A project report on

New explanations on the phenomenon of

Geomagnetic polarity reversal

Submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirement for the award of
Degree of Bachelor of Science in Physics

Submitted by
Nitish B R (Reg No: 23014141028)
Sangeeth Sivan (Reg No:23014141029)
Shalom Blacid (Reg No:23014141030)
Sooraj M (Reg No:23014141031)

Under the guidance of

Dr. Sunil C Vattappalam

Department of Physics
St. Xavier's College, Thumba
Thiruvananthapuram
2017
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the dissertation entitled 'New explanations on the phenomenon
of Geomagnetic polarity reversal' is a record of the work carried out by us under the guidance and
supervision of Dr. Sunil C Vattappalam at Department of Physics, St. Xavier's college Thumba,
Thiruvananthapuram during the academic year 2016-17.

Thiruvananthapuram Nitish B R (Reg.No:23014141028)

Sangeeth Sivan (Reg.No:23014141029)

Shalom Blacid (Reg.No:23014141030)

Sooraj M (Reg.No:23014141031)
Department of Physics

St. Xavier's College Thumba

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report titled 'New explanations on the phenomenon of
Geomagnetic polarity reversal' is an authentic record of the project work carried out by
Nitish B R (Reg.No:23014141028), Sangeeth Sivan (Reg.No:23014141029), Shalom Blacid
(Reg.No:23014141030), Sooraj M (Reg.No:23014141031) in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the B.Sc. Degree in Physics of Kerala University under my guidance
and supervision during the academic year 2016-2017.

Dr. Sunil C Vattappalam Dr. Tessy Chacko P

Guest Lecturer H. O. D of Physics

Department of physics St. Xavier's College, Thumba

St. Xavier's College, Thumba

Valued by:

Date:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our most sincere gratitude to our supervising guide Dr. Sunil C Vattappalam
whose guidance and constant encouragement made possible the completion of this work.

We are thankful to Dr. Tessy Chacko P, Head of the Department of Physics, St Xavier's
College Thumba, for providing us all the necessary facilities to carry out this work. We extent our
gratitude to our respected teachers of Department of Physics, St Xavier's College, Thumba, for their
suggestions and blessings.

We extent our sincere and loving gratitude to all our classmates and non-teaching staff of
the Department for providing us with suitable environment to complete this work.

Above all, we bend our heads in humble gratitude before the Almighty for giving us courage
to fulfill our task successfully.

Nitish B R

Sangeeth Sivan

Shalom Blacid

Sooraj M
Preface

In this project, we have tried to discuss and explain in new terms about the phenomenon of
‘Geomagnetic Polarity Reversal’. In this project, our objective was to study about the basic
concepts of Earth’s magnetism, various phenomena that are related to it and the flipping of its
polarity. The report consists of four chapters. The first chapter deals with the magnetic properties of
Earth. The subsequent two chapters discuss extensively about the polarity reversal phenomenon and
its present explanations. The historical details available about the geomagnetic polarity reversal
have been discussed. A few original suggestions pertaining to the underlying cause of the reversal
phenomenon along with the existing theories has been added in the final chapter. The newly
suggested ideas in finding a reason for the geomagnetic reversal is mainly based on the effects of
the magnetic field of the Sun, and relies on similar effects due to other celestial bodies elsewhere in
the universe. We have also tried to explain the phenomenon on the basis of movement of the
tectonic plates of the Earth, since it has considerable effect on the origin of Earth’s magnetism.
List of Contents

Chapter I: Introduction to Earth’s Magnetic Field

1.1 Magnetism 1

1.2 Earth’s Magnetic Field 2

1.3 Separation of Magnetic Fields of External & Internal Origin 3

1.4 The Magnetic Field of External Origin 4

1.5 The Van Allen Radiation Belts 5

1.6 The Ionosphere 5

1.7 The Dipole Field 9

1.8 The Non Dipole Field 11

Chapter II: Polarity Reversal of Earth’s Magnetic Field

2.1 History of Field Reversals 13

2.2 Field Transitions 16

2.3 Observations and Researches 17

2.4 What Happens during a Reversal 17

2.5 Time for a Reversal 18

Chapter III: Reasons & Present Explanations for The Reversal of earth's magnetic field

3.1 Secular Variation 20

3.2 Secular variation of Dipole Field 20

3.3 Secular variation of Non- Dipole Field 21

 3.4 Origin of the Dipole Field 22

3.5 Magnetostatic and Electromagnetic Models 22

3.6 The Geomagnetic Dynamo 23

3.7 Origin of Non-Dipole Field 24

3.8 Role of the Mantle 24

3.9 New Researches 25

Chapter IV: New Suggestions and Speculations

4.1 Interaction between Magnetic Fields of the Sun and the Earth 28

4.2 Galactic Influence 29

4.3 Due to Movement in Tectonic Plates 30

Conclusions 32

List of References 33
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO EARTH’S MAGNETISM

1.1 Magnetism

Magnetic force is a consequence of electrostatic force which is one of the fundamental

forces in nature. Magnetism is a force of attraction or repulsion that can act at a distance as well as
in contact. It is due to a magnetic field, which is usually caused by magnetic materials and moving
electrically charged particles. It is inherent in magnetic objects such as Al3O4.

A magnet is a material that exhibits a strong attractive or repulsive force on materials such as iron,
cobalt, nickel etc. Magnets have two poles, called north (N) and south (S). Unlike an electric
monopole, a magnetic monopole cannot exist. Magnetism always follow the simple law of 'like
poles attract and unlike poled repel'.

The magnetic force acts through imaginary lines of force emerging from the North pole and going
to the South pole of the magnet. Ampere's law proves that a current carrying conductor can act like
a bar magnet. So, moving or spinning electrically charged particles can produce magnetism.
Examples include the spin of a proton and the motion of electrons through a wire in an electric
circuit.

What a magnetic field actually consists of is somewhat a mystery, but we do know it is a special
property possessed by certain materials and which can act through space.

The lines of magnetic flux flow from one end of the magnet to the other. By convention, we call one
end of a magnetic object the N or North-seeking pole and the other the S or South-seeking pole, as
related to the Earth's North and South magnetic poles.

The magnetic field of an object can create a magnetic force on other objects with magnetic fields.
That force is what we call magnetism.

1
 Magnetic lines of force from a magnet

When a magnetic field is applied to a moving electric charge, such as a moving proton or the
electrical current in a wire, the force on the charge is called a Lorentz force.

When two magnets or magnetic objects are close to each other, there is a force that attracts the poles
together. When two magnetic objects have like poles facing each other, the magnetic force pushes
them apart.

The SI unit of the magnetic field is the tesla [T], named in honor of the Serbian-American
electrical engineer Nikola Tesla (1856–1943). Tesla was a pioneer in the associated disciplines of
alternating electric current and rotating magnetic fields. His basic designs for electric motors,
generators and transformers in the early part of the Twentieth Century were little changed by the
beginning of the Twenty first Century. Another unit in common usage is the gauss [G], named in
honor of the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).

1.2 Earth’s Magnetic Field

Our Earth itself possesses a net magnetic moment. Earth behaves as if it has a huge bar
magnet inside it. The Earth's magnet has its north pole near to geographic south and its south pole
near to geographic north. Earth’s magnetic field is a vector quantity. Measurement of the field is
done in tesla. But 1 tesla is a very strong magnetic field. However, Earth’s magnetic field is
comparatively weak (about 6 x 10-5 T). Geophysicists use magnetometers having sensitivity in nano
tesla range (10-9T) for the practical measurements of Earth’s magnetic field intensity. In the 1970s,
the commonly used unit for measuring geomagnetic field intensity was the now abandoned CGS
system of units. The practical unit of geomagnetic exploration was then 10-5 gauss, which is
conveniently equal to the new unit Nano tesla (10-9 T).

