightly colored, while the other is
always grayish black.

Some minerals can tarnish, thereby affecting the color of the specimen. The best
examples are silver tarnishing black, copper tarnishing green, and bornite tarnishing
to a play of different colors .

Some minerals, such as opal (a variety of quartz), display a multicolored effect when
viewed from different angles . This is called opalescence. A few minerals appear to
change color when viewed in different light. Alexandrite is dark green in natural
light, but takes on a purplish hue when seen in artificial light . Other minerals will
change to a different color when viewed from different angles. This is called
dichroism. Cordierite has the greatest dichroic ability of any mineral, such that a blue
purplish crystal will turn gray when rotated .

Streak is the color of a minerals powder when it is crushed. Some minerals have a
different color powder than their actual color. Every mineral has an inherent streak no
matter what color it is. For example, calcite occurs in many different colors, shapes,
and varieties. But every single variety of calcite has a white streak. Streak is useful to
distinguish two minerals that have the same color, but a different streak . A fine
example is distinguishing gold, which has a yellow streak, and pyrite, which has a
black streak. Another example is distinguishing magnetite, which has a black streak,
and hematite, which has a reddish streak.

Most light colored, nonmetallic minerals have a white or colorless streak, as do most
silicates, carbonates, and most transparent minerals. The streak test is most useful for
identifying dark colored minerals, especially metals. Most mineral references don't
make a distinction between a white or colorless streak, since the difference is
minimal. A mineral with a white or colorless streak will not leave visibly colored
powder.

Hardness plays a major role in identifying a mineral. It can make the identification
process much simpler by considerably narrowing a search. Hardness is defined by
how well a mineral will resist scratching by another mineral. A scale to measure
hardness was invented by a mineralogist named Frederick Mohs (1822) and is still the
standard scale for measuring hardness. The scale consists of numbers one through ten;
1 being the softest and 10 being the hardest. Each number represents a different
mineral - each harder than the previous number. The 10 minerals are:

common household item (with a fixed

Scale Mineral hardness)
1 Talc
2 Gypsum fingernail (2 ½)
3 Calcite copper penny (3)
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite knife blade, glass (5½)
6 Feldspar steel file, streak plate (6½)
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond

All minerals are in this scale, since talc is the softest known mineral and diamond is
the hardest. Suppose a mineral scratches fluorite, but not apatite, then it has a
hardness between 4 and 5. Hardness is usually rounded off to the nearest half number.

Minerals can be damaged and lose value if not scratched properly. If a mineral testing
kit is composed of minerals, it is preferable for the testing kit mineral to be scratched
over the specimen. If this cannot be done, than the specimen has to be scratched. This
should be done in an area where a scratch will not make a noticeable mark.

Hardness can be easily detected without a "kit". All one needs to know is the hardness
of certain items (including the ones mentioned above) and minerals in his collection.
These can be used instead of purchasing a kit, which is an inessential investment.

Specific gravity (SG) is the measurement used to determine the density of minerals.
Different minerals that have the same volume have different weights. Specific Gravity
is measured by the relative weight of the item to water. The specific gravity value is
how many times greater its weight than the same volume of water. Water has a
specific gravity of 1. A mineral with a specific gravity of 2.7 is 2.7 times heavier than
water. Minerals with a specific gravity under 2 are considered light, between 2 and 4.5
average, and greater than 4.5 heavy. Most minerals with a metallic luster are heavy.
The specific gravity can vary slightly within a mineral because of impurities.
Geologists measure specific gravity with expensive laboratory tools, such as a
hydrostatic balance. There are other methods to determine specific gravity, such as
using water displacement, but this is a complicated procedure that can provide
inaccurate results. Instead of testing actual specific gravity, the heft of a specimen can
be noticed. It is easy to notice a very light specimen, an average specimen, and a
heavy specimen (an example could be galena with a 7.5 SG compared
with graphite with a 2.2 SG).

Luster describes how a mineral reflects light -- how brilliant or dull it is. The terms
applied to luster are:

Luster Description Examples

Metallic Minerals that exhibit a metallic luster are opaque and gold, silver, hematite,
reflective, like a metal. Metal elements, most sulfides, pyrite
and some oxides belong in this category.
Submetallic For a mineral to fall in this category, it must be opaque to Rutile, Hornblende
nearly opaque and reflect well. Thin splinters of
submetallic minerals are translucent
Vitreous This luster accounts for about 65 percent of minerals. Quartz
Vitreous luster has reflective properties similar to glass.
Most of the silicates, carbonates, phosphates, sulfates,
halides, and hydroxides have a vitreous luster.
Adamantine Transparent or translucent minerals with a very high Diamond
refractive index, which means they give off a brilliance or
shine.
Resinous This describe the luster of many yellow, dark orange, or Sphalerite
brown minerals with slightly high refractive indexes --
honey like, but not necessarily the same color.
Silky Minerals with a silky luster are the result of the mineral Serpentine
having a very fine fibrous structure. The mineral displays
similar optical properties to silk cloth
Pearly A play of colors, like that of oil slick on water. Pearly Labradorite
luster is usually the result of many partly formed
cleavage cracks parallel and below the reflecting surface
of a mineral.
Greasy If a mineral appears as if coated with grease, it is said to Talc, Graphite
have a greasy luster.
Waxy Mineral appears coated with wax Turquoise,
Chrysoprase
Earthy, Dull Minerals which exhibit very poor luster. Most of these goethite
minerals have a rough or porous surface

Cleavage, Fracture, and Parting all have to do with the positioning of atoms in a
mineral and how it breaks when put under stress. These three properties are together
in this guide because of their similarity, but each one will be discussed separately
because they are different properties.
In mineral terms, cleavage describes how a mineral breaks when subject to stress on a
particular plane. If part of a crystal breaks off because off stress, and the broken piece
retains a crystal shape, the mineral has cleavage. A mineral that never produces any
crystallized fragments when broken off due to stress has no cleavage. Cleavage is
measured by two factors: quality and number of sides that exhibit cleavage.

Minerals with

 Perfect cleavage, cleave without leaving any fragment; a full, smooth edge is
formed without rough surfaces.
 Good means that it cleaves well, although leaves some rough surfaces. In poor
cleavage, the smooth crystal edge is barely visible, since the rough surface is
dominant.
 None means it never exhibits any cleavage. If a mineral exhibits cleavage, but
it so poor that it is usually not noticed, than it has "indistinct" cleavage.

Cleavage is also measured by the number of sides exhibit it. Many minerals that
exhibit cleavage only on one side, and some may exhibit different quality cleavage on
different sides. We may expect to find the following criteria: One, Two, Three or All
Directions.