2
 The magnetic vector can be expressed as Cartesian components parallel to any three
orthogonal axes. The geomagnetic elements are taken to be components parallel to the geographic
North and East directions and the vertically downward direction. They can be expressed in spherical
polar coordinates too. The magnitude of the magnetic vector is given by the field strength F, its
direction is specified by two angles. The declination D is the angle between the magnetic meridian
and the geographic meridian; the inclination I is the angle at which the magnetic vector dips below
the horizontal (Figure 1).

Figure 1

1.3 Separation of the Magnetic fields of External and Internal Origin

The magnetic field B and its potential W at any point can be expressed in terms of the
spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, φ) of the point of observation. Gauss expressed the potential of the
geomagnetic field as an infinite series of terms involving these coordinates. His method divides the
field into separate components that decrease at different rates with increasing distance from the
center of the Earth.

n= α
B I= n

W= ∑ ( An rn + rn +1n ) ∑ Y 1n ( θ , φ) --------------------- (1)

n= 1 I= 0

Where, r is Earth’s radius.

This is a complex expression, but fortunately the most useful terms are quite simple. The
summation signs indicate that the total potential comprises of infinite number of terms with
different values of n and I. The expression in parentheses describes the variation of the potential
with distance r. For each value, there will be different dependencies. The function
3
 I= n

∑ Y 1n (θ , φ)
I= 0

describes the variation of the potential when r is constant, i.e., on the surface of a sphere. It is called
a spherical harmonic function, because it has the same value when θ or φ is increased by an integral
multiple of 2π. For observation made on the spherical surface of earth, the constants A n describe
parts of the potential that arise from magnetic field sources outside the earth, which are called
geomagnetic field of external origin. The constant Bn describe contribution to the magnetic potential
from sources inside the Earth. This part is called the geomagnetic field of internal origin.

Potential is not measured directly. The geomagnetic elements X, Y and Z are recorded at
magnetic observatories. The geomagnetic components are directional derivatives of the magnetic
potential and depend on the same coefficients An and Bn. From a sparse data set available in 1838,
Gauss was able to show that the coefficient An is very much smaller than Bn . The conclusion that he
reached was that, the field of external origin was insignificant and that the field of internal origin
was predominantly that of a dipole.

1.4 The Magnetic Field of External Origin

Using satellites and spacecraft the magnetic field of earth has been measured. The external
field has a quite complicated appearance. It is strongly affected by the solar wind, a stream of
electrically charged particles (consisting mainly electrons, protons and helium nuclei) that is
constantly emitted by the Sun. The solar wind is plasma. At the distance of the Earth from the Sun
(1 AU), the density of the solar wind is approximately about 7 ions per cm 3, and it produces a
magnetic field of about 6nT. The solar wind interacts with the magnetic field of the Earth to form a
region called the magnetosphere. At distances, greater than a few Earth radii, the interaction greatly
alters the magnetic field from that of a simple dipole.

The velocity of the solar wind relative to Earth is about 450 km per second. At great distance
(about 15 Earth radii) from the Earth, on the day side, the supersonic solar wind collides with the
thin upper atmosphere. This produces an effect like the buildup of a shock wave in front of a
supersonic aircraft. The shock front is called the bow-shock region and it marks the outer boundary
of the magnetosphere. Within the bow-shock region, the solar wind is slowed down and heated up.
After passing through the shock front, the solar wind is diverted around the Earth in a region of
turbulent motion called the magneto-sheath. The moving charged particles of the solar wind
constitute electrical currents. They produce an interplanetary magnetic field, which reinforces and

4
compresses the geomagnetic field on the day side and weakens and stretches it out on the night side
of the earth. This results in a geomagnetic tail, or magneto tail, which extends to great distances
downwind from Earth. The Moon’s distance from the earth is about 60 Earth radii and so its
monthly orbit about the earth brings it in and out the magneto tail on each circuit. The transition
between the deformed magnetic field and the magneto-sheath is called the magnetopause.

1.5 The Van Allen Radiation Belts

Charged particles that penetrate the magnetopause are trapped by the geomagnetic field lines
and form the Van Allen radiation belts. These constitute 2 doughnut shaped regions coaxial with the
geomagnetic axis. The inner belt contains mainly protons, the outer belt contains energetic
electrons. Within each belt the charged particles move in helical fashion around the geomagnetic
field lines. The pitch of the spiraling motion gets smaller as the particle comes closer to the Earth.
The field intensity increases and eventually it reaches zero and reverses. This compels the particles
to shuttle rapidly from one polar region to the other along the field lines. The inner Van Allen belt
starts about 1000km above the Earth’s surface and extends to an altitude of about 3000 km ; the
outer belt occupies a doughnut shaped region at a distance between about 3 and 4 Earth radii (20000
– 30000 km) from the center of the Earth.

1.6 The Ionosphere

The effects described above illustrate how the Earth’s magnetic field acts as a shield against
much of the extra-terrestrial radiation. The atmosphere acts as a protective blanket against the
remainder. Most of the very short wavelength fraction of the solar radiation that penetrates the
atmosphere in altitudes between 50 km and 1500 km, forming an ionized region called the
ionosphere. It is formed of 5 layers, D, E, F1, F2 and G layers from the base to the top. Each layer
can reflect radio waves. The thicknesses and ionizations of the layers change during a day; all but
one or 2 layers on the night side of the Earth disappear while they thicken and strengthen on the day
side. A radio transmitter can travel around the world by multiple reflections between the ground
surface and the ionosphere. Consequently, radio reception of distant stations from far across the
globe is best during local night hours. The D layer is closest to the Earth at an altitude of about 80 –
100 km. It was first discovered in 1902, before the nature of ionosphere was known, because of its
ability to reflect long wavelength radio waves, and is named the Kennelly – Heaviside layer in
honor of its discoverers. The E layer is used by short-wave amateur radio enthusiasts. The F layers
are the most intensely ionized.

5
Diurnal Variation and magnetic storms

The ionized molecules in the ionosphere release swarms of electrons that form powerful,
horizontal, ring-like electrical currents. These act as sources of external magnetic fields that are
detected at the surface of the Earth. The ionization is most intense on the day side of the Earth,
where extra layers develop. The sun also causes atmospheric tides in the ionosphere, partly due to
gravitational attraction but mainly because the side facing the Sun is heated up during the day. The
motions of the charged particles through the Earth’s magnetic field produce an electrical field,
according to Lorentz law, which drives electrical currents in the ionosphere. In particular, the
horizontal component of particle velocity interacts with the vertical component of the geomagnetic
field to produce horizontal electrical current loops in the ionosphere. These currents cause a
magnetic field at the Earth surface. As the Earth rotates beneath the ionosphere, the observed
intensity of the geomagnetic field fluctuates with a range of amplitude of about 10 – 30 nano tesla at
the Earth’s surface and a period of one day. This time-dependent change of geomagnetic field
intensity is called the diurnal or daily variation.

The magnitude of the diurnal variation depends on the latitude at which it is observed. Since
it greatly exceeds the accuracy with which the magnetic fields are measured during surveys, the
diurnal variation must be compensated by correcting the field measurements accordingly. The
intensity of the effect depends on the degree of ionization of the ionosphere and is therefore
determined by the state of solar activity. As described earlier, solar activity is not constant. On days
when the activity of sun is especially low, the diurnal variation is said to be of solar quiet type. On
normal day, or when the solar activity is high, the solar quiet variation is overlaid by a solar
disturbance variation. Solar activity changes periodically with the 11 year cycle of sunspots and
solar flares. The enhanced emission of radiation associated with these solar phenomena increases
the ionosphere currents. These give rise to rapidly varying, anomalously strong magnetic fields
called magnetic storms with the amplitudes of up to 1000 nanotesla at the Earth surface. The
ionospheric disturbance also disrupts short wave to long wave radio transmissions. Magnetic
surveying must be suspended temporarily while a magnetic storm is in progress, which can last for
hours or for days depending on the duration of solar activity.

6
The Magnetic Field of Internal Origin

To understand how geophysicists describe the geomagnetic field of internal origin

mathematically, we have to refer the equation (1) stated earlier. First we omit the coefficients of A n
of the external field. The spherical harmonic functions Ynl (θ,φ) that describe the variation of
potential on a spherical surface are written in expanded form in terms of some new polynomial
functions. We need not delve deeply into their meaning to understand what they represent.

The potential W of the field of internal origin becomes:

n= α l= n
R
W=R ∑∑ ( r )n+1 (gnl cos l φ + hnl sin l φ) Pnl (cos θ) -------------------- (2)
n= l l= 0

Here, R is the Earth’s radius, as before, and Pln (cos θ) are called Schmidt polynomials, which are
related to more widely used functions known as associated Legendre polynomials. The difference
between higher order Schmidt and Legendre polynomials results from the methods used to
normalize them. When the square of an associated Legendre polynomial is integrated over the
surface of a sphere, the value of the integral is unity. The function is said to be fully normalized.
However, the Schmidt functions with l not equal to zero do not integrate to unity over the surface of
the sphere; for order n they integrate to 1/ (2n+1 ) . The Schmidt functions are said to be partially
normalized. But this case is not relevant to our topic.

7
 Equation (2) is a multipole expression of the geomagnetic potential. it allows the very
complex geometry of the total field to be broken down into contributions from a number of fields
with simple geometries. For example, Equation (3) contains three terms for which n = 1. Each
corresponds to a dipole field. One dipole is parallel to the axis of the rotation of the Earth and the
other two are at right angles to each other in the equatorial plane. The terms with n = 2 describe a
geometrically more complex field, known as the quadrupole field. Just as a dipole field results
(which two single poles are brought infinitesimally close to each other, a quadrupole field results
when two coaxial dipoles are brought close end-to-end. As its name implies, the quadrupole field is
derived from four magnetic poles of which two are ‘north’ poles and two are ‘south’ poles. The
terms with n = 3 describe an octupole field, arising from a combination of eight 23 poles; the terms
with n = N describes a field that arises from a combination of 2 N poles. By superposing many terms
corresponding to these simple geometries a field of great complexity can be generated.

The constants gln and hnl in the geomagnetic potential are called the Gauss coefficients of
degree n and order l. Carefully looking into Equations (2) shows that they have the same
dimensions (nT) as the B- field. Their values are computed from the analysis of measurements of
geomagnetic field.

Two main types of data are integrated in modern analyses of the field. A vast amount of
survey data is obtained from satellites orbiting the earth in low near- polar orbits. Continuous
records at magnetic observatories yield average value of the geomagnetic elements from which
optimum values for the Gauss coefficients are derived. In principle, an infinite number of Gauss
coefficients would be needed to define the field completely. The coefficients of degree 8 and higher
are very small and the calculation of Gauss coefficients must usually be truncated. A global model
of the field is provided by the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF), which is based
on coefficients up to n = 10, although analyses of higher degree have been made. It is updated at
regular intervals. The IGRF also gives the rate of change of each of the Gauss coefficients (its

8
secular variation), which permits correction of the current values between update years.

The Gauss coefficients get smaller with increasing degree n; this decrease provides a way of
estimating the origin of the internal field. The analysis involves a technique called power spectral
analysis. The distance across a feature of the magnetic field (for instance, a region where the field is
stronger than average) is called the wavelength of the feature. As in the case of gravitational
anomalies, deep seated magnetic sources produce broad (long wavelength) magnetic anomalies,
while shallow sources result in narrow (short wavelength) anomalies. Spectral analysis consists of
calculating the power (or energy density) associated with each ‘frequency’ in the signal. This is
obtained by computing the sum of the squares of all coefficients with the same order. In the case of
the geomagnetic field, the spectral analysis is based on the values of the Gauss coefficients. The
spatial frequency of any part of the observed field is contained in the order n of the coefficients.
Low order terms correspond to long wavelength features, high order terms are related to short
wavelength features.

Measurements of the geomagnetic field from the MAGSAT Earth orbiting satellite at a mean
altitude of 420 km above the Earth’s surface have been analyzed to yield Gauss coefficients to
degree n = 66, special techniques being invoked for degrees n>29. A plot of the energy density
associated with each degree n of the geomagnetic field shows three distinct segments. The high
frequency terms of degree, n>40 are uncertain and the terms with n>50 are in the ‘noise level’ of the
analysis and cannot be attributed to any geophysical importance. The terms 15<n<40 are due to
short wavelength magnetic anomalies associated with the magnetization of the Earth’s crust. The
terms n<14 dominate the Earth’s magnetic field and are due to much deeper sources in fluid core.

1.7 The Dipole Field

The most important part of the Earth’s magnetic field at the surface of the Earth is the dipole
field, given by the Gauss coefficients for which n = 1. If we take only the first term of Equations (2)
we get the potential.

W= ----------------------------- (3)

cosθ
Note that the spatial variation of this potential depends on r 2 in the same way as the

potential of a dipole, which was found to be

9
 μ 0 m cosθ
W= 4 πr 2 -------------------------------- (4)

cosθ
Comparison of the coefficient of r 2 in Equations (3) and (4) gives the dipole moment of

the Earth’s axial dipole in terms of the first Gauss coefficient:

4π
M = μ 0 R3 g10 ------------------------------- (5)

The term g01 (n = 1, l= 0) is the strongest component of the field. It describes a magnetic
dipole at the center of the Earth and aligned with the Earth’s rotation axis. This is called geocentric
axial magnetic dipole.

The magnet field B of a dipole is symmetrical about the axis of the dipole. At any point at
distance r from the center of a dipole with moment m on a radius that makes an angle θ to the dipole
axis of the dipole has a radial component B, and a tangential component B, and a tangential
component Bθ, which can be obtained by differentiating the potential with respect to r and θ,
respectively:

∂W μ 0 2m cosθ
Br = - ∂ r = 4 πr 3 --------------------------- (6)

1∂ W μ 0 m sin θ
Bθ = - r ∂θ = 4 πr 3 -------------------------- (7)

Note that Br vanishes at the equator the equator (θ = 90o) and the field is horizontal; comparing

Equations (5) and (7) we get that the horizontal equatorial filed Bq is equal to g01. At a point (r,θ) on
the surface of a uniformly magnetized sphere the magnetic field line is inclined to the surface at an
angle I, which is given by

Br
tan I = B = 2 cot θ = 2 tan λ ---------------- (8)
θ

The angle I is called the inclination of the field, and θ is the angular distance (or polar angle)
of the point of observation from the magnetic axis. The polar angle is the complement of the
magnetic latitude λ, (i.e., 6 = 900 – 7λ) Eq. (8) has an important application in paleomagnetism, as
will be seen later.

10
The terms g11 and h11 are the next strongest in the potential expansion. They describe contribution to
the potential from additional dipoles with their axes in the equatorial plane. The total dipole
moment of the Earth is then obtained from the vector sum of all three components:

4π
m= μ R3 √(g ) + (g ) +(h ) ----------------- (9)
0 2
1
1 2
1
1 2
1

The analysis of the geomagnetic field for the year 1995 gave the following values for the dipole
coefficients: g01 = -29,682 nT; g11 = 1,789 nT; h11= 5,318 nT. Note that the sign of g01 is negative.
This means that the axial dipole points opposite to the direction of rotation. Taken together, the
three dipole components describe a geocentric dipole inclined at about 10.70 to the Earth's rotation
axis. This titled geocentric dipole accounts for more than 90% of the geomagnetic field at the
Earth's surface. Its axis cuts the surface at the north and south geomagnetic poles. For epoch 1995
the respective poles were located at 79.30 N, 71.40 W (i.e., 288.60E) and 79.30S, lO8.60E. The
geomagnetic poles are antipodal (i.e., exactly opposite) to each other.