These tell us how many directions of a mineral exhibit cleavage. Each direction means
two opposite sides of a three-dimensional figure, and this is because opposite cleavage
sides exhibit the same properties. If a mineral has cleavage in three directions, then
every side of the mineral has cleavage, unless the mineral has more than six sides. If a
mineral has more than six sides (i.e. octahedron and exhibits cleavage on all the sides,
than we can call that cleavage All Directions.

Fracture is the characteristic way a mineral breaks. The difference between cleavage
and fracture is that cleavage is the break of a crystal face where a new crystal face is
formed where the mineral broke, whereas fracture is the "chipping" of a mineral. All
minerals exhibit a fracture, even those that exhibit cleavage. If a mineral with
cleavage is chipped a certain way, it will fracture rather than cleave.

There are different types of fracture a mineral can have, such as:

 Conchoidal - A fracture resembling a semicircular shell, with a smooth, curved

surface.
 Uneven - A fracture that leaves a rough or irregular surface.
 Hackly - A hackly fracture resembles broken metal, with rough, jagged, points.
True metals exhibit this fracture.
  Splintery - This type of fracture will form elongated splinters. All fibrous
minerals fall into this category.
 Earthy or crumbly- This describes minerals that crumble when broken.

Tenacity is a minerals reaction to certain stress, such as crushing, bending, breaking,

or tearing. There are different reactions to each type of stress. Since tenacity is
composed of different reactions to different stresses, it is possible for a mineral to
have more than one form of tenacity. There are different forms of tenacity, and each
one must be tested separately. They are:

 Brittle - If a mineral is hammered and the result is a powder or small crumbs, it

is considered brittle.
 Sectile minerals can be separated with a knife into thin slices.
 Malleable - If a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer, it is said
to be malleable.
 Ductile - A mineral that can be stretched into a wire is ductile.
 Flexible but inelastic - Any mineral that can be bent, and retains the new
position is flexible but inelastic.
 Flexible and elastic - When these minerals are bent, they spring back to their
original position.

Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form. It is reliable for rock identification because it is
essential to most minerals. Color is not really reliable because mineral could be formed with varieties
of color, which is an effect of weathering or impurities.

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he color is the color that the mineral is naturally (make sure that it is clean so you know for
sure the color)
The streak of the mineral is what color that it leaves behind (you have to rub it on a hard
surface), like a white rock may make a pink streak.

What is the difference between color and

streak in minerals?
Color is the observable color of a mineral specimen in natural light. Streak is the color of
a mineral when powdered. The color of a specific mineral specimen may be different
than its streak color. Because many impurities can alter the color of a mineral, but not
the streak, streak is a more accurate predictor in mineral identification.
The Matter of Habit, Cleavage, and
Fracture in Minerals
Posted on September 16, 2014 by Penny

Share
This is a confusing one for students. It can sometimes be a challenge for folks who already have their
PhD’s in geology.

How do you distinguish among crystal habit, cleavage, and fracture in minerals?

I talk a bit about cleavage and fracture in this older blog post. As a brief review:
Cleavage is a planar direction within a mineral along which it is likely to break. This is determined
by the crystal structure – the way the atoms making the mineral bond together. Where bonds are
weak, the crystal might break. The best example of this is the micas. These form in sheets that split
easily apart. Cleavage tends to result in flat, relatively smooth surfaces.

This is biotite, a type of mica that is dark in color.

Fracture is what you get when a mineral breaks on a surface that’s not already naturally weak.
Fractured surfaces tend to be jagged, and sometimes scooped out. Think about a chip in a piece of
China. The result is a rounded surface, sometimes with sharp edges.

“Lipari-Obsidienne (5)” by Ji-Elle. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.
Cleavage and fracture have a lot to do with what a crystal looks like when you find it. But there’s one
other important thing that affects what minerals look like.

Crystal habit.
Habit is the natural shape of a mineral’s crystals before any cleavage or fracture occurs. Check out
the examples of different crystal habits on Wikipedia.
Some crystals are long and pointy. Some are shaped like disks. Some are little cubes. What’s
interesting (and sometimes confusing) is that a mineral’s habit may have nothing to do with it’s
pattern of cleavage or fracture.

For example, I posed this question to my students the other day:

Quartz (SiO2) makes 6-sided prisms -Habit. No cleavage; only conchoidal fracture. How is this possible?

The trick here is to understand that while both the habit and cleavage are dictated by the crystal
structure, they are both about totally different things. The crystal habit forms as the mineral is
growing, and is dictated by how the individual atoms in the crystal come together. After the crystal is
formed in whatever shape it’s going to be, there may be weak planes in the crystal along which it can
easily break: Cleavage.

“Quartz, Tibet” by JJ Harrison ([email protected]) – Own work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5 via
Wikimedia Commons.

However, as is the case for quartz, there may be no planes of weakness and therefore no cleavage,
despite a lovely crystal shape. When there are no planes of weakness and mineral can only break by
fracturing.

Here’s a lovely fluorite crystal (CaF2).

“3192M-fluorite1” by CarlesMillan – Own work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

That’s one possible habit for fluorite. Here’s another:

Milano – Museo storia naturale – Fluorite – Foto Giovanni Dall’Orto 22-Apr-2007 By Giovanni Dall’Orto (Own work)
CC-BY-SA-2.5-it via Wikimedia Commons

But all fluorite, despite it’s crystal habit, has four directions of cleavage:
Fluorite crystals showing their four directions of cleavage. Image credit: R.Weller/Cochise College

This is because the crystal habit is determined as the crystal grows, and cleavage occurs when the
crystal breaks.

Crystal habit, cleavage, and fracture in minerals are all related to the crystalline matrix, but they are
all in reference to different physical properties of the mineral.

This entry was posted in Geology, UREES101 by Penny. Bookmark the permalink.

1. Introduction
Top

The physical characteristics of minerals include traits which

are used to identify and describe mineral species. These traits
include color, streak, luster, density, hardness, cleavage,
fracture, tenacity, and crystal habit.
Certain wavelengths of light are reflected by the atoms of a
mineral's crystal lattice while others are absorbed. Those
wavelengths of light which are reflected are perceived by the
viewer to possess the property of color. Some minerals derive
their color from the presence of a particular element within the
crystal lattice. The presence of such an element can determine
which wavelengths of light are reflected and which are
absorbed. This type of coloration in minerals is
termed idiochromatism; different samples of an idiochromatic
mineral species will all display the same color. Other minerals
are colored by the presence of certain elements in mixture.
Different samples of such a species may exhibit a range of
similar colors. Still other mineral species may usually be
colorless, but may display several different and startling colors
when trace amounts of impurities, or elements which are not an
integral part of the crystalline lattice, are present. Coloration
which is caused by the presence of an element foreign to the
crystal lattice, whether in mixture or in trace amounts, is
termedallochromatism. Certain elements are strong pigmenting
agents and may lend vivid colors to specimens when they are
present, whether as a part of the crystal lattice, in mixture, or as
an impurity. These elements are termed the chromophores.
Streak is the color which a mineral displays when it has
been ground to a fine powder. Trace amounts of impurities do
not tend to affect the streak of a mineral, so this characteristic is
usually more predictable than color. Two different specimens of
the same species may be expected to possess the same streak,
whereas they may display different colors.
Minerals are either opaque or transparent. A thin section of
an opaque mineral such as a metal will not transmit light,
whereas a thin section of a transparent mineral will. Typically
those minerals which possess metallic bonding are opaque
whereas those where ionic bonding is prevalent are transparent.
Relative differences in opacity and transparency are described
as luster. The characteristic of luster provides a qualitative
measure of the amount and quality of light which is reflected
from a mineral's exterior surfaces. Luster thus describes how
much the mineral surface 'sparkles'.
 The property of density is defined as mass per unit volume.
Certain trends exist with respect to density which may
sometimes aid in mineral identification. Native elements are
relatively dense. Minerals whose chemical composition contains
heavy metals, or atoms possessing an atomic number greater
than iron (Fe, atomic number 26), are relatively dense. Species
which form at high pressures deep within the earth's crust are in
general more dense than minerals which form at lower pressures
and shallower depths. Dark-colored minerals are typically fairly
dense whereas light-colored ones tend to be less dense.
Hardness is defined as the level of difficulty with which a
smooth surface of a mineral specimen may be scratched.
Hardness has historically been measured according to the Mohs
scale. Mohs' method relies upon a scratch test to relate the
hardness of a mineral specimen to the hardness of one of a set of
reference minerals. Hardness may also be measured according to
the more quantitative but less accessible diamond indentation
method.
Cleavage refers to the splitting of a crystal along a smooth
plane. A cleavage plane is a plane of structural weakness along
which a mineral is likely to split. The quality of a mineral's
cleavage refers both to the ease with which the mineral cleaves
and to the character of the exposed surface. Not every mineral
exhibits cleavage.
Fracture takes place when a mineral sample is split in a
direction which does not serve as a plane of perfect or distinct
cleavage. A mineral fractures when it is broken or crushed.
Fracture does not result in the emergence of clearly demarcated
planar surfaces; minerals may fracture in any possible direction.
The characteristic of tenacity describes the physical
behavior of a mineral under stress or deformation. Most
minerals are brittle; metals, in contrast, are malleable, ductile,
and sectile.
The term crystal habit describes the favored growth pattern
of the crystals of a mineral species. The crystals of particular
mineral species sometimes form very distinctive, characteristic
shapes. Crystal habit is also greatly determined by the
environmental conditions under which a crystal develops.

2. Color
Top

When different wavelengths of visible light are incident

upon the eye they are perceived as being of different colors.
Three different varieties of color receptors in the eye correspond
to light possessing wavelengths of approximately 660 nm (red),
500 nm (green), and 420 nm (blue-violet). The eye then
interprets the color of incident light according to which color
receptors have been stimulated. For example, if monochromatic
light which stimulated the red and green color receptors equally
and did not affect the blue-violet receptors was detected, then
the eye would interpret this light as possessing a wavelength
halfway between those of red and green light. The eye would
therefore register an incident light wave with a wavelength of
approximately 580 nm and the viewer would percieve the
incoming light as yellow. Incident polychromatic light which
stimulated the red and green color receptors equally and did not
affect the blue-violet ones would also be interpreted as yellow
light, regardless whether or not the incoming light actually
contained a component with a wavelength close to 580 nm. The
incident polychromatic light might possess only a red and a
green component of equal intensity; it would nevertheless be
interpreted by the eye as yellow light. The phenomenon
called color is thus a description of the differentiation by the eye
between various wavelengths and combinations of wavelengths
of visible light.
When light is incident upon a mineral specimen, some
wavelengths are absorbed by the atoms of the crystal lattice
while others are reflected. Those wavelengths which were not
absorbed are reflected off of the mineral's surfaces and enter the
eye of the viewer. The color which is perceived by the viewer
depends on the wavelengths of light which are reflected rather
than absorbed by the mineral. The property of color in minerals
is thus due to the absorption of particular wavelengths of light
and the reflection of others by the atoms of the crystal lattice.
The color exhibited by certain mineral species may depend
upon which crystallographic axis is transmitting the light. Such
species may demonstrate several different colors as light is
transmitted along various different axes. This phenomena of
directionally selective absorption is termed pleochroism.
Idiochromatism and the Chromophores

The color of many mineral species is derived directly from

the presence of one or more of the elements which constitute the
crystal lattice. The color of such minerals is a fundamental
property directly related to the chemical composition of the
species. Minerals which exhibit this type of coloration are
called idiochromatic minerals. Idiochromatic coloration is a
property possessed by a mineral species as a whole. In such
species color can successfully be utilized as a means of
identification.
 Ions of certain elements are highly absorptive of selected
wavelengths of light. Such elements are called chromophores;
they possess strong pigmenting capabilities. The elements
vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt
(Co), nickel (Ni), and copper (Cu) are chromophores. A mineral
whose chemical formula stipulates the presence of one or more
of these elements may possess a vivid and distinctive color.
Examples of idiochromatic minerals abound. For instance,
the copper carbonate malachite is consistently green; the copper
carbonate azurite and the copper silicate chrysocolla are each a
distinctive and predictable blue. Rhodochrosite is always red or
pink; samples of sulphur are a bright, recognizable yellow. Each
of these distinctive colors is due to the fact that the chemical
composition which defines the mineral species specifies
inclusion of one of the chromophores within the lattice structure.
Allochromatism
Photos

Most minerals which are composed entirely of elements

other than the chromophores are nearly colorless. However,
certain specimens are sometimes observed to possess vivid
coloration. Color in such instances is due to the presence of an
impurity. If one of the chromophores is present within a mineral
whose chemical formula does not include it, then the foreign
element constitutes an impurity or a defect in the lattice
structure. Coloration in minerals which is due to the presence of
a foreign element is termed allochromatism. In such cases the
color of the mineral may differ radically from the nearly
colorless shade expected of the species.
Some minerals demonstrate a range of colors due to the
presence in mixture of one of the chromophores. For example,
the substitution of a quantity of iron for zinc atoms within the
crystal lattice of sphalerite (ZnS) implements a change from
white to yellow in the color of the mineral. Proportionally larger
inclusions of iron will progressively result in a brown and
eventually a black mineral specimen. In such cases the color of
the sample is directly proportional to the amount of the
pigmenting element which is present in the crystal lattice.
Not all allochromatism in minerals is due to presence of
substantial amounts of a chromophore in mixture, however. The
property of color may sometimes be highly dependent on the
inclusion of trace amounts of impurities. The presence of even a
minute quantity of a chromophore within the crystal lattice can
cause a mineral specimen to exhibit vivid color. For example,
trace inclusions of chromium (Cr) in beryl are responsible for the
deep green of emerald, while the purple of amethyst is due to
trace amounts of iron (Fe) in quartz and the pink of rose quartz is
due to trace inclusions of titanium (Ti). Samples of the mineral
corundum which include tiny amounts of chromium are deep
red, and the gem is then called a ruby, while samples containing
iron or titanium impurities produce blue gems termed sapphire.
Trace amounts of an impurity do not affect the basic
chemical composition or the chemical formula of a mineral, and
thus do not affect its classification as a species. Trace amounts
of the various chromophores, however, can cause several
samples of a single species to differ radically in color. (Beryl,
corundum, and quartz provide examples of this possibility.)
Because it varies so widely, color is a property which is
sometimes of little use in identification. However, the
idiochromatic minerals are consistently of distinctive color. The
green of malachite, the blue of azurite, the pink of rhodocrosite,
and the yellow of sulphur are easily recognized and are therefore
quite useful in the identification of these species.