The magnetic poles of the Earth are defined as the locations where the inclination of the
magnetic field is i 90° (i.e., where the field is vertically upward or downward). An isoclinal map
(showing constant inclination values) for the year 1980 shows that the location of the north
magnetic pole was at77.3°N, 258.2°E while the south magnetic pole was at 65.6°S, l39.4°E (Fig.4).
These poles are not exactly opposite one another. The discrepancy between the magnetic poles and
the geomagnetic poles arises because the terrestrial magnetic field is somewhat more complex than
that of a perfect dipole.

1.8 The non-dipole field

The part of the field of internal origin (about 5% of the total field), obtained by subtracting the field
of the inclined geocentric dipole from the total field, is collectively called the non-dipole field. A
map of the non-dipole field consists of a system of irregularly sized, long-wavelength magnetic
anomalies. To describe this field requires all the terms in the potential expansion of degree n≥2.

As related earlier, the terms of degree n = 2 in the expansion of the potential correspond to magnetic
quadrupole, the next- higher terms of degree n = 3 to magnetic octupoles, etc. The configurations of
axial quadrupoles and octupoles fields are illustrated in Fig (2), for the case where the order l of the
Gauss coefficients is zero. If l = 0 in Eq. (2), the potential does not vary around a circle of ‘latitude’
defined by a chosen combination of 6 and r. This part of the field is said to have zonal symmetry.
The meaning of this expression is most easily illustrated for a quadrupoles field, as follows. The
11
field of a quadrupoles is rotationally symmetric about its axis; the same is the case for an octupoles
or higher order constellation of poles. In the northern hemisphere the field of an axial quadrupoles is
horizontal at particular latitude. North of this latitude the field lines of the quadrupoles leave the
Earth. A similar circle of latitude is located in the southern hemisphere South of it the quadrupoles
field lines also leave the Earth. The field lines re-enter the Earth in the band of latitudes between
those where the filed is horizontal. The symmetry of the field is described by these three zones
around the axis. The axial octupoles field also exhibits zonal symmetry; two zones in which the
field leave the Earth alternate with two zones in which it reenters it.

Terms in the potential expansion for which the order l of the Gauss coefficients is equal to the
degree n are called sectorial harmonics. Their symmetry relative to the Earth's axis is characterized
by an even number of sectors around the equator in which the field lines alternately leave and re-
enter the Earth. The potential terms for which Z ¢ n are known as tesseral harmonics. Their pattern
of symmetry is defined by the intersections of circles of latitude and longitude, which outline
alternating domains in which the field lines leave and re -enter the Earth, respectively.

12
 Chapter II

POLARITY REVERSAL OF EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

Our home we call Earth is a laboratory for a vast array of natural phenomena. One of the
most fascinating of these is the way that the planet's magnetic field changes over time. We know
that the Earth last reversed its north and south magnetic poles about 778000 years ago, although
analyses of the magnetization of geologic materials suggest that our planet has tried to reverse its
polarity several times since then. This might seem like a long time but it is really only moment’s
age in the three plus billion year history of the Earth's magnetic field.

At the American Geophysical Union meeting in San Francisco last December, a special
session was devoted to the alarmingly rapid rate of decline in the intensity of the Earth's magnetic
field over the past several centuries. Records show that this decline is typical of the period before a
geomagnetic reversal. Should we be concerned? Unlike dramatic portrayals of geomagnetic
phenomena in Hollywood films such as The Core, it would probably take thousands of years for the
north and south poles to actually swap. This would give us plenty of time to adjust our compasses,
and to allow migratory animals such as birds, which are believed to rely on the geomagnetic field
for navigation, time to adapt.

However, such an event would have several important consequences. Changes in the
structure and strength of the geomagnetic field can alter the paths of charged particles in the
atmosphere. Although this might please aurora enthusiasts, it could also deplete the concentration of
ozone in the atmosphere and cause a dramatic increase in the amount of ultraviolet radiation
reaching the Earth's surface. Indeed, some researchers have linked reversals of the geomagnetic
poles with extinction events. An increase in surface radiation could also cause serious damage to
communications and weather satellites in low orbits.

2.1 History of Field Reversals

The best place to look for signs that the Earth's magnetic field might be about to flip is in
rocks. Many materials can record the direction of an ancient magnetic field due to the geologic
stability of magnetic iron-oxide particles such as magnetite and hematite. Lava flows are
particularly useful for this because they typically provide an accurate record of the geomagnetic
field direction, and may also offer a measure of the field intensity at the time of eruption and
cooling.

13
 The Source of the Geomagnetic Field

Rocks may contain more than one permanent or ancient magnetization, each of which must
be identified. The direction of a specific magnetization is given by its declination and inclination,
which can be used to find the virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP). This is the spot on the Earth's
surface where a geocentric dipole that must have been responsible for the measured field intersects
the surface.

The VGPs from young rocks i.e. material less than a few million years old are concentrated
around the spin axis of the Earth. Indeed, it was this observation that gave rise to the basic model
for the long-term behavior of the Earth's magnetic field based on a axial geocentric dipole. To
within a few degrees of latitude, this model has held up to considerable scrutiny. An interesting side
is that the paleomagnetic poles for each continent deviate from the Earth's spin axis way back in
geologic time, which reflects the ancient motion of the continents.

The chronology of the Earth's magnetic field reversals can be determined using two
approaches. In the first, the age of rock formation sequences that are exposed on the Earth's surface
is measured using conventional dating, or "geochronologic", techniques. This allows researchers to
determine the absolute age of the rocks and therefore the age of their magnetization. A volcanic
rock that is some 30 million years old can be dated with a precision of between 30 O00 to 40 O00
years using these methods. Further back in time, the polarity history of the geomagnetic field based
on the terrestrial record becomes less accurate.

14
 This is where a second approach based on measurements of the ocean floor is useful. The
oceanic crust is produced almost continuously on the ocean floor, and geomagnetists can measure
the distribution of magnetic anomaly patterns, which reflect polarity intervals, in the crust as it
spreads outwards from mid-ocean ridges. Researchers may argue over the exact age of particular
polarity boundaries, but the overall pattern of reversals is well established: they occur randomly, at
least in the relatively small fraction of the Earth's history over which they have been measured, and
take place on average about once every 200000 years. A record of the marine magnetic anomaly
pattern – which was instrumental in establishing the plate-tectonic paradigm some 40 years ago
provides a detailed field reversal history for about the last 160 million years.

In the past 543 million years or so (the Phanerozoic Eon) there were two long periods in
which the polarity of the Earth's magnetic field was essential constant. One of these 'superchrons'
took place between about 114 and 83 mil- lion years ago, and is often referred to as the Cretaceous
long normal superchron, The other had a reversed polarity and took place between about 320 and
260million years ago, near the end of what geologists call the Paleozoic era. A third, much less well
defined superchron of reverse polarity lasting about 20 million years is thought to have taken place
during the early part of the Paleozoic era. Several researchers have noted that the frequency of field
reversals following a superchron tends to increase.

It is a mystery why the polarity of the Earth's field is so stable during a superchron. Fluid
motion in the outer liquid core of the planet is so rapid, relatively speaking, that the longest
timescale for any process associated with magnetic field generation in the core is about 10 5 years. If,
instead, we are forced to conclude that geomagnetic field reversals must be linked to the Earth's
solid mantle, which convects more slowly than the core, then we must ask what is so special about
the mantle during the mid-Cretaceous and late-Paleozoic periods.