3. Streak
Top

Streak is the color of a mineral substance when it has been

ground to a fine powder. Typically an edge of the sample will be
rubbed across a porcelain plate, leaving behind a 'streak' of
finely ground material. The material in a streak sample thus
consists of a powder composed of randomly oriented
microscopic crystals rather than a lattice structure containing the
uniformly oriented unit cells which compose a macroscopic
crystal.
Although color is a property which may vary widely
between two different specimens of the same mineral, streak
generally varies little from sample to sample. The presence of
trace amounts of an impurity may radically affect the property of
color in a macroscopic crystal because each unit cell is aligned
within the crystal structure, thereby forming a diffraction
grating. Minute amounts of a strongly absorptive impurity
within the structure may highly affect which wavelengths of
light are reflected from this diffraction grating. This change may
greatly modify the absorption of certain wavelengths of
incoming light, altering the percieved color of the specimen. In a
streak sample, however, each of the microscopic crystal grains
of the sample is randomly oriented and the presence of an
impurity does not greatly affect the absorption of incoming light.
Because it is not typically affected by the presence of an
impurity, streak is a more reliable identification property than is
color.

4. Luster
Top

Minerals may be categorized according to whether they

are opaque or transparent. A thin section of an opaque mineral
such as a metal will not transmit light, whereas a thin section of
a transparent mineral will. The absorption index of an opaque
mineral is high. Light which is incident upon an opaque mineral
such as a metal is unable to propagate through the mineral due to
this high rate of absorption, and will thus be reflected. Opaque
minerals typically reflect between 20% to 50% or more of the
light incident upon them. In contrast, most of the light which is
incident upon a transparent mineral passes into and through the
mineral; transparent minerals may reflect as little as 5% of the
incident light and as much as 20%. Typically those minerals
which possess metallic bonding are opaque whereas those where
ionic bonding is prevalent are transparent.
Relative differences in opacity and transparency are
described as luster. The term luster refers to the quantity and
quality of the light which is reflected from a mineral's exterior
surfaces. Luster provides an assessment of how much the
mineral surface 'sparkles'. This quality is determined by the type
of atomic bonds present within the substance. It is related to the
indices of absorption and refraction of the material and the
amount of dispersion from the crystal lattice, as well as the
texture of the exposed mineral surface.
 Minerals are primarily divided into the two categories
of metallic and nonmetallic luster. Minerals possessing metallic
luster are opaque and very reflective, possessing a high
absorptive index. This type of luster indicates the presence of
metallic bonding within the crystal lattice of the material.
Examples of minerals which exhibit metallic luster are native
copper, gold, and silver, galena, pyrite, and chalcopyrite. The
luster of a mineral which does not quite possess a metallic luster
is termed submetallic; hematite provides an example of
submetallic luster.
The property of streak can aid in distinguishing whether a
specimen has a metallic or a nonmetallic luster. Metals tend to
be soft, implying that more powdered material may be obtained
from the streak sample of a metal than a nonmetal. Metals are
also opaque, transmitting no light. Minerals which possess a
metallic luster therefore tend to exhibit a thick, dense, dark
streak whereas those which possess a nonmetallic luster tend to
produce a thinner, less dense streak which is also lighter in
color.
Adjectives such as "vitreous', 'dull', 'pearly', 'greasy', 'silky'
or 'adamantine' are frequently used to describe various types of
nonmetallic luster.
Dull or Earthy
Minerals of dull or earthy luster reflect light very poorly
and do not shine. This type of luster is often seen in
minerals which are composed of an aggregate of tiny
grains.
Resinous
 A surface of resinous luster possesses a sheen resembling
that of resin. Such materials have a refractive index
greater than 2.0. Sphalerite (ZnS) demonstrates a resinous
luster.
Pearly
Pearly luster appears iridescent, opalescent, or pearly. This
is typically exhibited by mineral surfaces which are parallel
to planes of perfect cleavage. Layer silicates such as talc
often demonstrate a pearly luster on cleavage surfaces.
Greasy
A surface which possesses greasy luster appears to be
covered with a thin layer of oil. A light-scattering surface
which is slightly rough, such as that of nepheline, may
exhibit greasy luster.
Silky
Silky luster occurs when light is reflected off of an
aggregate of fine parallel fibers; malachite and serpentine
may both exhibit silky luster.
Vitreous
Vitreous luster occurs in minerals with predominant ionic
bonding and resembles the reflective quality of broken
glass. The refractive index of such minerals is 1.5 to 2.0.
Many silicates possess this type of luster; quartz and
tourmeline both demonstrate vitreous luster.
Adamantine or brilliant
A brilliant luster such as the sparkling reflection of
diamond is known as adamantine. Minerals of adamantine
luster have high refractive indices (1.9-2.6) and are highly
dispersive and translucent. Covalent bonding or the
presence of heavy metal atoms or transition elements may
result in adamantine luster.

5. Density
Top

The property of density is defined as mass per unit volume:

µ = m/V

The geometric structure of the unit cell of a mineral determines

the volume which it occupies. The masses of the atoms which
compose the unit cell decree the mass of each cell. The identity
of the atoms which compose the unit cell is specified by the
chemical formula of the mineral. Density is therefore directly
related to both the physical structure of the unit cell and the
chemical composition of each species of mineral.
One method of measuring the density of a sample entails the
use of one dense liquid and another miscible liquid of lower
density. A solution of the two substances is created in which a
crystal of the mineral in question remains suspended and neither
sinks nor floats. The weight of a known volume of the solution
is then measured, and the density of the solution and thus the
density of the crystal are calculated from this information.
Bromoform (CHBr3, density 2.9 g/cm3), soluble in acetone; di-
iodomethane (CH2I2, density 3.3 g/cm3), soluble in
chloroform, CHCl3; and Clerici's solution (a solution of thallium
formate and thallium malonate; density 4.4 g/cm3), soluble in
water, are some heavy liquids and their solvents which are
commonly used in this process.
Density has historically been equated by mineralogists with
the concept of specific gravity. Specific gravity is a unitless
quantity which is defined as the ratio of the weight of a
substance to the weight of an equal volume of water at a
temperature of 4° Celsius. This ratio is equal to the ratio of the
density of the substance to the density of water at 4° Celsius.
G = µ / µwater

Specific gravity has therefore classically been measured by

weighing a mineral specimen on a balance scale while it is
submerged first in air and then in water. The difference between
the two measurements is the weight of the volume of water
which was displaced by the sample. The specific gravity of the
mineral specimen is thus:
G = mair / [mair - mwater]

Because the density of water at 4° Celsius is 1.00 g/cm3, the

density of a mineral in units of grams per centimeter cubed
(g/cm3) is equal to its (unitless) specific gravity.
 The field geologist sometimes uses a very rough estimation
of the density of a hand-held sample as a clue to identification.
Certain rough trends relating mineral density to various other
factors are sometimes useful. Native elements, which contain
only one type of atom and whose molecular structure is that of
cubic or hexagonal closest packing, are relatively dense.
Minerals whose chemical composition contains heavy metals -
atoms of greater atomic number then iron (Fe, atomic number
26) - are more dense than atoms whose chemical composition
does not include such elements. Minerals which formed at the
high pressures deep within the earth's crust are in general more
dense than minerals which formed at lower pressures and
shallower depths. A general trend relating color to density is
also prevalent; this trend states that dark-colored minerals are
often fairly heavy whereas light-colored ones are frequently
relatively light. A geologist is thus given cause to remark upon a
sample which seems to reverse this trend. For example, graphite
is dark colored but of low density (C; 2.23 g/cm3) while barite is
light in color but unexpectedly heavy (BaSo4; 4.5 g/cm3). The
noted oddity of unexpectedly high or low density with respect to
color provides the field geologist with a clue as to the
identification of such atypical materials.

6. Hardness
Top

Hardness has traditionally been defined as the level of

difficulty with which a smooth surface of a mineral specimen
may be scratched. The hardness of a mineral species is
dependent upon the strength of the bonds which compose its
crystal structure. Hardness is a property characteristic to each
mineral species and can be very useful in identification.
Certain trends exist in hardness with respect to mineral class.
(For a description of the various classes of minerals, please refer
to the discussion on mineral classification contained in Section 4.)
Native elements are typically soft, although iron (Fe) and
platinum (Pt) are relatively hard and diamond (C) is
exceptionally hard. Compounds of heavy metals are soft.
Sulphides and sulpho-salts, with the exception of pyrite, are
relatively soft; halides are soft; carbonates and sulphates are
usually soft. Oxides are typically hard while hydroxides are
softer. Anhydrous silicates tend to be hard, while hydrous
silicates are softer.
The Mohs Scale

The property of hardness has historically been measured

according to the Mohs scale, which was created in 1824 by the
Austrian mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. Mohs based his system
for measuring and describing the hardness of a sample upon the
definition of hardness as resistance to scratching. Mohs' method
thus relies upon a scratch test in order to relate the hardness of a
mineral specimen to a number from the Mohs scale.
In order to define his scale, Mohs assembled a set of
common reference minerals of varying hardnesses and labled
these in order of increasing hardness from 1 to 10. The reference
minerals of the Mohs scale are as follows:
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
 4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
Each reference mineral will scratch a test specimen with a Mohs
hardness less than or equal to its own. Each reference mineral
can be scratched by a specimen with a hardness equal to or
greater than its own. If a reference mineral both scratches and
can be scratched by a certain test specimen, then the specimen is
assumed to possess a hardness equal to that of the reference
mineral in question.
The set of reference minerals of the Mohs' scale can be
supplemented by a few common household items. A fingernail
has a Mohs hardness of 21/2; a copper penny 3, window glass 51/2,
and a knife blade approximately 6.
The hardness of an unknown sample can be determined to
within 1/2 increment by using the scratch test. Mineral hardnesses
determined by the scratch test should never be given in decimal
form, because the Mohs scale does not provide measurements of
such precision.
The hardness of a mineral may vary with direction and
crystallographic plane. This effect is usually small. However,
species exist in which the variance in the hardness along
different axes is notable. For example, the mineral kyanite
(Al2OSiO4) typically forms elongated crystals. The Mohs hardness
parallel to the length of a kyanite crystal is 5, whereas the Mohs
hardness perpendicular to the length of such a crystal is 7. A
second example is provided by the mineral halite, which is
softer parallel to its cleavage planes than it is at a 45° angle to
the cleavage planes.
The Diamond Indentation Method

Investigations more recent than those completed by Mohs

have used the diamond indentation method to quantitatively
determine hardness. According to this method, a diamond point
is pushed into a planar mineral surface under the weight of a
known load. The diameter of the indentation thereby produced is
then measured under a microscope. The diamond indentation
hardness of a sample is equal to the mass of the load applied
divided by the surface area of the indentation produced. The
units in which diamond indentation hardness is recorded are
therefore kilograms per millimeter squared (kg/mm2).
Tests utilizing the diamond indentation method have shown
that in order for a point fashioned from a certain material to
scratch a surface the hardness of its constituent material must be
1.2 times that of the surface. Thus on an ideal hardness scale,
each subsequent reference material would have a hardness of
approximately 1.2 times that of the material preceeding it. It
must be noted that the intervals between reference points on the
Mohs scale are not, in fact, equal. The interval between
subsequent reference points on the scale increases as the
hardness of the reference materials increases. The skill with
which Mohs chose his reference materials becomes apparent
when one notes that each of his samples is approximately 1.6
times the hardness of the last.
The Mohs scale provides a means of testing hardness which
is far more readily available to amateur geologists than the
diamond indentation method. It has therefore remained the
standard scale by which hardness is measured.