The mid-Cretaceous period - some 100 million years ago is noted for a major world wide
rise in sea level, partly due to an increase in spreading of the ocean floor. Perhaps the solid mantle
was in a very different thermal state during this period. On the other hand, the time at which the
Permo-Carboniferous reverse superchron took place coincides with the assembly of the
supercontinent Pangaea. At this time, virtually all of the large continental fragments existed in a
single landmass that extended relatively little longitudinally. Al though we have absolutely no
record from this period in the ocean floor, we can speculate that the thermal structure of the mantle
was highly unusual when Pangaea was forming.

15
2.2Field Transitions

To better understand how the Earth's magnetic field reverses its polarity, paleomagnetists
have investigated the behavior of the field during ancient r eversals. The inherent difficulty in this
approach is that a transition is thought to last only a few thousand years; looking for the ancient
magnetization record for these snapshots of geologic time is comparable to searching for a needle in
a very large haystack.

Early work on field transitions focused on testing the hypothesis that the entire magnetic
dipole of the Earth might swing through a 180° are during a reversal. In this case the intermediate
field directions between one polarity state and the other for a specific reversal would all define an
identical track of virtual geomagnetic poles, regardless of where the field was sampled. However,
when data were collected at several localities that recorded the same field reversal, researchers
immediately found that this hypothesis was not viable. The records of the transitional magnetic
field, like the VGP distributions, did not lie on top of each other. The importance of the main
magnetic dipole must therefore decrease during a reversal.

To obtain a robust evaluation of how the Earth's magnetic field changes during a transition
(called its morphology), We need to sample the field at Widely separated points during the transition
period. Volcanic rocks are particularly suited to this task because they provide an accurate record of
the field over a very short geologic time period. The trouble is that volcanic eruptions are sporadic,
so the paleomagnetic record from lava flows can be discontinuous. Furthermore, a specific flow at
one locality cannot readily be directly correlated with one at a distant locality.

An alternative approach relies on the geomagnetic record from sedimentary rocks, in

particular those that were deposited continuously in the marine environment. Unfortunately, the
processes by which sedimentary rocks become magnetized are complicated and, moreover,
sedimentary rocks are prone to becoming remagnetized during subsequent more recent events.

2.3 Observations & Researches

Over 10 years ago Carlo Laj and colleagues at the Centre des Faible Radioactivities in Gif-
sur-Yvette, France, made an important observation. By studying the "tracks" of VGPs in transitional
records, largely from sedimentary rocks, they found that most field reversals over the past few
million years fall into two distinct longitudinal bands. One is centered over the Americas and the
other over the Western Pacific. It is important to note, however, that a VGP that has been derived
from the magnetization of material during a field transition could contain little or no information
16
about the field d irection at all, because it assumes that the magnetic field during a transition
approximates a dipole.

Laj and colleagues interpreted the grouping of VGP paths during a field transition as the
result of processes going on deep in the Earth's mantle, They noted, among other features, a
correlation between the location of the paths and regions of anomalously cold zones within the deep
mantle. This conclusion met with considerable skepticism, not because it was outright unreasonable,
but due to concern over the trustworthiness of sediment records.

In 1993 Prevot and Pierre Camps from Montpellier; among others, compiled more recent
transitional field data from lava flows, and found no support for the dual longitudinal band
hypothesis of Laj and co-workers. Furthermore, Jim Chamiell and Brad Lehman of the University
of Florida used data from deep-sea sediments to show that the transitional field records from these
materials may strongly depend on the rate of sedimentation.

Kenneth Hoffman of the California Polytechnic Institute at San Luis Obispo offers an
alternative hypothesis to explain the distribution of transitional data, based on "clusters" of virtual
geomagnetic poles. His work, which is based largely on lava-flow records from the last decade or
so, highlights several persistent grouping of VGPs. The most notable of these is the region in and
around western Australia and another is between central South America and Antarctica.

2.4 What happens during a reversal?

Aside from the debates over the morphology of fie ld transitions, and whether the Earth's
mantle has any control over persistent-field behaviour, there are aspects of geomagnetic field
reversals upon which most people agree. The intensity of the field during transitions, for example, is
known to be consider- ably less than it is prior to or after a reversal. This is clearly demonstrated in
the transitional records from several lava-flow sequences, the most striking of which is the basaltic
lava flow section in Steens Mountain in Oregon.

This thick sequence of flows, which is dated at about 16.2 million years old, has been the
subject of intense investigation by Rob Coe from the University of California at Santa Cruz, Ed
Mankinen of the US Geological Survey in Menlo Park and Prevot. The transition of the Earth's
polarity from reverse to normal is recorded in a sequence of over 50 discrete lava flows, and it is
very complex.

17
 It seems that the field initially changed relatively smoothly towards a normal polarity
direction, but then swung back to transitional field directions before ultimately returning to a normal
polarity field. The data also show that the intensity of the field decreased to between 10% and 20%
of its typical value during this time. However, it is not possible to determine how long this specific
reversal took.

The speed with which the field changes direction also influence how reversal actually take
place. Typical variations of the field during a period of relatively stable normal or reverse polarity
show that its direction changes by about four to six degrees per century. If a field reversal proceeds
at the same rate, then a 150° directional are for the transitional part of the reversal would take about
3000 years. Brad Clement of Florida lnternational University has shown that the average duration of
directional change "during recent reversals is about 6000 years, and that the duration depends
strongly on geographic location. The change in field direction, for example, takes place about four
times faster at the equator than it does at higher latitudes.

Meanwhile, Gary Glatzmaier of the Los Alamos National Laboratory and Paul Roberts of
the University of California in Los Angeles have success- fully developed 3D numerical simulations
of the geodynamo. The simulated magnetic field is very similar to that of the Earth and, remarkably,
the field underwent a reversal after a period of about 36 000 years.

2.5 Time for a Reversal

One might ask what would happen if the geomagnetic field began to reverse its polarity
tomorrow? But perhaps the response should be to ask how do we know that it has not already
begun? The reason for this rhetorical response is that the records of past geomagnetic field behavior
immediately before, during and after a reversal show that the intensity of the field (and thus the
moment of the Earth's dipole) begins to diminish long before a substantial breakdown in the overall
polarity. We therefore need to know that has happened over the last 10,000 or so years, in the
geologic interval known as Holocene.

Stefanie Brachfeld and Subir Banerjee of the University of Minnesota have recently
published data showing a considerable and almost steady drop in the relative and absolute intensity
of the Earth's magnetic field beginning about 500 years ago. Whether or not this is the harbinger of
bonafide field r eversal, the effects of a diminished dipole are manifold now. For example, the lowest
values of magnetic field intensity today are located in single patch over the east-central South
Atlantic Ocean.

18
 This regions is a well-known hazard for satellites, because the reduced field strength allows
Van Allen radiation to concentrate above it. Indeed, most satellites in low-Earth orbits above this
region have experienced disruption. Jim Heirtzler of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center has
argued that further diminishing of the strength of the Earth's dipole could result in the total magnetic
field strength approaching zero in some geographic areas of the planet within a few hundred years.

There have also been concerns about the biological effects of geomagnetic field reversal. A
greatly reduced field intensity would certainly enhance the solar wind and allow more cosmic rays
to reach the Earth's surface. In the early 1960s Robert Uffen of the University of Western Ontario,
among others speculated that the increase in surface radiation could be directly responsible for
extinctions or species transformations.