7. Cleavage
Top

A cleavage plane is a plane of structural weakness along

which a mineral is likely to split smoothly. Cleavage thus refers
to the splitting of a crystal between two parallel atomic planes.
Cleavage is the result of weaker bond strengths or greater lattice
spacing across the plane in question than in other directions
within the crystal. Greater lattice spacing tends to accompany
weaker bond strength across a plane, because such bonds are
unable to maintain a close interatomic spacing.
Both the positioning of crystal faces in a mineral and the
property of cleavage are derived from the crystalline structure of
the species. However, despite the fact that every mineral belongs
to a specified crystal system, not every mineral exhibits
cleavage. A mineral such as quartz may demonstrate beautiful,
well-developed crystals and yet possess no distinct planes of
cleavage.
Cleavage planes, if they exist, are always parallel to a
potential crystal face. However, such planes are not necessarily
parallel to the faces which the crystal actually displays. Fluorite,
for example, has octahedral cleavage yet forms cubic crystals.
Nonetheless, the property of cleavage, if it is present, can offer
important information about the symmetry and inner structure of
a crystal.
The quality of a mineral's cleavage refers to both the ease
with which the mineral cleaves and to the character of the
exposed cleavage surface. The quality of a sample's cleavage is
typically described by terms such as 'eminent,' 'perfect,' 'distinct,'
'difficult,' 'imperfect,' or 'indistinct.'
'Eminent' cleavage describes the case in which cleavage
always occurs readily and is in fact difficult to prevent from
occurring. The mineral mica, for example, cleaves readily into
thin, flat sheets. A mineral which demonstrates 'perfect' cleavage
breaks easily, exposing continuous, flat surfaces which reflect
light. Fluorite, calcite, and barite are minerals whose cleavage is
perfect. 'Distinct' cleavage implies that cleavage surfaces are
present although they may be marred by fractures or
imperfections. 'Difficult' or 'indistinct' cleavage produces
surfaces which are neither smooth nor regular; samples
possessing such cleavage tend to fracture rather than split.
Cleavage may be determined by the examination of surfaces
which have actually broken. It may also be determined by
inspection of the interlacing systems of cracks which permeate
the structure of certain specimens. These systems of cracks are
beautifully apparent within transparent crystals such as fluorite
or calcite.

8. Fracture
Top

A mineral fractures when it is broken or crushed. Fracture

takes place when a mineral sample is split in a direction which
does not serve as a plane of perfect or distinct cleavage. In other
words, fracture takes place along a plane possessing difficult,
indistinct, or nonexistant cleavage. The difference between
fracture and indistinct cleavage is not clearly delineated.
Unlike perfect or distinct cleavage, fracture does not result in
the emergence of clearly demarcated planar surfaces which run
parallel to possible crystal faces. Fracture is nondirectional:
minerals which do not possess distinct cleavage may fracture in
any possible direction.
Fractured surfaces may in some minerals possess a
characteristic appearance which can aid in identification.
Examples of distinctive types of fracture are 'conchoidal,'
'irregular,' and 'hackly' fracture.
Conchoidal
Conchoidal fracture results in a series of smoothly curved
concentric rings about the stressed point, generating a
shell-like appearance. The familiar ripples of a broken glass
bottle demonstrate this type of fracture. Quartz and
olivine are two mineral species which possess conchoidal
fracture.
Irregular
Irregular or uneven fracture results in a rough, rugged
surface.
Hackly
The term 'hackly' describes a fractured surface with
multiple small, sharp and jagged irregularities.
9. Tenacity
Top

The property of tenacity describes the behavior of a mineral

under deformation. It describes the physical reaction of a
mineral to externally applied stresses such as crushing, cutting,
bending, and striking forces. Adjectives used to characterize
various types of mineral tenacity include 'brittle,' 'flexible,'
'elastic,' 'malleable,' 'ductile,' and 'sectile'.
Brittle
Most mineral species are brittle, and will crumble or
fracture under pressure or upon the application of a blow.
Such materials break or powder easily.
Flexible
A mineral which is flexible rather than brittle will flex as
opposed to breaking under the application of stress.
However, a mineral which is merely flexible and not
also elastic will be unable to return to its original shape
when the stress is removed. Flakes of molybdenite and
scales of talc are two substances which are flexible but
inelastic.
Elastic
An elastic mineral will deform under external stress but
will resume its original shape after the stress is removed. If
 it is bent, it will flex, but will return to its previous position
when the stress dissappears. The mineral called mica is
both flexible and elastic.
Malleable
Native metals such as copper, silver, and gold are easily
flattened with a hammer. This type of tenacity is
termed malleable. Metallic-bonded minerals tend to be
malleable, and may be pounded out into thin, flat sheets.
Ductile
Some malleable materials are also ductile, and may be
drawn out into a thin wire without crumbling.
Sectile
Some minerals may be sliced into smooth sheets with a
knife, although these may possibly still crumble under a
blow from a hammer. Materials possessing this rare type
of tenacity are called sectile minerals. The species
chlorargyrite (AgCl) offers an example of a sectile mineral.

10. Crystal Habit

Top
 The term crystal habit describes the favored growth pattern
of the crystals of a mineral species, whether individually or in
aggregate. It may bear little relation to the form of a single,
perfect crystal of the same mineral, which would be classified
according to crystal system. (Please see the following discussion
of crystal system in Section 3.) Subtle evidence of the crystal
system to which a mineral species belongs is, however,
frequently observed in the habit of the crystals which a specimen
displays.
The terminology used to describe crystal habit is not
intended to replace the precise nomenclature of crystallography.
Instead, it is intended as a supplement to this system.
Discussions of crystal habit are more descriptive than precise;
for this reason the terminology is suited to the discussion of
mineral samples discovered in the field. Naturally formed
specimens are rarely quantitatively perfect.
The crystals of particular minerals species sometimes form
very distinctive, characteristic shapes. Crystal habit is thus often
useful in identification.
Although each mineral species typically forms according to
a few preferred shapes, crystal habit is largely determined by the
environmental conditions under which a crystal develops. For
example, aqueous solutions near or surrounding a crystal contain
the elemental substances which it needs to continue growth. The
direction from which a growing crystal may obtain such
solutions is a factor which will affect its eventual shape. Higher
environmental temperatures during formation increase ion
mobility and aid in crystal formation; the rate at which the
environment cools determines how much time a mineral is
allowed to form large crystals. The amount of space available
for a crystal to fill affects its final shape and size. Surface energy
relations are also quite important to the direction of crystal
growth; this process is not yet fully understood.
Adjectives used to describe the habit of individual crystals
are 'equant,' 'prismatic,' and 'tabular.' Aggregates of crystals may
also be termed equant or prismatic, while aggregates of thin,
flat, tabular crystals may be 'bladed.' Thin sheets, flakes or
scales are termed 'foliated,' 'micaceous,' and, if feathery or
delicate, 'lamellar' or 'plumose.' Crystal aggregates resembling
long, slender needles, hair, or thread are termed 'acicular,'
filiform,' 'capillary,' or 'fibrous.' An aggregate of crystals
forming a network or lattice is 'reticulated;' one composed of
branches which radiate starlike from a central point is 'stellated'
while a branching and treelike mineral growth is 'dendritic.'
'Colloform' crystal habits termed 'botryoidal,' 'mamillary,' and
'reniform' display spherical, bulbous or globular lumps. Smaller
spherical forms are of 'pisolitic' or 'oolitic' habit; ovoid clusters
or formations are 'amygdaloidal.' Tapered, column-like
formations are 'stalactitic' or 'columnar' while concentrically
banded formations are of 'concretionary' habit. Minerals whose
flat crystal faces are covered with shallow, parallel grooves are
'striated;' a fine furry layer of crystals growing over a massive
lump constitutes a formation of 'drusy' habit. Following is a list
of descriptive terms which are applied when discussing crystal
habit.
Equant
A crystal which is equant or equidimensional possesses
approximately the same side length in every direction.
Crystals of garnet are often of equant habit.
Prismatic
A prismatic crystal is elongated in one direction like a
prism. The mineral tourmaline often forms crystals of such
habit.
Tabular
Tabular crystals appear tabular or platelike in shape.
Bladed
A specimen displaying bladed habit possesses a collection
of elongated, flat crystals suggestive of knife blades.
Gypsum often displays crystals of bladed habit.
Foliated
Crystals of foliated habit are separable into leafy
structures or display leaflike projections. The word
'foliated' is derived from the Latin term folium, meaning
'leaf.'
Micaceous
Minerals of micaceous habit form as thin, flat sheets or
flakes which are easily peeled or split off the larger mass.
Muscovite provides an example of micaceous habit.
Lamellar or lamelliform
Crystals of lamellar habit form thin scales or plates which
may resemble gills or lamellae. The term is derived from
the Latin word lamina, meaning 'thin plate.'
Plumose
A mineral specimen of plumose habit displays fine,
feathery scales resembling plumes. 'Plumose' is derived
from the Latin term pluma, or 'feather.'
Acicular
Photos