The extinction of the dinosaurs and numerous marine species, which defines the Cretaceous
- Tertiary boundary at about 65.5 million years of age, took place within a reverse polarity chron of
about 800,000 years’ duration. At the Permian-Triassic boundary some l85 million years earlier, half
of all known species disappeared in the largest extinction event of the Phanerozoic era. This
boundary also appears to have taken place within a reverse polarity chron. The bottom line is,
however, that despite the concerns over the effects of diminished field intensity, there is little
evidence for a clear correlation between extinctions and specific polarity reversals.

The consequences of a continuing demise in the geomagnetic field of our home could,
however, be enormous. The more we know about the behavior of the geomagnetic field at different
timescales over the Earth's history, the better we will understand the importance of this demise, and
what the future portends.

19
 Chapter III

REASONS & PRESENT EXPLANATIONS FOR THE REVERSAL OF

EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

Before looking deep into the peculiar phenomenon of geomagnetic reversal, let us discuss
the existing theories on the variations that occur in Earth’s magnetic field.

3.1 Secular Variation

At any particular place on the Earth the geomagnetic field is not constant in time. When the
Gauss coeffici ents of the internal field are compared from one epoch to another, slow but significant
changes in their values are observed. The slow changes of the field only become appreciable over
decades or centuries of observation and so they are called secular variation (from the Latin word
saeculum for a long age). They are manifest as variations of both the dipole and non-dipole
components of the field.

3.2 Secular variation of the dipole field

The dipole field exhibits secular variations of intensity and direction. Ca lculations of the
Gauss coefficients for different historical epochs show a near-linear decay of the strength of the
dipole moment at a rate of about 3.2% per century between about 1550 A.D. and 1900 A.D. At the
start of the 20th century the decay became even faster and has averaged about 5.8% per century
during the last 80 yr. If it continues at the same almost linear rate, the field intensity would reach
zero ill about another 2000 yr. The cause of the quite rapid intensity decay is not known; it may
simply be part of a longer-term fluctuation. However, another possibility is that the dipole moment
may be decreasing preparatory to the next reversal of geomagnetic field polarity.

The position of the dipole axis also shows secular variation. The changes can be
traced by plotting the colatitude (the angle between the dipole axis and the rotation axis) and
longitude of the geomagnetic pole as a function of time. Data are only sufficiently abundant for
spherical harmonic analysis since the early 19th century. Less reliable data, enlarged by
archeomagnetic results, allow estimates of the secular variation of the dipole axis since the middle
of the 16th century. The earlier data suggest that in the 16th century the dipole axis was tilted a only
about 3° to the rotation axis; a gradual increase in tilt took place between the 16th and 19th centuries.
During the last 200 year the dipole axis has maintained an almost constant tilt of

20
about 11 - 12° to the rotation axis. For the past 400 years the longitude of the geomagnetic pole has
drifted steadily westward. Before the 19th century the pole moved westward at about 0.14 degrees
per year; this corresponds to a pseudo-period of 2600 years for a complete circle about the
geographic pole. However, since the early 19th century the westward motion of the pole has been
slower, at an average rate of 0.044 degrees per year, which corresponds to a pseudo-period of 8200
years.

3.3 Secular variation of the non-dipole field

Comparison of maps of the non-dipole field for different epochs shows two types of secular
variation. Some anomalies (e.g. over Mongolia, the South Atlantic and North America) appear to be
stationary but they change in intensity. Other anomalies (e.g., over Africa) slowly change position
with time. The secular variation of the non-dipole field therefore consists of a standing part and a
drifting part.

Although some foci may have a north-south component of motion the most striking feature
of the secular variation of the recent non-dipole field is a slow westward drift. This is superposed on
the westward drift of the dipole, but can be separated readily by spherical harmonic analysis. The
rate of drift of the non-dipole field can be estimated from longitudinal changes in selected features
plotted for different epochs. The mean rate of westward drift of the non-dipole field in the first half
of this century has been estimated to be 0. 18 degrees per year, corresponding to a period of about
2000 yr. However, some foci drift at up to about 0.7 degrees per year, much faster than the average
rate. Results from several geomagnetic observatories show that the rate of drift is dependent on
latitude.

Westward drift is an important factor in theories of the origin of the geomagnetic field. It is
considered to be a manifestation of rotation of the outer layers of the core relative to the lower
mantle. Theoretical models of the geomagnetic field presume conservation of angular momentum of
the fluid core. To maintain the angular momentum of a particle of fluid that move radially inwards
(decreasing the distance from the rotational axis) its angular rate of rotation must speed up. This
results in a layered structure for the radial profile of angular rate of rotation relative to the mantle.
The outer layers of the core probably rotate more slowly than the solid mantle, imparting a
westward drift to features of the magnetic field rooted in the fluid motion.

21
3.4 Origin of the Dipole Field

Analysis of the Gauss coefficients and the wavelength of features of the non-dipole field
indicate that the main field is produced in the fluid outer core of the Earth. The composition of the
fluid core has been estimated from seismic and geochemical data. The major constituent is liquid
iron, with smaller amounts of other less-dense elements. Geochemical analyses of iron meteorites
suggest that the core composition may have a few percent of nickel, while shock-wave experiments
require 6-10% of non-metallic light elements such as silica, sulfur or oxygen. The solid inner core is
inferred from seismic and shock-wave data to consist of almost pure iron.

For the generation of the magnetic field the important parameters of the core are its
temperature, viscosity and electrical conductivity. Temperature is known very poorly inside the
Earth, but probably exceeds 3000°C in the liquid core. The electrical conductivity of iron at 20°C is
107 Q‘, m'1 and decreases with increasing temperature. At the high temperatures and pressures in
the core the electrical conductivity is estimated to be around 3-5 x 105 Ω-1 m-1, which corresponds
to a good electrical conductor. For comparison, the conductivity of carbon (used for many electrical
contacts) is 3 x 104 Q1 m" at 20°C.

3.5 Magnetostatic and Electromagnetic Models

As observed by Gilbert in l600, the dipole field of the Earth resembles that of a uniformly
magnetized sphere. However, permanent magnetization is an inadequate explanation for the
geomagnetic dipole. The mean magnetization of the Earth would need to be many times greater
than that of the most strongly magnetic crustal rocks. The Curie point of the most important
minerals at atmospheric pressure is less than 700°C, which is reached at depths of about 25 km so
that only a thin outer crustal shell could be permanently magnetized. The necessary magnetization
of this shell is even greater than values observed in crustal rocks. Moreover, a magentostatic origin
cannot account for the temporal changes observed in the internal field, such as its secular variation.

The main magnetic field of the Earth is thought to be produced by electrical currents in the
conductive core. Although the core is a good conductor, an electrical current system in the core
continually loses energy through ohmic dissipation. The lost electrical energy is converted to heat
and contributes to the thermal balance of the core. The equations of electromagnetism applied to the
core show that an electrical current in the core would decay to zero in times of the order 104 yr
unless it is sustained. Paleomagnetic evidence supports the existence of a geomagnetic field since
Precambrian time, at least 109 yr, which implies that it must be continuously maintained or

22
regenerated. The driving action for the main field is called the dynamo process, by analogy to the
production of electrical power in a conductor that rotates in a magnetic field.

3.6 The Geomagnetic Dynamo

When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it experiences a deflecting

electrical field (called the Lorentz field) proportional to the magnetic flux density B and the particle
velocity v, and acting in the direction normal to both B and v. The Lorentz field acts as an additional
source of electrical current in the core. Its strength is dependent on the velocity of motion of the
conducting fluid relative to the magnetic field lines. When this term is included in the Maxwell
electromagnetic equations, a magneto hydrodynamic equation relating the magnetic field B to the
fluid flow v and conductivity cs in the core is obtained.

The vector equation although complicated, has immediate consequences. The left side gives
the rate of change of magnetic flux in the core; it is determined by two terms on the ri ght side. The
first is inversely dependent on the electrical conductivity, and determines the decay of the field in
the absence of a driving potential; the better the conductor, the smaller is this diffusion term. The
second, dynamo term depends on the Lorentz electrical field, which is deter- mined by the velocity
field the fluid motions in the core. The conductivity of the outer core is high and for a fluid velocity
of about I mm/sec the dynamo term greatly exceeds the diffusion term. Under these conditions the
lines of magnetic flux in the core are dragged along by the fluid flow. This concept is called the
frozen-flux theorem, and it is fundamental to dynamo theory. The diffusion term is only zero if the
electrical conductivity is infinite. There is probably some d iffusion of the field through the fluid,
because it is not a perfect conductor. However, the frozen-flux theorem appears to approximate well
the conditions in the fluid outer core.

The derivation of a solution of the dynamo theory is difficult. In addition to Maxwell's

equations with the addition of a term for the Lorentz field, the Navier-Stokes equation for the fluid
flow, Poisson's equation for the gravitational potential and the generalized equation of flow consists
of a radial component and a rotational component. The energy for the radial flow is released at the
boundary between the inner and outer core, where the freezing of the pure iron inner core depletes
the fluid of the outer core of its heaviest component. The remaining lighter elements rise through the
liquid outer core, causing buoyancy driven convection.

The rotational component of the fluid flow is the result of a radial velocity gradient in the
liquid core, with inner layers rotating faster than outer layer. The relative rotation of the conducting

23
fluid drags magnetic field lines around the rotational axis to form ring -like, toroidal configurations.
The toroidal field lines are parallel to the flow and therefore to the surface of the core. This means
that the toroidal fields cannot escape from the core and ca nnot be measured. Their interactions with
the upwelling and descending branches of convective currents create electrical current system that
produces poloidal magnetic fields. These, in their turn, escape from the core and can be measured at
the surface of the core. This means that the toroidal fields cannot escape from the core and cannot
be measured. Their interactions with the upwelling and descending branches of convective currents
create electrical current systems that produce poloidal magnetic fields. These, in their tum, escape
from the core and can be measured at the surface of the Earth. The fluid motions are subject to the
effects of Coriolis forces, which prove to be strong enough to dominate the resultant flow patterns.

3.7 Origin of the Non-Dipole Field

The non-dipole field is believed to originate from irregularities in the flow pattern of the
fluid core. These have been ascribed to interaction between the fluid flow and the rough topography
of the core-mantle boundary. The nature of the interaction is not known, although models have been
proposed where by turbulence in the fluid flow is caused by mantle protuberances. The distribution
of positive and negative non-dipole field anomalies suggested an alternative representation of the
non-dipole field to the conventional portrayal as the superposition of quadrupoles, octupoles and
higher-order terms in a spherical harmonic expansion. The positive and negative anomalies have
been modeled by inward or outward oriented radial dipoles in the core at about one-quarter the
Earth's radius. Each dipole is presumed to be caused by a toroidal current loop parallel to the
surface of the core. A single centered axial dipole and eight auxiliary radial dipoles are adequate to
represent the field observed at the Earth's surface. The secular variation at a site is explained as the
passage of one of the auxiliary dipoles under the site.

3.8 The role of the Mantle

If geomagnetic field reversals are affected by processes in the mantle, we need to come up
with a better understanding of the largest part of the Earth. Debate has raged for decades concerning
the details of mantle convection, which is also responsible for tectonic plate movement. Of
particular interest is what ultimately happens to slabs of lithosphere that are forced downwards into
the mantle in "subduction zones" - regions where one tectonic plate slides under another.

Some geologists argue that fragments of the slabs can sink all the way to the core-mantle
boundary. If this is so, we must explain why the earthquakes that are associated with subduction

24
zones occur no deeper than about 700 km. Perhaps all "rigidity" of the vestiges of sinking slabs is
lost by the time they reach this depth. However, others argue that the mantle transition zone, which
is between about 410 and 660 km deep, is a critical boundary where slab remnants simply pile up
and eventually equilibrate with the surrounding mantle.

Whichever side is correct, one thing is certain. Descending lithosphere plates that previously
moved along the Earth's surface for millions of years are excellent heat sinks, and are therefore
easily capable of modifying the thermal structure of the mantle. After about 200 million years of
constant subduction, there should therefore be an anomalously cold region in the mantle beneath
regions such as the "ring of fire" that surrounds the Pacific Ocean.

The thermal structure of the entire mantle has been well mapped using seismology as
seismic body waves travel faster in cold rocks than in warm rocks due to the difference in bulk
modulus. Seismic tomographic images reveal considerable variation in the thermal structure of the
mantle, including a clear ring-shaped cold zone in the lower mantle beneath the Pacific Rim and a
very hot deep mantle beneath southern Africa. In addition, recent tomographic data reported by
Stephen Grand of University of Texas and Edward Gamero of Arizona State University suggest that
parts of subducted slabs may reach the very deepest parts of the mantle, which is presumably an
important factor in convection in the core.

3.9 New Researches

As scientists suggest, the reversal mechanism relies on the existence of a second magnetic
mode, in addition to the dipolar field. The presence of a second mode, such as a quadrupolar field,
can have significant effects on how the magnetic system reacts to changes in equatorial symmetry.
As the researchers explain, the equator can be thought of as a plane of symmetry, and the
convective flow in the Earth’s outer core is usually north-south symmetric. Previous studies on
paleomagnetic data have proposed that reversals involve an interaction between the dipolar and
quadrupolar modes, which would correlate with changes in equatorial symmetry. In support of this
idea, some recent numerical simulations have shown that reversals do not occur when the
convective flow remains equatorially symmetric.

To further explain the dipole-quadrupole interaction, the scientists invoked a model that was
recently used to describe the dynamics of a magnetic field generated in a very different system: a
lab experiment involving a von Karman swirling flow of liquid sodium (which, like the Earth’s
magnetic field, is generated by the dynamo effect). The scientists suggest that a general mechanism

25
could explain both magnetic fields, independent of the different symmetries and velocities of the
two systems.

If the dipolar field of Earth is coupled to another magnetic mode (a quadrupolar field, for
instance), this coupling provides a path to flip the dipole to its opposite. If this coupling is strong
enough, the magnetic field will spontaneously oscillate between the two modes and their opposite
polarities. Periodic reversals of the magnetic field (this is the case of the solar magnetic field, for
which the period is 22 years). In the case of Earth, the coupling is not strong enough, and
oscillations are not observed. Velocity fluctuations in the liquid core are then needed to trigger a
reversal.

In the model, small fluctuations in convective flow can push the system away from one pole
toward the intermediate quadrupolar state, where it becomes attracted to the opposite pole. A
reversal occurs in two phases: a slow phase where the fluctuations are the motor of the evolution,
and a fast phase during which the dynamics does not rely on the fluctuations. The first phase, during
which the dipole amplitude decreases slowly, seems to last around 50 kiloyears (30,000-70,000
years). The second phase, which starts when the dipolar mode vanishes, is quite faster: 10,000 years
are required for the dipole to recover with the opposite polarity. Sometimes, at the end of the first
phase, the system may simply return to the initial pole, which is called an “excursion” when it
occurs on Earth. However, if the system does reverse, the behavior happens relatively abruptly. In
addition, the system usually overshoots immediately after reaching the opposite pole.

The scientists noted that the amplitude of the fluctuations does not need to be large:
Fluctuations of the flow do not switch off the magnetic field and then regenerate it with the opposite
polarity. In contrast, the dipolar field continuously changes shape during a reversal because the
amplitude of the other mode (the quadrupole, for instance) continuously increases, whereas the
dipole decreases. When the dipolar component vanishes, it can increase again with the opposite
polarity whereas the amplitude of the other mode decreases.