The adjective 'acicular' means needlelike in shape. An

acicular aggregate of crystals contains many long, slender
crystals which may radiate out like needles or bristles from
a common base. Acicular crystals are typically long and
narrow like a pine leaf and seem to possess a sharp point.
The mineral natrolite often exhibits acicular crystals.
Capillary
An aggregate of crystals of capillary habit resembles an
intricate network of tubules. Capillary crystals appear long,
slender, and fine, like delicate hairs. The term 'capillary' is
derived from the Latin word capillus, 'hair.'
Filiform
A mineral possessing crystals of filliform habit exhibits
many hairlike or threadlike filaments. "Filiform' is derived
from the Latin word filum, 'thread.'
Fibrous
Specimens possessing fibrous habit exhibit clumps of
sinewy, stringy, or hairlike fibers.
Reticulated
A mineral specimen of reticulated habit seems to display a
lattice, net, or network of small crystals. The word
'reticulated' is derived from the Latin term rete, or 'net.'
Stellated
A mineral of stellated habit possesses several branches
which radiate outwards from the center in a pattern
resembling a star. The word 'stellated' stems from the
Latin term stella, or 'star.'
Dendritic
Dendritic crystals form a divergent branching structure
reminiscent of an arborescent, organic growth such as a
tree or a dendrite. Native copper sometimes exhibits this
habit.
Colloform
Photos

Specimens of colloform habit exhibit spherical, rounded,

or bulbous shapes. Botryoidal, reniform,
and mammillary habits are subsets of this category.
Botryoidal
The word 'botryoidal' means 'resembling a bunch of
grapes,' or globular. Specimens of malachite frequently
provide examples of botryoidal crystals. The Greek
 word botrus, 'bunch of grapes,' provides the linguistic root
of botryoidal.
Mammillary
Samples possessing mammillary crystal habit display soft,
rounded curves.
Reniform
Reniform crystal habit displays the shape of a kidney. The
mineral species hematite provides samples which
exemplify both mammillary and reniform habit. 'Reniform'
is derived from the Latin renes, 'kidney.'
Oolitic
Crystals of oolitic habit form small spheres or grains which
resemble fish roe. Oolites are often found in limestones.
Pisolitic
A mineral of pisolitic habit develops round, pea-shaped
forms. These are larger and slightly more uneven than an
oolite and are usually composed of calcium carbonate. The
word 'pisolitic' is derived from the Greek term pisos, 'pea.'
Amygdaloidal
A mineral of amygdaloidal crystal habit demonstrates
small almond-shaped nodules called amygdules. The term
stems from the Latin word amygdala, or 'almond.'
Stalactitic
Photos

Stalactitic or columnar crystal habit refers to the tall,

tapered, columlike appearance of an icicle or a limestone
stalactite. Such formations are built up by the dripping of
mineral-laden solution. The minerals calcite and aragonite
(CaC03) typically form stalactites. The term is derived from
the Greek word stalaktos, 'dripping.'
Concretionary
A concretion develops when mineral matter is
concentrically deposited around a nucleus and colored and
banded layers are build up. Malachite often exhibits such
formations.
Striated
Photos

Minerals whose crystals are of striated habit display

shallow parallel grooves or lines along flat crystal faces.
Pyrite often demonstrates square, striated crystals.
Drusy
A sample exhibiting drusy habit displays a surface covered
with a fine furry layer of tiny crystals.
Massive
Massive or earthy habit describes a large, lumpy mass
which has no apparent crystal form. In such a sample the
crystals are too tiny to be observable by the eye and are
interlocked and mingled; the specimen lacks visible
crystals.
A. Mineral Properties
Ask the students to identify the different mineral properties described in the video. Encourage class
participation by specifically using table salt or halite in demonstrating these properties. Tabulate the
answers on the board.

Teacher to discuss the different mineral properties.

1. Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral
a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polished
metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like), resinous, silky,
pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, etc.
2. Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically surface) to
abrasion.
a. Introduce students to the use of a hardness scale designed by German
geologist/mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812 (Mohs Scale of Hardness). The test
compares the resistance of a mineral relative to the 10 reference minerals with
known hardness. It is simply determining the hardness of a mineral by scratching
them with common objects of known hardness (e.g. copper coin -3.0-3.5).

Source: http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-identify-a-... (8/30/2015)

b. What are the pros and cons in using the Mohs scale of hardness?
3. Color and streak – Color maybe a unique identifying property of certain minerals (e.g.
malachite – green, azurite – blue). There are also lots of minerals that share similar or the
same color/s. In addition, some minerals can exhibit a range of colors. The mineral quartz for
example, can be pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white (colorless
quartz) etc. Streak on the other hand is the color of a mineral in powdered form. Note that
the color of a mineral could be different from the streak. For example, pyrite (FeS2) exhibits
golden color (hence the other term of pyrite which is Fool’s Gold) but has a black or dark
gray streak. Streak is a better diagnostic property as compared to color. Streak is inherent to
almost every mineral. Color maybe unreliable for identification as impurities within the
minerals may give the minerals a different color.

Color vs streak of a hematite (Fe2O3). Source:

http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-identify-a- Mineral/step6/Streak/ (8/30/2015)

4. Crystal Form/Habit –The external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is displayed /

observed as these crystals grow in open spaces. The form reflects the supposedly internal
structure (of atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of the mineral
before the development of any cleavage or fracture. Examples include prismatic, tabular,
bladed, platy, reniform and equant. A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is
described as amorphous.

The crystal form also define the relative growth of the crystal in 3 dimension which are its
length, width and height

Activity: Show the pictures to the learners and try to identify the crystal forms / habits.
Provide more pictures if needed.

Crystal form / habit. Source: http://www.slideshare.net/davidprestidge/earth-lec... page 46 of

74 (8/30/2015)
 Answer: Left picture: blocky/cubic or equant (it has equal growth rate in three dimensions).
Middle picture: bladed habit (it resembles a blade, with varied growth rates in 3 dimensions).
Right picture: needle-like habit (rapid growth of crystals in one dimension while slow in other
dimensions).

5. Cleavage – It is the property of some minerals to break along parallel repetitive planes of
weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces. These planes of weakness are inherent in the
bonding of atoms that makes up the mineral. These planes of weakness are parallel to the
atomic planes and appear to be repeating within the mineral. When minerals break evenly in
more than one direction, cleavage is described by the number of cleavage directions and the
angle(s) between planes (e.g. cleavage in 2 directions at 90 degrees to each other).

Mineral cleavage. Left photo shows one cleavage direction (biotite). Middle photo has
cleavage in 2 directions at 90° (orthoclase). Right photo has 3 cleavage directions at 74°
(calcite). Source: https:// commons.wikimedia.org License: Creative commons (attribution:
Rob Lavinsky, iRocks.com – CCBY- SA-3.0)

Show a video of a calcite crystal being hit with a hammer (https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=bYiT2qgD8zQ&feature=youtu.be). Note how the crystal breaks into smaller pieces and still
manifest the same rhombic shape. Where the crystal breaks (the flat surfaces) are called
cleavage planes. For the calcite crystal, there are three cleavage planes at 120 and 60
degrees.

It is important to clearly differentiate a crystal habit from cleavage. Although both are dictated
by crystal structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral is growing, therefore relies on how the
individual atoms in the crystal come together. Cleavage on the other hand is the weak plane
that developed after the crystal is formed.

6. Fracture – Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit broken surfaces that are
irregular and non-planar. Quartz for example has an inherent weakness in the crystal
 structure that is not planar. Examples of fracture are conchoidal, fibrous, hackly, and uneven
among others.
7. Specific Gravity – It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of
water. A bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh 10 times more than a bucket of water (SG 1).
It is a measure to express the density (mass per unit volume) of a mineral. The specific
gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to density.
8. Others – There are certain unique properties of minerals that actually help in their
identification (e.g. magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc.). Magnetite is
strongly magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with
dolomite but in powdered form.

B. Mineral Groups

In a manner of exploring and discovering systematic ways of identifying minerals, the teacher
can ask the students if they can think of a way to group minerals together.

The teacher can now proceed synthesizing the suggested “systematic ways” by the students.

A more stable and less ambiguous basis for classification of minerals is by chemical
composition.

1. Silicates – minerals containing 2 of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, namely,
silicon and oxygen. When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron -
the fundamental building block of silicate minerals. Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals belong to
this group. Aside from Si (46.6 % by wt.) and O (27.7%), the other most common elements that
make the earth’s crust are Al (8.1), Fe (5.0), Ca (3.6), Mg (3.1), Na (2.8) and K 2.6).
2. Oxides – minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more metal
ions
3. Sulfates – minerals containing Sulfur and Oxygen anion (SO4)- combined with other
ions
4. Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur anion (S2)- combined with one or more ions.
Some sulfides are sources of economically important metals such as copper, lead
and zinc.
 5. Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate anion (CO3)2- combined with other
elements
6. Native Elements – minerals that form as individual elementsa.
a. Metals and Inter-metals – minerals with high thermal and electrical
conductivity, typically with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)
7. Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more
elements

The teacher to provide a list of the common rock-forming minerals containing NAME and
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ONLY.
TIP

Mineral Identification 20 mins

0 REMIXES

Activity 1. For the whole class, try to identify 5 minerals by testing their properties using the mineral
identification charts provided by Mineralogical Society of America
( http://www.minsocam.org/msa/ collectors_corner/id/mineral_id_keyq1.htm). Click on “Yes” or “No”
to questions regarding Luster, Hardness and Streak (The “program” narrows down the options by
the process of elimination). The program will direct you to the correct part of the mineral chart if the
correct answers are supplied.

Activity 2. Group the students into 3-4 teams. The teacher to print and provide each team a copy of
the Mineral Decision Tree and Mineral Identification Charts
( https://gln.dcccd.edu/Geology_Demo/ content/LAB03/LAB_Man_03.pdf). Based on the discussed
topics and examples, select ten (10) different rock-forming minerals (known or unknown to students)
and determine the different properties that can be used to identify them. Write the data in a Manila
paper using markers. Include which chemical family group these minerals belong. The team will then
select a leader to present their output to the class.
TIP

Assignment 5 mins
0 REMIXES
Homework to be submitted on next meeting. Think of 5 minerals and their common uses and identify
the specific property/properties that made them for that purpose (e.g. graphite, having a black streak
and hardness of 1-2, is used in pencils due to its ability to leave marks on paper and other objects).
TIP

Summary Questions 5 mins

0 REMIXES

A. Summary questions related to the lesson (Questions in bold font are difficult questions):
1. What are the characteristics that define a mineral?

Answer: inorganic, naturally occurring, crystalline, solid and must have a consistent
chemical composition

2. Which among the following mineral groups, if any, contain silicon: halides,
carbonates or sulfides?

Explain.
Answer: None. The identified mineral groups are non-silicates

3. Which is more abundant in the Earth’s crust: silicates or all the other mineral groups
combined?

Explain.

Answer: Silicates. Silicon and oxygen are the main components of silicates and
these are the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.

4. An unknown opaque mineral has a black streak and has a density of 18g/cm3. Is the
mineral metallic or non-metallic?

Answer: The mineral is more likely to be metallic because it is opaque and metallic
minerals are usually heavy and with dark streaks

5. What is the difference between a mineral's streak and color? Why is streak
more reliable for rock identification?
 Answer: Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. It is more reliable because
it is inherent to most minerals. Color is not reliable because mineral can be formed
with varieties of color, an effect of impurities and weathering.

6. Differentiate habit and a cleavage plane.

Answer: Habit is the external shape of a crystal that is developed during the
formation of the mineral. Cleavage plane is a plane of weakness that maybe formed
in a crystal after the crystal formation.

7. Is it possible for a mineral to have a prismatic habit without having any

cleavage? Why or why not? If yes, give an example.

Answer: Yes, the prismatic habit is simultaneously developed while the mineral is
growing. During the process, there is no repetitive plane of weakness being created
which makes the mineral break only by fracturing. An example of this scenario is
quartz.