The model shows that the duration of the magnetic field in one state depends on the intensity
of the convection fluctuations and also on the efficiency of the coupling between the two modes.
Even a moderate change in convection can greatly affect the magnetic field polarity duration, which
could account for “superchrons” - very long periods without geomagnetic reversals. Although little
is known about the actual flow inside the Earth’s core, recent observations have shown that the ends
of superchrons are often followed by major flood basalt eruptions, which are likely to produce
equatorial symmetry breaking of convection at the core-mantle boundary, in support of the

26
scientists’ model.

Some scientists, such as Richard A. Muller, think that geomagnetic reversals are not
spontaneous processes but rather are triggered by external events that directly disrupt the flow in the
Earth's core. Proposals include impact events or internal events such as the arrival of continental
slabs carried down into the mantle by the action of plate tectonics at subduction zones or the
initiation of new mantle plumes from the core-mantle boundary. Supporters of this hypothesis hold
that any of these events could lead to a large scale disruption of the dynamo, effectively turning off
the geomagnetic field. Because the magnetic field is stable in either the present North-South
orientation or a reversed orientation, they propose that when the field recovers from such a
disruption it spontaneously chooses one state or the other, such that half the recoveries become
reversals. However, the proposed mechanism does not appear to work in a quantitative model, and
the evidence from stratigraphy for a correlation between reversals and impact events is weak. There
is no evidence for a reversal connected with the impact event that caused the Cretaceous–Paleogene
extinction event.

27
 Chapter IV

NEW SUGGESTIONS AND SPECULATIONS

Earth’s geomagnetic flip is a meaty topic which has invoked a lot of explanations. Here we
attempt to speculate on few probable reasons for this amazing phenomenon.

4.1 Interaction between the magnetic fields of the Sun and the Earth.

The sun, like the earth, generates a magnetic field that extends out into space. However, the
sun's magnetic field changes both its shape and intensity over the surface, and over time, much
more rapidly. In the Sun, the flows of hot plasma in the convection zone create the solar magnetic
field. The plasma is a hot gas "soup" with many free charged particles (electrons and protons). The
moving charges are a current, and produce magnetic fields, just like the current in coils of wire
around the nail.

The magnetic field of the Sun has a clear influence on the Earth (planets, to be broad).
Though the Earth is depicted as having a symmetrical magnetic field, in fact it is skewed with its
poles about 5o out of line. These changes are due to the pull of the Sun’s magnetic field. It depends
on the strength of solar winds and the sunspot number also.

The interaction of Sun’s magnetic field with the Earth’s is the primary reason for the
formation of phenomena like aurora. This magnetic field causes current, which in turn also has
much influence on the Earth.

The Sun is a massive body and it has a large inertia to it. Obviously, the magnetic intensity
28
of the field emanated from it would also be very high as compared to that of Earth’s, to say the
least. We all know that magnetic field can produce motion, as it is able to exert force. Now, the
force exerted by the body with such large magnetic intensity will be very high, naturally.

Such a large force can delve deep into a body’s core. Displacement too will be caused inside
the body. So, it can be safely said that the Sun’s magnetism can cause variations in the magnetism
of the Earth, since Earth’s magnetic properties are stemmed from the molten magnetic substances in
its core.

A force that causes movement in this magnetic core can cause changes in the magnetic
effects endowed by it. The polarity reversal can be attributed to a change in the magnetic core.
Hence the movement of this core or the constituents of the core due to the influence of Sun’s
magnetism may be the reason for Earth’s geomagnetic reversal.

But since the core is much deep inside the Earth and due to the distance between these two
celestial bodies, the effect may not be profound. Else, the influence may not be strong enough to
cause a drastic change in the core. But, persistent interaction has a chance to cause the
aforementioned changes in the core. This brings us to the case of the irregular frequency of the
geomagnetic flip.

Just like any star, Sun is also ageing. This ageing may be reason for not having a time
pattern for the flipping of Earth’s magnetic field. The strength of the star varies with time. This
change, along with the changes in the Earth’s field might have made the reversal, a random
phenomenon with respect to time.

4.2 Galactic Influence

That spiral galaxies have magnetic fields has been known for well over half a century (and
predictions that they should exist preceded discovery by several years), and some galaxies’
magnetic fields have been mapped in great detail. Radio synchrotron emission of high energy
electrons in the interstellar medium (ISM) indicates the presence of magnetic fields in galaxies.
Rotation measures (RM) of background polarized sources indicate two varieties of field: a random
field, which is not coherent on scales larger than the turbulence of the ISM; and a spiral ordered
field which exhibits large-scale coherence.

A probability exists that the galactic magnetic fields interacting with each other. There is
high chance that these interactions are large scale. But, our means for understanding inter galactic
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phenomenon are so limited. However, this field in astrophysics is making rapid progress, with
understanding of how the random field is generated having become reasonably well-established.

Rather than being a direct cause, magnetic field from other galaxies may have a distant
effect on Earth’s magnetism. Magnetic field interactions can cause electrical current, which in turn
can have profound effect on the particle or body (here in our case the Earth).

4.3 Due to movement in tectonic plates.

A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid
rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plate size can vary greatly,
from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers across; the Pacific and Antarctic Plates are among
the largest. Plate thickness also varies greatly, ranging from less than 15 km for young oceanic
lithosphere to about 200 km or more for ancient continental lithosphere (for example, the interior
parts of North and South America).

Most of the boundaries between individual plates cannot be seen, because they are hidden
beneath the oceans. Yet oceanic plate boundaries can be mapped accurately from outer space by
measurements from GEOSAT satellites. Earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated near these
boundaries. Tectonic plates probably developed very early in the Earth's 4.6-billion-year history,
and they have been drifting about on the surface ever since-like slow-moving bumper cars
repeatedly clustering together and then separating.

Like many features on the Earth's surface, plates change over time. Those composed partly
or entirely of oceanic lithosphere can sink under another plate, usually a lighter, mostly continental
plate, and eventually disappear completely. This process is happening now off the coast of Oregon
and Washington. The small Juan de Fuca Plate, a remnant of the formerly much larger oceanic
Farallon Plate, will someday be entirely consumed as it continues to sink beneath the North
American Plate.

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 The tectonic plate boundaries

Considering the fact that the origins of Earth’s magnetic field lies in the deep interior part of
the Earth, the core, we cannot dismiss the possibility that the phenomena related with those can
have its reasons embedded with the geography. Plate movements cause large scale destruction such
as tsunami, earthquakes etc. and they are well established. Rather than the continental drift theory, a
more logical concept will be that of the connection with of the core with these tectonic plates.

When the Earth was formed, there existed only one huge continent, the Pangaea. Later due
to the movements of the tectonic plates, several land masses were formed by separation from the
Pangaea. Assume that the tectonic plates are connected to the inner layers of the Earth, which goes
way down to the core (where the reason of Earth magnetism is present). Now, we can safely say that
movements of the upper layers of the plates can cause some sort of ripple effect through the
different layers into the crust of the Earth.

These disturbances in the top layers moving way deep into the Earth can cause small
changes over years. Over a span of millions of years, these small changes can have a profound
effect on the bedrock of the Earth’s magnetism. That the movements of the plates are slow and
random explains why the geomagnetic flip is not exactly a periodic phenomenon (at least not from
our point of view!).

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Conclusions

The reasons behind the Geomagnetic polarity reversal including existing theories and
examples has been explained. Three new possible reasons behind the phenomenon are presented
and explained. These three reasons include of interaction of magnetic fields of Earth and Sun,
galactic influence and the movement of tectonic plates. The true reason behind geomagnetic
polarity reversal may be one among these or may be an entirely different reason apart from all
these. Let’s wait until the secrets of nature get revealed to the human race.

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 www.wikipedia.org

 www.sciencedaily.com

 www.windows2universe.com

 www.khanacademy.org

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